tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/prehistoric-times-10535/articlesprehistoric times – The Conversation2020-07-03T04:51:52Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1412902020-07-03T04:51:52Z2020-07-03T04:51:52ZGiant sea scorpions were the underwater titans of prehistoric Australia<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/345445/original/file-20200703-33943-igylzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C10%2C1341%2C1012&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Eurypterus_Paleoart.jpg">Dimitris Siskopoulos/Wiki commonc</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Let’s turn back the hands of time. Before extinction knocked dinosaurs off their pillar, before the “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/dec/06/global-warming-extinction-report-the-great-dying#:%7E:text=The%20mass%20extinction%2C%20known%20as,the%20dinosaurs%2065m%20years%20ago.">Great Dying</a>” extinction wiped out 95% of all organisms – we had the Paleozoic Era.</p>
<p>During this age in Earth’s history, between 541 million and 252 million years ago, arthropods (animals with exoskeletons such as insects, crustaceans, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs) were exploring the extremes of size, from tiny to huge. </p>
<p>In fact, some Paleozoic arthropods represent the largest animals on Earth at the time. If you were to take a swim in the Paleozoic oceans, you may have been fortunate (or unfortunate) enough to find one of the most fearsome of these extinct arthropods: the sea scorpions, Eurypterida. </p>
<p>Our new research, published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1342937X20301799">Gondwana Research</a>, is the most comprehensive collection of information on these fascinating creatures that once roamed Australian waters.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344972/original/file-20200701-54152-1cab3hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344972/original/file-20200701-54152-1cab3hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344972/original/file-20200701-54152-1cab3hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344972/original/file-20200701-54152-1cab3hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344972/original/file-20200701-54152-1cab3hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344972/original/file-20200701-54152-1cab3hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344972/original/file-20200701-54152-1cab3hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344972/original/file-20200701-54152-1cab3hl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A <em>Eurypterus remipes</em> fossil. This sea scorpion existed more than 400 million years ago and was usually less than one foot in length, but relatives are believed to have reached up to eight feet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=9008160">H. Zell/Wiki commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<h2>A sight to behold</h2>
<p>Although Eurypterida looked broadly like scorpions (with a similar body shape, albeit built for swimming), they were not. They were more like the cousins of modern scorpions.</p>
<p>An exceptional part of the sea scorpion evolutionary story is how they fit into the narrative of Paleozoic gigantism. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fossils-of-huge-plankton-eating-sea-creature-shine-light-on-early-arthropod-evolution-38520">Fossils of huge plankton-eating sea creature shine light on early arthropod evolution</a>
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<p>Sea scorpions include the largest marine predators to have ever arisen in the fossil record, including <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071120195710.htm">one species</a> thought to have been more than 2.5 metres long, <em>Jaekelopterus rhenaniae</em>. Back then, some of these giants were effectively in the same place in their food web as the modern great white shark. </p>
<p>These likely agile swimmers would have used their large front limbs, armed with claws, to grab their prey, which they would then crush between the teeth-like structures on their legs (called gnathobasic spines). </p>
<p>While we’re not sure exactly what these large animals ate, it’s likely fish and smaller arthropods would have been on the menu. And if humans had been around swimming in the sea, maybe us too!</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344940/original/file-20200701-54182-25jcmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344940/original/file-20200701-54182-25jcmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344940/original/file-20200701-54182-25jcmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344940/original/file-20200701-54182-25jcmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344940/original/file-20200701-54182-25jcmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344940/original/file-20200701-54182-25jcmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344940/original/file-20200701-54182-25jcmp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The size of the largest extinct sea scorpions, relative to a human.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Slate Weasel/Wiki commons. Modified.</span></span>
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<h2>A fascinating (but murky) history</h2>
<p>Australia is famous for its array of curious animals, including unique modern species such as the platypus. And this uniqueness extends far into the fossil record, with sea scorpions being a case in point. </p>
<p>But the scientific record and study of Australian sea scorpions has been patchy. The first documented specimen, published <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016756800143249">in 1899</a>, consisted of a fragmented exoskeleton section found in Melbourne.</p>
