tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/student-achievement-21135/articlesStudent Achievement – The Conversation2023-08-30T12:16:25Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2116592023-08-30T12:16:25Z2023-08-30T12:16:25ZYear-round school: Difference-maker or waste of time?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/544849/original/file-20230826-23-6c5aya.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C43%2C7178%2C4613&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Not much evidence shows that modified school calendars lead to better academic performance.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/children-in-classroom-royalty-free-image/1271533302?phrase=school+classroom+&adppopup=true">Johner Images via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Contrary to how it sounds, “year-round” school usually doesn’t mean students going to school throughout the year – or for more days than other students. Often it just means switching up the calendar so that there’s not such a long summer break. Below, two education experts – <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nicole-Miller-10">Nicole Miller</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=EzLkaxMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Daniel H. Robinson</a> – answer five questions about the modified school calendars known as year-round school.</em></p>
<h2>What kinds of year-round schools exist?</h2>
<p>The first is the <a href="https://www.sreb.org/sites/main/files/file-attachments/10s03_focus_school_cal_0.pdf?1459971827">“single-track”</a> modified calendar, also known as a “balanced calendar.” The second is the “<a href="https://www.sreb.org/sites/main/files/file-attachments/10s03_focus_school_cal_0.pdf?1459971827">multi-track calendar</a>.” Neither one is typically an extended year. Instead, both calendars involve moving the 180 school days around so that there are multiple short breaks as opposed to the typical long summer break.</p>
<p>Single-track calendars have all students following the same schedule. This balanced calendar often includes intersessions that provide additional opportunities for learning rather than “summer school.” With a multiple-track calendar, usually created to alleviate school overcrowding, some students are on campus while others are on break. </p>
<p>Balanced calendars often take the form of 45 school days followed by 15 days of break, or 60 school days followed by 20 days of break. Other kinds of modified calendars with shorter intersessions exist in states like <a href="https://www.starkvillesd.com/academic-calendar/index">Mississippi</a> and <a href="https://ed.sc.gov/data/other/school-calendars/2023-2024-composite-school-calendar/">South Carolina</a>.</p>
<h2>How prevalent is year-round school?</h2>
<p>Federal data shows year-round school has been <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ntps/tables/ntps1718_20050401_s1n.asp">fading in popularity over the past decade or so</a>. In the 2007-2008 school year, 4.4% of schools were on a year-round cycle. By the 2017-2018 school year, that figure had dropped to 2.5%.</p>
<p>However, since the pandemic, there have been signs of renewed interest in single-track year-round calendars, at least in the Southeast.</p>
<p>For instance, in 2020, Louisiana modified its school statute to <a href="https://go.boarddocs.com/la/bese/Board.nsf/files/BUCTNV783CA6/$file/AGII_BalancedCalendarPP_1020.pdf">allow for more flexible calendars</a>. In Mississippi, a <a href="https://www.wlbt.com/2023/07/19/more-mississippi-school-districts-shifting-modified-school-calendars/">significant number of schools shifted</a> to a modified year-round calendar, with 29 of 137 districts using such a calendar in the 2023-2024 school year. In <a href="https://www.shawlocal.com/opinion/editorials/2022/08/15/schools-are-testing-out-year-round-calendar-but-benefits-not-guaranteed/">South Carolina</a>, as of 2022, <a href="https://ed.sc.gov/data/other/school-calendars/2023-2024-composite-school-calendar/">a quarter of school districts had shifted</a> to a modified year-round calendar. These modified calendars typically consist of nine weeks of school with a 5-to-8-day intersession, followed by another nine weeks of school each semester. </p>
<h2>Is there any evidence that it works?</h2>
<p>That depends on what you mean by “works.” If it means <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED330040.pdf">saving money</a> by avoiding having to add buildings, then it is possible for a school that normally serves 750 students to serve 1,000 when going to a year-round, multiple-track schedule. This is because the schedule has different students taking breaks at different times.</p>
<p>But if “works” means an improvement in student achievement, then there is <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/00346543073001001?casa_token=6--3kEaZuX4AAAAA:LxKN9ObE12LlHNHvDO1DCAGb3csZRiOYbP8g_mSsZ6wM9P0O6WmhI8yeAeMw55CyJ50wGrOhcePd">insufficient data</a> to answer that question, especially for single-track calendars. One review found <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cl2.1053">modestly higher student achievement</a> for year-round compared with traditional calendar schooling, but it was also plagued with what we believe were poor studies on which to base conclusions.</p>
<h2>What are the potential drawbacks?</h2>
<p>There are several challenges involved with switching to a year-round calendar. One is changing child care systems to work with the new calendar. Another is securing funding to provide meaningful learning experiences over the various breaks. Also, problems can arise if a family has children on different calendars.</p>
