tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/olympic-legacy-9643/articlesOlympic legacy – The Conversation2022-07-26T15:32:51Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1873832022-07-26T15:32:51Z2022-07-26T15:32:51ZLondon 2012 Olympics: how it boosted medal winning but failed to inspire a generation<p>Ten years ago, London <a href="https://theconversation.com/hosting-the-olympics-cash-cow-or-money-pit-7403">hosted</a> the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. Hosting the Games had been sold to the British public on the slogan that it would “<a href="https://library.olympics.com/Default/doc/SYRACUSE/50620/inspire-a-generation-the-london-organising-committee-of-the-olympic-games-and-paralympic-games-ltd?_lg=en-GB">inspire a generation</a>”. </p>
<p>The idea of inspiring a generation chimed with the basic aim of the <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/faq/olympism-and-the-olympic-movement/what-is-olympism">Olympic Movement</a>, which is to “build a better world”. It seeks to do this by nurturing the values of <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/faq/olympism-and-the-olympic-movement/what-is-olympism">Olympism</a>, which are <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/faq/olympism-and-the-olympic-movement/what-are-the-olympic-values#:%7E:text=Go-,What%20are%20the%20Olympic%20Values%3F,to%20building%20a%20better%20world.">defined as</a> “excellence, respect and friendship”. </p>
<p>In practical terms, this goal reflected the UK’s desire to reinvigorate its international image. It also appealed directly to British political ambitions to solve the nation’s growing obesity epidemic through the commonly held, but often misunderstood, assumption that elite sporting success leads to an increase in people taking part in sport. This is more formally referred to by <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203474839/economics-sport-recreation-peter-taylor-chris-gratton">sports economists</a> as the “demonstration effect”.</p>
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<img alt="Tower Bridge seen against a blue and cloudy sky, with the Olympic rings suspended from the main structure." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475592/original/file-20220722-12-bbkmir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475592/original/file-20220722-12-bbkmir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475592/original/file-20220722-12-bbkmir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475592/original/file-20220722-12-bbkmir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475592/original/file-20220722-12-bbkmir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475592/original/file-20220722-12-bbkmir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475592/original/file-20220722-12-bbkmir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Hosting the 2012 games was sold to the public as an investment in their future.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-aug-6-2012-tower-bridge-173499608">JuliusKielaitis | Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>The trickle-down effect of the Olympic Games</h2>
<p>If inspiring a generation meant increasing sports participation among young people, then the evidence for this is, at best, inconclusive. At worse, it suggests spectacular failure. A review of the evidence of a demonstration effect of hosting the London 2012 Olympic Games <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/16184742.2014.998695">concluded</a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>If the primary justification for hosting an Olympic Games is the potential impact on sport participation, then games are a bad investment. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The UK government’s annual <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/476322/Culture_Sport_and_Wellbeing_-_An__analysis_of_the__Taking_Part__Survey.pdf">Taking Part Survey</a> has tracked the impact on the British public, of engaging with sport and culture, since 2012. The data reveals no discernible legacy effect of the London 2012 Olympics in terms of increased participation in sport. Compared with two years before the Games were held, the proportion of children aged <a href="https://theconversation.com/londons-olympic-legacy-research-reveals-why-2-2-billion-investment-in-primary-school-pe-has-failed-teachers-178809">five to ten years old</a> who take up sport has not grown. And there has only been a small increase in the proportion of adults taking up sport. </p>
<p>This trend is consistent with that of other host cities. We <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Sport-Participation-and-Olympic-Legacies-A-Comparative-Study/Harris-Dowling/p/book/9781138696655">conducted</a> a study looking the legacies of cities that hosted the Summer Olympic Games between 1996 and 2020. We found that, except for the Beijing 2008 games, there is no evidence that the Olympic and Paralympic Games have increased participation in sport in the long term. And as sports sociologists Jing Feng and Fan Hong have <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09523367.2013.765725">noted</a>, for Beijing, there remain important questions regarding the accuracy and robustness of their participation data.</p>
<h2>How London 2012 contributed to UK elite sporting success</h2>
<p>If, instead, inspiring a generation was taken to mean galvanising the next generation of Olympians, then we can talk about success. The London 2012 games were undoubtedly a catalyst (though not solely responsible) for turning the UK’s high-performance sport system into the world-class medal factory that it is today. </p>
<p>Compare, for example, Great Britain finishing in 36th place in Atlanta 1996, just behind Ethiopia and ahead of Belarus, with one gold medal, eight silvers and six bronzes, to the last three editions, wherein Team GB finished third, second and fourth in London, Rio and Tokyo, respectively.</p>
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<img alt="Two athletes in uniform stand on a podium, smiling, with medals around their necks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475595/original/file-20220722-22-oidu0m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475595/original/file-20220722-22-oidu0m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475595/original/file-20220722-22-oidu0m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475595/original/file-20220722-22-oidu0m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475595/original/file-20220722-22-oidu0m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475595/original/file-20220722-22-oidu0m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475595/original/file-20220722-22-oidu0m.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Team GB’s Scott Brash and Luke Patience take part in the 2012 Olympic Homecoming parade in Glasgow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Scott_Brash_and_Luke_Patience_-_Glasgow_Parade.jpg">Mark Harkin | Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>The trends show that the UK has become a part of what elite sports performance experts Ben Oakley and Michael Green, in 2001, dubbed <a href="http://oro.open.ac.uk/41510/">the “global sporting arms race”</a>. Team GB has become a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46681518_A_Conceptual_Framework_for_Analysing_Sports_Policy_Factors_Leading_to_International_Sporting_Success">benchmark</a> against which many other nations are compared.</p>
<p>Consequently, winning has become firmly entrenched in the British psyche. This is due, in part, to UK Sport, the government agency responsible for high-performance sport, adopting a <a href="https://www.uksport.gov.uk/news/2004/11/25/uk-sport-statement-on-funding">no-compromise approach</a> to producing medal success for the last 15 years. </p>
<p>But winning has come at a cost. High-profile cases of alleged athlete abuse by coaching staff have been reported across British sports, in <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/sportsnews/article-10732007/British-Cycling-contact-Sir-Bradley-Wiggins-revealed-coach-sexually-groomed-him.html">cycling</a>, in <a href="https://www.insider.com/team-gb-rower-launches-vicious-attack-on-his-former-coach-2021-7">rowing</a>, in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/jun/12/police-investigate-gb-canoeing-coach-child-grooming-sexual-assault-allegations">canoeing</a>, in <a href="https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1052239/archery-gb-coach-suspended-over-sexual-assault-allegation">archery</a>, in <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/judo/56715427">judo</a> and in <a href="https://www.whytereview.org/assets/downloads/The-Whyte-Review-Final-Report-of-Anne-Whyte-QC.pdf">gymnastics</a>. </p>
<p>In hindsight, hosting the 2012 games was an expensive lesson in how to manage the legacy of a mega-event. The cost of hosting London 2012 has been shown to have risen to <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/78251/DCMS_GOE_Quarterly_Report_Q3.pdf">£9.3 billion</a>. There is something to be said for the slogan “inspire a generation” being used to justify that cost and convince the public that there would at least be some long-term benefit. </p>
<p>This would not be the first time that the primary legacy claimed by politicians to justify the cost of hosting the games <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jsm/aop/article-10.1123-jsm.2021-0224/article-10.1123-jsm.2021-0224.xml">has not materialised</a>. See the white elephants of the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/21582041.2013.838297">Athens 2004 games</a>, the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20032715">political fallout</a> of awarding China the 2008 games, or the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1012690219878842">fraud and corruption</a> of the Rio 2016 games. </p>
<p>Hosting the Olympic Games in London did not inspire a generation to take up more sport. But maybe it will inspire the next generation of host cities to manage legacies more effectively. The Olympics has the potential to bring about positive, meaningful change in sport and society. Future host cities and the Olympic movement must, however, go beyond the rhetoric of slogans like “inspire a generation” and, instead, deliver on the promises made to the public, who, invariably, foot the bill.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187383/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research shows that hosting the Olympic Games rarely results in the legacy politicians aim for when selling the idea to the public.Mathew Dowling, Senior Lecturer in the Cambridge Centre for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Anglia Ruskin UniversitySpencer Harris, Associate Professor in Sport Management, University of Colorado Colorado SpringsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1654332021-09-07T13:44:33Z2021-09-07T13:44:33ZTokyo’s Olympic legacy: Will hosting the Games have benefitted local communities?<p>Over the past 20 years, the notion of the legacy of the Olympic Games has become increasingly crucial to any campaign to host them. As World Athletics president and former chairman of the London 2012 Organising Committee Sebastian Coe put it in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2006/may/04/Olympics2012.politics">2006</a>, legacy counts as nine-tenths of what hosting the Olympics is all about. And he was clear about what that meant: “It is the local people,” he told the <a href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201314/ldselect/ldolympic/78/78.pdf">House of Lords</a>, “who should stand to gain most from the Games.”</p>
<p>The Legacy Games, as London 2012 was dubbed, sought to project a new and positive future for the city at large, a vision that was duly satirised by the BBC’s mockumentary Twenty Twelve. Framing the Olympics in this way, as a long-term investment in a future destination, usually helps to justify the cost of hosting them. The aim is to convince local populations that the Games will bring them net benefits, compared to investing this money into other sectors like health and education.</p>
<p>By some counts, the 2020 Olympic Games <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0308518X20958724">overran by up to 244%</a> to cost Japan <a href="https://apnews.com/article/2020-tokyo-olympics-games-total-cost-8ec49ea2ea9d7316f37ffd20770a2742">$15.4 billion</a>. Japan’s National Audit Board <a href="https://apnews.com/article/asia-pacific-ap-top-news-tokyo-sports-general-japan-eb6d9e318b4b95f7e53cd1b617dce123">nearly doubled that estimate</a> in 2019, placing <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/niallmccarthy/2021/07/21/the-massive-costs-behind-the-olympic-games-infographic/?sh=441f18f46b02">overall spending</a> at closer to $28 billion. As the curtains close on Tokyo 2020, the big question for many, and local Tokyoites in particular, will now be: was it worth it? </p>
<h2>Tourism development</h2>
<p>Shinzo Abe, who was prime minister at the time Japan won the right to host the 2020 Games, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2013/sep/08/tokyo-2020-olympics-jubilation-relief">explicitly stated</a> that Tokyo 2020 represented a key way to open up Japanese culture and people to the watching and visiting world.
And in the run-up to the Games, the Tokyo Olympic committees made bringing international visitors to Japan a central tenet of their legacy pitches.</p>
<p>These committees <a href="https://www.seikatubunka.metro.tokyo.lg.jp/en/document/vision_english02.pdf">argued</a> that the interaction between visitors and local communities – cultural producers, small businesses - are the unique selling points for Tokyo as a tourism destination. It follows that displacing existing residents and local businesses potentially undermines this central justification for hosting the event in the first place. </p>
<p>And yet, that is what took place. Across Tokyo, new urban development projects have replaced diverse and authentic Japanese backstreets. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02614367.2017.1355408?journalCode=rlst20">Research</a> has shown that ahead of Tokyo 2020, older neighbourhoods in the capital were feeling the squeeze. </p>
<p>One journalist <a href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2015/11/07/lifestyle/heart-darkness-nostalgic-tokyo-disappearing-amid-construction-boom/">noted</a> how “the Shinagawa neighborhood of Musashi-Koyama — a vibrant maze of tiny alleyways that once housed dozens of small eateries, tapas restaurants and bars — is now a virtual ghost town”. Tokyo parks saw <a href="https://olympicswatch.org/tokyo-2020/">increased policing</a> and closed shop frontages lined up one after another, victims of rising property prices and rents. </p>
<p>Local business precincts being subjected to corporate colonisation typifies a broader concern that Olympic tourism scholars highlight around the world. Our research has pointed to host cities becoming <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228155959.pdf">clone towns</a> and urban blandscapes, with small businesses replaced by global and national chains. </p>
<p>This signals anything but the diverse and unique cultural offer promised in Olympic hosting campaigns. In the long run, this will hamper, and not encourage competitiveness, in terms of tourism. And it is already alienating local communities. </p>
<h2>Local fallout</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://theconversation.com/tokyo-olympics-how-hosting-the-games-disrupts-local-lives-and-livelihoods-162893">significant body of evidence</a> has found that, in the run up to the Games, local communities in and around Olympic sites are directly affected. Construction of the new National Stadium in Shinjuku, ahead of Tokyo 2020, saw elderly tenants <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02614367.2017.1355408?journalCode=rlst20">evicted</a> and displaced, and homeless people driven out in alarming numbers. </p>
<p>With each new successful Olympic bid, this pattern of displacement, disruption and gentrification is consistently noted. In the five years prior to the Games, Barcelona saw an <a href="https://www.yourmoney.com/investing/hosting-the-olympics-a-win-for-the-housing-market/">increase of 130%</a> in property prices. Sydney, too, saw a <a href="https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/gla_migrate_files_destination/archives/assembly-reports-econsd-lasting-legacy-uel-research.pdf">rise in house prices of 11%</a> more than the rest of Australia ahead of the 2000 Summer Olympics. </p>
<p>Low-income residents can be replaced by upwardly mobile residents as fast as the new apartment blocks are erected to house them. Rising commercial rents, meanwhile, <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228155959.pdf">cause small, low-profit margin businesses to fail</a>, with bijou stores and coffee shop chains replacing them.</p>
<p>These effects are felt long after the Games come to an end. Post-event gentrification has become so persistent that pundits refer to it as <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w14854">the Olympic effect</a>. However, the reality for those facing eviction and forced out of local neighbourhoods is frequently bleak, which highlights an indifference towards protecting local business communities and diverse urban high streets. <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/228155959.pdf">Research</a> has found that these communities are often embroiled in a struggle to survive and barely recognised as a key contributor to both local and national economies. Yet, this is far from the truth. </p>
<p>Cities are complex organisms. The way they evolve over time is a product of decades of social and economic policies. The Olympics, however, hasten gentrification that would otherwise have come to fruition more gradually. </p>
<p>Often, this is the result of targeted regeneration schemes, like the creation of <a href="https://japanpropertycentral.com/2019/05/redevelopment-details-for-meiji-jingu-stadium-district/">the Meiji Park</a> for Tokyo 2020, or, in Rio de Janiero, the <a href="https://www.thegpsc.org/sites/gpsc/files/2._porto_maravilha.pdf">Porto Maravilha cultural quarter</a>. Such event-induced <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1468797618775219">touristification</a> of urban spaces plays a further role in <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0042098019883734">catalysing and exacerbating</a> gentrification.</p>
<p>Future Olympic host cities, including Paris (2024), Los Angeles (2028) and Brisbane (2032), must try to limit any negative local social impacts. The fallout of displacing local people and businesses may not be an immediate priority, politically or economically speaking. However, unique local culture produced by vibrant local communities is what keeps visitors coming in the long term.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165433/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr. Mike Duignan has previously received funding from the International Olympic Committee (IOC), but for a topic unrelated to this article. Mike is also the Director of the Observatory for Human Rights and Major Events which is the UK's official Olympic Studies Centre, which is affiliated to the IOC's academic Olympic Studies Centre. However, the nature of this relationship is academic with the view to disseminate good social science concerning how we can enhance the social and economic benefits of hosting the Olympic Games for the host country, city and its citizens. This article was based on work funded by 2020 Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions, Research and Innovation grant agreement no. 823815</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Judith Mair receives funding from The International Olympic Committee Advanced Olympic Research program. </span></em></p>Urban regeneration and tourism development are habitually touted as central reasons for a city to host the Olympics. Research shows that local people, however, often fail to benefitMike Duignan, Head of Department, Reader in Events, and Director of the Observatory for Human Rights and Major Events, University of SurreyJudith Mair, Associate Professor, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/922692018-02-22T23:52:33Z2018-02-22T23:52:33ZAs the Pyeongchang Olympics comes to a close, what legacy will it leave?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207434/original/file-20180222-65236-1abdbw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The main objective for most sporting event organising committees is to deliver an efficient and safe event.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP/Dan Himbrechts</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When major sporting events like the Olympics come to a close, the focus often shifts to the question: “so what?” For all the costs, the planning, and the efforts of athletes, officials, volunteers and staff, what will be the legacy? What will remain?</p>