<p>Prior to our new research examining the completeness of the group in Australia, there were about ten records – and only one other attempt to pool everything together. As such, the diversity and spread of these fossils was fairly uncertain. </p>
<p>For us, revisiting these amazing fossils resulted in a few trips to different Australian museums. We also had specimens sent to us at the University of New England to examine in person. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-mighty-dinosaurs-were-bugged-by-other-critters-50390">The mighty dinosaurs were bugged by other critters</a>
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</em>
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<p>This journey of palaeontological discovery uncovered many sea scorpion fossils than hadn’t previously been noted. As a result, we now have evidence of a possible six different groups that existed in Australia.</p>
<p>Collating these specimens together in our most recent publication, we illustrate the Pterygotidae (the family of sea scorpions that reached 2.5 metres long) dominated the group’s Australian fossil record. Although this had been noted before, the abundance of material from different locations and time periods, especially from Victoria, was unexpected.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344946/original/file-20200701-54156-12n14c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344946/original/file-20200701-54156-12n14c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=241&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344946/original/file-20200701-54156-12n14c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=241&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344946/original/file-20200701-54156-12n14c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=241&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344946/original/file-20200701-54156-12n14c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344946/original/file-20200701-54156-12n14c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344946/original/file-20200701-54156-12n14c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Examples of Australian sea scorpion fossils, their two groups and the time range. Blue represents the family Pterygotidae and orange represents the family Adelophthalmidae.</span>
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<h2>Back to the source</h2>
<p>Besides showcasing the largest number of Australian sea scorpions, our paper also outlines the overall lack of information on these animals. </p>
<p>Despite there being much fragmented material, there is only one (mostly) complete specimen, <em>Adelophthalmus waterstoni</em>, measuring just 5.7cm long.</p>
<p>Future research will involve revisiting the sites where these specimens were originally collected, in the hope of finding more complete specimens. Not only will this help document Australian sea scorpion species better, it will also allow for a more complete understanding of the environments in which they lived. </p>
<p>Ultimately, one thing is clear – there is much left to uncover about these titans that swam through Australia’s prehistoric oceans.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The authors thank Natalie Schroeder Geoscience Australia for her help with this project.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/141290/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>During the Paleozoic Era, giant sea scorpions would have been the equivalent of a great white shark in their food web.Russell Dean Christopher Bicknell, Post-doctoral researcher in Palaeobiology , University of New EnglandPatrick Mark Smith, Technical Officer - Palaentology, Australian MuseumLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/925462018-03-01T16:47:39Z2018-03-01T16:47:39ZHuman ancestors had the same dental problems as us – even without fizzy drinks and sweets<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208468/original/file-20180301-152552-1m1hj72.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Teeth fossils with evidence of dental lesions from _Australopithecus africanus_.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ian Towle</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Dental erosion is one of the most common tooth problems in the world today. Fizzy drinks, fruit juice, wine, and other <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-43141587">acidic food and drink</a> are usually to blame, although perhaps surprisingly the way we <a href="https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/359936">clean our teeth also plays a role</a>. This all makes it sound like a rather modern issue. But research suggests actually humans have been suffering dental erosion for millions of years. </p>
<p>My colleagues and I have discovered dental lesions remarkably similar to those caused by modern erosion on two 2.5m year-old front teeth from one of our <a href="http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/australopithecus-africanus">extinct ancestors</a>. This adds to the evidence that prehistoric humans and their predecessors suffered surprisingly similar dental problems to ourselves, despite our very different diets.</p>
