tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/safari-23808/articlessafari – The Conversation2019-10-10T12:01:38Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1219212019-10-10T12:01:38Z2019-10-10T12:01:38ZTrophy hunting – can it really be justified by ‘conservation benefits’?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296224/original/file-20191009-3872-l72cir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cecil the lion, before he was a trophy.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cecil-male-lion-november-2012-rip-143309854?src=DnZHBh5b58HBPzukG4YqmQ-1-1">Shutterstock/paula french</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Killing animals for fun is an activity which divides opinion. It can also be a highly emotive issue, with high profile cases like the death of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Andrew_Loveridge/publication/301638394_Cecil_A_Moment_or_a_Movement_Analysis_of_Media_Coverage_of_the_Death_of_a_Lion_Panthera_Leo/links/572ceb5e08aee0229759801a/Cecil-A-Moment-or-a-Movement-Analysis-of-Media-Coverage-of-the-Death-of-a-Lion-Panthera-Leo.pdf">Cecil the lion</a> sparking global media coverage and outcry. There were even <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/11/wildlife-watch-cecil-lion-hunter-charges-dropped/">calls</a> for the American dentist who admitted killing Cecil to be charged with illegal hunting. </p>
<p>But despite the strong feelings it occasionally provokes, many people may be unaware just how common trophy hunting is. The International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) <a href="https://d1jyxxz9imt9yb.cloudfront.net/resource/36/attachment/regular/Killing_For_Trophies.pdf">reports</a> that between 2004 and 2014, a total of 107 countries participated in the trophy hunting business. In that time, it is thought over 200,000 hunting trophies from threatened species were traded (plus a further 1.7m from non-threatened animals).</p>
<p>Trophy hunters themselves pay vast sums of money to do what they do (IFAW claims upwards of $US100,000 for a 21-day big game hunting trip). But reliable data on the economic benefits this brings to the countries visited remains <a href="https://africacheck.org/factsheets/factsheet-how-much-does-hunting-contribute-to-african-economies/">limited and contested</a>.</p>
<p>Now the UK government has <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-measures-protect-animal-welfare-and-increase-woodland-cover">announced</a> it is considering banning the trade of hunting trophies from endangered species – making it a crime to bring them back into the country.</p>
<p>Advocates of trophy hunting – including major conservation organisations such as the <a href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/Rep-2012-007.pdf">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> and the <a href="https://wwf.panda.org/our_work/wildlife/species_news/wwf_and_trophy_hunting/">World Wide Fund for Nature</a> – argue that hunting wild animals can have major ecological benefits. Along with some <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/05/botswana-lifts-ban-on-elephant-hunting/">governments</a>, they claim that “well-managed” trophy hunting is an effective conservation tool, which can also help local communities. </p>
<p>This argument depends in part on the generation of significant income from the trophy hunters, which, it is claimed, can then be reinvested into conservation activities. </p>
<p>The broad idea is that a few (often endangered) animals are sacrificed for the greater good of species survival and biodiversity. Local human communities also benefit financially from protecting animal populations (rather than seeing them as a threat) and may <a href="https://businessperspectives.org/images/pdf/applications/publishing/templates/article/assets/6400/ee_2015_01_Ali.pdf">reap the rewards</a> of employment by hunting operations, providing lodgings or selling goods.</p>
<p>Indeed, research on trophy hunting does show that it can produce <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989418302336">substantial financial benefits</a>, is likely to be <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322864922_Local_perceptions_of_trophy_hunting_on_communal_lands_in_Namibia">supported by local communities</a>, and can be associated with <a href="https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/trophy_hunting_conservation_and_rural_livelihoods.pdf">conservation gains</a>. </p>
<p>But it remains <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/acv.12205?casa_token=MNvVdCfSGxoAAAAA:Gz4P_BHOCmwSkz2MCRuHRAHfHrowqqksSy47s077jJfVBjwCJvORN3pWwZmnpz-2_pA_xucJaUSvX-Fc">unclear</a> in exactly what circumstances trophy hunting produces a valuable conservation benefit. We cannot assume a scheme that works in one country, targeting one species, under a specific set of circumstances, is applicable to all other species and locations.</p>
<p>Also, the purported benefits of trophy hunting rely on sustainable management, investment of profits, and local community involvement. But given the levels of <a href="https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018">perceived corruption</a> and lack of <a href="https://naturalresources.house.gov/imo/media/doc/Missing%20the%20Mark.pdf">effective governance</a> in some of the countries where trophy hunting is carried out, one wonders how likely it is these <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0073808">conditions can be met</a>. </p>
<p>And if trophy hunting is really so lucrative, there is every chance the profits will instead be used to line the pockets of rich (possibly foreign) <a href="http://www.wildlife-baldus.com/download/influence_of_corruption_on_hunting.pdf">operators and officials</a>.</p>
<h2>Death and suffering</h2>
<p>This brings us to the question of ethics. Just because an intervention has the potential to produce a social benefit, does not mean the approach is ethical. And if it is not ethical, should it be considered a crime? </p>
<p>This is something of regular concern for social policy. If the evil that a programme introduces is greater than the evil it purports to reduce, then it is unethical to implement it. </p>
<p>I would argue that even if convincing evidence does exist that trophy hunting can produce conservation benefits, it is unethical to cause the death and suffering of individual animals to save a species. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1094210955565850624"}"></div></p>
<p>In common with many green criminologists, I take a critical approach to the study of environmental and animal-related crime. This means that I am interested in behaviour that can be thought of as harmful, and <a href="https://greencriminology.org/about-green-criminology/">may be worthy of the label “crime”</a>, even if it has not been formally criminalised. </p>
<p>When considering global harms and those that impact heavily on the most powerless in society, this approach is particularly important. </p>
<p>Conservation is concerned with biodiversity and animal populations. Contrast this with an animal rights or <a href="https://www.greencriminology.org/monthly/feb2013/The%20Green%20Criminology%20Monthly%20-%20February%202013%20-%20Species%20Justice%20-%20The%20Future%20Protection%20of%20Wildlife%20and%20the%20Reform%20of%20Wildlife%20Laws%20by%20Angus%20Nurse.pdf">species justice</a> perspective, where instead of focusing on rights that benefit humans over all other species, the interests and intrinsic rights of individual and groups of animals are considered. </p>