<p>In his keynote address to the <a href="https://www.pyeongchang2018.uni-mainz.de/symposium-information-2/program/">International Sport Business Symposium</a> held in Pyeongchang to coincide with this year’s Winter Olympics, veteran sports official Dick Pound said of legacy:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>No-one promoting an Olympic bid would dream about not including the word in virtually every public statement made in support of the bid. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Yet, as he further noted, there is little research supporting legacy. Much of it is anecdotal, rather than empirical, which may have resulted in “decisions that are not based on reliable data”.</p>
<h2>The importance of ‘legacy’</h2>
<p>The increasing importance of legacy for the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is reflected in the launch in December 2017 of a document, <a href="https://www.olympic.org/%7E/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/Documents/Olympic-Legacy/IOC_Legacy_Strategy_Full_version.pdf?la=en">Legacy Strategic Approach: Moving Forward</a>. </p>
<p>The key elements of this document may be new for the IOC. But for those versed in managing mega sporting events, what it suggests <a href="https://hbr.org/2007/01/leading-change-why-transformation-efforts-fail">isn’t new</a>: have a vision, plan for it, put the structures and finance in place, evaluate, learn, and celebrate.</p>
<p>But why did the IOC feel the need to put this on the public record now, when they note that in the document that legacy has been in Olympic discourse since the 1956 Melbourne Olympics? </p>
<p>Maybe the drop-off in countries bidding to host the Olympics is part of it. Maybe, too, the rise of BRICS nations (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) as hosts of mega sporting events highlights the need for a demonstrated return on investment – not just more hype.</p>
<p>The main objective for most sporting event organising committees is to deliver an efficient and safe event. But is this the most important objective? For those outside the “fence” like the general public, the question becomes: what did we get for our multi-billion-dollar investment? </p>
<p>In some ways, the offer of legacy beyond the event helps organisers achieve a social licence to operate: that is, they obtain support to go ahead with the project. Policymakers and politicians need to clearly demonstrate that hosting sporting events is a better investment than spending in other public goods like education and health.</p>
<h2>What for Pyeongchang?</h2>
<p>The Pyeongchang Olympics’ <a href="https://issuu.com/thatsnotmypuppy/docs/pyeongchang2018volume1">proposed legacies</a> include purpose-built venues, sports legacies, and promoting the Olympic movement.</p>
<p>But, in contrast to many previous host cities, Pyeongchang did not offer a volunteer legacy. Rather, it aimed to draw upon the legacy of hosting a series, or portfolio, of previous events like the athletics World Championships in Daegu in 2011, the Asian Games in Incheon in 2014, and the World University Games in Gwangju in 2015.</p>
<p>Hosting the Olympics may have accelerated the delivery of some of these legacies, such as roads and railways. It may have also initiated others, like new venues.</p>
<p>The budget for Pyeongchang is in the vicinity of <a href="https://library.olympic.org/Default/doc/SYRACUSE/172488/questions-answers-regarding-volunteer-programmes-pyeongchang-2018-the-pyeongchang-organising-committ">US$13 billion</a>, up 50% from initial estimates. Before gasping at the amount of money involved, it is worth noting that the bulk of these costs are allocated to capital investments, such as new stadiums and infrastructure.</p>
<p>This includes the cost of building a 35,000-seat temporary stadium that will be used just four times: for the opening and closing ceremonies for both the Olympics and Paralympics. </p>
<p>It might seem strange to pull it down, but Pyeongchang is a poor rural community with a population of just 45,000. There is no obvious need for it to have such a stadium. And new stadiums are not cost-neutral: it has been suggested that a stadium’s maintenance costs alone could be in the vicinity <a href="http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_international/681591.html">of $20 million per year</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207466/original/file-20180222-152372-1edbvnd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207466/original/file-20180222-152372-1edbvnd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207466/original/file-20180222-152372-1edbvnd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207466/original/file-20180222-152372-1edbvnd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207466/original/file-20180222-152372-1edbvnd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207466/original/file-20180222-152372-1edbvnd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207466/original/file-20180222-152372-1edbvnd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A temporary stadium used for the Olympic ceremonies in Pyeongchang will be pulled down after the Games.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tracey Dickson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Future Olympics will be required to report on their legacies for up to five years after the event under the IOC’s new framework. This will include analysis of relevant data and the production of case studies to highlight how they achieved their positive legacies, so future organising committees may learn from them. </p>
<p>This will hopefully result in better planning for and delivery of not just a great event, but a legacy for host communities that is economically, socially and environmentally positive and sustainable.</p>
<p>Mega sport events can deliver legacies, but most examples to date have been about infrastructure. An era could soon be upon us when they can deliver on the other legacies like sport participation, volunteer legacies, tourism, and sustainability.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92269/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tracey J Dickson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Future Olympics will be required to report on their legacies for up to five years after the event under the IOC’s new framework.Tracey J Dickson, Associate Professor, Centre for Tourism Research, Faculty of Business, Government and Law, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/735552017-05-12T10:43:21Z2017-05-12T10:43:21ZAfter the Olympics: stories from Rio’s sex workers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162218/original/image-20170323-4970-1n58mri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amanda De Lisio, Bournemouth University</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The vibrant city of Rio de Janeiro has played host to some of the world’s best parties – from Carnival, to the 2016 Olympic Games and the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Authorities have <a href="https://qz.com/753250/rio-2016-is-hosting-the-olympics-ever-worth-it/">spent billions</a> to ready the city, and each time tourists flocked in, local businesses braced for a bumper season. But these high expectations weren’t limited to legal businesses: those working within Rio’s semi-legal, underground economies thought they would benefit too.</p>
<p>Nowhere is this clearer than in Centro, the downtown area of Rio, tucked in the shadow of the newly-constructed Olympic Boulevard. Once home to the historic red light district, Centro has since become the beating heart of big business, with towering office blocks bearing the names of major corporations such as Petrobras, BG, Total, Chevron, Electrobras, BNDES and Vale. </p>
<p>And yet, a closer look at the shop fronts suggests the presence of another kind of commerce. Here, the “termas” – saunas, complete with bar and discotheque – can be spotted near the brothels and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2013/dec/18/rio-alternative-motels-hotels-world-cup-brazil">love hotels</a>, alongside the “privés” – massage parlours operating in rented, high-rise apartment space – that comprise the infamous commercial sex industry of Brazil. In reality, the seemingly demure finance district of the nation’s former capital has never ceased to be a hub for commercial sex.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161598/original/image-20170320-9121-131b65k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161598/original/image-20170320-9121-131b65k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161598/original/image-20170320-9121-131b65k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161598/original/image-20170320-9121-131b65k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161598/original/image-20170320-9121-131b65k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161598/original/image-20170320-9121-131b65k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161598/original/image-20170320-9121-131b65k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A hidden venture.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amanda De Lisio, Bournemouth University</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Rose Without Thorn is nestled in a quiet lane, not far from the Saara – a street market that is usually crammed with pedestrians. It was built in 2010, shortly after Rio won the bid for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/2007/oct/30/newsstory.sport15">2007</a>, and the bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics in <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/03/sports/03olympics.html">2009</a>. As an illegal brothel operating within the financial district, it survived, even thrived, alongside the decade-long Olympic facelift. It was here that we – an <a href="http://sexualspacesproject.com/">international research collective</a>, partnered with <a href="http://www.observatoriodaprostituicao.ifcs.ufrj.br/">Observatório da Prostituição</a> (Prostitution Policy Watch) – came to understand the impact of event-led urban reform on Rio’s sex workers. </p>
<h2>Rose Without Thorn</h2>
<p>From the outside, the house has a nondescript colonial façade. But the music, which ricochets down the narrow staircase entrance and into the street, hints at something more. Inside, working-class men perch on stools, often alone with chopp (Brazilian draft beer) in hand, while women move throughout the house in barely-there lingerie and high-heeled shoes. </p>
<p>One of these women is Thayna (this is her “nome da batalha”, her “battle” or work name), who has worked in the house since the age of 21. Now 24, her work is the sole source of income for her and her two children. As Pedro the manager says: “She is the breadwinner for her family, if she does not work, they do not eat”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161465/original/image-20170320-6139-1j62t6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161465/original/image-20170320-6139-1j62t6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161465/original/image-20170320-6139-1j62t6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161465/original/image-20170320-6139-1j62t6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161465/original/image-20170320-6139-1j62t6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161465/original/image-20170320-6139-1j62t6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161465/original/image-20170320-6139-1j62t6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Behind closed doors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amanda De Lisio, Bournemouth University</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Brazil, sex work has forever existed as a semi-legal, entrepreneurial pursuit for those in search of financial stability and social security. The profession is officially recognised by the Brazilian Ministry of Labour and Employment’s <a href="http://prostitution.procon.org/sourcefiles/BrazilLaborAndEmploymentMinistryPrimerOnSexProfessional.pdf">classification of occupations</a>, which can guarantee certain social securities to those registered as a “profissionais do sexo” (sex professionals). Although the adult, consensual exchange of sex for money has never been criminalised, “houses of prostitution” are still considered illegal. </p>
<p>As such, places such as Rose Without Thorn operate at the discretion of law enforcement and a local elite. As Rafael, a civil servant, explained: “Prostitution in Rio de Janeiro has never occurred without the involvement of police.”</p>
<p>Inside the cubicle-sized office space on the third floor of the brothel, the bass of the funk music is muffled by chatter. Each “programa” (a private session) is recorded in a notebook (35 a page) by a madam perched at a desk, near the top stair. On the Thursday before carnival, she had filled a page and a half by two o’clock in the afternoon, and was hopeful for at least five more. </p>
<h2>Post-Olympic crisis</h2>
<p>At the time, Brazil was named as the first Latin American host of an internationally-recognised sporting mega-event, and it was on the brink of economic boom. The <a href="https://www.globalccsinstitute.com/projects/petrobras-santos-basin-pre-salt-oil-field-ccs-project">Lula oil field</a> (formerly, Tupi old field) was found in 2006, off the coast of Rio de Janeiro, and with it came the promise of economic prosperity. But the nation continued to rely upon the export of raw material commodities – a temporary solution, much like the sporting mega-event – instead of establishing a more sustainable, internal economy. </p>
<p>The ongoing <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/6e8b0e28-f728-11e5-803c-d27c7117d132">Petrobras corruption scandal</a> deflated political-economic optimism for the future, and <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-olympics-rio-crisis-idUSKCN100146">by 2016</a>, the state government of Rio de Janeiro was paralysed with possibly its worst recession in history. Amid halted salaries, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/brazils-political-class-is-in-crisis-as-over-100-are-investigated-for-corruption/2017/04/12/d2832a8a-1f7e-11e7-bb59-a74ccaf1d02f_story.html?utm_term=.0812efbe9244">political tumult</a> and severe economic debt, the promise of the boom has since been long lost. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161476/original/image-20170320-6097-12iydes.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161476/original/image-20170320-6097-12iydes.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161476/original/image-20170320-6097-12iydes.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161476/original/image-20170320-6097-12iydes.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161476/original/image-20170320-6097-12iydes.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161476/original/image-20170320-6097-12iydes.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161476/original/image-20170320-6097-12iydes.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Military police on patrol outside an Olympic venue in Copacabana, near a major prostitution zone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amanda De Lisio, Bournemouth University</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But people still need to earn to survive, and for some, sex work serves as a viable option for survival. And so, the economies and social networks created around commercial sex have so far survived the fall. As Simone, 54, widower, mother of five, and madam of the house expressed: “We are family too. We live together everyday. I live more with them than my own children.” She is proud yet honest about business, during this tense time:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Rose Without Thorn is famous. It is not very fancy but it is certainly well known. It is the heart of downtown! But after the [Olympic] Games, even we started to feel the crisis. No one has the money to come like before. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Before the <a href="https://www.lrb.co.uk/v38/n08/perry-anderson/crisis-in-brazil">bust</a>, the Olympic Games was a highly anticipated business opportunity in Brazil – a time for entrepreneurial creativity and innovation. Yet many of the sex workers who anxiously awaited the boon from foreign clientele found that it did not materialise. <a href="http://www.observatoriodaprostituicao.ifcs.ufrj.br">Only a few</a> benefited financially from the event, while well-intentioned <a href="http://www.catwlac.org/es/2015/12/17/manifesto-say-no-to-sex-tourism-buying-sex-is-not-a-sport/">campaigns</a> urged authorities to crack down on “sex tourism”. The Rose Without Thorn’s manager Pedro said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Listen, it is an illusion that FIFA or the Olympics are good for business. This is a myth. Some of the biggest [sex-related] businesses in Ipanema went bankrupt during the games. And now it is worse. The economy is a mess, so too is the government. And it all started around the games. The Olympics did not improve the situation. It only furthered the fall.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161475/original/image-20170320-6139-1ojfmvg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161475/original/image-20170320-6139-1ojfmvg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161475/original/image-20170320-6139-1ojfmvg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161475/original/image-20170320-6139-1ojfmvg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161475/original/image-20170320-6139-1ojfmvg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161475/original/image-20170320-6139-1ojfmvg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161475/original/image-20170320-6139-1ojfmvg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Don’t believe the hype.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amanda De Lisio, Bournemouth University</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Instead, what surfaced was a heightened security presence in the street, provided in part by Centro Presente – a quasi-public police force, partially funded by the local commercial and business association. Thayna explained:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Look, it was good. The city was beautiful. The party was fun. I really liked that Centro Presente provided more security in the street. But business here was not great. I expected more. I prepared for more. A lot of money was spent in a city where too many people starve. I work today to give my children a better future, not to leave my daughter in public school. Healthcare is the same. I pay for education and health insurance otherwise my daughter would be without them. To spend our money on tourist fun is hypocrisy.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>During the mid-afternoon lull, Thayna ate her lunch on a twin bed. As she kicked through white rice in the foil container in search of another cut of red meat, she was bored with Olympic talk, and excited about the post-carnival time. It was the first week of the unofficial Brazilian new year, and she wanted to see her brothel with a queue. She was confident that, amid Olympic dust and carnival debris, the political-economic crisis that devalued urban land and stunted police salaries will only further cement the presence of sex workers within the city’s financial core. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Names and places have been changed to protect anonymity. The authors would like to especially acknowledge the insightful contributions of Thaddeus Blanchette (Professor, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro/Observatório da Prostituição), Thayane Brêtas (Research Affiliate, Observatório da Prostituição), and João Gabriel R. Sodré (Civil Servant, Defensoria Pública do Estado do Rio de Janeiro).</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/73555/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanda De Lisio receives funding from the Social Sciences and Research Council in Canada, and the Economic and Social Research Council in the UK. As a member of the Prostitution Policy Watch, an extension project of the Metropolitan Ethnographic Lab at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Amanda has studied the impact of FIFA/Olympic event processes on sexual commerce in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, since 2014. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Silk receives funding from the Economic & Social Research Council (ESRC) & the Arts & Humanities Research Council (AHRC). This article derives from the ongoing ESRC funded project "Sex work in the context of sports mega events: Examining the impacts of Rio 2016" (ES/N018656/1).</span></em></p>Rio’s sex workers were hoping the 2016 games would also boost their trade – but they were wrong.Amanda De Lisio, Post-Doctoral Research Assistant, Bournemouth UniversityMichael Silk, Professor of Sport and Social Sciences, Bournemouth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/646282016-09-06T14:17:27Z2016-09-06T14:17:27ZRio marks the start of a new approach to making Olympic legacies count<p>The notion of what “legacy” is left after hosting an Olympic Games has become an obsession, to the extent that the need to leave a legacy is institutionalised: the <a href="https://doc.rero.ch/record/27399/files/2003-Olympic_Charter.pdf">Olympic Charter</a> was amended in 2003 to make delivering a positive legacy for the host city and country a compulsory part of the contract. All cities vying to host the games are expected to clearly articulate their legacy plans if their bids are to be considered.</p>