<p>Dental erosion can affect all dental tissue and typically leaves shallow, shiny, lesions in the enamel and root surface. If you brush your teeth too vigorously you can weaken dental tissue, which over time allows acidic foods and drinks to create deep holes known as non-carious cervical lesions (NCCLs).</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208469/original/file-20180301-152564-17d89g0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208469/original/file-20180301-152564-17d89g0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208469/original/file-20180301-152564-17d89g0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208469/original/file-20180301-152564-17d89g0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=318&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208469/original/file-20180301-152564-17d89g0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208469/original/file-20180301-152564-17d89g0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208469/original/file-20180301-152564-17d89g0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"><em>Australopithecus africanus</em> teeth with lesions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ian Towle</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1879981717301766">We found such lesions</a> on the fossilised teeth from a human ancestor species <em>Australopithecus africanus</em>. Given the lesions’ size and position, this individual would likely have had toothache or sensitivity. So why did this prehistoric hominin have tooth problems that look indistinguishable from that caused by drinking large volumes of fizzy drinks today?</p>
<p>The answer may come back to another unlikely parallel. Erosive wear today is often also associated with aggressive tooth brushing. <em>Australopithecus africanus</em> probably experienced similar dental abrasion from eating tough and fibrous foods. For lesions to form, they would still have needed a diet high in acidic foods. Instead of fizzy drinks, this probably came in the form of citrus fruits and acidic vegetables. For example, tubers (potatoes and the like) are tough to eat and some can be surprisingly acidic, so they could have been a cause of the lesions.</p>
<p>Dental erosion is extremely rare in the fossil record, although this might be because researchers haven’t thought to look for evidence of it until now. But another type of problem, carious lesions or cavities, has been found more often in fossilised teeth.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208161/original/file-20180227-36706-111tmgl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208161/original/file-20180227-36706-111tmgl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208161/original/file-20180227-36706-111tmgl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208161/original/file-20180227-36706-111tmgl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208161/original/file-20180227-36706-111tmgl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208161/original/file-20180227-36706-111tmgl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208161/original/file-20180227-36706-111tmgl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Carious lesions on the mandibular right second premolar and first molar. Homo naledi (UW 101-001).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ian Towle</span></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>Cavities are the most common cause of toothache today and are caused by consuming starchy or sugary food and drink including grains. They are <a href="https://askthedentist.com/paleo-diet-oral-health/">often considered</a> a relatively modern problem linked to the fact that the invention of farming introduced large amounts of carbohydrates, and more recently refined sugar, to our diets. </p>
<p>But recent research suggests this is not the case. In fact, cavities <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/000399699090185D">have now been found</a> in tooth fossils from nearly every prehistoric hominin species studied. They were probably caused by eating certain fruits and vegetation as well as honey. These lesions were often severe, as in the case of cavities found on the teeth of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/homo-naledi-fossil-discovery-a-triumph-for-open-access-and-education-47726">newly discovered species</a>, <em>Homo naledi</em>. In fact, these cavities <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320042869_Dental_pathology_wear_and_developmental_defects_in_fossil_hominins_and_extant_primates">were so deep</a> they probably took years to form and would almost certainly have caused serious toothache.</p>
<h2>Dental abrasion</h2>
<p>Another striking type of dental wear is also more common in the fossil record, and again we can guess how and why it was created by looking at the teeth of people alive today. This process, called dental abrasion, is caused by repeatedly rubbing or holding a hard item against a tooth. It could come from biting your nails, smoking a pipe or holding a sewing needle between your teeth. These activities usually take years to form noticeable notches and grooves, so when we find such holes in fossilised teeth they offer fascinating insights into behaviour and culture.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208472/original/file-20180301-152564-1e9aq03.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/208472/original/file-20180301-152564-1e9aq03.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208472/original/file-20180301-152564-1e9aq03.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208472/original/file-20180301-152564-1e9aq03.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208472/original/file-20180301-152564-1e9aq03.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208472/original/file-20180301-152564-1e9aq03.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/208472/original/file-20180301-152564-1e9aq03.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Example of a notch from a clay pipe (17th century set of teeth).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsdesk.si.edu/photos/wear-and-tear-clay-pipe">Chip Clark, Smithsonian Institute</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The best examples of this type of prehistoric dental wear are “toothpick grooves”, thought to be caused by repeatedly placing an object in the mouth, <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/neanderthals-used-toothpicks-treat-aching-teeth-180963883/">usually in the gaps between the back teeth</a>. The presence of <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajpa.23166/full">microscopic scratches around these grooves</a> suggests they are examples of prehistoric dental hygiene, where the individual has used stick or other implements used to dislodge food. Some of these grooves are found on the same teeth as cavities and other dental problems, suggesting they may also be evidence of people trying to relieve their toothache.</p>