<p>From this viewpoint, trophy hunting undoubtedly causes harm. It brings pain, fear, suffering and death. Add to this the <a href="https://www.nwf.org/Home/Magazines/National-Wildlife/2018/Feb-Mar/Animals/When-Animals-Grieve">grief</a>, mourning and fracturing of familial or social groups that is <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/do-animals-experience-grief-180970124/">experienced</a> by animals such as elephants, whales, primates and giraffes. In light of these harms, trophy hunting is surely worthy of the label “crime”. </p>
<p>Allowing trophy hunting also perpetuates the notion that animals are lesser than humans. It turns wildlife into a commodity, rather than living, feeling, autonomous beings – beings that I have argued <em>should</em> be viewed as <a href="http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/29252/1/Non-human%20victimology%20Accepted.pdf">victims</a> of crime. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199830060/obo-9780199830060-0073.xml">Anthropocentric</a> views also facilitate and normalise the exploitation, death and mistreatment of animals. The harmful effects can be seen in <a href="https://mercyforanimals.org/the-problem">intensive farming</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/19/visitors-turn-backs-on-marine-parks">marine parks</a> and “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/jun/03/canned-hunting-lions-bred-slaughter">canned hunting</a>”, where (usually lions) are bred in captivity (and sometimes drugged) as part of trophy hunting operations. Where money can be made from animals, exploitation, and wildlife crime, seem likely to follow.</p>
<p>Instead, local communities must be involved in decisions about conservation and land management, but not at the expense of endangered species, or of individual animals hunted for sport. Alternative conservation approaches like photo tourism, and schemes to reduce human-animal conflict must be embraced. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296439/original/file-20191010-188807-13n2bjc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/296439/original/file-20191010-188807-13n2bjc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296439/original/file-20191010-188807-13n2bjc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296439/original/file-20191010-188807-13n2bjc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296439/original/file-20191010-188807-13n2bjc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296439/original/file-20191010-188807-13n2bjc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/296439/original/file-20191010-188807-13n2bjc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Getting a good shot.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/horizontal-colour-photograph-infocus-leopard-resting-338259110?src=UYLbe99vQlnPzkEOLzJwqg-1-1">Shutterstock/Villiers Steyn</a></span>
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<p>Banning trophy hunting would provide a much needed incentive to develop creative conservation approaches to wildlife protection and human-animal co-existence. And there is still <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0094109">substantial conservation income</a> to be earned without resorting to trophy hunting. </p>
<p>So governments around the world should introduce bans on trophy imports – alongside providing support for alternative, ethical developments that benefit both wild animals and local communities. Anything less is complicit support of a crime against some of the world’s most vulnerable wildlife.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121921/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melanie Flynn has received research funding from WWF-UK, but this is not related to the work she discusses here. She is a member of the Vegan Society Research Advisory Committee and has attended a parliamentary reception organised by the Campaign to Ban Trophy Hunting. The views expresed here are her own.</span></em></p>A green criminologist weighs up the evidence.Melanie Flynn, Senior lecturer in Criminology, University of HuddersfieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1228602019-09-04T19:52:46Z2019-09-04T19:52:46ZApple iPhones could have been hacked for years – here’s what to do about it<p>For many years, the Apple iPhone has been considered one of the most secure smart phones available. But despite this reputation, security issues that might affect millions of users came to light last week, when <a href="https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2019/08/google-hackers-reveal-websites-hacked-thousands-of-iphone-users-silently-for-years/">researchers at Google</a> revealed they had discovered websites that can infect iPhones, iPads, and iPods with dangerous software. </p>
<p>Simply visiting one of these websites is enough to infect your device with malicious software, allowing a high level of access to the device. Worryingly, it seems these vulnerabilities have been “in the wild” (that is, actively used by cyber-criminals) for around two years. </p>
<p>As there is no visible sign of infection on the device, it is likely users are completely unaware of the risks they’re facing.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-click-that-link-how-criminals-access-your-digital-devices-and-what-happens-when-they-do-109802">Don't click that link! How criminals access your digital devices and what happens when they do</a>
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<p>The vulnerabilities being exploited are present on devices running recent (but not the most recent) versions of Apple’s iOS operating system — specifically, iOS 10 through to early versions of iOS 12. Every device running the vulnerable versions of iOS is a potential target for these websites.</p>
<p>Devices are infected via several methods, using <a href="https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2019/08/google-hackers-reveal-websites-hacked-thousands-of-iphone-users-silently-for-years/">14 different security flaws</a> — an unusual number of ways to compromise a device. Worse is that seven of the flaws involve Safari, the default web browser for many of these devices (and web browsing is a common activity for many users). </p>
<p>It’s not all bad news though. After Google reported the issues to Apple earlier this year, the vulnerabilities were promptly patched with the latest release of iOS (12.4.1). </p>
<p>Any user updating their device to the latest version of iOS should be protected against this attack. The easiest way to do it is to go to Settings > General > Software Update on your phone and then follow the prompts.</p>
<h2>What happens when you visit an infected site?</h2>
<p>As soon you open the web page, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-49520355">malicious software is installed on the device</a>. This software has the potential to access location data and information stored by various apps (such as iMessage, WhatsApp, and Google Hangouts). </p>
