tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/sports-performance-48693/articlesSports performance – The Conversation2023-07-06T14:50:23Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2087132023-07-06T14:50:23Z2023-07-06T14:50:23ZKetone drinks: do they really improve sports performance?<p>The stories of Asterix and his friend Obelix introduced us to a magic potion that comes in a small bottle and doesn’t taste good, but dramatically increases strength and fitness. Sports nutrition scientists have been trying to find or develop a compound with such characteristics for a long while. </p>
<p>Many supplements have been proposed, but few actually work. </p>
<p>The latest supplement receiving lots of attention is ketones. They come in small bottles and their taste is – to put it bluntly – horrible. Because of their high price and claimed improvement gains, many <a href="https://www.cyclingnews.com/news/guillaume-martin-joins-growing-calls-to-ban-ketones-for-reasons-of-fairness-in-the-peloton/">called for their ban</a>. But do they really improve performance?</p>
<p>First, let’s look at what ketones are.</p>
<p>During exercise, and also at rest, we get the required energy from breaking down carbohydrates and fats. While most tissues can use fats, the brain relies on glucose (a form of carbohydrate). Once carbohydrate stores in the body are exhausted, glucose starts being produced in limited amounts from other sources, including protein from skeletal muscle and byproducts of fat breakdown. This, however, provides less than what the brain needs, which is more than 100 grams of glucose daily. </p>
<p>When carbohydrate availability gets low, the liver starts converting fat into ketone bodies – as ketones are properly called – which provide an alternate source of <a href="https://iubmb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bmb.2005.49403304246">fuel for the brain</a>. Ketone bodies can also be used in other tissues, such as muscle, and could eventually be used as fuel during exercise.</p>
<p>One of the popular diets these days is the so-called <a href="https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/howto/guide/what-ketogenic-diet">keto diet</a>. The idea behind it is that if carbohydrate intake is reduced to less than 50 grams a day, the body produces ketone bodies for brain fuel while making other tissues rely on fat as a fuel. </p>
<p>While this diet may work for weight loss, many studies have shown that <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32358802/">sports performance is impaired</a>. This is not surprising as carbohydrates are essential for sustaining high-intensity exercise.</p>
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<img alt="Nuts, fish, avocado, oil" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535494/original/file-20230704-18-9olje9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535494/original/file-20230704-18-9olje9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535494/original/file-20230704-18-9olje9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535494/original/file-20230704-18-9olje9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535494/original/file-20230704-18-9olje9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535494/original/file-20230704-18-9olje9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535494/original/file-20230704-18-9olje9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The keto diet might help with weight loss, but sports people need carbs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/selection-good-fat-sources-healthy-eating-1033763875">Oleksandra Naumenko/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Ketone supplements - the best of both worlds?</h2>
<p>As ketone bodies can be a source of energy, just like carbohydrates and fats, scientists became interested in supplements that would increase ketone body concentrations in the blood without reducing carbohydrate availability. This way, at least in theory, sports people could benefit from using not only carbohydrates and fats but also ketone bodies – the use of which could spare precious carbohydrates that are stored in very limited quantities.</p>
<p>Many attempts have been made to develop a ketone supplement. Initially, most ketone supplements caused gastrointestinal issues and did not sufficiently increase ketone body availability. </p>
<p>For instance, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29109686/">an Australian study</a> published in 2017 undertaken in professional cyclists used a ketone diester (a ketone body bound to a compound called diester) supplement and reported impaired time-trial performance, accompanied by significant gut discomfort and a limited increase in ketone body availability. </p>
<p>A newer ketone monoester (ketone body bound to a compound called monoester) drink was shown not to cause gastrointestinal discomfort and to sufficiently increase ketone body concentrations in the blood. However, this still didn’t result in improved performance, as a new <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijsnem/33/4/article-p181.xml?content=abstract">study by researchers at McMaster University in Canada</a> showed. They found the ketone supplement impaired a 20-minute time-trial performance by 2.4% compared with a placebo. </p>
<p>The underlying mechanisms for these findings are not yet clear. The most likely explanation is that this reduction in exercise performance occurs because ketone supplements make the blood more acidic, something that has long been known to impair performance. </p>
<p>There is some limited evidence that combining ketones and sodium bicarbonate supplements <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32735112/">could counteract this</a>. However, the jury is still out <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33196605/">as not all the studies show this</a>.</p>
<h2>Ketones in recovery</h2>
<p>It appears that consuming ketones before or during exercise does not provide any benefits to exercise performance. Indeed, it can impair it. However, there is some evidence from KU Leuven, a research university in Belgium, that taking ketone supplements when recovering from endurance exercise can help reduce the symptoms (called “overreaching”) associated with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31039280/">overtraining</a>. But there is no evidence suggesting that ketone supplementation would provide benefits to athletes during normal training.</p>
<p>It seems ketones are nowhere near as efficient as the magic potion that Asterix used, and we will continue to be searching for the lost recipe of the series’ <a href="https://asterix.com/en/portfolio/getafix/">village druid Getafix</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208713/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Podlogar is affiliated with the University of Birmingham and BORA hansgrohe professional cycling team. </span></em></p>Ketone drinks are getting a lot of attention among sports people. Here’s what the evidence shows.Tim Podlogar, Research Fellow, School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1808902022-04-12T20:01:28Z2022-04-12T20:01:28ZHas the monitoring of professional athletes’ intimate information gone too far?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457596/original/file-20220412-17-cmehf3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C56%2C4179%2C2441&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past decade, the top end of sport has become saturated in data. Some of this is visible — such as match statistics, maximum speeds and distances covered — but a tremendous amount is invisible. </p>
<p>Athletes are continuously being tracked. Details on their precise location, physiology, well-being, sleep, and more are recorded round the clock through an array of <a href="https://science.org.au/datainsport">body-worn and observational technologies</a>. </p>
<p>This information, most of which is personal and sensitive, is processed by a complex and opaque transnational system of commercial entities, including cloud providers, device manufacturers, analytics developers and athlete management systems. </p>
<p>Given the sheer scale and number of entities involved, few people know where this information goes. It’s rare for sports scientists and support staff to be able to account for it, and rarer still for sports governing bodies and athletes themselves.</p>
<p>The justification from technology vendors and sports clubs is that all this information is collected to improve performance and reduce injury risk to athletes. </p>
<p>But a number of people in the sports sector have started asking questions: is the data collection actually delivering athletes benefits? What are the costs? And what are the implications beyond the sector?</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457220/original/file-20220410-41099-kjw8l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457220/original/file-20220410-41099-kjw8l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457220/original/file-20220410-41099-kjw8l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457220/original/file-20220410-41099-kjw8l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457220/original/file-20220410-41099-kjw8l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457220/original/file-20220410-41099-kjw8l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457220/original/file-20220410-41099-kjw8l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457220/original/file-20220410-41099-kjw8l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=611&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Professional athletes have their information collected around the clock.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Armelle Skatulski/UWA Minderoo Tech and Policy Lab.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<h2>Assessing the state of play</h2>
<p>To answer these questions, the Australian Academy of Science convened an <a href="https://science.org.au/datainsport">expert working group</a> over the past 18 months. The group, which we co-chaired, comprised a dozen experts from a range of fields including sports science, sports medicine, sports governance, artificial intelligence, law, policy, and social science. </p>
<p>The project drew on experience from a number of the working group’s members, who have worked for the past three decades in basketball, cricket, netball, rugby league, rugby union, football (soccer) and Australian rules football. We also interviewed 25 sports practitioners with experience working on professional sport codes in Australia, the United States and Europe.</p>
<p>Our findings, published today in a <a href="https://www.science.org.au/datainsport">discussion paper</a>, reveal the degree of personal and sensitive information collected from professional athletes is excessive, and often unjustified. </p>
<p>Our scientific review of the types of data being collected, and their use in professional sport, showed that much more information is collected than is demonstrably beneficial to athletes.</p>
<p>What’s more, how the information is being collected and used falls short of requirements laid out in Australian law. Excessive data collection that is neither demonstrably beneficial, nor lawful, has costs — not just for athletes, but for everyone who works in sport. </p>
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<h2>The great unpredictable drama of sport</h2>
<p>Currently in professional sport, the approach to athlete data is “collect everything you can” and “save it in case it’s useful”. This is the sort of environment susceptible to snake oil salesmen peddling the promise of artificial intelligence and machine learning. </p>
<p>But as our expert group warns, there’s a crucial limit to any promise that if we can just gather enough data, we can leverage it to predict injury and performance. </p>
<p>We found what we <em>can</em> collect on athletes is almost always a second-order proxy of what we actually <em>need</em> in order to understand causal mechanisms of performance and injury. </p>