<p>These lesions have been found in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618214001451">variety of hominin species</a>, including prehistoric humans and Neanderthals, but only in the species most closely related to us, not our older ancestors. This might mean this tooth wear is the result of more complex behaviour from species with larger brains. But more likely it’s a consequence of different diets and cultural habits.</p>
<p>What we do know for sure is that the complex and severe dental problems we often associate with a modern diet of processed foods and refined sugars actually existed far back into our ancestry, although less frequently. Further research will likely show that lesions were more common than previously thought in our ancestors, and ultimately will provide more information into the diet and cultural practices of our distant fossil relatives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92546/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Towle does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Prehistoric humans and their predecessors may have had a very different diet but their teeth suffered in similar ways to ours.Ian Towle, Sessional Lecturer in Anthropology, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/722862017-02-13T11:24:06Z2017-02-13T11:24:06ZTechnology has confirmed a theory about Earth’s oldest venomous species<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155153/original/image-20170201-12651-1s12ati.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A reconstruction of Euchambersia with its venomous and ridged fangs. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">SimplexPaléo/Alex Bernardini (alex-bernardini.fr)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Baron Franz Nopcsa is a particularly colourful figure in the history of palaeontology. He was an Austro-Hungarian aristocrat who <a href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/history-forgot-rogue-aristocrat-discovered-dinosaurs-died-penniless-180959504/">discovered and identified</a> a number of dinosaurs and other fossils around the world. In 1933, during a trip to South Africa, he looked at the remains of a therapsid found a couple of years earlier by Robert Broom, a pre-mammalian relative called <a href="http://www.prehistoric-wildlife.com/species/e/euchambersia.html">Euchambersia</a>. </p>
<p>Nopcsa declared that this was probably the earliest venomous species ever recorded. But his theory couldn’t be confirmed or disproved because venom and venom glands don’t fossilise. That’s where technology comes in. I was part of a team at Johannesburg’s University of the Witwatersrand that collaborated with London’s Natural History Museum to <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0172047">test</a> Nopcsa’s theory using CT scanning and 3D imaging techniques.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0172047">results</a>? Nopcsa was right, and at 255 million years old, Euchambersia is officially the oldest venomous animal that ever roamed the Earth.</p>
<p>Even more intriguing is that Euchambersia is related to early mammals, not to snakes (which is probably the creature you think of when it comes to venom). Actually, many existing mammals produce venom: among them shrews, some primates and the weird Australian Platypus. Numerous scientists have <a href="https://www.app.pan.pl/article/item/app51-001.html">hypothesised</a> that mammals were all venomous in the distant past but lost their venom producing glands along the way.</p>
<p>So how did we discover the truth about Euchambersia?</p>
<h2>Uncovering Euchambersia’s secrets</h2>
<p>Broom’s find is one of only two Euchambersia specimens ever discovered. Both were discovered in the same area, near the town of Colesberg in South Africa. One is kept at the <a href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> in London; the other at the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/esi/">Evolutionary Studies Institute</a> in Johannesburg. </p>
<p>Each specimen was CT scanned at its respective institute, and the London data was sent to my colleagues and I in Johannesburg. CT scanning is a cutting edge technique that resembles medical imaging. It allows scientists to observe and “dissect” fossils digitally using computer software. Thanks to this technique, we can produce 3D models of previously unreachable internal structures. </p>
<p>With these virtual images of the internal anatomy of the only two known specimens of Euchambersia, we had in hand the most comprehensive dataset about this species that’s ever been gathered. </p>
<p>Analysing them, we made several fascinating discoveries. It emerged that Euchambersia had anatomical adaptations which were compatible with venom production.</p>
<p>First, there was a wide, deep and circular depression in the skull for a venom gland on the upper jaw. This was connected to the canine teeth and the mouth by a fine network of bony tubes and furrows. We also discovered previously undescribed teeth hidden in the vicinity of the bones and sediment that filled the skull. As is usual for fossils, the skull is filled with sediment and some teeth were preserved inside this sediment but hadn’t been spotted before. These were two incisors with preserved crowns and a pair of large canines, all ornamented with a sharp ridge. </p>