<p>This information can be transmitted to a remote location and potentially misused by an attacker. The information extracted can include messages that are otherwise protected when sent and received by the user, removing the protection offered through encryption. Hackers can also potentially access private files stored on the device, including photos, emails, contact lists, and sensitive information such as WiFi passwords. </p>
<p>All of this data has value and can be <a href="https://www.trendmicro.com/vinfo/us/security/special-report/cybercriminal-underground-economy-series/global-black-market-for-stolen-data/">sold on the Internet to other cyber-criminals</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://blog.malwarebytes.com/mac/2019/08/unprecedented-new-iphone-malware-discovered/">According to antivirus firm Malwarebytes</a>, the malicious software is removed when the infected device is restarted. While this limits the amount of time that the device is compromised, the user risks being reinfected the next time they visit the same website (if still using a vulnerable version of iOS). </p>
<p>The list of websites involved has not yet been made publicly available, so users have no means to protect themselves other than by updating their device’s operating system. But we do know the number of visitors to these sites are estimated in the <a href="https://googleprojectzero.blogspot.com/2019/08/a-very-deep-dive-into-ios-exploit.html">thousands per week</a>.</p>
<h2>Are Apple devices no longer secure?</h2>
<p>High-profile attacks on these devices might dispel the myth that Apple devices are not susceptible to serious security breaches. However, Apple does have a bug-bounty program that offers a <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com.au/apple-offers-1-million-bug-bounty-reward-for-hacking-iphone-2019-8">US$1 million reward</a> to users who report problems that help to identify security flaws. </p>
<p>But considering the impact of this incident, it’s obvious someone out there is making considerable efforts to target Apple devices. While the tech giant regularly updates its software, there have been recent incidents in which <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2019/08/26/apple-security-fix-jailbreak/">previously fixed security flaws were reintroduced</a>. This highlights the complexity of these devices and the challenge of maintaining a secure platform.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/everyone-falls-for-fake-emails-lessons-from-cybersecurity-summer-school-81389">Everyone falls for fake emails: lessons from cybersecurity summer school</a>
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<p>The most important lesson for Apple’s millions of users is to ensure you keep up to date with the latest patches and fixes. Simply installing the latest iOS update is sufficient to remove the threats caused by this vulnerability. </p>
<p>If you’re concerned your details may have been stolen, changing passwords and checking your credit card and bank account statements are also important steps to take.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122860/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The news that malware can invade iPhones and other Apple devices via the Safari web browser has damaged Apple’s reputation for security. But you can fix the problem by updating your phone’s software.Leslie Sikos, Lecturer, Edith Cowan UniversityPaul Haskell-Dowland, Associate Dean (Computing and Security), Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1143892019-04-01T08:47:53Z2019-04-01T08:47:53ZPeople are taking a huge toll on the plains of the Serengeti-Mara<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266493/original/file-20190329-70996-4ixkul.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Serengeti-Mara ecosystem is home to the famous wildebeest migration</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Susan Schmitz/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The 40,000 sq km Serengeti-Mara plain that straddles the border of Kenya and Tanzania is <a href="https://www.livescience.com/23310-serengeti.html">famous</a> for its abundant and diverse wildlife. It is also home to <a href="https://www.ietravel.com/blog/wildebeests-one-seven-new-wonders-world">one of the</a> wonders of the world: the Serengeti-Mara wildebeest migration. Each year about two million wildebeest, zebra and gazelles migrate from Tanzania to Kenya’s Maasai Mara in search of food and water. </p>
<p>The Serengeti-Mara is made up of pastoral community lands and 12 major protected areas, including the world famous Maasai Mara national reserve and the Serengeti national park. These make up, what <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/363/6434/1424">we call</a>, the “core protected area”. </p>
<p>But despite its vast protected areas, the Serengeti-Mara is being threatened. </p>
<p>In our <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/363/6434/1424">new research</a> we show how activities by people – like farming, erecting fences and settlements – are proliferating around the borders of the core protected areas. This is putting huge pressure on the area’s environment, natural resources and wildlife. </p>
<p>This is the first time that a large team of scientists, from seven countries, pooled together various lines of evidence – like ground vegetation monitoring, aerial surveys of animals and GPS tracked animals – to show the impact of human activity on the Serengeti-Mara. The data covers a period of 40 years. </p>
<p>We found that the activities of people have caused extreme changes to the habitat. It has significantly reduced the amount of grass and, because of farms, settlements and fences, the landscape has become fragmented – this means animals can’t move freely to find resources or mate. Key ecological functions have also changed. There are less man-made or wild fires which means that trees and shrubs are able to take root, soils are damaged – and so the land produces less plants – and the area becomes more sensitive to climate change. </p>
<h2>Findings</h2>
<p>We used 62 aerial surveys, from 1977 to 2016, to examine changes to wildlife, livestock and settlements around the area. For human population figures, we used data collected by the Kenyan and Tanzanian governments. </p>
<p>We found that, within a 60km radius of the core protected area boundary, there were 26% more people. An increase from 4.6 million to 5.8 million in 13 years. The population growth rate was even higher within a 15km radius. </p>
<p>With more people come more livestock, settlements and fences. </p>
<p>The number of fenced plots has increased by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep41450">more than</a> 20% since 2010 outside of the core protected area, in the Mara Region of Kenya. We found a high density of bomas (settlements), and the number was rising in parts of the Mara by up to three new bomas per square kilometre per year. There was also a substantial increase in the number of sheep and goats (276.2%) and a slight decrease in the number of cattle (9.4%) in the Narok region in Kenya. </p>
<p>But the livestock don’t just stay on the boundaries of the protected areas. They’re going in. Livestock paths were prevalent and visible up to 5km, often even further, inside. This flags that illegal grazing is happening which reduces the quantity and quality of food available for wildlife. </p>
<p>For instance we found that, from 1977 to 2016, illegal incursions into the Maasai Mara national reserve by cattle increased by 1053% and by sheep and goats by 1174%. </p>