<p>Say we want to predict the risk of soft-tissue injury. Metrics routinely collected in professional sport such as total running time, distance covered, and repeat sprint efforts can be used to calculate macro measures of muscle work. Some sports might also make relative assessments of muscular strength deficits and asymmetries.</p>
<p>Ultimately, these are all low-resolution data inputs about athlete movement, attempting to reflect how hard the muscles are working. But this is a long way from describing the multi-scale complexity of human function. No amount of machine learning can bridge this gap. </p>
<h2>Turning around unaccountable monitoring</h2>
<p>Where do athletes figure in how sporting leagues and clubs handle the often intimately revealing information about them? </p>
<p>Current practices in professional sport are out of step with <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2021C00452">Australian legal requirements</a>. Two major disconnects stand out. First, the category of “performance data” widely used in sport is not a legally recognised concept. </p>
<p>Rather, in law, the vast majority of what’s collected is actually health information, and requires much more robust protection and active athlete engagement.</p>
<p>Second, under <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2021C00452">Australian law</a>, sporting organisations are limited to holding information that is “reasonably necessary” to their functions or activities. Australia’s leading privacy regulator has <a href="https://www.oaic.gov.au/privacy/australian-privacy-principles-guidelines/chapter-3-app-3-collection-of-solicited-personal-information">confirmed</a> information “being entered in a database in case it might be needed in the future”, or being collected as part of “normal business practice”, simply <a href="https://www.oaic.gov.au/privacy/australian-privacy-principles-guidelines/chapter-b-key-concepts">does not satisfy</a> this test. </p>
<p>Professional sport is a workplace. Few of us would be comfortable in a workplace where, rather than being judged on the outcome of our efforts, our every tiny movement was being unnecessarily observed and judged.</p>
<h2>Remembering what works</h2>
<p>Athletes risk having their livelihoods affected by data and systems that do not adequately reflect them, and that they can’t contest. </p>
<p>At the same time, increasingly invasive data collection risks replacing expert specialists — such as exercise physiologists, biomechanists and sports psychologists – with data analysts who lack domain expertise in the complexities of human function, especially in the small and highly specific populations who compete at the pinnacle of sport. </p>
<p>Our paper calls for a conversation about legal and ethical guardrails, and improvements in literacy and governance needed to ensure athletes have their rights protected and promoted. This is both in their own interest and in the public interest. </p>
<h2>Change is coming</h2>
<p>In a tangible sense, we are pleased that key players in the sector have been inspired by our work to tackle the challenge.</p>
<p>Player associations like the Rugby League Players Association are working with researchers to establish scientifically rigorous studies in specific areas to validate whether players’ intimate information can be linked to health outcomes. This is happening at a small scale before being considered for a wider rollout.</p>
<p>The Australian Institute of Sport, and associated state and territory entities, have initiated the award-winning <a href="https://www.ais.gov.au/fphi">Female Performance & Health Initiative</a>. This has already led to restrained practices around <a href="https://player.vimeo.com/video/573552207?h=7fc352cd34">menstrual tracking</a> and other information collected on female athletes. </p>
<p>More broadly, the high performance system is implementing a long-term project, in partnership with the University of Western Australia, to establish a leading approach to athlete-centred data stewardship.</p>
<p>Just as Australia punches above its weight in the sporting arena, it has a historic opportunity to set forward-looking norms and standards around how it approaches athlete information. Let’s get ahead of the game.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/wearable-tech-at-the-olympics-how-athletes-are-using-it-to-train-to-win-163860">Wearable tech at the Olympics: How athletes are using it to train to win</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180890/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julia Powles is Chief Investigator on a grant to improve data governance and ethics in high performance sport, funded by the Australian Institute of Sport and National Institute Network. She is also Director of the UWA Minderoo Tech & Policy Lab, which receives unrestricted gift funding from Australian charitable organisation, Minderoo Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Toby Walsh receives funding from the Australian Research Council as an ARC Laureate Fellow. </span></em></p>The collection of athlete data in professional sport has outpaced legal requirements and scientifically-proven benefit to athletes.Julia Powles, Associate Professor of Law and Technology; Director, Minderoo Tech & Policy Lab, UWA Law School, The University of Western AustraliaToby Walsh, Professor of AI at UNSW, Research Group Leader, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1539442021-01-29T11:18:51Z2021-01-29T11:18:51ZCricket: Rishabh Pant’s historic innings against Australia can be explained with psychology<p>It’s probably too early to start comparing Indian cricketer Rishabh Pant to the great Brian Lara. But when Pant sealed India’s stunning recent win against Australia, it echoed other great final innings victories, particularly the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/1999/mar/31/cricket2">Lara-inspired West Indies win</a> against Australia in Barbados in 1999.</p>
<p>For India to successfully chase 328 runs on the final day was an amazing achievement, up there with the heroics of Ben Stokes at Headingley <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/aug/25/australia-ashes-england-third-test-ben-stokes-sensational">in 2019</a>. Stokes hit 135 runs to seal an unlikely win for England, including a final wicket partnership of 76 with Jack Leach who only scored a single run. In that knife-edge final period, just one mistake would have lost the game.</p>
<p>But it might just be topped by Lara’s 153 (not out) in 1999, because Lara was facing arguably the best ever bowling attack Australia has ever had in Glenn McGrath, Shane Warne, Jason Gillespie and Stuart MacGill.</p>
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<p>Nevertheless, India’s 2-1 series win has been referred to as one of the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/cricket/article-9162295/India-achieve-one-Test-crickets-greatest-victories-against-Australia.html">greatest victories</a> in test cricket. After all, they seemed down and out after being bowled out for a paltry 36 in the first test. </p>
<p>Many pundits were predicting a 4-0 <a href="https://www.insidesport.co/ind-vs-aus-test-series-india-will-lose-4-0-predicts-4-big-test-cricketers-can-india-fight-back/">clean sweep</a> for Australia. So when it came to the final test in Brisbane – where Australia hadn’t lost for 33 years – the odds were stacked against them.</p>
<p>But there was something about the positive psychological approach of the Indian team – and Pant, who stood out. While the commentators suggested he might “hunker down” and bat cautiously for a draw, Pant exuded belief that the chase was possible.</p>
<h2>The mindset</h2>
<p>What connects the performances of Pant, Lara and Stokes? All were aggressive left-handed batsmen, each occurred with the match and the series on a knife edge and all were achieved against strong, higher-ranked opponents – seemingly in the face of overwhelming odds.</p>
<p>But that’s not all. All three demonstrated a certain mindset and a belief in their own ability to succeed, approaching their task in an aggressive and positive manner. One psychological explanation that might explain these successes is the theory of “<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17509840902829331">challenge and threat</a>” states in athletes.</p>
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<p>Challenge and threat states occur when a player subconsciously weighs up the demands of the task at hand and evaluates them in line with their own personal resources to cope with the situation. When the demands outweigh the resources, a threat state emerges, with a player experiencing negative emotions that are likely to reduce performance. But when resources outweigh demands, players perceive their emotional responses as helpful to performance, and a challenge state emerges. </p>
<p>In other words, the demands faced by Pant and his teammates were huge. The strength of the opposition bowling attack, wickets being lost around him and the sheer scale of the 328 target (the previous record for a successful run chase in Brisbane was 236 in 1951).</p>
<p>Despite all these demands, Pant refused to play cautiously for a creditable draw. Instead, he rose to the challenge and attacked, believing in his ability to achieve an impossible win.</p>
<h2>Belief is everything</h2>
<p>Research has shown that the challenge state <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016787601830062X?casa_token=f9WnF3Ba8vYAAAAA:PIMHLWJnMRhUDL3zuYVWF0REkquMSwts-cvJbRfDejPx5s_iLZBo4BDpAxpN_Rdv87r0m2j99g">produces</a> better performance than the threat state. More specifically in cricket, a challenge state has been shown to produce better performance in <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jsep/35/4/article-p387.xml">a batting task</a> than a threat state, in a group of elite academy cricketers. </p>
<p>This finding also extends to other sports such as <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-56865-001">football</a> and <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jsep/35/6/article-p551.xml">golf</a> – as well as demonstrating benefits in other contexts, from <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00945.x">students</a> sitting exams to motor skill performance in <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-33333-001">surgical tasks</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17509840902829331">Research also suggests</a> that a challenge state brings about better performance because it improves aspects of cognitive function, such as decision making and attention.</p>
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<p>So what can a coach or psychologist do to help players enter high-pressure competitive situations in a state of challenge? First of all, the players need to believe they have <a href="http://eprints.glos.ac.uk/2878/">sufficient “resources”</a> to cope with the demands they face. Talk up their ability, skills and their accomplishments. Remind them of the times they played well and emphasise that the task should be attacked head on, rather than shied away from. </p>
<p>Psychological interventions may help too. For example, encouraging “physiological arousal” by viewing things which are often cited as signs of nervousness (increase in heart rate, sweaty palms or butterflies) <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26265345/">as good reactions</a>. They are good because they can help shift a “threatened” player into a challenge mindset.</p>
<p>Research has also identified the possible usefulness of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1469029219300263?casa_token=2h05eYLWQXYAAAAA:nDTKmVZuuqueJQlApy9L5GISbeDeSt-zAmVTAMsY3gih_6drxPXfp5UyXhoAVJg02Y50bNrGXkM">talking to yourself</a> and <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jsep/32/3/article-p339.xml">imagery</a> interventions (when players effectively rehearse successful performance in their minds) to develop a challenge state. </p>