<p>A ridged dentition like this would have helped Euchambersia to inject venom into its prey. Pre-mammalian therapsids dominated terrestrial ecosystems well before dinosaurs even appeared. They diversified as herbivores and carnivores, large and small, burrowing and ground-dwelling species. As the earliest venomous species and a representative of this early wave of pioneering species, Euchambersia directly reflects the extraordinary adaptive capabilities of these mammalian forerunners. </p>
<p>In addition, since mammals might have been primitively venomous, Euchambersia would be one of the last remnant of this distant and toxic ancestry of ours.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72286/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julien Benoit receives funding from PAST and its Scatterlings projects; the National Research Foundation of South Africa; and the DST-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences (CoE in Palaeosciences). </span></em></p>CT scanning allows scientists to observe and “dissect” fossils digitally using computer software - and to uncover secrets that are hundreds of millions of years old.Julien Benoit, Postdoc in Vertebrate Palaeontology, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/269452014-05-20T14:32:40Z2014-05-20T14:32:40ZCaveman instincts may explain our belief in gods and ghosts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49000/original/x3xkm622-1400582645.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Does mankind's religious instinct date back to prehistoric times?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-110802431/stock-photo-ancient-people-against-the-evening-landscape.html?src=aD1Iiqd1l6yCdOdYkSD9gA-1-70">iurri</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Notions of gods arise in all human societies, from all powerful and all-knowing deities to simple forest spirits. <a href="http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/The_Naturalness_of_Religious_Ideas.html?id=5jkhjMvYpa4C&redir_esc=y">A recent method</a> of examining religious thought and behaviour links their ubiquity and the similarity of our beliefs to the ways in which human mental processes were adapted for survival in prehistoric times. </p>
<p>It rests on a <a href="http://ruccs.rutgers.edu/%7Ealeslie/images/publications/Leslie%201994b.pdf">couple of observations about human psychology</a>. First, when an event happens, we tend to assume that a living thing caused it. In other words, we assume agency behind that event. If you think of the sorts of events that might have happened in prehistoric times, it’s easy to see why a bias towards agency would be useful. A rustling of a bush or the snapping of a twig could be due to wind. But far better to assume it’s a lion and run away. </p>
<p>The survivors who had this tendency to more readily ascribe agency to an event passed their genes down the generations, increasingly hard-wiring this way of making snap decisions into the brain. This is not something that people need to learn. It occurs quickly and automatically. </p>
<h2>Empathic tendencies</h2>
<p>The second trait is about how we view others. While living together in a tribe would have had many advantages for survival in prehistoric times, getting along with everyone would not always have been easy. Comprehending others’ behaviour requires you to understand their thoughts and beliefs, especially where these may be incorrect due to someone not knowing the full facts of a situation. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49005/original/r8hnk29y-1400583091.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49005/original/r8hnk29y-1400583091.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49005/original/r8hnk29y-1400583091.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49005/original/r8hnk29y-1400583091.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49005/original/r8hnk29y-1400583091.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49005/original/r8hnk29y-1400583091.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49005/original/r8hnk29y-1400583091.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49005/original/r8hnk29y-1400583091.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The prehistoric posse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-152290322/stock-photo-illustrated-silhouettes-of-cavemen-hunters-on-patrol.html?src=aD1Iiqd1l6yCdOdYkSD9gA-1-75">Robert Adrian Hillman</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is known as “theory of mind”. This idea says that we automatically assume that there are reasons behind others’ behaviour which we try to work out in order to better understand why they behave the way they do. Not having this ability <a href="http://autismtruths.org/pdf/3.%20Does%20the%20autistic%20child%20have%20a%20theory%20of%20mind_SBC.pdf">has been proposed</a> to underlie developmental disorders such as autism.</p>
<p>You may be wondering what these two hard-wired processes have to do with belief in gods. Imagine a pebble falling in the back of a cave. Our agency device tells us that someone caused that to happen. With nothing in evidence, could it be an invisible creature or a spirit? If so, why would it be sneaking around? To find out secrets about us or to discover if we are good or bad people? </p>
<p>Another example might be a volcanic eruption. In the absence of geological knowledge, our tribal ancestors’ agency system would have ascribed this event to a person – but one that surely has superhuman ability. And why would they want to cause such destruction? Perhaps the eruption signified a punishment, perhaps because the tribe had not acted in accordance with the being’s wishes. </p>
<h2>Of ghosts and gods</h2>