<p>We also found that the numbers of resident wildlife species declined by between 40% and 87%. In addition, 63.5% fewer migratory wildebeest used the reserve. </p>
<p>Another threat is agriculture. Over 34 years the amount of agriculture happening around the border went up by 17%. It now covers 54% of the land around the protected area and has destroyed large natural habitats close by. Coupled with high livestock densities, this has intensified the pressure to graze livestock inside protected areas. </p>
<p>The biggest impact has been on migratory animals – like wildebeest. </p>
<p>Using data gathered from GPS radio-collared wildebeest, we found that they were coming together in dense groups at specific locations inside core protected areas as opposed to ranging widely inside and outside.</p>
<p>This reduces the amount of grass each animal has to eat and, because of over-grazing, weakens the capacity of soil to store nutrients and carbon. This means the land is less productive and it increases the area’s sensitivity to weather changes. </p>
<p>There are also less natural or wild fires which are key to maintaining grasslands. When livestock grazing removes grass, young trees and shrubs take root. This turns grasslands into shrublands or woodlands. Wild grazers, like hartebeest, are then likely to be replaced by animals that eat leaves and twigs, like giraffes. </p>
<p>The most troubling changes have taken place in an area called Narok County, located in southwestern Kenya. This area of about 17,933 sq km includes the protected Masai Mara Reserve, wildlife conservancies and community land. </p>
<p>Wildlife numbers here have dramatically declined. This is a big worry because the Maasai Mara is where migratory wildlife go to eat and drink water in the dry season. In its protected areas, over about 40 years, the number of cattle (40%), sheep and goats (189.6%) all increased and virtually all the large wildlife species such as giraffe, eland and topi decreased by between 54% and 93%. The number of migratory wildebeest declined by about 80% and zebra by 75%.</p>
<h2>The impact</h2>
<p>These intense and extensive changes mean that the Serengeti-Mara area’s wildlife has an unsure future. </p>
<p>The findings call for an immediate and robust response to save the future of the region’s wildlife populations, their habitats and the tourism revenue they bring from imminent jeopardy. </p>
<p>The migration and dispersal corridors along the edges of the Serengeti-Mara should be better protected. Livestock numbers, fences, charcoal trade, cultivation and settlements should be regulated. And illegal livestock grazing and poaching must be controlled in protected areas. Also, conservation benefits should be fairly distributed to communities living around the Serengeti-Mara.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114389/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joseph Ogutu receives funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation through the African Bioservices Project and the German Research Foundation (Grant No. OG 83/1-1). He is affiliated to the University of Hohenheim, Institute of Crop Science, Biostatistics Unit. </span></em></p>Intense and extensive changes mean that the Serengeti-Mara area’s wildlife has an unsure future.Joseph Ogutu, Senior Statistician, University of HohenheimLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1136112019-03-20T15:01:56Z2019-03-20T15:01:56ZSafari tourism may make elephants more aggressive – but it’s still the best tool for conservation<p>Going on safari in Africa offers tourists the opportunity to see some of the most spectacular wildlife on Earth – including African elephants (<em>Loxodonta africana</em>). Known for their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10588-008-9045-z">complex social systems</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3819/ccbr.2009.40009">long memory and high intelligence</a>, this species is also threatened by poaching and shrinking habitats, so further disturbance to their precarious existence could have serious consequences.</p>
<p>Wildlife tourism can help protect these animals and their habitat by generating income for conservation and providing stable work in local economies. Countries such as South Africa and Kenya receive two to five million visitors to protected areas each year, <a href="http://sdt.unwto.org/content/unwto-briefing-wildlife-watching-tourism-africa">generating receipts of up to USD$90m</a>. But as it becomes more popular worldwide, it’s worth remembering that we often don’t know how tourism affects the animals we observe.</p>
<h2>The tourist in the room</h2>
<p>In Madikwe Game Reserve in South Africa, tourists stay in lodges within the park and go on safari twice a day in large, open vehicles driven by professional field guides.</p>
<p>Over 15 months in Madikwe, we recorded how often elephants performed stress-related, vigilant or aggressive behaviours to find out whether they increased during months when there were more tourists. Vigilant behaviour could be an elephant <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1321543111">extending its trunk into the air to smell</a>. Stress-related behaviour included elephants <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1321543111">bunching together</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2361(2000)19:5%3C425::AID-ZOO11%3E3.0.CO;2-A">fleetingly touching their faces with their trunks</a> – a response akin to a nervous tic in humans. Aggression was noted, for example, if an elephant <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2361(2000)19:5%3C425::AID-ZOO11%3E3.0.CO;2-A">charged at another, spread its ears to appear larger</a> or hit another elephant with its tusk. We also watched the movements of elephant herds to see if they stuck around or moved away from tourist vehicles.</p>
<p>We found that elephants <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jzo.12661">were more likely to be aggressive</a> towards other elephants in months when tourist numbers in the park were high. Elephant herds were also more likely to move away from tourist vehicles when there were more vehicles present.</p>
<p>So, it appears that tourism does have some impact on elephant welfare – but this may not be entirely bad news. We didn’t observe an increase in stressed or vigilant behaviour in response to higher numbers of tourists, and the effect of increased aggression was small. Hunting can have much <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0002417">greater effects</a> on elephants, even among those who aren’t attacked by humans. Studies which measured levels of stress hormones in elephants after they witnessed hunts or were nearby have found they increase significantly. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138939">Humans riding on the backs of elephants</a> is also much worse for elephant welfare than observation tours. Wildlife watching, without physical contact, seems to be the better mode of tourism for elephant welfare, but it’s not without its concerns.</p>
<h2>Is tourism the ultimate answer?</h2>