<p>These different approaches may help coax out good performances in players of all abilities. They also give us a glimpse at what may have been going on in Pant’s mind as he put together one of the all-time great innings. But there will always be that element of mystery when it comes to great sporting achievements. Sometimes, fans just have to shake their heads and wonder: “how did they do that?”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153944/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>To overcome seemingly insurmountable odds, sportspeople need to enter a certain state of mind.Matthew Smith, Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Psychology, University of WinchesterMatt Jewiss, Lecturer in Skill Acquisition, University of HertfordshireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1422802020-07-10T04:05:47Z2020-07-10T04:05:47ZHowzat! We can all learn from elite batsmen, and not just about cricket<p>While many people may enjoy a game of backyard cricket, only a few go on to become elite professional batsmen in Australia.</p>
<p>Cricket batting is example of what human skills can achieve. The fastest bowling delivery speeds can <a href="https://sportsshow.net/fastest-bowlers-in-the-history-of-cricket/">exceed 150km/h</a>. That leaves a batsman with less than half a second to react.</p>
<p>And to complicate the challenge even further, the environment and pitch they play on can change the trajectory of the delivery every time.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-crowd-noise-matter-139662">Why does crowd noise matter?</a>
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<p>To find out what gives elite cricketers the edge we interviewed eight expert high-performance international or state-level coaches, who themselves were batsmen at those levels.</p>
<p>We asked them a series of questions to capture the skills they saw as underpinning batting expertise. The results were published recently in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0234802" title="Defining cricket batting expertise from the perspective of elite coaches">PLOS ONE</a>.</p>
<p>While the sample was small, there are not many people who were both elite-level players and coaches, so the research provides a unique understanding of the skills needed to become an expert in their field.</p>
<h2>Learn to adapt and know your limits</h2>
<p>A key finding of our study is that cricket batting can be viewed, at least in the minds of expert batsmen, as a battle for a sense of control of the game.</p>
<p>To gain this sense of control, batsmen must possess the skills to assess all the key environmental conditions, such as the opposition bowler’s plan, the pace of the ball off the pitch, and whether the situation of the game requires scoring or surviving.</p>
<p>An expert batsman’s ability to read these conditions and then adapt their strategy and technique was grounded in an understanding of their own game. One said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>You have to be adaptable to change the momentum of the innings – whether that is by batting through an hour or whether it is counter-attacking during a period.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But it’s not just about knowledge of their own strengths, it’s also about their limitations. As another said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>So if you get on a tough wicket … you’ve got to have the decision-making and planning and discipline to say, right now I can’t do that today, or, I can’t do that for the first hour or two; until the balls a bit older, or the wicket’s a bit flatter, or the ball is a bit closer to me.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Being able to accurately assess the opposition’s plan and the pitch conditions, and adapt accordingly, is no easy feat, and it doesn’t always go to plan.</p>
<p>A batsman’s worst enemy, as any sportsperson knows, can sometimes be themselves. The high-stakes, high-pressure situation within a game can create anxiety, clouding the ability to read the conditions, and have a negative impact on decision-making. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>So as cricketers we miss them all the time (a perceived scoring shot), and you have to just reset and refocus.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Routines and reflection</h2>
<p>How expert batsmen continually assess the state of the game and keep their emotions in check comes down to what they do between deliveries. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>A very important part of batting is … what you think about, and how you let the previous (ball) go, and then prepare (yourself) to be ready for the next one.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Expert batsmen highlighted these periods in between deliveries as crucial. They engaged in a process of reflection to update their knowledge of the key environmental conditions, such as the pitch or the way the opposition bowled.</p>
<p>A brief switch-off period between deliveries was also highlighted as crucial to help overcome mental and physical fatigue during performances that can stretch for hours or across days.</p>
<p>To help with that process, expert players develop routines.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Everybody has a routine. When I talk to people, particularly good players, their routines aren’t that dissimilar. There is a physical aspect to it, at the end of each ball they have a break so they might walk down the pitch and pat down imaginary things, or they might walk out towards square leg, just take a few steps away and walk back in again.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Now you know what’s happening next time you see a batsman walk about the pitch between play.</p>
<h2>We can all learn from elite players</h2>
<p>Traditionally in sport, expertise has been thought of as the attainment of near-flawless technical abilities. But at the professional level that’s what all players from both sides are hoping to achieve.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/video-explainer-how-cricket-captains-make-good-decisions-88384">Video explainer: How cricket captains make good decisions</a>
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<p>For those players to have the edge, our research shows technical ability is only part of the game. The ability to be flexible, learn and adapt to each environment is seen as critical, including the ability to learn from any mistakes.</p>
<p>Taking that time to reflect on what just happened is crucial. And what happens between each delivery can sometimes be just as important as how they play the delivery itself.</p>
<p>Incorporating these ideas within any coaching practices, be it sport or something else, could greatly benefit the development of any expertise.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142280/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Connor was formerly a PhD scholar with Cricket Australia. </span></em></p>It’s what batsmen do on the pitch in between a bowler’s delivery that helps make them an expert in the game. They also need routines.Jonathan Connor, Lecturer, James Cook UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1227812019-09-08T19:59:31Z2019-09-08T19:59:31ZWill the genetic screening of athletes change sport as we know it?<p>Since the first mapping of the human genome there has been interest in understanding which genetic factors underpin performance in sport. </p>
<p>With the rise of genetic testing among athletes, it remains to be seen exactly how the world of elite sport will be affected. </p>
<p>Last year the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/china-begin-using-genetic-testing-select-olympic-athletes-1099058">revealed</a> China will use genetic testing on its athletes ahead of the 2022 Winter Olympics, incorporating it into the official athlete selection process. </p>
<p>Concerns are mounting as the falling cost of genetic testing lead to worldwide interest in commercialising it. This is resulting in more <a href="http://pilarmartinescudero.es/2017%20en-mar/Genetic%20testing%20for%20sport%20perfomance.%20Practical%20and%20ethical%20considerations.pdf">direct-to-consumer</a> tests being offered, without input from medical practitioners or genetic counselling. </p>
<p>Critics of these services worry about the quality controls of the genetic analyses and interpretation of results. They argue the services could lead to significant misinformation which could negatively impact an athlete’s sporting future. </p>
<h2>A specialised approach</h2>
<p>Two <a href="https://journals.lww.com/mejmedgen/Fulltext/2012/07000/Genetic_polymorphism_studies_in_humans.1.aspx">gene variants</a> are commonly linked with sports performance. These are ACE II (associated with endurance athletes) and ACTN3 RR (associated with sprinters and power athletes). </p>
<p>While there is strong evidence these genes are related to sports performance, there’s little evidence that an individual’s sporting performance capacity can be <a href="https://theconversation.com/born-to-win-top-athletes-dont-share-a-single-talent-gene-but-hundreds-of-them-43816">predicted</a> based on genes.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/athletic-ability-and-genetics-can-science-spot-a-sure-fire-winner-7991">Athletic ability and genetics: can science spot a sure-fire winner?</a>
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<p>This is because sport is complex and very few sports are classified as solely a sprint, power or endurance sport. Also, many factors underpin athletic success including a broader variety of genetic traits and physical, environmental and psychological elements. All of these work in concert to impact overall performance. </p>
<p>That said, a knowledge of genetic predispositions is a potentially <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/bjsports/53/18/1141.full.pdf">valuable tool</a> for understanding individual responses to exercise training. </p>
<p>It’s possible understanding the relationships between genes and individual training responses can be used to better <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0207597">individualise athlete training programs</a>. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0207597">paper published this year</a> reported those with particular gene variants linked to aerobic training adaptations showed greater training responsiveness after eight weeks of targeted training. </p>
<p>Therefore, genetic testing could potentially be used to personalise an athlete’s training program and improve the efficiency and results of training processes. </p>
<h2>The ethical considerations</h2>
<p>The debate over whether genetic testing of athletes actually works has been around for some time, especially regarding recruitment and selection programs. </p>
<p>Many are worried its use to determine sporting potential will pose a significant challenge to the <a href="https://www.olympic.org/the-ioc/promote-olympism">spirit of the Olympics</a> and similar contests.</p>
<p>In 2015 researchers examined the available literature on direct-to-consumer genetic testing for sports performance and talent identification, and published a <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/49/23/1486.long">consensus statement</a>. This was followed by the Australian Institute of Sport’s <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/51/1/5.long">2016 Position Stand</a>.</p>
<p>In these documents, genetics experts suggest no child or young athlete should have their training altered or be talent-spotted based on direct-to-consumer genetic testing. This is due to concerns around a lack of evidence-based interpretation of results, which may give aspiring athletes incorrect advice about their suitability for a sport. </p>
<p>Because of the complex nature of sports performance, the authors of the AIS Position Stand suggest genetic testing should never be used for inclusion or exclusion in a talent-identification program. They say the “use of genetic phenotypes as an absolute predictor of athletic prowess or sport selection is unscientific and unethical”.</p>