<p>These two very simplistic examples should help illustrate how these hard-wired mechanisms could lead to the beginnings of a belief in gods, as well as ghosts and other supernatural creatures. Our ancestors would have drawn conclusions about supernatural occurrences by fitting together these instincts towards agency and the theory of mind. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/48925/original/2knn873v-1400518465.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/48925/original/2knn873v-1400518465.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/48925/original/2knn873v-1400518465.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48925/original/2knn873v-1400518465.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48925/original/2knn873v-1400518465.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48925/original/2knn873v-1400518465.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48925/original/2knn873v-1400518465.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48925/original/2knn873v-1400518465.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Are ghosts just part of human survival function?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jeffkrause/5772943082/in/photolist-9N8QRq-9BV8JD-4z7WBo-aj81YJ-79UZDg-dZzHu8-8kSEQJ-aCJXQH-reFFA-6deavc-mZSgY5-jqbXHS-6MmBWr-jCD33M-itJbUY-8MzECa-fy3c8J-7gZAG9-igBJMm-334iz8-hRg7nc-4zM8QH-d34hh3-zistE-59MMoQ-adRyKt-7vBhDe-33i3-6hATVa-agKkxD-bqvkAA-7o9w7j-8mQqhr-gTjSMV-jA1oKs-2bY1Vj-fhCPdC-mKEQte-dyzpKp-wUgAp-nzJhAR-8PpEAR-2kxD3w-56LfTG-m5fw-5Fwq5S-d34Dc7-LuNtx-7AfiNW-3hHnhM">Jeff Krause</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This even applies to the Abrahamic, all-knowing, all powerful god. He may seem very inhuman at first glance, but <a href="http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/%7Elds/readinggroup/barrett1996.pdf">it has been shown</a> that we reason about Him in a very human way. For example we depict Him helping one person before moving to the other side of the world to help someone else. Hard-wired reasoning processes helps explain how religious ideas are so durable, spreading across continents and down through generations. </p>
<p>Both these and other ancient instincts appear to be in evidence from observations of children. Very young children seem to show very accurate understanding of physical laws. For example they know that two solid objects cannot merge into one or that horses do not have metal gears inside them. <a href="http://fitelson.org/woodward/baillargeon.pdf">Developmental psychologists have suggested</a> that children are intuitive biologists, physicists and – using theory of mind – psychologists.</p>
<h2>Sumus rosaceae!</h2>
<p>Concepts which violate these intuitive understandings <a href="http://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/25716/">seem to be</a> more memorable than others. A rose that whispers in Latin violates an intuitive understanding that plants do not have minds or mouths and therefore cannot whisper in an ancient language – or any language for that matter.</p>
<p>It may be that violating an intuitive concept draws special attention and interest and therefore helps embed the idea in memory. Many religious stories contain concepts that seem to violate this special kind of intuition, such as a man walking on water or a burning bush that talks. These tales take advantage of this feature of memory to successfully propagate themselves and resist being forgotten.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/48924/original/tpwhp45f-1400518190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/48924/original/tpwhp45f-1400518190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=772&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48924/original/tpwhp45f-1400518190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=772&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48924/original/tpwhp45f-1400518190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=772&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48924/original/tpwhp45f-1400518190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=971&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48924/original/tpwhp45f-1400518190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=971&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/48924/original/tpwhp45f-1400518190.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=971&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Got a cup of water?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bourdon,_Sébastien_-_Burning_bush.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Putting these ideas together is one way of explaining religious thought and behaviour. You could go further and suggest that, if these ideas are correct, religion is merely a by-product of mental processes operating in error. </p>
<p>But this assumes that religious/supernatural experiences are not true. If the human mind was to truly experience a god, then the theories of agency and mind and our memory for the counterintuitive would help us make sense of it. If that were to happen, the conclusions would not be in error at all. </p>
<p><em>Dr Kelly will be elaborating on these ideas at a</em> <em><a href="http://www.strath.ac.uk/events/campuscalendar/event_title_798613_en.html">lecture in Glasgow</a></em> <em>on the evening of Thursday May 22.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/26945/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steve Kelly does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Notions of gods arise in all human societies, from all powerful and all-knowing deities to simple forest spirits. A recent method of examining religious thought and behaviour links their ubiquity and the…Steve Kelly, Senior Lecturer, University of Strathclyde Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.