<p>An Olympic legacy is the process of social construction that aims to forge changes in attitudes and behaviours among people and organisations. This is tricky, and generally contingent on all sorts of political, social and economic factors falling into place. Even then, establishing any real causal link between an Olympic Games and changes to people and places afterwards is notoriously difficult. </p>
<p>There has been a great deal of research into this process, and many “legacy frameworks” have been designed to capture the power of the Olympic Games to bring benefits to people, places, organisations and society in general. The most comprehensive of these is that of sports economist Holger Preuss, who identifies the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/kFNAirvNE5SdVtPTePds/full">tangible and intangible, planned and unplanned</a> aspects of Olympic legacies. But Preuss’ work does not make clear the connection between the core mission of the Olympics and how the host city carries it out. The games themselves can change very little in how people see themselves and the world around them, so the focus should be on what can be realistically achieved through the three main instruments of Olympism: sport, education and culture.</p>
<p>However, for several reasons the legacy of the 2016 Rio Olympics will be difficult to describe and explain using these tools. First, Brazil is a <a href="http://www.icco-international.com/int/news/blogs/nadine-de-vogel/the-facts-on-brazilian-income-inequality/">huge, diverse and very unequal country</a> – with a population of 200m people it is equal in size to Germany, Italy and the UK combined. Politically speaking, trying to use a sporting event to deliver social and economic changes within a federal country with a municipal, state and federal governments is always going to be complex and hotly contested.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136720/original/image-20160906-6088-r2xb8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136720/original/image-20160906-6088-r2xb8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136720/original/image-20160906-6088-r2xb8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136720/original/image-20160906-6088-r2xb8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136720/original/image-20160906-6088-r2xb8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136720/original/image-20160906-6088-r2xb8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/136720/original/image-20160906-6088-r2xb8q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Montreal’s Stade Olympique, otherwise known as ‘The Big Owe’ on account of its enormous cost.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Stade_Olympique_3.jpg">Tolivero</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The 2016 Rio Olympics also came at the point of transition between perceptions on what a legacy should be. The old model was concerned chiefly with delivering an Olympics by building major structures such as stadiums, with little attention to environmental costs and their use afterwards. For example, the Olympic Stadium from the 1976 Montreal Games cost an astonishing C$1.5 billion and <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-s-big-owe-stadium-debt-is-over-1.602530">wasn’t paid off until 30 years later</a>. Similar cost overruns and poorly thought out planning for the future of facilities after the games can be seen at Athens in 2004 and Beijing in 2008, among many others where structures have <a href="http://mashable.com/2016/08/10/abandoned-olympic-venues">fallen into disuse and disrepair</a>.</p>
<p>The new approach is governed by the principles of sustainability, with four “pillars” of social, economic, environment and governance at its core. Sustainability was the central theme of Rio’s opening ceremony, expressed by the organisers through the idea of a “lean, fit and fun” Olympics. According to the <a href="https://www.rio2016.com/sustentabilidade/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/SAL_revistaGRI_EN.pdf">2016 Rio Olympics sustainability report</a>, the city built fewer than a third of the necessary venues from scratch, with most Olympic competitions held in existing venues. This has never been achieved before. </p>
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<p>As those watching the opening ceremony will have learned, the cost of the spectacle was a fraction – ten times less – than the extravagant £35m of public money spent by London for the opening of the 2012 Olympics. Brazil has pioneered the concept of “nomadic” architecture, in order to avoid leaving behind costly white elephants that are unused. For example, the Future Arena handball venue will be <a href="https://www.olympic.org/news/nomadic-venues-will-be-transformed-into-rio-2016-legacy">dismantled and used to construct four schools</a>.</p>
<p>And despite 27 well-conceived and structured infrastructure projects that cover mobility, the environment, urban renewal and social development, the general <a href="https://www.rio2016.com/sites/default/files/parceiros/ogi_rio_2016_r1_eng1.pdf">view of the organisers</a> is that the most important and lasting legacies will be intangible. These include hard-to-measure aspects such as boosting national pride and unity, raising people’s multicultural and environmental awareness.</p>
<h2>Creating tangible benefits for all</h2>
<p>Organisers and independent analysts disagree over what’s possible: the Brazilian government’s figures suggest direct economic benefits of US$11.5 billion between 2009-2016, while an <a href="http://www.playthegame.org/theme-pages/focus-on-brazil/the-olympics-and-paralympics-in-brazil-who-takes-the-prize-icsspe-bulletin/economic-and-sporting-legacy-of-olympics-2016">independent analysis of Rio</a> suggests that gains were concentrated in only a few sectors of the local economy, and did not justify the expenses incurred.</p>
<p>What’s tangible and more important is that hosting the Olympic Games has helped Brazil overhaul its elite sport system that was once rooted in the military – it is no accident that many Brazilian medal winners give a military salute from the podium – and transform it into civic organisations with proper elements of talent identification and specialisation. Brazil may not have achieved its plan <a href="http://sports.yahoo.com/news/brazil-looking-medal-bounce-rio-171232072--spt.html">to win between 27 and 30 medals</a> (it won 19), but it invested a record US$600m in public and private funds to train athletes leading up to Rio, compared to US$350m in the previous four-year cycle. </p>
<p>Even if that alone is Rio’s legacy, perhaps it’s right that it is one that lays the foundations for building Brazil’s sporting legacies for the future. But Rio will also leave another contentious legacy for the Olympic movement: the attempts to <a href="https://theconversation.com/should-russian-athletes-really-be-banned-from-competing-in-the-rio-olympics-62962">ban an entire nation from participation in the games</a> for the doping violations of a few athletes, a situation IOC president Thomas Bach has compared with returning to the days of the Cold War, during which sport was considerably politicised. This will also be an issue that is foremost for the Olympic and Paralympic movements to solve before Tokyo 2020.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64628/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vassil Girginov does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The lasting effects of Olympic Games are measured in more than just concrete stadiums.Vassil Girginov, Reader in Sports Management and Development, Brunel University LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/645132016-09-05T09:45:14Z2016-09-05T09:45:14ZWant an Olympic legacy? Get primary school children trying out a range of different sports<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/136444/original/image-20160902-20220-1gkhtl5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">See the world from another angle. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cherry-Merry/www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With sports lovers still basking in the gleam of Great Britain’s Olympic medal haul from Rio and now looking forward to a clutch of golds at the Paralympics, a BBC campaign is encouraging British school children to “<a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/get-inspired">Get Inspired</a>” by Team GB’s success and emulate their sporting heroes.</p>
<p>However laudable this is, it comes amid a general decline in children’s basic skills at running, jumping, throwing, catching and kicking. Worrying findings across the world show that the movement skills of <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00964/full">today’s children</a> are less well developed than previous generations. A <a href="http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/26342797">recent study</a> in the UK also found children’s movement skills to be poor.</p>
<p>Without these basic skills at moving, most children will fail to find “their sport”. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26201678">Research has found</a> that children who are skillful tend to be more confident in their ability to perform these skills and, consequently, are more likely to engage in physical activity, which in turn creates opportunities for further skill development. The reverse is also true. Children with low skill levels are less likely to have confidence in their abilities, are less likely to engage in physical activity and, over time, are more likely to drop out of sport and become obese. </p>
<h2>Get children moving</h2>
<p>There is now a body of work that argues that the primary school years are crucial in the path to both lifelong physical activity and elite sports performance. During this phase, children are in what’s called their “sampling years”, where the emphasis <a href="http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ816014">should be on experimenting</a> with new or different kinds of movement while having fun. </p>
<p>Recent <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27526635">research</a> has also shown that skill development at this critical stage is too important to leave to an ad-hoc approach. The study was led by one of us, James Rudd. By monitoring 333 children with an average age of eight, we found that a 16-week programme of educational gymnastics – tumbling, jumping, controlled falling and moving in gravity-defying ways – gave a boost to their stability and object-control skills. These movements are essential aspects of skill development as they enable children to maintain their balance and retain control of their bodies in dynamic situations. The mechanisms which control balance are tightly linked to our sensory system and, as such, are integral not only to sports, but to everything we do. </p>
<p>So while young children shouldn’t just focus on gymnastics, it should be included as part of a balanced and varied training programme that involves lots of varied movements. One example of this can be seen with RSC Anderlecht, an elite sport club implementing a sampling approach combining football and gymnastics.</p>
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<h2>Take your pick</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.issponline.org/documents/positionstand2009-1.pdf">Sampling a wide range</a> of different sports can not only help develop children’s movement skills but also their emotional and cognitive skills. One moment they’re playing football with ten other children and are only allowed to use their feet and two days later they’re playing basketball with four other children and are only allowed to use their hands. </p>
<p>This sampling develops a broad set of physical competencies that can transfer from one sport to another. It also teaches children to understand tactics, which can be transferable from one sport to another. For example, creating space in basketball has much in common with football, while outwitting an opponent in badminton is similar to tennis and volleyball. Children can also learn psychological skills such as how to set goals that they can use both in other sports, and other areas of life. </p>
<p>There are also social benefits, as playing a range of sports connects young people to a range of friends and role models. Young people who specialise in one sport may have a narrow range of friends and their sense of identity is often fragile as it is largely focused on one sport, for example: “I am a footballer”. This might not end well if the young person is released from their football club resulting in the loss of their social network, positive identity, and potential career. </p>
<h2>Learn from the best</h2>
<p>Specialising in one sport at an early age <a href="http://ojs.sagepub.com/content/4/4/2325967116644241.full">can lead</a> to burn out as young people can lose the love of sport and their intrinsic motivation. This is not to say that participants should never focus on a specific sport, rather that participants <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22974248">should develop a good foundation</a> of skills by sampling a range of activities until their early teens. </p>
<p>Perhaps a good example of this is the 21-year-old Olympic swimming sensation Adam Peaty who reportedly only started training specifically in swimming at the <a href="http://www.derbytelegraph.co.uk/who-is-adam-peaty-10-things-you-might-not-know-about-the-olympic-gold-medal-swimmer/story-29596699-detail/story.html">age of 14</a>. Four-time Olympic gold medallist Laura Trott <a href="http://www.express.co.uk/life-style/health/381793/Laura-Trott-Asthma-made-me-a-winner">also participated</a> in a range of sports including trampoline and swimming before specialising in cycling at 14. In 2013, a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22974248">retrospective analysis</a> of 1,006 athletes in the UK found that those who competed in three or more sports at age 11 were significantly more likely to compete at national level when they are 18 than those who only competed in one sport.</p>
<p>There are lots of different ways for children to get involved in different sports. This can be as simple as parents providing opportunities for play in the back garden or at a local park, or finding out about classes taught by specialist coaches at their nearest sports centre. As children start the new school year it is important teachers make sure that children are experiencing a varied and substantial physical education curriculum. The route to both Olympic medals (in most sports) and lifelong participation begins by experimenting, tasting, and playing a wide range of sporting activities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64513/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why children shouldn’t specialise in one sport too early.James Rudd, Senior lecturer in Physical Education, Liverpool John Moores UniversityColum Cronin, Senior lecturer, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/642252016-08-22T15:01:48Z2016-08-22T15:01:48ZDon’t believe the doom mongers – the Olympics have changed Rio for the better<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134988/original/image-20160822-18718-cefrtz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">lazyllama/Shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>No sooner had the 2016 Olympic Games finished than commentators were lamenting their negative impacts on the host city, Rio de Janeiro. Many <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/aug/21/rio-2016-olympic-games-brazil-legacy-party">have concluded</a> that a sustainable Olympic legacy is either uncertain, or downright impossible. But while these tales of doom and gloom make for dramatic headlines, the reality is not so grim. </p>
<p>The international press have always been pessimistic about Brazil’s ability to stage the Olympics. Before the games began, a steady flow of articles <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3663080/Just-month-Olympics-Rio-2016-scaffolding-debris-unfinished-subway-stench-sewage-air-venue-venue-construction-s-without-taking-Zika-account.html">critiqued the preparations</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/vila-autodromo-the-favela-fighting-back-against-rios-olympic-development-52393">condemned forced evictions</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/22/olympics-2016-rio-de-janeiro-metro-line-extension-troubles-traffic">cast doubt</a> on whether vital infrastructure would be delivered on schedule. Admittedly, in the context of the ongoing economic crisis and political turmoil, there was – and still is – good cause for concern. But it is important not to get fixed on controversies as the only source of truth.</p>
<p>Once the games started, the city was given a short break and the focus moved to the wonders of sport - and obsessive medal counting. But after many were swept up in the thrill of the games themselves, it didn’t take long for <a href="http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2658583-rio-report-the-olympics-will-leave-a-heavy-financial-burden-on-the-host-city">the criticisms to return</a>. In contrast with this bleak picture, <a href="http://www.beatrizgarcia.net/?page_id=44">my own research</a> on Rio throughout the games fortnight, building on a framework that interrogates the cultural dimensions of this as well as eight previous host cities since Sydney 2000, reveal a different dimension of the Olympic city this summer. </p>
<h2>The art of progress</h2>
<p>The people I spoke to were frustrated that uplifting stories about the urban, social and cultural changes taking place in Rio were not being picked up by journalists. This was especially clear in Rio’s <a href="http://catcomm.org/planner-on-favela/">favelas</a>, where I conducted the bulk of my research. These informal slum-like settlements span across the city’s hills and have attracted worldwide attention for their poor living conditions and the high crime rates, associated with drug dealing. </p>