<p>In 2003 the Australian Law Reform Commission and National Health and Medical Research Council <a href="https://www.alrc.gov.au/publication/essentially-yours-the-protection-of-human-genetic-information-in-australia-alrc-report-96/executive-summary-2/">recommended</a> discrimination laws be amended to make it illegal to discriminate on a person’s real or perceived genetic status. </p>
<p>The fact is, there is great potential for genetic testing to result in discrimination.</p>
<h2>Keeping up with the inevitable</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://www.termedia.pl/The-current-use-and-opinions-of-elite-athletes-and-support-staff-in-relation-to-genetic-testing-in-elite-sport-within-the-UK,78,30816,0,1.html">study</a> published last year examining elite sport in the United Kingdom found that most athletes and support staff surveyed weren’t aware of genetic testing for sport performance (92%) or injury risk assessment (91%). </p>
<p>When sport support staff were asked if they would consider genetic testing of their athletes, most were interested in the relationship between genetics and performance (61%) and injury susceptibility (78%). When asked whether testing should be used as a talent-identification tool, 51% of support staff were less willing to consider it. </p>
<p>Nonetheless, several nations are turning to genetic testing to determine athletic potential. In 2014 it was revealed <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/02/uzbekistan-is-using-genetic-testing-to-find-future-olympians/283001/">Uzbekistan is also using genetic testing</a> as a tool for finding future Olympians. </p>
<p>There are concerns more countries will follow suit and this could lead Olympic sport down a slippery slope, or even encourage <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com.au/wada-test-rio-olympic-athletes-gene-doping-2016-8">gene doping</a> programs.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-gene-doping-and-will-any-athletes-at-rio-2016-have-tried-it-63230">Explainer: what is gene doping – and will any athletes at Rio 2016 have tried it?</a>
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<p>To ensure a future in which we harness genetic testing while not compromising on fairness in sport, we must further research the benefits of knowing how genetics relate to human performance and injury risk. And we should apply this knowledge to enhance training processes. </p>
<p>The future should’t be in excluding individuals from sport but in finding ways to use genetics to precisely prescribe athletes’ training programs. This will help them chase their unique sporting dreams while remaining true to the Olympic spirit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/122781/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>G. Gregory Haff does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Genetic testing could help us build targeted and effective training routines for athletes, but the emerging science could also introduce opportunity for discrimination in the sporting world.G. Gregory Haff, Professor of Strength and Conditioning, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1149812019-05-19T19:37:30Z2019-05-19T19:37:30ZIt’s not all gym junkies and ‘roid rage’ – people use steroids for a variety of reasons<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275059/original/file-20190517-69169-1nc7blt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Building muscle mass and strength is only one of a number of reasons people might use steroids.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scott Webb/Unsplash</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most media reports would have you believe steroid users are predominantly young men suffering a “<a href="https://www.pressandjournal.co.uk/fp/news/north-east/1497458/crisis-of-male-ego-could-explain-hundreds-of-north-east-men-taking-steroids-and-other-image-enhancers/">crisis of male ego</a>” who are on a “<a href="https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/beauty/for-men/the-deadly-crusade-to-get-ripped/news-story/0457a6e5a0e00ea49980e240fb991579">deadly crusade to get ripped</a>”. </p>
<p>The focus tends to be on <a href="https://www.theherald.com.au/story/2115988/steroids-kill-users-as-they-muscle-up/">health harms</a> and the <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/5166721/how-thousands-of-young-men-are-risking-their-lives-using-steroids-to-look-good/">danger associated</a> with using these substances.</p>
<p>After <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211266918300707">critically assessing</a> the research in this field, we found people use steroids for a variety of reasons. And while steroid use <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25986964">does carry risks</a>, not all users will develop personal problems or cause harm to others.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scapegoating-steroids-wont-make-for-a-safer-night-out-31062">Scapegoating steroids won't make for a safer night out</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Steroid use in Australia</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/cc3834004f50b372ac57ed330cda8a00/What+are+steroids+%2800498%29+2017.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=ROOTWORKSPACE-cc3834004f50b372ac57ed330cda8a00-meDa4x5">Anabolic-androgenic steroids</a> are synthetic variations of the male sex hormone testosterone. “Anabolic” refers to the drug’s capacity to increase protein synthesis, which results in increased muscle tissue. “Androgenic” refers to its properties in promoting the development of male sex characteristics (for example, deep voice and body hair).</p>
<p>Steroids are available via prescription, for example <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5109795/">to treat testosterone deficiency in men</a>. But as many people use steroids for non-medical reasons, they are <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12117-018-9348-5">often illegally obtained</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/illicit-use-of-drugs/2016-ndshs-detailed/report-editions">Population studies</a> (for example, surveys and waste water tests) show the use of steroids and other performance and image enhancing drugs in Australia is relatively low – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1047279714000398">between 0.1-0.8%</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-should-stop-beefing-up-its-steroid-laws-that-wont-help-users-77343">Australia should stop beefing up its steroid laws – that won't help users</a>
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<p>But other indicators, such as the volume of <a href="https://www.acic.gov.au/sites/default/files/iddr_2016-17_050718.pdf?v=1536906944">steroids confiscated</a> at the country’s borders and the number of steroid users accessing <a href="https://kirby.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/kirby/report/ANSPS_National-Data-Report-2013-2017.pdf">needle and syringe programs</a>, paint a different picture. </p>
<p>So we don’t know exactly how many people use steroids in Australia and whether this number is increasing.</p>
<h2>Many different types of users</h2>
<p>The caricature of non-medical steroid users as narcissistic “gym bros” suffering from body image issues provides a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29968372">simplistic account</a> of user motivations. It ignores the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09687637.2016.1231173">spectrum of people</a> who use steroids.</p>
<p>Typically, a person’s first experience using steroids occurs in <a href="http://www.ipedinfo.co.uk/resources/downloads/2016%20National%20IPED%20Info%20Survey%20report%20FINAL.pdf">their mid to late 20s</a>. Many users have an above average education and income, and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2131752/">are not involved in professional sports</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275061/original/file-20190517-69213-1peij2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275061/original/file-20190517-69213-1peij2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275061/original/file-20190517-69213-1peij2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275061/original/file-20190517-69213-1peij2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275061/original/file-20190517-69213-1peij2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275061/original/file-20190517-69213-1peij2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275061/original/file-20190517-69213-1peij2m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People tend to associate steroid use with aggression, but we don’t have clear evidence of a causal link.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">From shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Certainly many people use steroids for body image/cosmetic purposes, and to develop athletic performance – bodybuilding can encompass both.</p>
<p>But people also take steroids to support occupational performance. For example, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Dopers-Uniform-Hidden-Police-Steroids/dp/0292759487">police officers</a>, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/her/article/22/6/854/641893">security personnel</a> and prison guards have been reported to use steroids to improve physical performance on the job.</p>
<p>Research has also found some people <a href="http://www.ipedinfo.co.uk/resources/downloads/2016%20National%20IPED%20Info%20Survey%20report%20FINAL.pdf">use steroids</a> to achieve a youthful appearance, to increase sex drive and energy levels, or to aid recovery from illness or injury.</p>
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<p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/muscling-up-are-steroids-an-emerging-criminal-threat-21636">Muscling up: are steroids an emerging criminal threat?</a>
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<h2>Steroids and health harms: what do we know?</h2>
<p>The most <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20153798">commonly identified side effects</a> are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29994823">cosmetic in nature</a> (for example, acne) which are often reversible once steroid use is halted.</p>
<p>But several serious <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25986964">health harms</a> have been linked with steroid use, too. </p>
<p>There’s a growing body of evidence showing an association between the continued use of steroids and long-term health risks including <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28533317">heart disease and stroke</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25986964">cognitive deficiencies</a>.</p>
<p>Most knowledge about the harmful effects of steroids is at this stage based on low level evidence, such as expert opinion, case reports or small observational studies, so we still need stronger evidence. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29845939">Prospective clinical trials</a> which examine the efficacy and long-term effects of recreational steroid use are absent, but there are some <a href="https://europepmc.org/abstract/med/29845939">important studies</a> underway.</p>
<p>In a number of studies <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25922421">comparing harms from a variety of drugs</a>, relative to other drugs steroids consistently appear low on the list for general health harm as well as for physical, psychological and social harm to both users and society.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275078/original/file-20190517-69169-12008vn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275078/original/file-20190517-69169-12008vn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=815&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275078/original/file-20190517-69169-12008vn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=815&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275078/original/file-20190517-69169-12008vn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=815&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275078/original/file-20190517-69169-12008vn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1024&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275078/original/file-20190517-69169-12008vn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1024&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275078/original/file-20190517-69169-12008vn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1024&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Compared with other drugs, the harm resulting from steroid use is low.</span>