<p>Although these results were interesting, they are only from a single population in South Africa where driving regulations were enforced. We don’t know how elephants are affected in areas where tourists drive their private vehicles on safari unaccompanied by professional guides. We also don’t know what exactly was causing the changes in behaviour. More tourists per month meant there were more vehicles on the roads, but also more air traffic, more diverse smells and sounds and who knows what else.</p>
<p>Parks could create refuge areas where safari tours are restricted and contact with wildlife minimised, perhaps in areas where there are fewer roads already. Tour companies could strictly enforce a no off-roading rule here and prohibit guided walks by tourists. Such refuge areas have previously been shown to have great potential in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031818">reducing pressure on elephants</a> during times of increased stress, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003233">such as following large wildfires</a>.</p>
<p>Tourism can be a great conservation tool as long as it is monitored closely, and measures are taken to alleviate the potential pressures it can put on animals. If you’re ever lucky enough to find yourself on a safari, think twice about getting up close and personal with that iconic species. Instead, keep your distance and the welfare of the animals in mind.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113611/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Isabelle Szott receives funding from AESOP Erasmus Mundus – a European and South African Partnership on Heritage and Past.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicola F. Koyama receives funding from Liverpool John Moores University. </span></em></p>Wildlife tourism is a million dollar industry, but do we know enough about how wildlife feel about tourists in their habitat?Isabelle Szott, PhD Candidate in Conservation Biology, Liverpool John Moores UniversityNicola F. Koyama, Senior Lecturer in Natural Sciences and Psychology, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1067152018-11-15T14:47:24Z2018-11-15T14:47:24ZCounting the contribution of hunting to South Africa’s economy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245739/original/file-20181115-194513-yptxbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Buffalo in the Kruger National Park, South Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The hunting of wild animals is <a href="https://theconversation.com/hunting-in-africa-to-ban-or-not-to-ban-is-the-question-44269">an emotive issue</a>, drawing fire from anti-hunting organisations, environmentalists as well as many ordinary citizens. But it also has its supporters, some of whom argue that hunting, in particular, is a valuable source of income and that it contributes to conservation of wildlife, that can be used to protect threatened species and be put to other good uses.</p>
<p>Africa remains one of the most <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-hemingway-to-blixen-why-africa-still-attracts-hunters-52329">sought after</a> destinations for hunters. The North West University’s Tourism Research in Economic, Environs and Society <a href="http://commerce.nwu.ac.za/sites/commerce.nwu.ac.za/files/files/TREES/Research%20report/TREES%20Portfolio_2016.pdf">unit</a>, which I’m a part of, set out to establish what financial contribution hunting makes. This is a particularly important question given the poverty challenges facing the country. </p>
<p>From our <a href="https://journals.co.za/content/jefs/8/1/EJC170564">research</a>, conducted in South Africa, we established that hunting contributes immensely to economic development. We looked at two main groups of hunters: international hunters, also referred to as the trophy hunters almost all of whom are foreigners, and local hunters, known locally as the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235419550_The_Economic_Impact_of_Hunting_in_the_Northern_Cape_Province">biltong hunters</a> who hunt for meat (Biltong is a local dried meat similar to jerky). </p>
<p>The research found that hunters (consumptive wildlife tourist) spend double and more the amount than non-consumptive wildlife tourists. Non-consumptive wildlife tourism refers to bird watching, game viewing (safari’s) and trails, to name a few. </p>
<p>By our calculations trophy and biltong hunters contribute a combined R13.6 billion ($909 million) to the South African economy in 2016/2017 season. This is only the direct contribution. If one would like to determine the economic impact of hunting one also needs to determine the indirect and induced impact. We are still in the process of publishing this data. </p>
<h2>What’s spent and where</h2>
<p>An estimated 7600 trophy hunters visited South Africa in 2016. Their trips lasted, on average, 12 days, and on average they spent R262 000 (US$20 000) per trip. Based on these numbers we calculated that trophy hunting contributed close to <a href="http://news.nwu.ac.za/trophy-hunting-worth-r198-billion-south-african-economy">R2 billion</a> ($130 880 815.00) to the South African economy. Our calculations also show that between 70% and 80% of trophy hunters’ spending takes place in the area of the hunt. This includes the accommodation, game hunted and in some cases also the trophy handling and processing. </p>
<p>For their part, biltong hunters spent on average R58 000 ($4 000) per season. When multiplied with the number of frequent biltong hunters in South Africa (200 000), it totals R11.66 billion. What makes the spending of hunters so important is that hunting mainly occurs in rural areas, which are in dire need of job creation and economic development.</p>
<p>In addition, hunting creates jobs, particularly in rural areas where employment is most needed. <a href="http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2222-34362014000400002">Research</a> conducted in three of the top hunting provinces – the Northern Cape, Free State and Limpopo provinces – showed hunting created 31 500 jobs in the three provinces – 17 806 in Limpopo, 9 072 in the Northern Cape and 4 558 in the Free State. </p>
<p>Typical employment created directly includes guides, professional hunters, skinners, trackers, catering, housekeeping, maintenance, conservation management, anti-poaching and taxidermy, to name a few.</p>
<h2>Investment</h2>
<p>Most of the land used for hunting in South Africa was originally farmland used for crops, cattle and other farming activities. To transform the land for hunting purposes required spending on new infrastructure, including for example accommodation, staff accommodation, cooling rooms, slaughtering facilities and meat processing facilities. Recent research conducted from one of my PhD students found that the average spend by product owners on infrastructure is just over R7 million (US$ 490 000), with some even spending up to R30 million (US$ 2.1 million). This all adds up to infrastructure development in rural areas. </p>
<p>This again created an economic stimulus in these rural areas.</p>
<h2>Species conservation</h2>
<p>There is more wildlife in South Africa than there was 50 or 60 years ago. There are now estimated 19 million head of game in the country compared to the 1950 when there were less than half a million <a href="https://www.loot.co.za/product/peter-flack-the-south-african-conservation-success-stor/mfjr-1852-g960">individuals left</a>.</p>