<p>While internal gang wars have resulted in targeted violence for decades, favela residents insist they are also part of strong and optimistic communities. Those outside of gang rivalries say that they feel safe and well supported within their neighbourhood, and that culture and creativity has always been <a href="http://www.citylab.com/work/2015/01/in-this-rio-favela-dj-skills-come-free/384318/">a source of empowerment</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134870/original/image-20160821-30396-1i0ah7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134870/original/image-20160821-30396-1i0ah7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134870/original/image-20160821-30396-1i0ah7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134870/original/image-20160821-30396-1i0ah7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134870/original/image-20160821-30396-1i0ah7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134870/original/image-20160821-30396-1i0ah7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134870/original/image-20160821-30396-1i0ah7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134870/original/image-20160821-30396-1i0ah7l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">DJ Zezinho speaks to a Russian TV crew about his work as community DJ in Rocinha.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Beatriz Garcia</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>In particular, cultural activists working in the favelas, such as DJ Zezinho and Obi Wan, told me that they were fed up with being asked to talk about everything that is wrong in Rio. They said that their community life is thriving and opportunities are opening up for residents like Obi Wan, who got a grant to study at a private school and is now running a popular youth hostel and <a href="https://theconversation.com/slumming-it-how-tourism-is-putting-the-worlds-poorest-places-on-the-map-61320">favela tours</a>. </p>
<p>Artists (both home-bred and adopted) are also bringing about positive changes to their neighbourhoods. The International Olympic Committee’s first artist-in-residence – photographer and street artist JR – has taken a prominent role in a number of projects at the Olympic Games. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134876/original/image-20160822-30370-fex7xg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134876/original/image-20160822-30370-fex7xg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134876/original/image-20160822-30370-fex7xg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134876/original/image-20160822-30370-fex7xg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134876/original/image-20160822-30370-fex7xg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134876/original/image-20160822-30370-fex7xg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134876/original/image-20160822-30370-fex7xg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134876/original/image-20160822-30370-fex7xg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">JR’s InsideOut.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Beatriz Garcia</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>His work ranges from the monumental <a href="http://www.jr-art.net/news/jrs-giants-in-rio-de-janeiro-for-the-olympics">Giants</a> to portraits of Olympic participants (<a href="http://blogs.ft.com/photo-diary/2016/08/inside-out-in-rio-de-janeiro/">InsideOut</a>), to small, community-focused interventions – such as a cultural centre, <a href="http://uk.phaidon.com/agenda/art/articles/2016/january/28/the-house-that-jr-built-and-then-rebuilt/">Casa Amarela</a>, based in one of Rio’s oldest favelas. </p>
<p>What’s more, the first favela-based libraries are opening up, and the new Olympic metro line will improve accessibility to Rio’s most prominent favela, Rocinha. Residents are hopeful that this will finally make it plain that favelas are truly a part of Rio – they weren’t even recognised on official maps <a href="http://www.thejournal.ie/brazil-favelas-mapping-765350-Jan2013/">until 2013</a>). </p>
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<span class="caption">Local entrepreneur Obi Wan speaks in front of Rocinha graffiti sensation Wark, whose work is spread throughout Rio and internationally.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Beatriz Garcia</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of course, locals’ reactions to the Olympics aren’t all positive. One Rocinha resident pointed out: “We are not allowed to use the metro until after the games – at the moment, only Olympic competition ticket holders can.” But in the wake of extensive drug lord removals and <a href="http://stanford.io/2bAp5PS">pacification</a> – a controversial but transformative effort to fight crime in the favelas, which was accelerated as the Olympics were looming – no one denies that the big event has helped advance important social causes and address essential public infrastructure needs. </p>
<p>It’s not just residents of the favelas who are feeling some benefits from hosting the games. Despite Rio’s reputation for being a city of <a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dpu-projects/Global_Report/pdfs/Rio.pdf">great inequality</a>, it does actually have a substantial middle class. Between <a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dpu-projects/Global_Report/pdfs/Rio.pdf">60% and 75%</a> of its population live in four large districts: the historic, downtown Centro, the flashy Zona Sul, the largely low-income, residential Zona Norte and the suburbs of the west side. </p>
<p>The latter includes Barra da Tijuca – the site of the main Olympic Park, which is rapidly developing as new, more wealthy communities move in. The Olympic Games have given Rio’s middle-class residents – particularly those in Centro and Zona Norte – a chance to participate in the debate around the kind of city Rio is, and could be. </p>
<h2>No-go to must-go</h2>
<p>Both city and Olympic officials have made much of <a href="https://www.olympic.org/news/ioc-president-hails-rio-2016-as-iconic-games">the claim</a> that 63% of the population now have access to public transport (up from 18%, seven years ago). But an equally important (and, culturally, more significant) Olympic legacy for Rio is the rediscovery of its public spaces, as areas for people to meet and mingle. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134877/original/image-20160822-30383-1sb926b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134877/original/image-20160822-30383-1sb926b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134877/original/image-20160822-30383-1sb926b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134877/original/image-20160822-30383-1sb926b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134877/original/image-20160822-30383-1sb926b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134877/original/image-20160822-30383-1sb926b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134877/original/image-20160822-30383-1sb926b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134877/original/image-20160822-30383-1sb926b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The Olympic Boulevard in Porto Maravilhas was the most popular site for collective (unticketed) celebration during the games.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Beatriz Garcia</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Just as Barcelona rediscovered its port during the 1992 Olympics, Rio has reconnected with the long-derelict Porto Maravilhas. The Porto borders downtown Centro, an area which bustles with office workers from all across the city during the week. </p>
<p>But up until recently, Centro lacked public meeting spaces, and was considered an unsafe, no-go area in the evenings and on weekends. This has changed dramatically for the duration of the Olympic Games (and carrying on into the Paralympics). Porto Maravilhas has been rebranded as the Boulevard Olimpico – and suddenly, it’s the place to be.</p>
<p>A dedicated Olympic “live site”, where fans can watch the action on big screens, the Boulevard Olimpico owes its success to the ingenious combination of a diverse cultural offering (including the new <a href="https://www.museudoamanha.org.br/en">Museum of Tomorrow</a> and the revamped <a href="http://www.museudeartedorio.org.br/en">Museum of Art in Rio</a>) with business displays and entertainment. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134878/original/image-20160822-30387-vj0qhh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134878/original/image-20160822-30387-vj0qhh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134878/original/image-20160822-30387-vj0qhh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134878/original/image-20160822-30387-vj0qhh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134878/original/image-20160822-30387-vj0qhh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134878/original/image-20160822-30387-vj0qhh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134878/original/image-20160822-30387-vj0qhh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134878/original/image-20160822-30387-vj0qhh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Huge works from Kobra has encouraged other artists to work in the area.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Beatriz Garcia</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What’s more, the thoughtful way the space has been used sparked a flurry of street artists (five so far, and counting) to take over old warehouse walls and produce enormous graffiti artworks. </p>
<p>And this is only the second time – after Vancouver’s Winter Olympics in 2010 – that an Olympic Cauldron was placed outside the sports venue, giving those without tickets the chance to experience one the most recognisable Olympic icons first hand.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134880/original/image-20160822-30370-1spp5ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134880/original/image-20160822-30370-1spp5ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134880/original/image-20160822-30370-1spp5ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134880/original/image-20160822-30370-1spp5ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134880/original/image-20160822-30370-1spp5ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134880/original/image-20160822-30370-1spp5ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134880/original/image-20160822-30370-1spp5ly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The eco-friendly Olympic Cauldron has become one of Rio’s favourite sites for selfies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Beatriz Garcia</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So, Cariocas have flocked in their thousands to the Boulevard Olympico. They have fully embraced this new part of their city: there will be no white elephants here. The port has passed from no-go to must-go area in a matter of months and, given its position as meeting point for daily commuters, it is set to become one of the most lively and diverse public places in the city. </p>
<h2>A lasting legacy</h2>
<p>The Parque Madureira, in the northern part of the city, is another example of urban regeneration leaving a positive legacy for the local community. Located in a densely populated, low-income area, which is dominated by factory infrastructure, this new park has brought greenery, sporting facilities and new cultural life to a neighbourhood of more than 350,000 people. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134881/original/image-20160822-30377-15y7ejs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134881/original/image-20160822-30377-15y7ejs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134881/original/image-20160822-30377-15y7ejs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134881/original/image-20160822-30377-15y7ejs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134881/original/image-20160822-30377-15y7ejs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134881/original/image-20160822-30377-15y7ejs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134881/original/image-20160822-30377-15y7ejs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134881/original/image-20160822-30377-15y7ejs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The largest set of Olympic rings are placed at Madureira park, in low-income Zona Norte.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Beatriz Garcia</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Rio is a big city. With Olympic activities dotted across the four main districts, hardcore sports fans have been forced to spend a considerable part of their day in transit. Because of this, visitors have been exposed to the many sides of Rio, beyond the sandy beaches in Copacabana and the dirty streets in the slums. </p>
<p>Above all else, the games have showcased the generous spirit of the Carioca. While in Rio, I witnessed the locals’ thrill at discovering new spaces to gather, exercise and party; their enjoyment and surprise at mixing with people from other districts – often, for the first time, given the city’s longstanding north-south economic divide, and their refusal to be confined by stereotypes and condemned to repeat the same social and cultural mistakes. </p>
<p>There are hard times ahead; the country still faces an ongoing recession and political turmoil. But the Olympic Games have opened up new public spaces, giving everyone the chance to generate positive collective memories – with the Paralympics yet to come. Rather than taking on a defeatist, “can’t-do” attitude, there is much to be gained by paying attention to what’s gone right in Rio.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64225/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Beatriz Garcia is conducting academic research in Rio de Janeiro partly funded by an International Olympic Committee Advanced Research Grant. Other funding comes from the British Academy Newton Fund and involves a collaboration between the University of Liverpool and University of Sao Paulo to assess cultural narratives of Brazil in the wake of the 2016 Summer Olympic Games.</span></em></p>A candid assessment of the impact of the games, from an academic on the ground.Beatriz Garcia, Head of Research and Cultural Policy, Institute of Cultural Capital, University of LiverpoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/621652016-08-21T20:04:41Z2016-08-21T20:04:41ZWhy Rio, like Sydney and London before it, won’t turn locals into sports stars<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134747/original/image-20160819-10580-13ec8sh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There's little evidence relevant government bodies are able to leverage hosting the Olympics to develop a sport participation legacy for the wider population.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Kevin Coombs</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, there’s been increasing pressure on host cities to leave an ongoing benefit to the local community. But only recently has increased sport participation been explicitly included in legacy plans of host cities. </p>
<p>The mechanism for increasing sport participation that’s commonly relied upon is through what’s known as the trickle-down effect. It assumes that elite sport performances result in a greater number of people taking up the sport.</p>
<p>But there’s limited evidence (paper forthcoming) that relevant government bodies are able to leverage the Games to develop a sport participation legacy for the wider population. Why, then, aren’t the Olympics causing a universal rise of couch potatoes? </p>
<p>The two trends responsible are likely the elite/mass divide in sport legacy planning; and the challenges related to implementation of strategies and measuring outcomes.</p>
<h2>Sydney and London</h2>
<p>A sport participation legacy wasn’t viewed as important prior to the Sydney 2000 Olympics, although there was a belief that there might be a stronger focus on such programs after the Games. </p>
<p>It was thought, though, that Active Australia, a government instituted 1996 framework focused on lifelong participation in sport would receive increased prominence in this way. But a change of focus didn’t eventuate, despite an Australian government inquiry into the national sport system finding much greater investment was required into grassroots-level sports. </p>
<p>And, in 2014-15, three quarters of the Australian Sports Commission’s A$137 million funding went to elite sports.</p>
<p>The London 2012 Games were different. The city had a clear directive in its bid for a focus on increasing mass participation, which was later defined as getting at least 2 million more people in England active by 2012. But interviews with national sports governing bodies showed a recurring belief that success at London 2012 would be the inspiration for a trickle-down effect. And this seems to have justified prioritising elite sport.</p>
<p>One senior manager said there was a lot of pressure on athletes to win home gold medals, adding:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>finding the focus on grassroots [mass sport participation] is a real challenge … particularly with the complexity of how it is delivered. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>This statement really says it all: elite athletes are motivated and success is easy while increasing grassroots participation means working with a lot of unwilling people whose success is harder to measure. </p>
<p>Dependence on the faulty mechanisms of elite success and role models hindered the London 2012 sport participation legacy. And it was compounded by a change of government as well as the regularly changing focus and investment between elite/grassroots sports and sport/physical activity.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134749/original/image-20160819-12303-l3nn1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134749/original/image-20160819-12303-l3nn1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134749/original/image-20160819-12303-l3nn1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134749/original/image-20160819-12303-l3nn1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134749/original/image-20160819-12303-l3nn1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134749/original/image-20160819-12303-l3nn1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134749/original/image-20160819-12303-l3nn1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dependence on the faulty mechanisms of elite success and role models hindered the London Games’ sport participation legacy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Neil Hall</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rio’s plans</h2>
<p>Rio planned to focus on a sport participation legacy for marginalised youth by increasing funding to already existing programs. But after the city won the bid, allegations of corruption <a href="http://esporte.uol.com.br/rio-2016/ultimas-noticias/2013/09/02/governo-abandona-projeto-para-o-principal-legado-social-da-rio-2016.htm">led the funding to be cut</a>. </p>
<p>The Rio bid also had a plan to gain a top-ten placing in the medal count. Indeed, the focus on elite sport development is clear in the sport participation legacy being promoted for Rio 2016. </p>
<p>In official documents, proposals for mass sport participation programs frequently don’t provide investment figures or clear target groups, whereas <a href="http://www.brasil2016.gov.br/pt-br/incentivo-ao-esporte/plano-brasil-medalhas">elite sport programs</a> are presented with details of financial and infrastructure investment, as well as a clear identification of recipients.</p>
<p>Closely related to problems of planning and implementing – largely ineffective – strategies for achieving elusive outcomes are the challenges presented by measuring effects, or actual legacies. </p>
<p>A key problem identified in Sydney, London, and Rio relates to the availability of data, or the consistency in collecting relevant data that can help inform policy and planning as well as evaluate strategies and actions. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://stillmed.olympic.org/Documents/Reports/EN/en_report_1077.pdf">Olympic Games Global Impact (OGI) study</a>, which started in 2002, begins to address this, but it doesn’t do so particularly well for sport participation legacy. The <a href="https://www.rio2016.com/sites/default/files/parceiros/ogi_rio_2016_r1_eng1.pdf">first report</a> of the Rio 2016 OGI, for instance, presents some superficial data about pre-Games sport development impacts.</p>
<h2>Serious challenges</h2>
<p>Because the Sydney 2000 bid didn’t focus on generating increased community participation, strategy implementation and outcome measurement weren’t priorities. </p>
<p>Three reports outlining the evaluation that should be conducted were published in the lead-up to Sydney 2000. But only one of these (hard copy only) briefly mentioned increased participation in sport. And evaluation focused heavily on economic and infrastructure, rather than social, impacts. </p>
<p>Of the studies examining short- and long-term impacts conducted after Sydney 2000, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19407963.2012.662619">only one</a> found there was an increase in post-2000 sport participation for people aged 15 and above, albeit in non-Olympic sports. </p>
<p>Olympic sports may have had a trickle-down effect on younger Australians – aged between five and 14 – but changes to survey design and methodological issues prevented the author from drawing any strong conclusions. </p>