<p>There are also concerns about how high school students <a href="https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/year-round-or-traditional-schedule">have less time for summer jobs</a> and for students to participate in traditional summer activities such as summer camps.</p>
<p>Then there’s the issue of standardized tests. If schools take longer breaks, it could mean fewer days in school prior to test day. </p>
<p>Depending on the type of year-round calendar, changes can <a href="https://www.techlearning.com/news/year-round-schools-5-things-to-know">affect sports</a>, particularly practice schedules and game schedules. It can also be a problem if members of the same team are on different tracks.</p>
<p>Also, some schools <a href="https://www.techlearning.com/news/year-round-schools-5-things-to-know">may not have adequate air conditioning</a> to be open in the hot summer months.</p>
<p>Multi-track calendars might also <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3497042.pdf">negatively affect efforts to keep teachers</a> from leaving the job.</p>
<h2>What are the potential gains?</h2>
<p>Based on prior research investigating learning schedules, a schedule that distributes instruction and practice <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED536925.pdf">more evenly over the calendar year</a> should result in better learning. </p>
<p>By having shorter breaks, there could be less learning loss from the extended break over the summers.</p>
<p>Finally, some school districts are hoping for a <a href="https://www.wlbt.com/2023/07/19/more-mississippi-school-districts-shifting-modified-school-calendars/">reduction in teacher turnover</a> by having more frequent breaks. There is some, but not extensive, evidence that modified year-round school does a better job of giving teachers a chance to recharge and come back to the classroom after each break feeling refreshed.</p>
<p>One study found that teachers perceived that they had <a href="https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/teacher-job-satisfaction-in-a-year-round-school">greater motivation to teach</a> and that <a href="https://aquila.usm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1211&context=dissertations">student achievement was also positively impacted</a> when teaching in schools with modified year-round schedules.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211659/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Two education researchers reviewed the evidence on year-round school. Here is what they found.Daniel H. Robinson, Associate Dean of Research, College of Education, University of Texas at ArlingtonNicole Miller, Associate Professor of Elementary and Middle School Education, Mississippi State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2019522023-03-26T19:12:48Z2023-03-26T19:12:48ZEducation expert John Hattie’s new book draws on more than 130,000 studies to find out what helps students learn<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516245/original/file-20230320-22-6xqi1b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C7%2C5081%2C3364&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 2008, I published my book <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11159-011-9198-8">Visible Learning</a>, which aimed to explain what works best to help student learning. At the time, others claimed it was the world’s largest evidence-based study into the factors that improve learning. </p>
<p>The book was based on 800 meta-analyses (a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple studies) of 50,000 smaller studies. It <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00220272.2011.576774">found</a> that, among six groups of factors influencing successful learning in schools - the student, home, school, teacher, curricula and teaching – teachers seemed to have the strongest in-school effect. </p>
<p>Since 2008, our partners have implemented the “visible learning” approach in more than 10,000 schools, with the aim of making student learning as visible as possible.</p>
<p>This means enabling students to see how their efforts and learning strategies are contributing to their learning, and teachers to see the impact of their teaching through the eyes of their students. It turns the focus from teaching to learning, and from talking about teaching methods to the impact of these methods. </p>
<p>This is crucial to making classrooms and schools safe, fair and inviting places to fail, learn, collaborate, grow and flourish.</p>
<h2>My new study</h2>
<p>It’s been 15 years since the book was published, and much has changed. There have been more than 1,300 new meta-analyses, COVID has disrupted schools, and we have learned a lot from the more than 100,000 teachers who have been using visible learning. </p>
<p>Visible Learning: The Sequel is <a href="https://www.routledge.com/blog/article/what-is-visible-learning">published this month</a>. It is informed by more than 2,100 meta-analyses about achievement drawn from more than 130,000 studies and conducted with the participation of more than 400 million students aged three to 25, mainly from developed countries.</p>
<p>It confirms the finding that high-impact is still the most important factor when it comes to student learning. This describes teachers who focus on the impacts of their teaching and who work together with other educators to critique their ideas about impact – about what was taught well, who was taught well, and the size of the improvement. </p>