<p>The reason for this is that there is more land under conservation in South Africa today than in the 1950s or 1960s, mainly driven by hunting which gave wildlife an economic value. It’s <a href="https://www.loot.co.za/product/peter-flack-the-south-african-conservation-success-stor/mfjr-1852-g960">estimated</a> that the private wildlife industry is managing an estimate 20 million hectares, compared to the +-6 million hectares owned by the state (national parks, provincial parks and others state-owned conservation areas). </p>
<p>These private reserves rely heavily on hunting to keep their businesses going and hunters need game to hunt. Therefore private reserve owners often need to breed game for this purpose. </p>
<p>One consequence is that species such as the tsessebe, roan antelope, sable, bontebok and rhino have been saved from extinction as private wildlife reserve owners bread with these species, as it has financial gain for them. Hunting, therefore, remains very relevant to South Africa, and southern Africa.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106715/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peet Van Der Merwe receives funding from NRF and WRSA.
We conduct research for WRSA, SA Hunters and PHASA</span></em></p>The economic, social and conservation reasons why hunting remains relevant in southern Africa.Peet Van Der Merwe, Professor in Tourism, North-West UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/547462016-02-17T19:17:36Z2016-02-17T19:17:36ZGoing on safari? Research shows ecotourism can help save threatened species<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111622/original/image-20160216-22587-z3cdft.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Black rhino cow and calf, southern Africa.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Guy Castley</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Should your next holiday include a safari, whale watching, or a trip to a tiger temple? Ecotourism has recently been in the spotlight. For instance, we’ve seen claims that <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/asia/india/articles/Tiger-increase-in-India-proof-of-the-benefits-of-tourism/">tourism helps conserve tigers</a> and that it has been linked to <a href="http://www.natgeotraveller.in/web-exclusive/web-exclusive-month/video-evidence-links-thailands-tiger-temple-to-wildlife-trafficking/">wildlife trafficking</a>. </p>
<p>But how can we tell if ecotourism is good or bad for threatened species? In our research published today in PLOS ONE we looked at nine different species, and found that overall, <a href="http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0147988">ecotourism is good for wildlife</a>. <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22685553/0">Great green macaw</a> in Costa Rica, <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22695180/0">Egyptian vultures</a> in Spain, <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/39876/0">hoolock gibbons</a> in India, <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22697810/0">African penguins</a>, <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/12436/0">African wild dogs</a>, <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/219/0">cheetahs</a>, and <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/11506/0">golden lion tamarins</a> in Brazil all benefited from tourism. </p>
<p>But we also found that current tourism levels aren’t enough to help <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/39780/0">orang utans in Sumatra</a>, and are actually bad for <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/17026/0">sea lions in New Zealand</a>. So how do we get the balance right?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111589/original/image-20160216-22570-r50hai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111589/original/image-20160216-22570-r50hai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111589/original/image-20160216-22570-r50hai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111589/original/image-20160216-22570-r50hai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111589/original/image-20160216-22570-r50hai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111589/original/image-20160216-22570-r50hai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=636&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111589/original/image-20160216-22570-r50hai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=636&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111589/original/image-20160216-22570-r50hai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=636&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">African penguins in Algoa Bay, South Africa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Guy Castley</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What is ecotourism?</h2>
<p>“Ecotourism” is a very broad term. It may include visitors to public national parks, volunteers for community projects, or adventurous expeditions to remote regions. Some may even include hunting safaris. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/can-tourism-really-have-conservation-benefits-1337">Ecotourism has both positive and negative effects</a>. It can contribute to conservation, or impact wildlife, or both. Some effects are small, others large; some direct, others indirect. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21628860-200-endangered-animals-caught-in-the-tourist-trap/">Attitudes of local communities</a> towards native wildlife, for example, influence whether they support or oppose poaching. Furthermore, income from ecotourism may be used for conservation and local community development projects, but not always.</p>
<p>We also need some way to measure ecotourism effects on wildlife? Many ecotourism measures are social or economic rather than ecological. It’s often difficult to compare positive and negative impacts on a species. Therefore, quantifying the net effect of ecotourism is challenging. </p>
<p>For species at risk of extinction, such as those in the <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/">International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List</a>, it is critical to be able to assess how various threats, including tourism, affect their survival. So we wanted to develop a way of measuring how ecotourism affects the risk of extinction for these species. </p>
<h2>Measuring ecotourism</h2>
<p>Previously when considering ecotourism researchers looked at revenue to parks, and how much of a species’ global population was protected by these parks. </p>
<p>This approach showed that tourism funding is significant for many IUCN Redlisted <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0044134">mammals</a>, <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0062598">birds</a> and <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0043757">amphibians</a>. But it doesn’t tell us whether ecotourism will help or harm a specific species or population.</p>
<p>Our new approach uses population analysis (specifically population viability analysis). This sort of analysis is the gold standard for predicting future population trends, and probable time to extinction, for threatened species. </p>