<p>And when a <a href="http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmselect/cmcumeds/69/69ii.pdf">House of Commons Select Committee</a> examined the requirements for a London 2012 participation legacy, it found that a cross-departmental approach including local authorities, health, education and a wider coordination of resources would be required. But it also noted that sport didn’t have the political stature to adopt such an approach. </p>
<p>As for the London Games’ ambitious goals for sport and physical activity, the initial target of one million people participating in general physical activity was achieved by decreasing the original physical activity target from three sessions of 30 minutes of physical activity per week to just one. But Sport England makes no mention of this criteria change when reporting <a href="http://www.bloso-kics.be/Int-sportbeleid/Gedeelde%20%20documenten/130401_Overall_factsheet_Active_People_Survey_2012_2013.pdf">that 1.4 million more people were playing sport between 2005 and 2013</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134751/original/image-20160819-12312-ky8q3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134751/original/image-20160819-12312-ky8q3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134751/original/image-20160819-12312-ky8q3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134751/original/image-20160819-12312-ky8q3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134751/original/image-20160819-12312-ky8q3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134751/original/image-20160819-12312-ky8q3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134751/original/image-20160819-12312-ky8q3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Sydney 2000 Olympic bid didn’t focus on generating increased community participation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/David Gray</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Problems facing Rio</h2>
<p>In contrast to Sydney 2000 and London 2012, Rio 2016 highlights how a lack of legacy planning can be further complicated by the <em>governance</em> of legacy. Instances and allegations of political corruption have had a critical impact on the perceived value of programs and resulted in government funding for these programs being dramatically reduced. </p>
<p>Without population-level data, we can only make an informed guess about whether such drastic cuts in funding will significantly interrupt any legacy momentum that may have been gained in the lead up to the 2016 Games. </p>
<p>Overall, what the three Olympics discussed here indicate is that there’s limited evidence that organising committees and relevant government bodies have effectively leveraged the Games to develop a sport participation legacy for the wider population. Not going beyond the elite-end of the spectrum leaves this challenge for the next generation of Olympic host candidates.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62165/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The commonly believed mechanism for increasing sport participation assumes that elite sport performances result in a greater number of people taking up sport.Danya Hodgetts, Adjunct Research Fellow, CQUniversity AustraliaArianne C. Reis, Senior lecturer, Western Sydney UniversityStephen Frawley, Director of the Australian Centre for Olympic Studies, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/640712016-08-19T17:50:53Z2016-08-19T17:50:53ZHow Rio 2016 satisfied its sponsors while leaving room for the people<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134771/original/image-20160819-30377-e9xbh1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every four years, one city takes on the gargantuan project of hosting the summer Olympic Games. This mega-event comes loaded with expectations and obligations for the host city that are dictated by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and enshrined in the form of the “<a href="https://stillmed.olympic.org/Documents/Host_city_elections/Host_City_Contract_Principles.pdf">host city contract</a>”. </p>
<p>As part of this contract, host cities must give up control over trading laws, sponsorship and the use of public spaces, and put special rules in place to meet the IOC’s strict brand protection requirements and ensure the games run smoothly. <a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/12/contents/enacted">Such laws</a> have a big impact on the way urban areas are used: they cordon off public spaces, enforce strict security measures and prevent local businesses from making the most of the influx of visitors to the city.</p>
<p>This does not just apply to the areas where the venues, roads, athletes’ village and training areas are built – though the “legacy” of these developments <a href="https://theconversation.com/going-going-gone-how-olympic-legacy-is-killing-londons-creative-culture-63791">are controversial</a> for displacing local residents in Beijing, London and Rio. </p>
<p>Rather, neighbourhoods outside of the main event zone are often affected by the host city contract. Spaces which were previously used for recreation, leisure and other non-commercial activities are liable to come under the games’ domain. </p>
<p>Over the past two decades, specially designed “live sites” and “fan parks” – where spectators can gather to watch the action on big screens – have become a regular feature at major sporting events. Indeed, they have been considered a major success by organisers ever since the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany, when <a href="http://thescorecard.org/post/309">more than 13m people</a> watched matches and enjoyed cultural activities in “fan fests” across 10 host cities. </p>
<p>Organisers <a href="https://www.rio2016.com/en/live-sites">portray these sites</a> as open, accessible spaces, where locals and visitors alike can gather and celebrate. But while live sites are usually in public spaces, they are inevitably fenced off and subject to thorough security checks and a significant police presence. What’s more, <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14775080802310223?journalCode=rjto20">research suggests that</a> they act as a platform for <a href="https://www.rio2016.com/en/sponsors">official sponsors</a> to broadcast their brand to large audiences, who are there to watch the sport. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134828/original/image-20160819-30377-1kooe1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134828/original/image-20160819-30377-1kooe1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134828/original/image-20160819-30377-1kooe1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134828/original/image-20160819-30377-1kooe1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134828/original/image-20160819-30377-1kooe1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134828/original/image-20160819-30377-1kooe1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134828/original/image-20160819-30377-1kooe1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The British Airways live site at London 2012 held a captive audience.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/thelastminute/7685489096/sizes/l">Duncan Rawlinson/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For this reason, when a city decides to <a href="http://julesboykoff.org/olympics/">host a mega-event</a>, it’s also inviting a corporate takeover of its public spaces. This is especially clear at the Olympic Games: the IOC <a href="https://www.olympic.org/ioc-financing-revenue-sources-distribution">is heavily dependent</a> on revenue from advertising and sponsorship, so they are keen to offer contributing corporations as much value for money as possible. </p>
<p>What’s more, the cost of hosting a mega-event has increased rapidly in recent years, as host cities face more pressure to deliver a successful games, as well as achieving a range of <a href="http://stadium-project.eu/site/uploads/media/Rio_de_Janeiro_State_Rio_2016_Transport_Strategy.pdf">urban development goals</a>. The Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics alone cost a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jan/31/sochi-olympics-controversial-5-reasons">staggering $51bn</a>, which was largely spent on venues, transport infrastructure and a new exclusive beach resort along the coast. </p>
<p>Without commercial sources of income, host cities such as Rio – which has already experienced <a href="https://theconversation.com/rio-reaches-crisis-point-ahead-of-the-olympic-games-61819">major protests against the diversion of public funds</a> – would face an even greater backlash from taxpayers. </p>
<h2>Lessons from London</h2>
<p><a href="http://usj.sagepub.com/content/52/14/2649">During London 2012</a>, the live sites were fenced off spaces in the city’s royal parks – Hyde Park and Victoria Park. True to form, these areas were subject to intense security and packed with branding on behalf of official Olympic sponsors. </p>
<p>The sites provided a stage for parts of the Cultural Olympiad, and a space for those who missed out on tickets to watch the games. They were free to enter, but the presence of significant security barriers, airport-style searches and restrictions on what visitors could take into the sites made them feel like official venues.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134766/original/image-20160819-30377-1dvnjde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134766/original/image-20160819-30377-1dvnjde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134766/original/image-20160819-30377-1dvnjde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134766/original/image-20160819-30377-1dvnjde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134766/original/image-20160819-30377-1dvnjde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134766/original/image-20160819-30377-1dvnjde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134766/original/image-20160819-30377-1dvnjde.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Victoria Park live site: fenced off.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/worldoflard/7699939012/sizes/l">worldoflard/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Those who extol the virtues of mega-events claim that small businesses and the general public can take advantage of the economic opportunities presented by a massive influx of visitors – just as <a href="http://theconversation.com/glastonburys-festival-economics-signals-hope-for-entrepreneurial-spirit-60747">they do at smaller events</a> such as Glastonbury. But there’s a lot of <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261517715300492">evidence from London 2012 which suggests</a> that smaller organisations are often squeezed out or <a href="http://usj.sagepub.com/content/47/10/2069.short">displaced from key event zones</a>.</p>
<p>One might seek comfort in the fact that this takeover is only temporary – after all, the games only come around every four years. But as many Londoners will know, one corporate takeover can lead to another, as cash-strapped local councils seek to raise revenue by <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-right-to-use-public-parks-for-commercial-events-61889">hosting a greater number of private events in public parks</a>. </p>
<h2>Rio’s Olympic Boulevard</h2>
<p>With this in mind, we set out to follow up <a href="http://usj.sagepub.com/content/52/14/2649">the research</a> done at London 2012, to see whether the live site at Rio’s Olympic Boulevard (or “Porto Maravilha”, as it’s known to the locals) managed to buck these issues. </p>
<p>It sounded good on paper: according to <a href="http://visit.rio/en/home-2/">Rio’s official tourism site</a>, the Olympic Boulevard is “<a href="http://visit.rio/en/editorial/livesitemarvelousport/">the biggest live site ever in the Olympic Games history</a>”. More than <a href="https://www.rio2016.com/en/news/olympic-boulevard-to-host-fan-parties-during-rio-2016-games">188,000m² was given over</a> to hosting food trucks, fireworks, live broadcasts of the competition and concerts by the “great names of Brazilian music”. The idea was <a href="http://visit.rio/en/editorial/livesitemarvelousport/">to offer visitors</a> “a unique combination of the Carioca spirit and the Olympic spirit”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134776/original/image-20160819-30366-edgut8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134776/original/image-20160819-30366-edgut8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134776/original/image-20160819-30366-edgut8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134776/original/image-20160819-30366-edgut8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134776/original/image-20160819-30366-edgut8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134776/original/image-20160819-30366-edgut8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134776/original/image-20160819-30366-edgut8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A festive feel?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Over the course of our time at the games, our investigation showed that the live site was <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2016/08/02/americas/rio-de-janeiro-security/">intensely militarised</a> – complete with raised viewing platforms for armed officers. </p>
<p>Yet the site managed to be more open to the host community, and offer more benefits for small businesses, compared with London 2012. The boundaries of Rio’s live site were less obvious than those in London, which created the feel of a street festival. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134774/original/image-20160819-30396-c0cs11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134774/original/image-20160819-30396-c0cs11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134774/original/image-20160819-30396-c0cs11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134774/original/image-20160819-30396-c0cs11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134774/original/image-20160819-30396-c0cs11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134774/original/image-20160819-30396-c0cs11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134774/original/image-20160819-30396-c0cs11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134774/original/image-20160819-30396-c0cs11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sponsors, sponsors – everywhere.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Duignan/RioZones</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>International symbols of consumer culture, such as Coca Cola drink stops, Samsung exhibitions and free viewing screens full of official logos and sponsor branding sat alongside a celebration of local Carioca culture, including food trucks and stalls selling traditional Brazilian goods. </p>
<p>It seemed as though Rio really was committed to bringing together and balancing the spirit of the Olympics with that of its host city. There was an authentic attempt to meet the demands of official sponsors, while also promoting the local culture particularly through regional food and drink, but music, art and performance too. </p>
<p>Of course, more open, democratic, free-to-access spaces still need to be carved out, so that everyone can take a slice of the Olympic pie. But our experience at Rio – and findings gathered across our <a href="https://michaelduignan.uk/2016/08/16/official-rio-2016-riozones-research-blog-and-data-analysis-w-prof-mcgillivray/">#RioZones project</a> – indicates that there was space in the live sites for locals – and specifically small businesses and entrepreneurs – can sell their wares to captive event crowds, alongside official sponsors such as Coca Cola and McDonalds.</p>
<p>So, although Rio was taken over by the Olympic project in more ways than one, there has been a subtle but important shift toward a more inclusive use of public event spaces – positive progress since London 2012.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/64071/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Corporations benefit from using public spaces during the Olympic Games – but Rio made sure local businesses also got a slice of the pie.Mike Duignan, Lecturer in Tourism Management, Anglia Ruskin UniversityDavid McGillivray, Professor in Event and Digital Cultures, University of the West of ScotlandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/637912016-08-18T15:37:34Z2016-08-18T15:37:34ZGoing, going, gone: how Olympic legacy is killing London’s creative culture<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134644/original/image-20160818-12309-u9vo57.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/125908716@N07/27504985892/in/dateposted/">emilylindsaybrown/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ever since the 1992 games in Barcelona, the idea of “legacy” has played a crucial role in the process of bidding for, and hosting, the Olympics. It’s easy to agree that investment and development for the Olympics should deliver benefits for residents of the host city in the long run. And it makes sense that Olympic infrastructure is built in areas that need improvement. </p>
<p>But in practice, it’s not always locals who benefit from the Olympic legacy. All to often, strict deadlines for delivery of Olympic infrastructure give authorities and developers a license to push urban regeneration plans through to approval with minimal consultation. In Beijing, for instance, <a href="http://www.tandfebooks.com/doi/book/10.4324/9781315758862">1.5m people were displaced</a> to make space for Olympic venues. Meanwhile, in Rio, thousands of favela dwellers <a href="https://theconversation.com/vila-autodromo-the-favela-fighting-back-against-rios-olympic-development-52393">experienced violent evictions</a> ahead of this year’s games. </p>
<p>Similarly – but somehow less famously – the Olympic Park developments for London 2012 involved the <a href="http://usj.sagepub.com/content/47/10/2069">largest programme of legally enforced evictions</a> in England. And it continues to this day. </p>
<h2>Welcome to Hackney Wick</h2>
<p>Hackney Wick and Fish Island is a quaint, former industrial area in east London, right at the edge of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park. Old warehouses – many of which have been converted into spaces for living, working, eating and making – sit beside canals, and old-fashioned barges line the banks. Here, more than 600 artist studios and other small creative organisations have produced an ecosystem which nurtures innovation and creativity.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134636/original/image-20160818-12274-195gipf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134636/original/image-20160818-12274-195gipf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134636/original/image-20160818-12274-195gipf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134636/original/image-20160818-12274-195gipf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134636/original/image-20160818-12274-195gipf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134636/original/image-20160818-12274-195gipf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134636/original/image-20160818-12274-195gipf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A creative idyll.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ilaria Pappalepore/University of Westminster</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Now this area is part of a <a href="http://queenelizabetholympicpark.co.uk/the-park/homes-and-living/existing-communities/hackney-wick-and-fish-island/hackney-wick-consultation">major regeneration project</a> and most of these artists feel under threat. Currently, one group of creatives based in Fish Island <a href="https://i-d.vice.com/en_gb/article/why-we-need-to-save-hackney-wick">is fighting against the decision</a> to demolish parts of the building where they live and work. </p>