<p>But many other findings also came out of the analysis.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A teacher talks to young primary students in a classroom." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515975/original/file-20230317-2075-eh5ddr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=65%2C49%2C5398%2C3563&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515975/original/file-20230317-2075-eh5ddr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515975/original/file-20230317-2075-eh5ddr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515975/original/file-20230317-2075-eh5ddr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515975/original/file-20230317-2075-eh5ddr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515975/original/file-20230317-2075-eh5ddr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515975/original/file-20230317-2075-eh5ddr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teaching is still the most important factor when it looking at student achievement.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>New findings</h2>
<p>My analysis shows a student’s achievement levels are affected negatively by many new factors. These include boredom, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14616734.2020.1751987">teacher-student dependency</a> (where a student is over-reliant on their teacher) and corporal punishment. </p>
<p>I also identified a range of factors that improve students’ performance, including: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>computer tutoring that provides immediate feedback, particularly when using artificial intelligence </p></li>
<li><p>“<a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/flipped-classroom/the-flipped-classroom-explained">flipped learning</a>”, whereby students are given the content to learn before coming to class</p></li>
<li><p>teachers outlining and summarising learning materials </p></li>
<li><p>students being taught how to rehearse and memorise content </p></li>
<li><p>“phonological awareness” – teaching students to recognise and manipulate parts of sentences and words when learning to read </p></li>
<li><p>“<a href="https://pencilcase.org/visible-learning-john-hattie/cognitive-task-analysis">cognitive task analysis</a>,” which is about teaching students how to think about how to problem solve</p></li>
<li><p>the “<a href="https://learningcurrents.weebly.com/the-jigsaw-method.html">Jigsaw method</a>”, which involves both individual and group learning to solve a problem. </p></li>
</ul>
<h2>How teachers matter</h2>
<p>The most important thing for teachers to do is to have high expectations for all students. This means not labelling students (as “bright”, “strugglers”, “ADHD” or “autistic”), as this can lead to lower expectations in both teachers and students but seeing all students as learners who can make leaps of growth in their learning. </p>
<p>Teachers need to be very clear with their students about the content and goals of their learning.</p>
<p>It is important teachers work with other teachers to see different sides of their impact on students and different ways for them to succeed in their teaching. What matters is the power of multiple interpretations about what is happening in classrooms, the results of assessments and examples of student work.</p>
<h2>Why we need to be ‘greedy’</h2>
<p>So many debates about curriculum and learning outcomes are phrased as either more “knowledge-rich” (teaching content) or more “problem-based discovery learning” (teaching how to discover ideas). </p>
<p>But it is not a question of either/or. We need to be greedy and want both. We need to harness the power of two: two success criteria (one about content, and one about deeper learning), two assessments, two activities – so it is clear we want both the knowledge and the relationships between ideas. </p>
<p>So, I advocate for a model of “intentional alignment”. That is, teachers need to consciously align their teaching methods, activities, assessments, feedback, with either the acquisition of knowledge or discovering of ideas. </p>
<h2>The importance of parents</h2>
<p>Parents are not “first teachers” but “first learners” – as the parents learn, so do their children. Parental expectation about learning is among the most powerful home influences, and the home needs to promote a “language and love of learning”. </p>
<p>This means parents talk to their children about their learning at school and home. This also means they enjoy the struggle, failures and successes when learning together, and set fair boundaries to take on increased challenges and learning safely. </p>
<p>This might mean being clear about what success looks like for a child cleaning their room. It might mean allowing multiple opportunities to succeed, and talking about errors and failure as opportunities to learn. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-avoid-annoying-your-kids-and-getting-stressed-by-proxy-during-exam-season-200719">How to avoid annoying your kids and getting 'stressed by proxy' during exam season</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What about technology?</h2>
<p>We have been told for 50 years the answer to our education problems is technology, but my analysis shows the overall effects remain low. </p>
<p>We have used technology as a substitute: video instead of paper mache, word processing programs instead of using pens, online activities instead of work sheets. So often the powers of technology are rarely exploited.</p>