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<p>We must also appreciate the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/dar.12831">circumstances in which people</a> use steroids can contribute to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09687637.2016.1231173">their risk of harm</a>. For example, a person could be taking multiple substances simultaneously, or they might be using unverified products sourced illegally.</p>
<p>The type of steroids used, the dosage and the length of time someone has been using steroids are all relevant factors. So depending on their patterns of use, some people who use steroids will run greater health risks than others.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/muscle-mania-young-men-arent-alone-with-body-image-concerns-28385">Muscle mania: young men aren't alone with body image concerns</a>
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<h2>‘Roid rage’</h2>
<p>Another frequently cited side effect of non-medical steroid use is aggression and violence. In the mid-1980s, the notion steroid use leads to aggressive or violent behaviour became widespread, giving rise to the term “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25515831">roid rage</a>”.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15817752">Studies on animals</a> have found a direct link between testosterone and increased aggressive behaviour. We need further research to see <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27671627">whether or not this phenomenon translates to humans</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/in-debates-about-drug-use-fun-is-important-110696">In debates about drug use, fun is important</a>
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<p>There are likely to be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359178916300040?via%3Dihub">many factors</a> influencing the relationship between drugs (including steroids) and aggressive behaviour. This includes personality traits, neuropsychological risks, environmental influences, socioeconomic status, and/or the use of multiple substances at once.</p>
<p>While some people who use steroids report <a href="http://www.ipedinfo.co.uk/resources/downloads/2016%20National%20IPED%20Info%20Survey%20report%20FINAL.pdf">increased irritation</a>, the complexity of the relationship between hormones and behaviour suggests violent outbursts can’t simply be accorded to using steroids.</p>
<h2>Acknowledging pleasure</h2>
<p>A narrative centred on public health harms, the potential for violent behaviour and psychological disturbance naturally prioritises <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2581558">repressive means</a> to combat the issue (for example, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12117-018-9348-5">the criminalisation of drug users</a>). </p>
<p>This tends to exclude evidence-based approaches based in <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0091450917694268">public health and harm reduction</a> such as the provision of tailored safe injection advice, drug testing services, and medical monitoring for people who use steroids for non-medical reasons.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275062/original/file-20190517-69204-vaht4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/275062/original/file-20190517-69204-vaht4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275062/original/file-20190517-69204-vaht4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275062/original/file-20190517-69204-vaht4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275062/original/file-20190517-69204-vaht4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275062/original/file-20190517-69204-vaht4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/275062/original/file-20190517-69204-vaht4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Steroids are often obtained illegally without a prescription.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">From shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/add.12545">Research</a> in the field of alcohol and psychoactive drugs has highlighted the importance of acknowledging the <a href="https://theconversation.com/drugs-researchers-shouldnt-just-focus-on-the-harms-110852">benefits</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/in-debates-about-drug-use-fun-is-important-110696">pleasurable effects</a> of drug use by healthy individuals. </p>
<p>For example, studies exploring motivation for party drug use show fun and pleasure <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/add.12545">are central for users</a>. Participants in these studies report using drugs gives them energy and confidence, reduces inhibitions, enhances feelings of connection to others, and intensifies sexual experience.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/history-not-harm-dictates-why-some-drugs-are-legal-and-others-arent-110564">History, not harm, dictates why some drugs are legal and others aren't</a>
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<p>Similarly, bodybuilders <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12190264">derive aesthetic pleasure</a> from their body modification practices. Steroid users have also reported <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27955960">positive</a> and <a href="http://www.ipedinfo.co.uk/resources/downloads/2016%20National%20IPED%20Info%20Survey%20report%20FINAL.pdf">pleasurable</a> feelings such as increased libido, greater confidence and increased well-being and strength. </p>
<p>While the effects of steroid use differ from the “highs” of traditional drugs, they are nonetheless seen as pleasure-inducing and form part of the appeal of taking drugs in this context.</p>
<h2>Progressing drug policy</h2>
<p>Like all drugs, steroid use has the potential to cause harm. If you’re someone who uses steroids, it’s safest to do so under the advice and guidance of a medical professional.</p>
<p>At the same time, we need to acknowledge the role of pleasure and other benefits in the use of steroids. Failing to do so may hinder our ability to address the phenomenon and explore alternative regulatory models.</p>
<p>Rational and critical debates on this topic are particularly important in a world that appears increasingly eager to explore the opportunities for <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233726940_Human_Enhancement_Drugs_-_The_Emerging_Challenges_to_Public_Health">human enhancement</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114981/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When you think of steroid users, it’s likely you picture a male in the gym with huge muscles. But all sorts of people use steroids for all sorts of reasons.Katinka van de Ven, Research Fellow, Drug Policy Modelling Program, SPRC, UNSW SydneyKyle J.D. Mulrooney, Lecturer in Criminology, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1065392018-11-19T19:02:05Z2018-11-19T19:02:05ZYour riding position can give you an advantage in a road cycling sprint<p>Many professional road cycling events are hundreds of kilometres long, but the final placings are often decided by what happens in the last few seconds of any race stage.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0560">New research</a> shows that a rider can gain up to an extra 5kph advantage in those final sprint seconds, and it all depends on how they position themselves on their bicycle.</p>
<p>That can be enough to make the difference between winning or losing a race.</p>
<h2>Race to the finish</h2>
<p>If you’ve ever watched a professional road cycling event, either live or on television, you know they can go on for several days or even weeks.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/3d-concrete-printing-could-free-the-world-from-boring-buildings-106520">3D concrete printing could free the world from boring buildings</a>
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<p>But more than half of the stages during the Santos Tour Down Under and the Tour de France, as well as some of the recent World Championships, were won in either a head-to-head, small group, or mass sprint finish.</p>
<p>The average speed during professional road cycling sprints is 63.9kph (53.7-69.1kph) sustained for between 9 and 17 seconds for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1554697">men</a>, and 53.8kph (41.6-64kph) for 10-30 seconds for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0757">women</a>.</p>
<p>During the sprint, men produce peak power outputs between 13.9 and 20.0 Watts per kilogram (989-1,443 Watts), and women 10.8-16.2 Watts per kilogram (716-1,088 Watts).</p>
<p>But peak power output is not the only important factor to win the sprint, with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23038704">tactics</a> playing a significant role.</p>
<p>Our new research, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0560">published this month in the International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance</a>, shows that adopting a forward standing position during a sprint could give riders a speed boost of up to 5kph.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245432/original/file-20181113-194491-opqwqp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245432/original/file-20181113-194491-opqwqp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245432/original/file-20181113-194491-opqwqp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=236&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245432/original/file-20181113-194491-opqwqp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=236&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245432/original/file-20181113-194491-opqwqp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=236&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245432/original/file-20181113-194491-opqwqp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=297&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245432/original/file-20181113-194491-opqwqp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=297&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245432/original/file-20181113-194491-opqwqp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=297&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The three tested sprinting positions from left to right: seated, standing, and forward standing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The drag on a cyclist</h2>
<p>Cycling speed is affected by several factors, including power output, aerodynamic drag (CdA), road characteristics, and environmental variables. </p>
<p>During the sprint, roughly 95% of the total resistive forces working against the rider is caused by aerodynamic resistance. Therefore, it is important to reduce aerodynamic drag in road cycling, particularly during the sprint which is the fastest activity on the bicycle (with the exclusion of some downhill riding during a race).</p>
<p>Given that the outcomes of road cycling sprints are often decided by very small margins – in one race stage down to <a href="https://www.eurosport.com/cycling/tour-de-france/2017/tour-de-france-2017-stage-7-analysis-boasson-hagen-denied-win-by-just-0.0003-seconds_sto6245740/story.shtml">just 0.0003 seconds</a> – the aerodynamics are meaningful to overall sprint performances.</p>
<p>Studies on flow dynamics in cycling have shown that <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1754337114549876">lowering the head and torso</a> significantly reduces wind resistance. </p>