<p>The building – Vittoria Wharf – is one of many which were subject to compulsory purchase before the games by the London Development Agency. Now, the London Legacy Development Corporation – the public company responsible for delivering Olympic-led regeneration in east London – looks set to carry out the demolition, in order to build a new footbridge to the Olympic Park. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.change.org/p/save-hackney-wick-stop-the-demolition-of-a-community">A petition</a> to save Vittoria Wharf from demolition has so far reached more than 5,600 signatures. But this action is unlikely to save the building – at best, it will give residents a few more months to make their case public. A local musician said to me: “I feel they almost treat us as Conquistadors treated native Americans, with no respect for our philosophies.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134639/original/image-20160818-12300-hhwfp0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134639/original/image-20160818-12300-hhwfp0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134639/original/image-20160818-12300-hhwfp0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134639/original/image-20160818-12300-hhwfp0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134639/original/image-20160818-12300-hhwfp0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134639/original/image-20160818-12300-hhwfp0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134639/original/image-20160818-12300-hhwfp0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Putting up a fight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ilaria Pappalepore/University of Westminster</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These residents are aware of the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/aug/30/art-blame-gentrification-peckham">well-documented cycle of gentrification</a>, which sees deprived neighbourhoods initially inhabited by young artists, <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-how-tweets-and-check-ins-can-be-used-to-spot-early-signs-of-gentrification-57620">who are later displaced</a> by established creative companies and middle-class residents. </p>
<p>New creative enclaves are commonly formed in cities this way over time. But in London, young artists worry that soon there will be nowhere left for them to go in the city. One of the residents of Hackney Wick told me that artists’ only option is to relocate to other parts of England – such as Margate on the east coast – or to go abroad, with Berlin the most popular option. With the average London house price pushing £472,000, and rent becoming <a href="https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/housing-and-land/renting/london-rents-map">prohibitively expensive</a> in more and more boroughs, there is a real danger that low-income artists could be priced out. </p>
<h2>Looking back at London 2012</h2>
<p>Local artists’ difficulties with the legacy of the Olympics follows their disappointment with the games themselves. <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261517715300492">Research</a> I conducted between 2010 and 2014 showed that the games had minimal positive impacts on local artists and other small creative organisations. </p>
<p>Many were disappointed by how difficult it proved for local artists and companies to take part in the cultural programme of London 2012. A key problem flagged up by my interviewees was the curators’ preference for internationally renowned artists over local ones. Unfortunately, this stems from the nature of mega-events, which are <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1028663042000212355">highly dependent on sponsorships</a> and international media attention. </p>
<p>But as one cultural policy consultant interviewed for the research said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>[The cultural programme curators] saw themselves as trying to do something substantially different and of better quality and more international and a lot more contemporary than a lot of the practice they thought they were looking at in east London. Not to take seriously any of the talent that is on their doorstep, except around the edges and kind of cosmetically, seems to me to be fundamentally misdirected.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In Hackney Wick, organisers went so far as to remove graffiti by local artists, only to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2013/aug/06/olympic-legacy-street-art-graffiti-fury">replace it with specially-commissioned pieces</a> by international artists. In many ways, London missed an invaluable opportunity to promote local creativity. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134641/original/image-20160818-12309-119pd0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/134641/original/image-20160818-12309-119pd0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134641/original/image-20160818-12309-119pd0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134641/original/image-20160818-12309-119pd0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134641/original/image-20160818-12309-119pd0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134641/original/image-20160818-12309-119pd0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/134641/original/image-20160818-12309-119pd0g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Evocative art in Hackney Wick, by Edwin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/maureen_barlin/16955921311/sizes/l">Mabacan/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For security reasons visitors were carefully marshalled between train stations and Olympic venues, which prevented them from wandering around the area. What’s more, the International Olympic Committee’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-the-iocs-protection-of-the-olympic-brand-over-the-top-62914">extremely restrictive copyright rules</a> made it impossible for local artists to use Olympic-related symbols in their practice – although <a href="http://www.blowe.org.uk/2012/01/anti-olympics-poster-competition.html">some did so anyway</a> as a form of resistance. </p>
<h2>A new cultural quarter?</h2>
<p>Yet the Olympic regeneration programme did have a small number of positive outcomes for local residents. One of the very few aspects which seems to have been well received by the artists we spoke to is the plan for a <a href="http://queenelizabetholympicpark.co.uk/the-park/attractions/cultural-and-education-district">culture and education district</a>, to be built on the Stratford waterfront in the Olympic park by 2020. </p>
<p>This project – dubbed “Olympicopolis” by former London mayor Boris Johnson – was initially inspired by “Albertopolis”; the cultural cluster built in South Kensington following the Great Exhibition in 1851. The new cultural district will accommodate world class cultural and education institutions such as the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A), Sadler’s Wells theatre, University College London (UCL) and London College of Fashion. Both UCL and the V&A have already liaised with local Hackney Wick artists, with a view to develop creative collaborations. </p>
<p>The project is expected to create 3,000 jobs, and contribute to the wider <a href="https://queenelizabetholympicpark.co.uk/%7E/media/qeop/files/public/lldc_artculturestrategy_webhigh.pdf">cultural legacy strategy</a> for the Olympic Park, which is “centred around developing east London as a creative destination with an international reputation”.</p>
<p>But given what happened at London 2012, there’s a real risk that this new development could, once again, create a “tourist bubble” – a sanitised cultural island, completely separated from the local neighbourhood. Indeed, the plans for the new district – which were unveiled very recently – have already <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2016/aug/03/london-olympic-legacy-stratford-suburb-on-steroids">been described</a> as “a cacophony of luxury stumps”.</p>
<p>Previous <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160738313001485">research has shown</a> that successful creative areas are characterised by a diverse built environment, a bohemian look and the coexistence of people who produce and consume culture. Yet all of this already exists in Hackney Wick and Fish Island, thanks to a community which has been there since long before the Olympics. The question is – will it still be there in five years?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63791/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ilaria Pappalepore does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Looking back on the legacy of London 2012, it’s clear the local artistic community has lost out.Ilaria Pappalepore, Senior lecturer in Events and Tourism, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/623842016-07-27T18:11:50Z2016-07-27T18:11:50ZWhat’s the true economic and symbolic value of an Olympic team?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/131907/original/image-20160726-12618-16vb61x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">National Olympic committees may not be good at explaining what the benefits of the Games are – but the Greeks were.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/singapore2010/4820373433/">Singapore 2010 Youth Olympic Games/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With the upcoming decision of International Olympic Committee to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/jul/11/ioc-olympic-games-paris-los-angeles-2024-2028">award the 2024 and 2028 games simultaneously</a> – Los Angeles and Paris are the leading candidates – the question of how much countries should spend on the Games is once again being asked. This is especially as wealthy, developed countries continue to spend staggering sums on their Olympic teams. </p>
<h2>Big spenders</h2>
<p>Britain spent A$374 million (340 million euros) on its team for the London Olympics. It is spending still more for 2016 to ensure that it wins just as many gold medals. The British now spend four times more on Olympic competitors than on sport for schoolchildren.</p>
<p>Australia is another example of this massive state subsidisation of elite sportspeople. It may only have a third of Britain’s population, but the Australian government spent a mind-boggling A$264 million (240 million euros) on its London team. The <a href="http://corporate.olympics.com.au/games/london-2012/">seven gold medals it won</a> in the 2012 Games was its worst result since the 1988 Olympics. </p>
<p>Each gold medal cost Australian taxpayers A$37 million (34 million euros). In the hope of lifting its gold-medal count, Australia spent even more for the 2016 Rio games, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia_at_the_2016_Summer_Olympics">won all of eight</a>. It did this in spite of deep government cuts to education and health.</p>
<p>Even Germany is getting in on this splurge on elite sports. For a long time, it refused to heavily subsidise Olympic athletes. The excesses of East Germany’s Olympic training had given the policy a bad name. Yet in the lead-up to the Beijing Olympics, the national government began completely to change its policy. </p>
<p>It opened numerous East-German-style athletics schools; the centrepiece is the massively expanded Werner-Seelenbinder Sports School in Berlin. In the wake of Germany’s disappointing results in the London Olympics, the government support of elite sportspeople has only increased.</p>
<p>State subsidisation of Olympic teams is hotly debated. In each country, the relevant National Olympic Committee claims it’s absolutely necessary to secure the “obvious” benefits of gold medals. </p>
<p>But others argue just as strongly that such benefits are illusory; for them this subsidisation is unethical in the age of budget austerity. It wastes scarce public income that would be better spent on doctors and physical-education teachers.</p>
<p>Is it possible, then, even to advance this debate? What’s needed is some analysis of the actual benefits that Olympic gold medals bring. </p>
<h2>Lessons from the past</h2>
<p>The ancient Greeks competed in Olympic Games for 1,000 years. They had <a href="http://www.cambridge.org/fr/academic/subjects/classical-studies/ancient-history/sport-democracy-and-war-classical-athens?format=PB">clear views about the benefits of victory</a>. By studying their views, we get insights into what gold medals might do for us.</p>
<p>The Greeks would have been horrified at our subsidisation of Olympic teams. They did not waste public income on getting athletes to the Games. </p>
<p>Individuals were ready for the Olympics because their families had paid for the private classes of an athletics teacher. Olympians paid their own way to Olympia and their own expenses during the Games.</p>
<p>Yet the Greeks valued Olympic victory more highly than we do. Each polis (city-state) gave its Olympic victors free meals and free front-row tickets at sports events – for life. </p>
<p>These were the highest honours the Greeks could give. They were otherwise only given to victorious generals. That they were given to Olympians shows that the Greeks believed that such victors significantly benefited their city-states.</p>
<p>National Olympic Committees may not be good at explaining what this benefit is. But the Greeks were. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/130233/original/image-20160712-9271-zp0eof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/130233/original/image-20160712-9271-zp0eof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130233/original/image-20160712-9271-zp0eof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130233/original/image-20160712-9271-zp0eof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130233/original/image-20160712-9271-zp0eof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130233/original/image-20160712-9271-zp0eof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130233/original/image-20160712-9271-zp0eof.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">German archaeologists excavating the site of the ancient Olympics in 1878.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.dainst.org/de/">Deutsches Archäologisches Institut D-DAI-ATH-1971/1573</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A good example is <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=E2BDC9793187C1D7F062C7B90DC520FD?doc=Isoc.+16+32&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0144">a speech about an Athenian victory</a> in the chariot-racing contest at the Olympics of 416 BC. In this speech, the victor’s son explained that his father had entered seven teams – more than any other before him – because he had understood the political advantage that victory would bring Athens. </p>
<p>He knew that “the city-states of victors become famous”. The speaker stated that Olympians were representatives of their polis; their victories were “in the name of their city-state in front of the entire Greek world”.</p>
<p>What made an Olympic victory so politically valuable was publicity. The Olympics were the biggest public event in ancient Greece; the Olympic stadium seated no less than 45,000. </p>
<p>The result was that whatever took place at the Games became known to the entire Greek world, as ambassadors, athletes and spectators returned home and reported what they had seen.</p>
<h2>Hidden treasures</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.dainst.org/dai/meldungen">German archaeologists</a> have shown that the Greeks ruthlessly exploited this opportunity. In 1875, they began to excavate the site of the ancient Olympics. </p>
<p>Outside the Olympic stadium, they found the trophies that Greek states had set up to publicise their battlefield victories over each other. At the time of the 1936 Berlin Olympics, Adolf Hitler decided to use his discretionary funds to excavate inside the stadium. </p>
<p>In these new excavations, German archaeologists found tens of thousands of weapons. They had come from the battlefield trophies that Greek city-states had set up in the stadium’s seating area.</p>
<p>Because so many Greeks attended the Games, it was possible for the whole Greek world to learn of the sporting victory that a polis had gained through one of its Olympic competitors. </p>
<p>Such a sporting victory gave city-states of otherwise no importance rare international prominence. To those that were regional powers, it gave uncontested proof of the standing they claimed in relation to their rivals.</p>
<p>The only other way that a polis had to raise its international ranking was to defeat a rival polis in battle. But the outcome of a battle was always uncertain and could cost the lives of many thousands. </p>
<p>Thus, a Greek city-state judged a citizen who had been victorious at the Olympics worthy of the highest public honours because he had raised its standing and done so without the need for his fellow citizens to die on the battlefield.</p>
<p>We continue to view Olympians as our representatives and to be part of an international system of competing states. So an important lesson from the ancient Olympics is that international sporting success improves a state’s standing. </p>
<p>The ancient Olympics provide some justification for the state subsidisation of our Olympic teams. But we must not push these parallels too far. </p>
<p>For good or for ill, we are not ancient Greeks. International competition is no longer confined to sport and war. New bodies, such as the G20, OECD and the United Nations, also rank states in terms of education and health. </p>
<p>In this new world order, we will only hold our ranking if we invest just as much in doctors and physical-education teachers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62384/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David M. Pritchard ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>In a time when war and sports are the primary means of competition, Olympic gold has never been so valuable – or expensive.David M. Pritchard, Senior Lecturer in Greek History, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/569512016-04-26T13:58:51Z2016-04-26T13:58:51ZRio 2016 Olympics will be a success – but just who will benefit?<p>As we draw ever closer to the opening ceremony of the Rio 2016 Olympic Games, commentators have been scrutinising the host city with a keen eye for imperfections. Whether it’s <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3119698/Stadiums-just-steel-shells-venues-quarry-Stunning-aerial-photos-reveal-Brazil-faces-biggest-race-Olympic-history-ready-Rio-2016.html">stadium construction</a> running behind schedule, the <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/05/sports/olympics/as-olympics-near-and-zika-spreads-no-talk-of-a-plan-b.html?_r=0">Zika virus</a> deterring the crowds or <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/videos/world/2016/04/19/brazil-rousseff-impeach-olympics-lklv-darlington.cnn">political crisis</a> threatening to topple the country’s president, each set back has been itemised and analysed by the international press. </p>
<p>So far, the focus has been on whether Rio is ready for a 17-day sporting event. But this overlooks the fact that these preparations have been affecting Cariocas – as citizens of Rio are known – for the past seven years and will change the face of the city for decades to come. So, what impact will the Olympics have on the residents of Rio – especially those who may not be privileged enough to attend the Games?</p>
<p>Many new sporting venues are being built for Rio 2016, but some people – including International Olympic Committee members – have <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2014/apr/29/rio-2016-olympic-preparations-worst-ever-ioc">expressed doubts</a> about whether these facilities will be completed in time for the event. And yet, as it stands, the vast majority of venues are either already finished or on schedule and the <a href="http://www.news.com.au/sport/sports-life/how-rio-looks-with-six-months-to-go-to-olympic-games/news-story/690ef19e8207c36aca819c5a58fe9018">main Olympic park is 98% complete</a>. What’s more, there’s a strong incentive for authorities to invest in completing the stadiums to avoid the global embarrassment of venues not being ready. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117170/original/image-20160402-3932-12wmfxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117170/original/image-20160402-3932-12wmfxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117170/original/image-20160402-3932-12wmfxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117170/original/image-20160402-3932-12wmfxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117170/original/image-20160402-3932-12wmfxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117170/original/image-20160402-3932-12wmfxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117170/original/image-20160402-3932-12wmfxt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The remains of the Vila Autódromo favela - with the IOC hotel visible in the background.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adam Talbot</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While last-minute spending on stadiums would cost Rio’s taxpaying citizens, the construction works have come with more sinister consequences for those living in the city’s informal settlements – known as “favelas”. Many of Rio de Janeiro’s favela communities have been hit with forced evictions in the lead up to mega-events – in particular, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/vila-autodromo-the-favela-fighting-back-against-rios-olympic-development-52393">Vila Autódromo favela</a>, which is next to the main Olympic park. </p>