<p>There are major messages from the huge body of studies about technology. My book highlights some of them, including: the importance of students learning from each other via technology and the value of technology in providing multiple opportunities to learn. </p>
<p>Social media is also an important way for teachers to hear students are thinking. Many students will talk about how they are thinking, where they are struggling, and ask questions about their work using social media that they will not do verbally even when their teacher or peers are standing beside them.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young girl talks to other students on a laptop." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516246/original/file-20230320-22-8m4yg2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516246/original/file-20230320-22-8m4yg2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516246/original/file-20230320-22-8m4yg2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516246/original/file-20230320-22-8m4yg2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516246/original/file-20230320-22-8m4yg2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516246/original/file-20230320-22-8m4yg2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516246/original/file-20230320-22-8m4yg2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">John Hattie’s analysis found there are opportunities for students to learn from each other, using technology.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What teachers think is important</h2>
<p>One of the key things I have learned in the process of writing this second book is what teachers <em>think</em> is more important than what they they <em>do</em>. </p>
<p>It is not about using a particular teaching method but their skills in evaluating the impact on their students, modifying and adapting, and making the school or class an inviting place to come, learn, master, and enjoy learning.</p>
<p>Every child is a learner, is teachable, can grow, and can be taught to love learning. Students have expectations, and the educator’s role is to help students exceed what they think is their potential. Students need to be taught to take on challenges, with safety nets when they fail. </p>
<p>I remain amazed at the excellence in our schools and fascinated we are not as skilled and focused on scaling up success but instead love to <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-wonder-no-one-wants-to-be-a-teacher-world-first-study-looks-at-65-000-news-articles-about-australian-teachers-186210">focus on school failures</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-study-found-new-teachers-perform-just-as-well-in-the-classroom-as-their-more-experienced-colleagues-200649">Our study found new teachers perform just as well in the classroom as their more experienced colleagues</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201952/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Hattie is entitled to receive a share of proceeds from the sale of the book described in this article.</span></em></p>In 2008 the groundbreaking education book ‘Visible Learning’ was released. A sequel published this month finds teaching is still the most important factor when it comes to student learningJohn Hattie, Professor, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1796172022-03-29T12:36:04Z2022-03-29T12:36:04ZI no longer grade my students’ work – and I wish I had stopped sooner<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454740/original/file-20220328-15-h11bc5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5599%2C3741&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Evaluating student work and offering feedback doesn't mean there has to be a grade.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/finally-someone-who-studied-royalty-free-image/187131634">PeopleImages/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I’ve been teaching college English for more than 30 years. Four years ago, I stopped putting grades on written work, and it has transformed my teaching and my students’ learning. My only regret is that I didn’t do it sooner.</p>
<p>Starting in elementary school, teachers rate student work – sometimes with stars and checkmarks, sometimes with actual grades. Usually by middle school, when most students are about 11, a system of grading is firmly in place. In the U.S., <a href="https://everydayeducation.com/blogs/news/grading-systems">the most common system</a> is an “A” for superior work, through “F” for failure, with “E” almost always skipped. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.cbe-14-03-0054">This system was widely adopted only in the 1940s</a>, and even now, some schools, colleges and universities use other means of assessing students. But the practice of grading, and ranking, students is so widespread as to seem necessary, even though <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2020/01/27/advice-how-make-grading-more-equitable-opinion">many researchers say it is highly inequitable</a>. For example, students who come into a course with little prior knowledge earn lower grades at the start, which means they get a lower final average, even if they ultimately master the material. Grades have other problems: They are <a href="http://www.alfiekohn.org/article/case-grades/">demotivating, they don’t actually measure learning</a> and <a href="https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/taking-the-stress-out-of-grading">they increase students’ stress</a>. </p>