<p>That is why several cyclists have, over the past few years, begun to adopt a forward standing cycling sprint position. </p>
<p>This novel sprint position has already shown to be successful at the highest level of professional cycling, in events such as the Giro d’Italia and Vuelta a España and in Australia’s biggest road cycling race, the Santos Tour Down Under (see video, below). </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/IsB_Ad_0p9g?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Santos Tour Down Under 2016 stage 6 victory in the forward standing position.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Body position to the test</h2>
<p>To better understand why this forward standing position may give riders an advantage, we compared it with the more traditional seated and standing sprint positions. </p>
<p>During the study, participants rode 250 metres in two directions at 25kph, 32kph and 40kph and in each of the three positions, resulting in a total of 18 efforts per participant.</p>
<p>During these efforts we measured cycling velocity, power output, road gradient, wind velocity and direction, temperature, humidity, and barometric pressure. </p>
<p>We then used these variables, together with the weight of the cyclist and bicycle, and constants for rolling resistance and the efficiency of the drive system, in a mathematical model to calculate the aerodynamic drag.</p>
<p>This model has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000193560.34022.04">previously</a> been shown to give valid measurements compared with a wind tunnel.</p>
<h2>The results are in</h2>
<p>We found the forward standing cycling sprint position resulted in a 23-26% reduction in aerodynamic drag compared with a seated and standing position, respectively. </p>
<p>This decrease in drag could potentially result in an important increase in cycling sprint velocity of 3.9-4.9kph.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/skill-vs-luck-who-really-deserves-the-rewards-from-success-99766">Skill vs luck: who really deserves the rewards from success?</a>
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<p>Throughout the average duration of a typical road cycling sprint (about 14 seconds) this would result in a gain of 15-19 metres, which is why it could mean the difference between winning and losing a race. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SMHxtTdvW4U?wmode=transparent&start=26" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How ECU is helping the world’s best cyclists improving their sprint performance.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While this novel position was more aerodynamic, it is plausible that changes in body position may influence a rider’s movement kinetics, and therefore increasing or decreasing power output. This is currently under investigation in this PhD project.</p>
<p>But cyclists who want to improve their sprint performance might want to start practising the forward standing position. It takes time to learn how to sprint in that position but you could gain those aerodynamic benefits, and potentially win more races.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106539/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Franciscus Johannes Merkes receives funding from Orica-GreenEDGE and ECU (scholarship). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Abbiss has received funding from from New Global Cycling Services and Cycling Australia for research outlined in this article. </span></em></p>Most long distance road cycling events are won or lost in the final sprint of any race stage. Here’s one tip that could give you an extra 5kph advantage.Paul Franciscus Johannes Merkes, PhD candidate, Edith Cowan UniversityChris Abbiss, Associate professor, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/923662018-02-26T11:57:04Z2018-02-26T11:57:04ZCan coffee improve your workout? The science of caffeine and exercise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207827/original/file-20180226-120971-1b6j9ij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/resting-runner-260897984?src=XTj1Xdt-nA15eRNsMggkmg-1-1">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Caffeine is one of the most researched substances reported to help athletes perform better and train longer and harder. As a result, professional and amateur sportspeople often take it as a performance-enhancing “ergogenic” aids for a wide range of activities. These include intermittent exercise such as football and racket sports, endurance exercise such as running and cycling, and resistance exercise such as weightlifting.</p>
<p>But while most research looks at the effects of pure caffeine consumed as tablets with water, in the real world most people get their caffeine from coffee, energy drinks or other products like special gels or <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0848-2">chewing gum</a>. So will drinking a cup of joe before your workout actually make a difference? The answer could depend as much on your genes as what kind of coffee you’re drinking.</p>
<p><a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-7-5">Scientists think</a> caffeine affects the body chemical adenosine, which normally promotes sleep and suppresses arousal. Caffeine ties up the receptors in the brain that detect adenosine and so makes it more alert.</p>
<p>But it may also increase stimulation of the central nervous system, making exercise seem like it involves less effort and pain. In high-intensity activities such as resistance training or sprinting, it may increase the number of fibres used in muscle contractions, meaning movements can be more frequent and forceful. </p>
<h2>Faster, higher, stronger</h2>
<p>Research has shown that pure caffeine can help endurance athletes <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0257-8">run faster</a> and <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/7/7/5219/htm">cycle for longer</a>. It can help footballers to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3279366/">sprint more often and over greater distances</a>, and basketball players to <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/9/9/1033/htm">jump higher</a>. It can help <a href="http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/jcr.2012.0019?journalCode=jcr">tennis players</a> and <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/fulltext/2016/01000/Effect_of_Caffeine_on_Golf_Performance_and_Fatigue.18.aspx">golfers</a> to hit the ball with greater accuracy. And it can help <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2876999/pdf/1550-2783-7-18.pdf">weightlifters lift more weight</a>.</p>
<p>The evidence for caffeine’s effects on sprinting is more mixed. Limited improvements <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4663/4/3/45">have been found</a> for events lasting under three minutes. But for races of around ten seconds,
caffeine can improve peak <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-12-S1-P57">power output, speed, and strength</a>.</p>
<p>An increasing number of studies have also shown that coffee can be used as an alternative to caffeine to <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0059561">improve cycling</a> and <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0456?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed&">competitive running</a> performance, and produce similar results similar to pure caffeine. In fact, coffee may even be more effective at <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2016/10000/Effect_of_Coffee_and_Caffeine_Ingestion_on.27.aspx">improving resistance exercise than caffeine alone</a>. Similarly, drinking <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-10-1">energy drinks</a> containing caffeine before exercise can improve mental focus, alertness, anaerobic performance and endurance performance.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Total weight lifted when performing back squats to failure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2016/10000/Effect_of_Coffee_and_Caffeine_Ingestion_on.27.aspx">Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But drinking coffee isn’t like taking a measured dose of caffeine. The amount of stimulant in a cup, and so how it affects you, will depend on the blend of coffee and how it is brewed. Studies have shown consuming either <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0059561">0.15g</a> or <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0456?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed">0.09g</a> of caffeinated coffee per kilogram of body weight can improve performance. So a dessert spoon of coffee granules rather than a traditional teaspoon is probably best. </p>
<p>It’s also worth bearing in mind that each piece of research shows caffeine improves athletic performance of a group of people as a whole. But we also know that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5752738/pdf/40279_2017_Article_776.pdf">genetic factors</a> have a big influence on our responses to caffeine and not everyone reacts in the same way. This means consuming caffeine won’t necessarily improve your performance.</p>
<h2>Potential downsides</h2>
<p>In fact, you could end up feeling nauseated and jittery at a time when, if you are competing, you are already feeling anxious. And, as caffeine’s effects can linger for up to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK223808/">five hours</a>, taking it too late in the day could disrupt your sleep, which is a big factor in health and fitness in general. This means it’s important to practice with caffeine during training sessions or friendly fixtures before using it for an important event. </p>
<p>Some <a href="http://www.mysportscience.com/single-post/2017/06/18/Do-you-need-to-refrain-from-coffee-to-get-the-maximal-effect-of-caffeine">have also suggested</a> that you should abstain from caffeine in order to enjoy a better effect on your performance when you consume it for exercise. But maintaining your normal intake will prevent any <a href="https://theconversation.com/caffeine-withdrawal-drives-need-for-more-but-are-we-addicts-17380">possible withdrawal symptoms</a> and still provide benefits if caffeine is taken before exercise. Its effects peak between <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4898153/pdf/ictx-54-308.pdf">30 and 75 minutes after ingestion</a>.</p>
<p>Finally, it’s a a commonly held belief that caffeine is a diuretic that will lead to dehydration because it makes you produce more urine. But a <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0084154">number of studies</a> have shown that this isn’t the case with moderate amounts of coffee, cola or any other caffeinated beverage, which help keep you hydrated like any other drink.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92366/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Clarke receives funding from The Institute for Scientific Information on Coffee. </span></em></p>Drinking coffee before exercising could make you run faster and lift heavier - if you’ve the right genes.Neil Clarke, Principal Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Science at Coventry University, Coventry UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/921102018-02-21T23:58:54Z2018-02-21T23:58:54ZHow Olympians train their brains to become mentally tough<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207052/original/file-20180220-116343-z22voa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Olympic gold medallists Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir of Canada are artists on ice, but behind their performance is years of training to be mentally tough during competition.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Paul Chiasson</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We have witnessed <a href="http://nationalpost.com/sports/olympics/canadas-tessa-virtue-and-scott-moir-win-gold-in-olympic-ice-dance">some exceptional performances during the Pyeongchang Winter Olympics</a>. For any athlete to deliver a gold medal performance, mental toughness is an essential ingredient. But what exactly is mental toughness — and how does an athlete develop it?</p>