<p>This is the only favela which Rio mayor <a href="http://www.rioonwatch.org/?p=26453">Eduardo Paes publicly admits</a> has suffered evictions because of the Olympics, but civil society group the Popular Committee for the World Cup and Olympics calculated that <a href="http://www.childrenwin.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/DossieComiteRio2015_ENG_web_ok_low.pdf">22,059 families have been evicted</a> across the city ahead of mega-events between 2009 and 2015.</p>
<h2>Transport infrastructure</h2>
<p>Rio’s transport system is being upgraded for the Olympic Games and the flagship project is a new metro line to the wealthy west-zone neighbourhood of Barra da Tijuca, where the main Olympic park is located. The construction of this key legacy project is currently behind schedule, but it will <a href="http://riotimesonline.com/brazil-news/rio-real-estate/rio-de-janeiros-new-metro-line-4-to-open-in-june-2016/">almost certainly be ready</a> to transport spectators to the stadiums. And even if the new line isn’t ready in time, the city will have contingency plans in place to get fans to events.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120169/original/image-20160426-1335-1fvybwb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120169/original/image-20160426-1335-1fvybwb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120169/original/image-20160426-1335-1fvybwb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120169/original/image-20160426-1335-1fvybwb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=280&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120169/original/image-20160426-1335-1fvybwb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120169/original/image-20160426-1335-1fvybwb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120169/original/image-20160426-1335-1fvybwb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=352&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rio’s metro line.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro_Metro#/media/File:Metro_Rio_01_2013_Ipanema_Osorio_5408.JPG">Mariordo/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This new line will benefit the wealthy citizens of Barra de Tijuca by taking a great deal of traffic off congested roads. It will also improve urban mobility for some 70,000 residents of Brazil’s largest favela, Rocinha, which will also be served by the new line.</p>
<p>But, as has been the case with the stadiums, many favela residents <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/28/brazil-officials-evicting-families-2016-olympic-games">have been evicted</a> to build transport infrastructure – particularly the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system. Aside from the BRT system, the city has recently “rationalised” the regular bus services, which in practice has meant cutting numerous lines. The cuts have adversely affected urban mobility for many living in Rio’s north zone – traditionally a poorer area of the city. </p>
<p>Yet despite these cuts to the bus service, prices have actually risen, with no clear improvement in service quality. By making transport <a href="http://www.rioonwatch.org/?p=25043">unaffordable for those living in the periphery</a>, the Olympic legacy will widen the gap between rich and poor, in a city already world famous for its staggering <a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dpu-projects/Global_Report/pdfs/Rio.pdf">levels of inequality</a>.</p>
<h2>Poor health report</h2>
<p>The mosquito-borne Zika virus, which has its epicentre in Brazil, has been declared a <a href="http://www.who.int/emergencies/zika-virus/en/">public health emergency by the World Health Organisation</a> and many are concerned that Zika will be an issue during the Olympics. But Rio de Janeiro is around 2,000 kilometres from Brazil’s poor north-eastern region where the crisis began and the Games will take place in August when mosquitoes are less common. Meanwhile, a national campaign against the Zika virus has educated Brazilians on basic actions they can take to combat mosquitoes.</p>
<p>That said, there have been issues with mosquito-borne diseases including Zika, dengue and <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/">chikungunya fever</a> in the Vila Autódromo favela. Standing water in the Olympic construction site has provided a perfect breeding ground for mosquitoes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117168/original/image-20160402-6820-1f1r6nl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117168/original/image-20160402-6820-1f1r6nl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117168/original/image-20160402-6820-1f1r6nl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117168/original/image-20160402-6820-1f1r6nl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117168/original/image-20160402-6820-1f1r6nl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117168/original/image-20160402-6820-1f1r6nl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117168/original/image-20160402-6820-1f1r6nl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117168/original/image-20160402-6820-1f1r6nl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Residents of the Vila Autódromo favela highlight the problem of mosquito-borne diseases.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What’s more, in December, the city of Rio suffered a public health emergency of its own: <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-health-emergency-idUSKBN0U716Q20151224">there wasn’t enough money</a> to keep the hospitals open. Olympic spending appears to have been prioritised above health spending and, in some cases, funds may have been diverted from the health budget <a href="http://josecruz.blogosfera.uol.com.br/2015/12/rio-2016-governo-nega-material-a-upa-e-faz-estoque-para-olimpiada/">to finance the Olympics</a>. Overall, Cariocas who rely on the public health system have been left in a dire situation.</p>
<h2>Corruption scandals</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120192/original/image-20160426-1327-exc26h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120192/original/image-20160426-1327-exc26h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=682&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120192/original/image-20160426-1327-exc26h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=682&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120192/original/image-20160426-1327-exc26h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=682&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120192/original/image-20160426-1327-exc26h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120192/original/image-20160426-1327-exc26h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120192/original/image-20160426-1327-exc26h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Protests against Rousseff in Brasilia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/fotosagenciabrasil/25757736815/sizes/l">Agência Brasil/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Operation Lavo Jato (or <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-34255590">operation car wash</a>) is a massive corruption probe – overseen by Judge Sergio Moro – which has shown Brazilians the scale of corruption inside their government. Although there are no specific allegations against her, the Brazilian president, Dilma Rousseff, <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/apr/18/dilma-rousseff-congress-impeach-brazilian-president">faces impeachment</a>, and <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/13/brazil-anti-government-protests-dilma-rousseff-rio-de-janeiro">millions of demonstrators</a> across the country have called on her to resign. </p>
<p>The Olympic Games are unlikely to be affected by this political instability, especially given the relatively minor role played by the federal government in the event. However, several Olympic construction contracts are <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-olympics-petrobras-exclusive-idUSKBN0TD1XO20151125">under investigation</a> by Operation Lavo Jato. This is unlikely to effect the running of the event, but prosecutions for those responsible may follow in the years after the Games.</p>
<p>Once the Olympics are over, many of the publicly-funded developments will be sold off or handed over to property developers. For example, businessman Carlos Carvalho – a staunch supporter of Rio’s mayor Eduardo Paes – will be <a href="http://olimpiadas.uol.com.br/noticias/2016/04/13/rio-muda-parque-olimpico-para-favorecer-odebrecht-e-parceiros.htm">given the Olympic park</a> in Barra de Tijuca, including land which was previously owned by the State of Rio de Janeiro. Given that Carvalho has expressed a desire to build a “<a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/aug/04/rio-olympic-games-2016-property-developer-carlos-carvalho-barra">city of the elite</a>” in the area, one might question his suitability to inherit the Olympic park and secure the social legacy of the Games. </p>
<p>There’s no doubt that Rio 2016 will be a wonderful sporting spectacle. But much like the infrastructure itself, coverage of the Olympics will largely fail to consider what the Games mean for Rio’s citizens. And as a result, the Olympic legacy is likely to be one of increasing social divisions and worsening inequality – a lost opportunity for all Cariocas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56951/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adam Talbot does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why we should stop panicking about whether the Olympic venues will be ready and start thinking about the long-term impacts of construction.Adam Talbot, Doctoral Researcher in the Sociology of Sport, University of BrightonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/522892016-01-11T12:24:33Z2016-01-11T12:24:33ZFive reasons why your city won’t want to host the Olympic Games<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107728/original/image-20160111-6977-181humt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The prospect of hosting any mega-event – especially the Olympic Games – is cause for serious consideration. At local, national, and international levels, the discussion takes shape around two key questions: is it worth it? And if so, for whom? </p>
<p>The question of worth is not limited to cost – although that certainly remains a crucial feature. Rather, there exists a series of interrelated concerns about how mega-events can disrupt cities, and distract from long-term planning agendas. Bids to host the 2024 Olympics from both <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/jul/27/boston-mayor-2024-olympic-bid-doubt">Boston</a> and <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/12025211/Hamburg-withdraws-bid-to-host-2024-Olympics.html">Hamburg</a> were withdrawn for such reasons. Meanwhile, Rio de Janeiro is demonstrating just how <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2014/apr/29/rio-2016-olympic-preparations-worst-ever-ioc">challenging</a> preparations for the Olympic Games can be.</p>
<p>Here, we take a closer look at five key reasons why a city might be reluctant to host the Olympic Games.</p>
<h2>1. Sheer cost</h2>
<p>Let’s get the obvious out of the way. Here are the estimated costs of the last four Olympics, and the projected cost of the upcoming games in Rio. </p>
<ul>
<li>Sydney 2000: <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/24/news/24iht-t1_2.html?pagewanted=all">US$4.7 billion</a></li>
<li>Athens 2004: <a href="http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2012-08-02/how-the-2004-olympics-triggered-greeces-decline">€9 billion</a></li>
<li>Beijing 2008: <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121614671139755287">US$42 billion</a></li>
<li>London 2012: <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/datablog/2012/jul/26/london-2012-olympics-money">US$11 billion</a></li>
<li>Rio 2016: <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/apr/23/world-cup-olympics-rio-de-janeiro-brazil-sensation-disaster">US$15 billion</a> or more (over two decades following the event)</li>
</ul>
<p>While the exact cost of any Olympics is difficult to pin down, and is often a point of contention, the last three games witnessed unparalleled public and private investment. Beijing, London and Rio have built longer term “legacy” planning into their budgets, to try to ensure that investment in hosting the games continues to pay off for years after the event. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107727/original/image-20160111-7002-1umylcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107727/original/image-20160111-7002-1umylcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107727/original/image-20160111-7002-1umylcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107727/original/image-20160111-7002-1umylcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107727/original/image-20160111-7002-1umylcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107727/original/image-20160111-7002-1umylcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107727/original/image-20160111-7002-1umylcf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Olympic legacies are hard to come by.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/dany13/10410362514/sizes/l">Dany13/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Such legacy promises often promote infrastructure redevelopment, improved transportation systems, economic growth and job creation, projects of urban renewal and regeneration, improved physical activity participation and environmental sustainability. In Rio, planned infrastructure developments are set to continue through <a href="http://www.building.co.uk/aecom-and-wilkinson-eyre%E2%80%99s-winning-rio-2016-designs-unveiled/5023410.article">to 2030</a>. </p>
<p>The financial undertaking for such bids – and the subsequent planning and implementation – is nothing short of enormous. Undoubtedly, the most significant cost relates to the (re)development of urban infrastructure. This leads us to our second deterrent.</p>
<h2>2. Infrastructure challenges</h2>
<p>Hosting a mega-event always involves urban renewal and regeneration. Yet developing the sporting stadia, accommodation and transportation networks to cope with increased numbers of tourists and athletes is anything but straightforward. Before refashioning the urban landscape, planners must know which sites are to be redeveloped, for whom, and to what end. </p>
<p>Clearly, catering to the demands of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is one priority. But arguably, it is the least significant. Rather, planners seek to capitalise on urban space by re-imagining the city as a <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10261133.1989.10559088">recreational environment</a> – a resource for tourism and consumerism. Retail, festival, sporting, leisure, hotel and heritage spaces are at the core of this vision. </p>
<p>While improvements to transportation may provide benefits to the populace, these redevelopments only offer hope for increased tourist dollars and a small number of low-paying jobs. One example is the <a href="http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/destination/stadiums/stadium=214/index.html">Estádio Mario Filho</a> (better known as the Maracanã) stadium in Rio, which underwent more than <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/the-legacy-of-the-iconic-maracana-will-likely-be-tied-to-its-high-cost-and-to-what-could-have-been-1405116704">US$500m in renovations</a> ahead of the 2014 World Cup. Once cast in the populist light of the 1950s to communicate ideas of democracy, it <a href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/lag/summary/v009/9.1.gaffney.html">now aims to attract</a> a different kind of person: the consumption-oriented international tourist. </p>
<p>One of the central challenges of hosting any mega-event is what to do with the new infrastructure after the athletes and tourists have gone. Some host cities – such as <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/how-the-olympic-games-changed-barcelona-forever-2012-7?IR=T">Barcelona</a> – have made good use of their stadia, but others are replete with white elephants. Montreal, Sydney, Athens, Beijing and Vancouver have all had their share of <a href="http://www.canada.com/olympics/looking-back/some-of-the-biggest-white-elephants-in-the-history-of-the-olympic-games">post-olympics venue failures</a>. </p>
<p>The 2010 World Cup in South Africa offers a particularly stark warning: the stadia continue to <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/25/opinion/molefe-south-africas-world-cup-illusions.html?_r=0">rot from disuse</a>. And Brazil appears destined to repeat the same mistakes, as the country <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/brazil-world-cup-stadium-white-elephants-2015-1">struggles to find a purpose</a> for its 2014 World Cup facilities. White elephants are highly-visible reminders that mega-events may not be worth the cost. But there’s an even more insidious side-effect which is often overlooked. </p>
<h2>3. Human rights violations</h2>
<p>Building new infrastructure in a city means destroying established urban areas. When that happens, local populations and communities are often dispersed and displaced. To make way for Beijing’s 2008 Olympic infrastructure, an estimated <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-olympics-beijing-housing-idUSPEK12263220070605#PuyXezlpP4wPyU3o.97">1.5m people</a> were forcibly evicted from their homes with minimal compensation. The neighbourhoods <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/02/razing-history-the-tragic-story-of-a-beijing-neighborhoods-destruction/252760/">were destroyed</a> and residents removed to the outskirts of the city far from friends, family and places of work. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107729/original/image-20160111-6981-lpbmvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107729/original/image-20160111-6981-lpbmvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107729/original/image-20160111-6981-lpbmvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107729/original/image-20160111-6981-lpbmvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107729/original/image-20160111-6981-lpbmvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107729/original/image-20160111-6981-lpbmvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107729/original/image-20160111-6981-lpbmvb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Olympic protests.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/kk/4354407229/">Krus Krug/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>In Rio, the <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jun/03/forced-evictions-vila-autodromo-rio-olympics-protests">forced eviction process</a> has taken on a militarised ethos, as Police Pacification Units (Unidade de Polícia Pacificadora) <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/dec/14/rio-olympic-games-2016-favelas-hopes-of-pacification-are-shattered">try to control</a> a number of the city’s favelas. Demolition, displacement and the razing of <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/13/opinion/in-the-name-of-the-future-rio-is-destroying-its-past.html">Unesco world heritage sites</a> all feature in preparations for the games. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/08/06/china-olympics-harm-key-human-rights">Repressive measures</a> within China and Tibet at the 2008 games, <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26043872">LGBT rights issues</a> surrounding the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi and <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/23/qatar-nepal-workers-world-cup-2022-death-toll-doha">casualties on construction sites</a> for the Qatar 2022 World Cup all point toward the persistent human rights issues which all too often accompany mega-events. Rather than representing unity and diversity, it seems as though the Olympic Games have started to signify oppression and exclusion. </p>