<p>During the pandemic, many instructors and even whole institutions <a href="https://www.edsurge.com/news/2021-05-26-pass-fail-grading-was-an-act-of-pandemic-compassion-is-it-here-to-stay">offered pass/fail options</a> or mandated pass/fail grading. They did so both to reduce the stress of remote education and because they saw that the emergency, disruptive to everyone, was <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/02/23/the-covid-19-pandemic-is-hitting-students-of-color-the-worst.html">disproportionately challenging for students of color</a>. <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/digital-learning/article/2020/08/12/many-colleges-will-return-normal-grading-fall-will-semester-be">Many, however, later resumed grading</a>, not acknowledging the ways that traditional assessments can both perpetuate inequity and impede learning. </p>
<p>I started my journey toward what’s called “<a href="https://www.jessestommel.com/ungrading-a-bibliography/">ungrading</a>” before the pandemic. In continuing it throughout, I have seen the effects, which are like those observed by other researchers in the field.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454745/original/file-20220328-19-45dtbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person sits at a desk reviewing papers" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454745/original/file-20220328-19-45dtbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454745/original/file-20220328-19-45dtbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454745/original/file-20220328-19-45dtbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454745/original/file-20220328-19-45dtbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454745/original/file-20220328-19-45dtbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454745/original/file-20220328-19-45dtbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454745/original/file-20220328-19-45dtbp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A teacher evaluates students’ work.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/IndianaLegislatureSchools/bb5d84fcf64d496bab9c052c1754ae74/photo">AP Photo/Darron Cummings</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Three reasons</h2>
<p>I stopped putting grades on written work for three related reasons – all of which <a href="https://www.jessestommel.com/why-i-dont-grade/">other professors</a> have <a href="http://www.susanblum.com/blog/ungrading">also cited</a> as concerns. </p>
<p>First, I wanted my students to focus on the feedback I provided on their writing. I had a sense, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.78.3.210">since backed up by research</a>, that when I put a grade on a piece of writing, students focused solely on that. Removing the grade forced students to pay attention to my comments.</p>
<p>Second, I was concerned with equity. For almost 10 years I have been studying <a href="https://facultyhub.richmond.edu/programs/inclusive-pedagogy.html">inclusive pedagogy</a>, which focuses on ensuring that all students have the resources they need to learn. My studies confirmed my sense that sometimes what I was really grading was a student’s background. Students with educational privilege came into my classroom <a href="https://wac.colostate.edu/docs/books/labor/chapter6.pdf">already prepared to write A or B papers</a>, while others often had not had the instruction that would enable them to do so. The 14 weeks they spent in my class could not make up for the years of educational privilege their peers had enjoyed.</p>
<p>Third, and I admit this is selfish: I hate grading. I love teaching, though, and giving students feedback is teaching. I am happy to do it. Freed from the tyranny of determining a grade, I wrote meaningful comments, suggested improvements, asked questions and entered into a dialogue with my students that felt more productive – that felt, in short, more like an extension of the classroom.</p>
<h2>It’s called ‘ungrading’</h2>
<p>The practice that I adopted is not new, and it’s not my own. It’s called “<a href="https://www.jessestommel.com/ungrading-a-bibliography/">ungrading</a>,” though that’s not entirely accurate. At the end of the semester, I do have to give students grades, as required by the university.</p>
<p>But I do not grade individual assignments. Instead, I give students extensive feedback and ample opportunity to revise. </p>
<p>At the end of the semester they submit a portfolio of revised work, along with an essay reflecting on and evaluating their learning. Like <a href="https://wvupressonline.com/node/844">most people who ungrade</a>, I reserve the right to change the grade that students assign themselves in that evaluation. But I rarely do, and when I do, I raise grades almost as often as I lower them.</p>
<p>The first class I ungraded was incredulous. After I explained the theory and the method, they peppered me with <a href="https://www.jessestommel.com/ungrading-an-faq/">many of the questions</a> that other ungraders have also faced. “If we ask you, will you tell us what grade we have on a paper?” No, I answered, because I really won’t have put a grade on it. “If we decide halfway through the semester that we’re done revising something, will you grade it then?” No again, because I’m grading an entire portfolio, not individual pieces. “Will you tell me where I stand?” My comments on your work, and our conferences, should give you a good sense of how you’re progressing in the class. </p>