<p>Research published in the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02640410903081845"><em>Journal of Sports Sciences</em></a> has found successful Olympians have a high degree of self-confidence, are able to block out distractions, manage their arousal level, are goal-oriented and demonstrate a healthy form of perfectionism. </p>
<p>On a personal note, as an Olympian and a registered member with the Canadian Sport Psychology Association, I have used both strategies to enhance my own mental toughness and I now assist athletes as a consultant to develop those skills. </p>
<p>When it comes to sport psychology, mental toughness is possibly one of the most widely used terms, and yet, there is no agreement on its definition.</p>
<p>In a seminal study, researchers Graham Jones, Sheldon Hanton and Declan Connaughton <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235913830_What_Is_This_Thing_Called_Mental_Toughness_An_Investigation_of_Elite_Sport_Performers">determined mental toughness to be an athlete’s ability to outperform their competitors in managing demands and demonstrating consistency, drive, focus, confidence and control under pressure</a>. They also found mental toughness to be a characteristic that was both innate and developed over time, meaning an athlete who doesn’t appear to be “born with it” can certainly cultivate it. </p>
<p>Mental toughness is essentially a constellation of various mental skills, including unshakeable self-belief, resiliency, motivation, focus and the ability to perform under pressure, as well as to manage physical and emotional pain.</p>
<p>In sport psychology, we use mental skills training to help athletes develop mental toughness. Mental skills training involves assessing athletes’ areas of strengths and weaknesses and devising a program that builds key areas essential to their sport and their individual needs. </p>
<p>While the needs of each athlete will vary, there are common strategies used by many Olympians. </p>
<h2>Goal-setting</h2>
<p>Olympians will engage in various goal-setting strategies to deliver a successful performance. While they may have an outcome goal of winning a medal or placing among the top finishers, they will also set performance goals and process goals.</p>
<p>Performance goals are self-referenced and may involve the goal of achieving a new personal best. Process goals direct athletes’ attention to the execution of technical elements necessary to be successful. They are the “hows” and “ways” to achieving an outcome or performance goal.</p>
<p>For example, a figure skater who has a goal of winning a medal and successfully executing his quad jumps may shift his attention to the elements within the jump he knows he can do — and must do — to be successful in landing each jump. This will also elevate his confidence and minimize any distracting thoughts of failure or things he cannot control, such as his opponents. For some athletes, focusing on the outcome can actually distract them and cause them to become their own worst enemy. </p>
<p>Nathan Chen, the U.S. figure skater who bounced back from a disastrous short program to execute a record six quad jumps in the free skate at the Winter Olympics, has talked about <a href="http://time.com/5164041/quad-jump-figure-skating-olympics/#t=28s">the “mental energy” needed for each specific jump in his free skate program</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207313/original/file-20180221-132674-190cz5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207313/original/file-20180221-132674-190cz5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207313/original/file-20180221-132674-190cz5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207313/original/file-20180221-132674-190cz5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207313/original/file-20180221-132674-190cz5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207313/original/file-20180221-132674-190cz5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207313/original/file-20180221-132674-190cz5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">U.S. figure skater Nathan Chen, who executed a record six quad jumps during the men’s free skate at the Pyeonchang Olympics, says he mentally breaks down each jump before his performances.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Paul Chiasson</span></span>
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<h2>Self-talk</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.uky.edu/%7Eeushe2/Bandura/BanEncy.html">Self-efficacy</a> is the unshakeable belief of an athlete that they can meet the challenge they are facing. It is arguably the cornerstone for any great performance. Self-talk is a strategy that can positively influence self-efficacy and performance.</p>
<p>Self-talk is the internal dialogue we have with ourselves. In a given day we have over 50,000 thoughts. Thoughts are powerful and can affect an athelete’s confidence. While it’s impossible for an athlete to keep track of all the thoughts they may have in a given day, athletes can engage in positive self-talk. Such talk can include affirmations of their strength, and cue words that pump them up or manage their nerves. It can include simple reminders of where their focus should be and what it is they need to execute.</p>
<p>Successful Olympians manage their thoughts effectively, ensuring they are their own best friend at the top of the slope or stepping out onto centre ice. Ultimately, this process has the incredible ability to make an athlete feel confident, in control and ready to face any challenge. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207188/original/file-20180220-161902-cz8ync.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207188/original/file-20180220-161902-cz8ync.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207188/original/file-20180220-161902-cz8ync.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207188/original/file-20180220-161902-cz8ync.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207188/original/file-20180220-161902-cz8ync.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207188/original/file-20180220-161902-cz8ync.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207188/original/file-20180220-161902-cz8ync.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Canada’s Cassie Sharpe skis to a gold medal win during the women’s ski halfpipe at the Pyeongchang 2018 Winter Olympic Games. Competitors like Sharpe often visualize their entire performance – including twisting their bodies to simulate the moves – moments before starting their routines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jonathan Hayward</span></span>
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<h2>Imagery</h2>
<p>Imagery can be one of the more difficult skills to learn but, when well executed, it enables an Olympian to envision performing their discipline from start to finish as if they were doing it in real time.</p>
<p>Imagery involves visualizing the actual action an athlete would like to execute and engages all of their senses. What is most incredible is that when it is well practised, the muscles involved in the activity in real life will fire in the same sequence and rate — as if the activity was actually being performed.</p>
<p>As an Olympian, imagery was one of the mental skills I relied on the most.</p>
<p>In my preparation for competition, I would spend hours envisioning what I wanted to execute and how it should feel. I would even create bad scenarios that could occur, feeling the pressure and discomfort, and rehearse what my appropriate response would be. When it was time to compete, I felt ready for any and every situation. This was easily the hardest area of my preparation but something critical to perform well when it counted most.</p>
<p>In the <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/olympics/2018-pyeongchang-winter-olympics-sledding-team-canada-interactive/article37836637/">sliding events like luge and bobsleigh, we see athletes practice imagery</a> the most. The gravitational force these athletes are subjected to poses a health risk and limits their ability to physically practice their discipline. </p>
<h2>Arousal control</h2>
<p>Olympians have a sweet spot for how they like to feel when performing their best. This is their optimal arousal level. Some athletes prefer being very pumped up while others may enjoy being so calm you wonder whether they know they are about to compete.</p>
<p>Like a thermostat that regulates the temperature of a house, successful Olympians are well dialed into their level of arousal. If they find they are outside of this zone, they will regulate it.</p>
<p>For example, an athlete can lower their arousal level by taking deep breaths from their diaphragm and engaging in self-talk to become more calm. Likewise, an athlete may elevate their arousal level with shorter breaths or by listening to music. The most important thing here is for the athlete to feel in control of how they feel. </p>
<p>When it comes to high performance, there is no question being mentally tough places any athlete at an advantage over their competitor. While it may be possible for some athletes to have this innate quality, it can certainly be harnessed and developed.</p>
<p>The importance of the mental toughness is well understood by successful Olympians. Most world-class athletes understand developing their mental skills is as important as working on their physical and technical skills.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92110/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole W. Forrester does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>For any athlete to deliver a gold medal performance, mental toughness is an essential ingredient. But what exactly is mental toughness — and how does an athlete develop it?Nicole W. Forrester, Assistant Professor, School of Media, Toronto Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/905232018-01-23T04:54:19Z2018-01-23T04:54:19ZWorkrate, clutch and serve - how Federer and Nadal win Australian Opens<p>As we approach the business end of the 2018 Australian Open, the chatter has increased at Melbourne Park. Are we staring at a possible 2017 Men’s Final rematch between Switzerland’s Roger Federer and Spain’s Rafael Nadal? </p>
<p>It’s not surprising really. Federer is the defending champion, and regarded by many people as the Greatest of all Time (GOAT), with 19 Grand Slam tournament wins. </p>
<p>Fellow 2017 finalist Nadal is also rightfully included in GOAT conversations, given his 16 Grand Slam wins (second on the overall list behind Federer) and his dominant win-loss record over Federer 23–15 (9–3 in the Slams).</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-key-steps-are-linked-with-success-in-the-australian-open-90226">Three key steps are linked with success in the Australian Open</a>
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<p>So what are some of the reasons for their success?</p>
<p>The Tennis Australia Game Insight Group (GIG), in partnership with Victoria University, has analysed data from Federer and Nadal’s performances at the Australian Open over the past six years to provide some insights into what separates these two masters from the rest. </p>
<h2>Clutch performers</h2>
<p>Both players are elite “clutch” performers – that is, they win more of the big points than the rest. Traditionally the only way to infer a player’s clutch ability was to crudely count the number of break points won. </p>
<p>But the GIG now mathematically determine the relative importance of every point in a match to produce a clutch index. </p>
<p>As can be seen in the table below, Federer reigns supreme on this index of pressure performance. </p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/F7x30/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" width="100%" height="478"></iframe>
<h2>Physical dominance</h2>
<p>Nadal is renowned for his physicality on the court. The GIG workrate measure considers a player’s total lower body energy expenditure, or how hard a player is working.</p>