<p>We looked at how populations changed over time in response to threatening processes, by simulating births and deaths one generation at a time. We do this thousands of times to estimate extinction risk. These methods are well-tested and widely-used in practical wildlife management. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111750/original/image-20160217-19269-1y39fjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111750/original/image-20160217-19269-1y39fjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111750/original/image-20160217-19269-1y39fjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111750/original/image-20160217-19269-1y39fjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111750/original/image-20160217-19269-1y39fjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111750/original/image-20160217-19269-1y39fjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111750/original/image-20160217-19269-1y39fjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111750/original/image-20160217-19269-1y39fjh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">African wild dogs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ralf Buckley</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To do this we need to know a couple of things about the species we are looking at: habitat area; population size and age. We also need to know the birth and death rates for different ages as well as migration patterns. This information exists only for some threatened species such as those used in our study.</p>
<p>We also need to be able to convert ecotourism effects into these measures of species performance. By looking at how ecotourism affects these aspects we can compare ecotourism to other threats such as poaching, logging, or fishing. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111786/original/image-20160217-19250-1c2lrz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111786/original/image-20160217-19250-1c2lrz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111786/original/image-20160217-19250-1c2lrz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111786/original/image-20160217-19250-1c2lrz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111786/original/image-20160217-19250-1c2lrz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111786/original/image-20160217-19250-1c2lrz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111786/original/image-20160217-19250-1c2lrz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111786/original/image-20160217-19250-1c2lrz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A tiger in India (from the back of an elephant)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ralf Buckley</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Winners and losers</h2>
<p>For seven of the species that we looked at, ecotourism provides net conservation gains. This is achieved through establishing private conservation reserves, restoring habitat or by reducing habitat damage. Removing feral predators, increasing anti-poaching patrols, captive breeding and supplementary feeding also helps.</p>
<p>But for orang utans in Sumatra, small-scale ecotourism cannot overcome the negative impacts of logging. However, larger-scale ecotourism yields a net positive outcome by enabling habitat protection and reintroduction of individuals from captive situations.</p>
<p>Unfortunately for New Zealand’s sea lions, ecotourism only compounds the impacts of intensive fisheries, because it increases the number of sea lion pups dying as a result of direct disturbance at haul out sites.</p>
<p>Our research highlights three key messages. The first is that to predict how ecotourism affects wildlife, we need to know basic things about them: ecotourism needs biologists as well as social scientists. </p>
<p>The second is that the effects of ecotourism are not universal: whether ecotourism is good or bad depends on the species and local circumstances. </p>
<p>The third, and perhaps most important, is that ecotourism, at appropriate levels, can indeed help to save threatened species from extinction.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111591/original/image-20160216-6548-1h4w3jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111591/original/image-20160216-6548-1h4w3jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111591/original/image-20160216-6548-1h4w3jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111591/original/image-20160216-6548-1h4w3jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111591/original/image-20160216-6548-1h4w3jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111591/original/image-20160216-6548-1h4w3jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111591/original/image-20160216-6548-1h4w3jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/111591/original/image-20160216-6548-1h4w3jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">River ecotourism at the Storms River Mouth, Tsitsikama National Park, South Africa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Guy Castley</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/54746/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Next time you plan a holiday you can rest assured that wildlife sightseeing can help some threatened species.Guy Castley, Senior Lecturer, Griffith UniversityClare Morrison, Research Fellow - Academic Editor, Griffith UniversityRalf Buckley, International Chair in Ecotourism Research, Griffith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/525032016-01-12T04:29:08Z2016-01-12T04:29:08ZWhy millions chose Africa as their safari destination<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107506/original/image-20160107-13986-14209ym.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Africa is the go-to destination for tourists seeking animal safari trips.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>More than <a href="http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/Africa/Report/africa-tourism-report-2013-factsheet.pdf">30 million</a> tourists visit Africa every year. Over half of the international arrivals are for business purposes, and may partake in tourist activities as well, while 15% travel for pure tourism and 30% visit friends and family. </p>
<p>Tourists select the continent as a destination for wildlife viewing and to enjoy the sunny skies. Africa is the world’s number one destination for safaris which range from the exotic to the very simple. </p>
<p>The tourism industry is one of the most important for the continent: it provided 12.8 million people with jobs, directly and indirectly, in 2011. Tourism in 2012 contributed over US$36 billion or 2.8% of the continent’s <a href="http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/Africa/Report/africa-tourism-report-2013-factsheet.pdf">GDP</a>.</p>
<p>The continent’s vast and diverse nature makes it complex and difficult to decide on the best region for a safari. But the east, central and southern parts of the continent are by far the <a href="http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/Africa/Report/africa-tourism-report-2013-extracted-figures.pdf">preferred choices</a>. These areas generally have well developed or fast developing tourism sectors. There is an abundance of wildlife as well as low to no visa requirements. Tourists to these regions mostly come <a href="http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/Africa/Report/africa-tourism-report-2013-extracted-figures.pdf">from</a> countries like France, the UK, the USA, Germany and Portugal.</p>
<p>Below is a quick guide to some of the safari hot spots on the African continent.</p>
<h2>East Africa</h2>