<h2>4. Fear and security</h2>
<p>In many host cities, publicly-funded yet privately-owned urban renewal projects have been leveraged to impose enhanced surveillance measures. For instance, London 2012 saw the rise of <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jun/11/public-spaces-undemocratic-land-ownership">“defensible” architecture</a>, which restricts the access and activities of those deemed “undesirable” – particularly skateboarders, protesters and the homeless – in newly-developed areas. </p>
<p>London’s Strand East Community – developed by Vastint Holding B.V., IKEA’s holding company for residential development, ahead of the 2012 Olympics – is <a href="http://library.queensu.ca/ojs/index.php/surveillance-and-society/article/viewFile/london/liquid_london">characteristic of</a> the city’s propensity towards “enclave living”. This means a high security presence, which accepts those with the capital to invest, and rejects those who are deemed a threat to the safety and security of its residents. Such projects have caused urban spaces to be splintered. Those who lack the desire or means to engage with the consumer economy are stigmatised as “unwanted”.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107730/original/image-20160111-6972-1ghwvz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107730/original/image-20160111-6972-1ghwvz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107730/original/image-20160111-6972-1ghwvz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107730/original/image-20160111-6972-1ghwvz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107730/original/image-20160111-6972-1ghwvz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107730/original/image-20160111-6972-1ghwvz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107730/original/image-20160111-6972-1ghwvz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You shall not pass.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/dgeezer/7481287298/sizes/l">diamond geezer/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>This process of securitisation has been fuelled by fear of attacks on popular sporting events, such as the bombing of the <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/24/us/tsarnaev-boston-marathon-bombing-death-sentencing/">2013 Boston Marathon</a> and the targeting of Paris’ <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-34896521">Stade de France</a> in November 2015. Planning committees have been burdened with the impossible task of preventing such attacks, by building security into the infrastructure, planning, organisation and practices associated with mega-events. </p>
<h2>5. International prestige</h2>
<p>Hosting a mega-event can create buzz, offer the chance for a positive re-brand or garner international prestige. But it can also draw unwanted attention and bad press. Host nations often obscure human rights violations, but will find it more difficult to manage the high-profile political and economic problems associated with international organisations like the IOC. For example, political scandals have recently tarnished the reputations of sporting bodies <a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-for-fifa-from-the-salt-lake-city-olympic-scandal-42493">such as FIFA</a> and <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-11-08/athletics-faces-long-road-to-redemption-says-iaaf-chief-coe/6922746">the IAAF</a>. </p>
<p>By being more aware of the potential pitfalls of hosting mega-events, residents are in a better position to engage with the bidding process – or to resist it, like those involved in the <a href="http://www.nobostonolympics.org">“No Boston Olympics” campaign</a>. Instead of grasping at opportunities to host the Olympics, city authorities are getting better at considering how the games actually fit with their priorities – or if they do at all. This can only be a good thing. </p>
<p><em>This article is part of a series on the outlook for <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/rio-2016">Rio 2016</a>. You can also find out how hosting the Paralympics <a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-from-london-how-hosting-the-paralympics-can-make-cities-more-accessible-53044">can change a city</a> for the better, and discover the story of <a href="https://theconversation.com/vila-autodromo-the-favela-fighting-back-against-rios-olympic-development-52393">the favela fighting back</a> against Olympic developments.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/52289/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Hosting a mega-event isn’t all it’s cracked up to be - and now some cities are starting to say ‘no’.Bryan C. Clift, Lecturer, Department for Health, Humanities and Social Sciences, University of BathAndrew Manley, Lecturer, Department for Health, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/404002015-04-24T09:33:43Z2015-04-24T09:33:43ZManifesto Check: Tories’ sport manifesto is committed to the elite only<p>In its <a href="https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/manifesto2015/ConservativeManifesto2015.pdf">manifesto</a>, the Conservative Party plans on investing in primary school sport, improving community facilities, investing in sport to improve health and increasing the involvement of women. </p>
<p>It is evident that the Conservatives place an emphasis on an active life, but they fail to check decreasing participation in flagship sports, and the deep impact which austerity has had on sport participation and facilities. A properly integrated, properly funded, cross-departmental plan for sport remains <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/blog/2015/mar/25/olympic-legacy-london-2012-idle-boasts">as elusive as ever</a>.</p>
<h2>Prioritising the elite</h2>
<p>Crucial areas of participation, grassroots sport, schools and health need much more than what is in this manifesto. Flagship high-participation sports such as <a href="http://www.sportsthinktank.com/blog/2015/03/postponed-due-to-pitch-conditions-grassroots-football-and-sport-participation">football</a> and <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/31037310">swimming</a> are declining. Over the past year, the number of people playing sport for at least half an hour per week <a href="https://www.sportengland.org/media/650218/1x30_overall_factsheet_aps8.pdf">has decreased overall by 125,100</a>, largely as a result of a decline in the number of people who are swimming regularly. Worryingly, there was a decline in participation among those in the lowest socio-economic groups of more than <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/blog/2015/mar/25/olympic-legacy-london-2012-idle-boasts">470,000</a>. </p>
<p>While the Conservatives show a commitment to support elite sports funding as part of the legacy, some sports have had their funding removed entirely. It is perhaps <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2014/aug/30/basketball-funding-loss-fury-grassroots-inner-city-teenagers">basketball</a>, which best demonstrates the Conservatives’ lack of planning. The manifesto talks of the National Basketball Association playing in British inner-city stadiums, with the aim of establishing a franchise. </p>
<p>But this message conflicts with the last government’s approach to grassroots participants: as it stands, 217,900 people aged 14 and over play basketball at least once a week, and the sport receives £9 million in public funding from Sports England. Meanwhile, canoeing receives more than £20 million in funding from UK Sport, while participation in this sport stands at only 45,700.</p>
<h2>Commitment to schools</h2>
<p>The Tories also plan to support primary school sport with £150 million per year, paid directly to head teachers, until 2020, to support a minimum two hours of high-class sport and PE each week. This is a substantial commitment to engage young children in sport. This is needed, as in January 2015, a <a href="http://www.youthsporttrust.org/media/22091985/national_pe__school_sport_and_physical_activity_survey_report.pdf">survey reported</a> that on average pupils across all key stages were offered less than two hours of PE per week. There was also a marked decline in school links with outside clubs; a major factor not addressed in the manifesto.</p>
<p>There is a pledge to improve community sports facilities in more than 30 cities across England. In 2015, experts noted that <a href="http://www.sportsthinktank.com/blog/2015/03/postponed-due-to-pitch-conditions-grassroots-football-and-sport-participation">local authorities are core providers</a> of grassroots sports. But these bodies are experiencing problems relating to current economic climate, and have ultimately had to <a href="https://theconversation.com/austerity-cuts-to-local-leisure-services-is-a-false-economy-33320">reduce costs</a>. A result of this is reduced investment in grassroots sports provision and/or increases in pitch fees and the <a href="http://www.apse.org.uk/apse/index.cfm/research/current-research-programme/local-authority-sport-and-recreation-services-in-england-where-next/local-authority-sport-and-recreation-services-in-england-where-next/">cost of facility hire</a>.</p>
<p>While it is difficult to measure the impact that closure of facilities has on society, it will certainly have a negative impact on <a href="http://www.sportanddev.org/en/newsnviews/news/?7599/1/Two-year-social-cohesion-programme-by-UNICEF-and-Generations-for-Peace-to-benefit-five-thousand">social cohesion and well-being</a>. The investment in <a href="http://blakedown.co.uk/3G-pitches.html">3G pitches</a> is welcomed. But there is a missed opportunity to put in place a real grassroots agenda, which could have been funded by the <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/feb/11/premier-league-tv-deal-sky-bt">2014 BT/SKY football TV deal</a>. </p>
<p>The Tories promise to continue to invest in participation and physical activity. Recognising sport’s vital benefits to health is common ground with the main parties. The role of exercise in controlling diabetes is specifically mentioned. The <a href="http://www.who.int/whr/2003/en/">World Health Report</a> from 2003 found that physical inactivity is responsible for 1% of Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) lost globally, and 3% of those lost in established market economies. The manifesto fails to make <a href="http://www.bhfactive.org.uk/userfiles/Documents/eonomiccosts.pdf">the link</a> between the cost burden of inactivity on the NHS. Scottish data indicates that for every £1 spent on reducing inactivity levels, £8 <a href="http://www.healthscotland.com/documents/6262.aspx">is saved</a>.</p>
<p>The 2012 Olympic and Paralympic impact and legacy are also central to the Conservatives sport pledges, underpinning much of their future plans. Through international sporting mega events, the manifesto suggests that the party will maximise the opportunities for tourism and jobs. But no pledges are forthcoming to demonstrate how they plan to deliver this promise. Recent evidence actually shows some sporting events can be <a href="http://www.citylab.com/work/2015/01/never-host-a-mega-event/384926/">bad deals for cities</a>.</p>
<p>The manifesto also promises to lift the number of women on national sports governing bodies to at least 25% by 2017 and seek to increase participation in sport by women and girls. This hardly seems ambitious or fair in terms of gender equality. The SNP, for example, are recommending 50-50 quotas on all boards. </p>
<p>The UK Conservative party manifesto for 2015 promises a better and more secure Britain in terms of sport. But there is a failure to find solutions for declining participation rates in key sports, and unhealthy inactivity levels. The insecure future for grassroots sport also needs a plan, and quickly.</p>
<p><em>The Conversation’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/manifesto-check-2015">Manifesto Check</a> deploys academic expertise to scrutinise the parties’ plans.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/40400/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grant Jarvie receives funding from charities and research councils. He currently sits on the board of sportscotland and has provided independent advice on sports policy to governments both within and external to the UK. This article does not reflect the views of the research councils. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Widdop receives funding from charities and research councils. He has previously provided independent advice and consultation services to the Scottish Government on sport and leisure consumption.</span></em></p>Conservative sport manifesto puts the elite ahead of the grassroots.Grant Jarvie, Chair of Sport, The University of EdinburghPaul Widdop, Research Fellow in Cultural and Sport Sociology , Leeds Beckett UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/249242014-03-31T05:14:06Z2014-03-31T05:14:06ZGlossy new London’s Olympic legacy is letting down women<p>London’s Olympic Velodrome is opening to the public for the first time. The scene of great triumph for Team GB in the London 2012 Olympics, it should welcome droves of budding cyclists who hope to one day follow in the pedals of gold medallists like Sir Chris Hoy, Victoria Pendleton and Laura Trott. </p>
<p>The velodrome’s re-opening forms part of the wider Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park redevelopment, which promises integrated spaces, affordable housing options, inclusive design and active lifestyle opportunities that would appeal to all walks. Yet, how will these benefits be realised and who will become connected (or disconnected) to these new spaces?</p>
<p>London’s Olympic legacy is often spoken of in the vague, but neutral language of “the public good”. Whether that is in terms of the creation of new facilities, greater sport participation or economic benefits, it’s often assumed that these benefits will be universally applicable to all citizens. But a closer look at the way they are set up and marketed betrays certain gender and class-based assumptions.</p>
<h2>Open but exclusive</h2>
<p>Take facilities like the velodrome – the <a href="http://www.visitleevalley.org.uk/en/content/cms/london2012/velo-park/">Lee Valley VeloPark</a> – that opens to the public today. It opens on a user-pays basis to encourage active community participation. But it could be a costly outing for keen adults (and families) who want to try a range of disciplines, with taster sessions for the track cycling at £30, road circuit, mountain bike trails and the re-designed Olympic BMX track all at £15 a pop. </p>
<p>While women are offered several specific taster sessions there are few images of female cyclists around the VeloPark, despite the Olympic and Paralympic role models of 2012 such as Victoria Pendleton and Sarah Storey. This lack of inclusiveness betrays how many of the London 2012 legacies have been redesigned in gendered ways that largely ignore the inequities different women face in sport or everyday life.</p>
<p>Gendered assumptions are inherent in the spatial and commercial refashioning of London. For example, advertisements for the new <a href="http://ghgstratford.com/neighbourhood/">Glasshouse Gardens</a> development that overlook the Olympic Park predominantly feature women walking, shopping, talking, eating with friends, partners and children. Similarly, promotional brochures for the newly converted rental properties at <a href="http://www.getlivinglondon.com/get-living-london-brochure.pdf">East Village E20</a>, formerly the Olympic Village, uses imagery that creates a brand almost exclusively marketed towards (middle-class) young women. These gender images portray consumption-focused lifestyles where women are assumed to have endless opportunities to enjoy these new urban spaces.</p>
<h2>Safe and secure enclaves</h2>
<p>Policy makers, urban developers and marketers are promoting the post-Olympic areas of urban renewal as “safe and secure” enclaves, offering desirable qualities for responsible, middle-class, new urban living. Shopping, lattes, leisurely lunches and dinners at Jamie’s Italian are to be enjoyed within close proximity. Yet, distance is maintained from existing communities, limiting the scope for social inclusion. </p>
<p>In accordance with Greater London’s development strategy, the idea is that crime will be eradicated through the design of new areas. Their gentrification creates public spaces that are overlooked by private apartments. The <a href="http://www.londonlegacy.co.uk/">London Legacy Development Corporation</a> who are in charge of transforming the Olympic Park have an urban planning strategy that is meant to reduce feelings of isolation and increase feelings of safety. Features of inclusive design are said to be particularly important for those most vulnerable to “hate crime” such as women, and who are concerned about freedom of movement at night. </p>
<p>Despite the <a href="http://www.londonlegacy.co.uk/media/Inclusive-Design-Strategy-Jan-2012_reduced-size.pdf">policy of inclusive design</a> the spatial organisation reflects a suspicion of “others” who may pose a threat to the safety of new residents. The association between women and fear is contrasted by the marketing of “safe living” choices in the new urban village, while the social issues connecting crime and inequality are situated beyond the gate. Separate entrances and gates clearly mark the boundaries between public and private territories and demarcate who belongs and who is excluded, despite the rhetoric of mixed private and public space.</p>
<h2>Privatised and private</h2>
<p>With the private sector investing heavily in London 2012’s urban renewal legacy, further discussions of how the space is privatised, as well as how these newly designed areas are used, managed and controlled is all the more important. </p>
<p>LandProp, the residential development and investment arm of IKEA, is solely responsible for the creation of the new Strand East community, a mixed-use neighbourhood emerging as one of the many products of post-London 2012 gentrification. IKEA’s involvement with the design and redevelopment of residential, commercial and leisure facilities surrounding the Olympic park, prompts a call to consider whether these developments are purposefully constructed for the same middle-class consumer target market that frequent their familiar department stores. </p>
<p>This reconstitution of urban space by private companies has become representative of an <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jun/11/public-spaces-undemocratic-land-ownership">undemocratic</a> approach towards the way our cities are governed. This approach welcomes those with the means into a privately owned and privately policed section of the nation’s capital. But those lacking them are not included.</p>
<p>This kind of approach to urban planning presents a rather disturbing vision of London’s cityscape. The newly developed pockets of regeneration seem to be following a model of progression that moves further away from the promise of inclusivity outlined by the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/policies/creating-a-lasting-legacy-from-the-2012-olympic-and-paralympic-games">London 2012 Olympic legacy</a>. </p>
<p>The way this vision is emerging in reality should be challenged through a review of the policy process, marketing strategies and built environment that currently encourage the encroachment of corporations. Plus, given the gendered nature of the legacy, questions arise about the way women become invisible within certain sporting contexts yet are made visible in other spheres of consumption. The visible, public projection of women in the Olympic legacy should not just play into stereotypes that suit its growing privatisation and targets a narrowly defined minority.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/24924/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simone Fullagar has received funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Manley and Michael Silk do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>London’s Olympic Velodrome is opening to the public for the first time. The scene of great triumph for Team GB in the London 2012 Olympics, it should welcome droves of budding cyclists who hope to one…Simone Fullagar, Professor, Sport and Physical Cultural Studies, University of BathAndrew Manley, Lecturer Sport and Social Sciences, University of BathMichael Silk, Reader in Physical Cultural Studies, University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.