<p>The measure considers distance travelled, speed, acceleration, changes of direction, direction of movement and player body mass.</p>
<p>While Nadal tops this list, Federer’s physicality is not necessarily explained by his workrate, which is actually low in the table (above).</p>
<p>Instead, the pillar of Federer’s physical success seems more tied to the perception that his movement is effortless. His ability to produce force quickly from a wide and deep split-step is reasoned to be the foundation for his balance and agility. </p>
<h2>Master tacticians</h2>
<p>Federer’s below-average workrate is partly explained by his exceptional tactical skills, underpinned by brilliant anticipation.</p>
<p>He dictates play by controlling court position. His contact point on return of serve is more than 30cm further forward into the court than other Top 10 players. Similarly, during rallies he is 40cm further forward. </p>
<p>Federer’s ability to play further up the court is because he can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16239719">forecast ahead of time</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23362917">what’s likely to happen next</a>. He can read both an opponent’s posture as they commence their serve (such as a ball toss location telling him a likely serve direction) as well as their preferred patterns of play (such as shot locations based on score probabilities).</p>
<p>This is evidenced in his return of serve reaction time in the table (above). </p>
<p>Nadal is also tactically brilliant but in a very different way. He positions his serve to guarantee he gets to hit as many forehands (his preferred weapon of choice) as possible. Statistically he gets his wish 12% more often than the Top 10 average. </p>
<h2>Swing technicians</h2>
<p>In simple terms tennis requires you to be able hit hard and fast with as much accuracy as possible. Sound swing mechanics is how this is achieved. </p>
<p>Again our two GOATs achieve this in different ways. As evidenced by his impact position statistics, Nadal stands much further back than most players, affording him a big wind-up. In turn, when he hits a return of serve he does so at a speed that is 5% higher than the Top 10 average. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202923/original/file-20180123-182959-1q020ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202923/original/file-20180123-182959-1q020ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202923/original/file-20180123-182959-1q020ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202923/original/file-20180123-182959-1q020ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202923/original/file-20180123-182959-1q020ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202923/original/file-20180123-182959-1q020ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202923/original/file-20180123-182959-1q020ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202923/original/file-20180123-182959-1q020ia.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A heat map demonstrating Nadal’s preferred return position.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Game Insight Group</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Again, in contrast to Nadal’s brute force, Federer is known for his deft touch and all-round wizardry with a racquet in his hand.</p>
<p>One particular technical feature of note is the consistency of his serve. While not the fastest, it presents a perennially difficult challenge for his opponents.</p>
<p>The serve has metronomic rhythm, a technical similarity that makes it difficult to determine where it is being directed, and an accuracy that means he hits the corners with regularity. </p>
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<p>Many of the qualities described above are inter-related. </p>
<p>Federer has an all-round game with no obvious weaknesses, an impenetrable mindset, and tactical superiority that allows him to work within his physical limits. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-terrible-toll-tennis-can-take-on-top-players-who-play-too-much-90237">The terrible toll tennis can take on top players who play too much</a>
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<p>Nadal is physically elite, he wins the points that matter, and has a tactical approach that is perfectly suited to his technical strengths. </p>
<p>Both players are the elite of the elite, yet they play the game in very different ways which makes such comparisons all the more interesting.</p>
<p>So what are the chances of both players making it through to the men’s singles final on Sunday?</p>
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<p>From the latest GIG analysis it’s looking hopeful for Federer but whether we’ll get a <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-01-29/federer-beats-nadal-in-classic-australian-open-final/8221536">repeat of last year’s final with Nadal</a> is still open.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90523/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Damian Farrow is a member of the Game Insight Group (@TennisAusGIG)</span></em></p>Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal are two of the greatest tennis players in recent years at the Australian Open. So what makes them stand out from the rest?Damian Farrow, Professor of Sports Science, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/902252018-01-17T18:45:56Z2018-01-17T18:45:56ZAll the racquet: what science tells us about the pros and cons of grunting in tennis<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202242/original/file-20180117-53289-1m65ki6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Russian tennis player Maria Sharapova has long been criticised for excessive 'grunting' during matches.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP/Dean Lewins</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of tennis’ perennial debates has ignited early at this year’s Australian Open, after Belarusian player Aryna Sabalenka <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/sport/tennis/absolute-disgrace-aryna-sabalenka-s-shrieking-comes-under-fire-20180116-p4yyjv.html">was accused</a> of grunting too loudly during her first-round loss to Australian Ash Barty. </p>
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<p>In the past, former world number one Martina Navratilova has gone so far as to suggest grunting <a href="https://www.rte.ie/sport/tennis/2009/0622/250891-wimbledon/">is cheating</a>. She argues it may hamper an opponent’s capacity to hear the ball striking the racquet, which is an important element of shot preparation. But what does science have to say?</p>
<p>There are two aspects to grunting and tennis performance that have generated research interest. </p>
<ul>
<li><p>First, grunting has been investigated from the perspective of an opposition player, who may find it detrimental to their performance as it interferes with how they are able to process information during shot preparation. </p></li>
<li><p>Second, the influence of grunting on the performance of the grunters themselves has also been considered as it relates to their hitting performance. </p></li>
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<p>In both instances, grunting could be considered performance-enhancing for the grunter and performance-hindering for their opponent.</p>
<h2>Does grunting negatively impact an opponent?</h2>
<p>There has been some <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0013148">preliminary experimental work</a> that showed grunting may mask important auditory information used by an opponent. </p>
<p>Participants in a study were asked to watch video clips of a professional tennis player striking the ball with or without an accompanying auditory stimulus (a grunt). Their task was to determine as quickly and accurately as possible whether the ball was being hit to their left or right side. Results revealed the grunt did impair the speed and accuracy of their directional decision-making. </p>
<p>Taking the results from the lab onto the court, it has been suggested that the 30-millisecond delay in responding when an additional auditory stimulus is present would mean a typical rally shot would be picked up two feet later, relative to when no grunt is present. </p>
<p>This means more time pressure on the opponent and less preparation time, which is certainly not advantageous to their performance.</p>
<p>How a grunt impairs performance is less clear. As anecdotally suggested by many professional players, a well-timed grunt can mask important auditory information used by a player as the racquet strikes the ball. Another suggestion is that a grunt could draw a player’s attention away from the sound of racquet-ball contact to the actual grunt, which in turn may impair their timing. </p>
<p>Finally, a grunt may draw visual attention away from the processing of the visual information conveyed at racquet-ball contact. There is currently no clear evidence to support any of these suggestions. </p>
<h2>Does grunting enhance hitting performance?</h2>
<p>When the impact of a grunt is investigated, there is evidence that hitting performance is enhanced. Skilled university tennis players <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24956374">were found</a> to hit with a 3.8% increase in groundstroke hitting velocity when they grunted. </p>
<p>For a serve, a 4.9% enhancement in velocity <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24983852">was found</a> among players who grunted. This translated to “grunted serves” being hit 7km/hr faster than those that were not. </p>
<p>While the increase in hitting velocity came at no additional physiological cost, in relation to perception of effort and energy consumption, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24983852">there was an increase</a> in force production as measured by muscular activity. Overall this suggests that grunting is performance-enhancing, and is a sustainable strategy over the course of a match.</p>
<h2>Do we have to continue to put up with grunting at the tennis?</h2>
<p>First, it’s important to note that it’s quite natural to grunt when exerting the type of effort that tennis players do during a match. As many spectators will attest, the grunting can go up a level as a rally drags on. But when is the grunting excessive and seemingly more for dramatic effect than in response to exertion?</p>
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<p>It’s true that not all grunts are the same, and it’s on these occasions – during crucial points – where grunting may inhibit an opponent’s performance. </p>
<p>While <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-01-16/australian-open-ash-barty-through-to-second-round/9334208">Barty claimed</a> Sabalenka’s grunting wasn’t a distraction and she can deal with it (and clearly did, given she won), would players would continue to be so charitable if they knew they were losing precious preparation time on each stroke? </p>
<p>Sadly, the science is not yet in on what’s a fair grunt. But equally, given the amount of successful players who are known “grunters” – often-cited culprits include <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/wimbledon/11725473/Sharapovas-grunts-reignite-Wimbledon-row-over-noise-on-court.html">Maria Sharapova</a>, <a href="https://www.irishtimes.com/sport/other-sports/serena-williams-done-with-grunting-issue-1.2278185">Serena Williams</a> and <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/federer-hits-out-at-nadal-s-grunting">Rafael Nadal</a> – a resolution is probably some time off.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90225/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Damian is a member of the Tennis Australia-Victoria University Game Insight Group.</span></em></p>Grunting in tennis can be performance-enhancing for the grunter and performance-hindering for their opponent.Damian Farrow, Professor of Sports Science, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living (ISEAL), Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.