<p>East African countries are strongly reliant on the tourism industry for generating income. Strong improvements in marketing and cooperation between these nations will help to ensure the success of this vital tourism <a href="http://www.eac.int/travel/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=114&Itemid=85">sector</a>.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.eac.int/travel/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=113&Itemid=84">Standardised criteria</a> for hotels, restaurants and other services across these countries will make it easier for tourists to find suitable services. These countries possess various natural and cultural resources that make tourism possible.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.expertafrica.com/tanzania/info/serengeti-wildebeest-migration">Serengeti wildebeest migration</a> is the main reason Kenya and Tanzania have become popular safari destinations. This migration sees millions of wildebeest, accompanied by various other animal species, move between Tanzania and Kenya. The best places to view this migration include Kenya’s <a href="http://www.masaimara.com/">Masai Mara</a> and Tanzania’s <a href="http://www.tanzaniaparks.com/serengeti.html">Serengeti National Park.</a> .</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107507/original/image-20160107-13983-64ru4t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107507/original/image-20160107-13983-64ru4t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/107507/original/image-20160107-13983-64ru4t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107507/original/image-20160107-13983-64ru4t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107507/original/image-20160107-13983-64ru4t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107507/original/image-20160107-13983-64ru4t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107507/original/image-20160107-13983-64ru4t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/107507/original/image-20160107-13983-64ru4t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A wildebeest crosses a river during the Serengeti migration.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>And while in the area, don’t forget to visit Africa’s highest mountain - <a href="http://www.tanzaniaparks.com/kili.html">Mount Kilimanjaro</a> in Tanzania’s Kilimanjaro National Park.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.ngorongorocrater.org/">Ngorongoro Crater Conservation Area</a> is also a great choice with an abundance of <a href="http://big5.southafrica.net/#intro-video">big 5</a> - the African elephant, African lion, white/black rhinoceros, African leopard and the Cape buffalo - and will not disappoint.</p>
<h2>Central Africa</h2>
<p>Civil wars and terrorist groups have made it dangerous to travel to some countries in this region. Many tourists still take their chances, though, as Central Africa is an area of immense natural beauty. </p>
<p>The Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda are great places to view the endangered <a href="http://www.animalfactguide.com/animal-facts/mountain-gorilla/">mountain gorillas</a>. The best places for viewing them include the <a href="https://virunga.org/">Virunga National Park</a> in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, <a href="http://www.ugandawildlife.org/explore-our-parks/parks-by-name-a-z/mgahinga-gorilla-national-park">Mgahinga Gorilla National Park</a> in south-west Uganda, or <a href="http://www.volcanoesnationalparkrwanda.com/">Volcanoes National Park</a> in north-west Rwanda.</p>
<p>Various factors have threatened the population of gorillas, including poaching, habitat loss, disease, war and unrest and poverty. Today, due to conservation efforts, the population of mountain gorillas is showing steady growth. The fact that many tourists want to get up close to these animals also drives conservation efforts, since with tourism comes economic improvement. </p>
<p>If you’d prefer to take part in Africa’s best on-foot chimpanzee encounters, visit <a href="http://www.kibaleforestnationalpark.com/">Kibale Forest</a> in Uganda.</p>
<h2>Southern Africa</h2>
<p>South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi offer very diverse wildlife. This is because of the variety of <a href="http://www.plantzafrica.com/frames/vegfram.htm">biomes</a> in the region.</p>
<p><a href="http://chobenationalpark.co.za/">Chobe National Park</a> is home to the biggest concentration of elephants in the world - 70 000 of them. It lies between the Chobe River and the Okavango Delta in the north eastern parts of Botswana. Also in Botswana, the <a href="http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/destination/moremi-game-reserve">Moremi Game Reserve</a>, in the iconic Okovango Delta, is the first reserve in Africa to be established by local residents.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://etoshanationalpark.co.za/">Etosha National Park</a> in the northern arid region of Namibia offers great chances of spotting endangered black rhinoceros as well as flamingos in the salt pans.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.sanparks.co.za/parks/kruger/">Kruger National Park</a> in South Africa is in its own league because of its <a href="https://www.safaribookings.com/kruger/wildlife">diversity of animals</a> as well as advanced environmental management techniques and policies.</p>
<p><a href="http://isimangaliso.com/">iSimangaliso Wetland Park</a> was the first site in South Africa to be awarded World Heritage status. It contains most of South Africa’s remaining swamp forests and is Africa’s largest estuarine system, which is a partially enclosed body of water where fresh water from rivers and streams mix with salt water from the ocean. The park borders Kosi Bay and St Lucia Lake which is the only place in the world where you can find sharks, hippopotamus and crocodiles in the same body of water.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.sanparks.org/parks/addo/tourism/get_there.php">Addo Elephant National Park</a> in the Eastern Cape province is the only park where you can find the <a href="http://www.southafrica.net/za/en/articles/entry/article-southafrica.net-the-big-7">Big 7</a>: the African elephant, Cape buffalo, African lion, African leopard, African rhino as well as whales and Great White sharks.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.sanparks.co.za/parks/kgalagadi/">Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park</a> consists of mostly unspoiled wilderness in the north of South Africa, crossing over into Botswana. This park is largely located in a desert area and is famous for animal species such as the <a href="http://www.southafrica.net/za/en/articles/entry/article-southafrica.net-kalaharis-black-maned-lions">Kalahari black-maned lions</a> and the <a href="http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_gemsbok.html">Gemsbok or Oryx</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/52503/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marco Scholtz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Safaris are a major tourist attraction for those travelling to Africa - and visitors are spoiled for choice on the continent.Marco Scholtz, Senior Lecturer in tourism at Tourism Research in Economic Environs & Society(TREES), North-West UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.