<p>As for motivation, I asked them, What do you want to learn? Why are you here? Like most college professors, I teach classes across the curriculum, but I started my ungrading journey in classes that students were taking to fulfill basic graduation requirements. They were stopped short by the question. They wanted a good grade, and fair enough: That is the currency of the institution. </p>
<p>As we talked, though, we uncovered other motivations. Some took my children’s literature class because they thought it would be a fun or easy way to fulfill the requirement. They confessed, sometimes reluctantly, to anxieties about reading, about writing. They weren’t confident in their skills, didn’t think they could improve. These were exactly the students I was hoping to reach. Without putting grades on their work, I hoped – like my fellow ungrader <a href="https://pressbooks.howardcc.edu/ungrading/chapter/ungrading-in-a-general-education-science-course/">Heather Miceli, who teaches general science courses to college students</a> – that these less confident students would see that they could improve, could develop their skills and meet their own goals.</p>
<p>In my more advanced courses, students had an easier time identifying content-related goals, but I have also found surprisingly similar results in their reflections: They, too, want to overcome anxieties about speaking in class, concerns that they aren’t as prepared as their classmates, fears that they can’t keep up.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454749/original/file-20220328-25-8su2lr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Young people sit around a table in a classroom" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454749/original/file-20220328-25-8su2lr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454749/original/file-20220328-25-8su2lr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454749/original/file-20220328-25-8su2lr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454749/original/file-20220328-25-8su2lr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454749/original/file-20220328-25-8su2lr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454749/original/file-20220328-25-8su2lr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454749/original/file-20220328-25-8su2lr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some students say they want to learn new ways of thinking and working, rather than focusing on grades.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/students-of-smcc-english-professor-kevin-sweeneys-news-photo/469478792">Whitney Hayward/Portland Press Herald via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How did it go?</h2>
<p>That first semester, students participated in class, did the readings and wrote their papers. I read and commented on them, and if they chose to, they revised – as often as they wanted. </p>
<p>At the end of the semester, when they submitted portfolios of revised work, their reflections on the process and assessments of their learning tracked closely with my own. Most recognized their growth, and I concurred. One student, a senior, thanked me for treating them like adults. As for my interest in equity, I found that students who were less well prepared did indeed develop their skills; their growth was substantial, and both they and I recognized it. </p>
<p>[<em>More than 150,000 readers get one of The Conversation’s informative newsletters.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140K">Join the list today</a>.]</p>
<p>The system takes time to implement, and I’ve revised it over the years. When I began, I was inexperienced at coaching students to develop their own goals for the course, at helping them to reflect, and at guiding them to think about assessment in terms of their own development rather than following a rubric. And I’ve found that students need time to reflect on their own goals for the class at the outset, at a midpoint, and again at the end of the semester, so they can actually see how they’ve developed. They need encouragement to revise their work as well – my comments help, but so do pointed reminders that the process of learning involves revision, and the course is set up to enable it.</p>
<p>Students in introductory classes require a bit more direction in this work than advanced students, but most eventually take the opportunity to revise and reflect. Now, I see students from all backgrounds recognizing their own growth, whatever their starting point. They benefit from my coaching, but perhaps even more from the freedom to decide for themselves what really matters in their reading and writing. And I benefit too, from the opportunity to help them learn and grow without the tyranny of the grade.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179617/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elisabeth Gruner is affiliated with the Professional and Organizational Development (POD) Network in Higher Education, which focuses on professional development for faculty.</span></em></p>Grades don’t actually measure learning, and they can increase students’ stress and decrease their motivation. A college professor explains an alternative to grading students’ work.Elisabeth Gruner, Professor of English, University of RichmondLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1537922021-03-21T18:49:24Z2021-03-21T18:49:24ZBanning mobile phones in schools can improve students’ academic performance. This is how we know<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/389172/original/file-20210312-23-1ivvp2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/no-mobile-phone-call-warning-prohibit-1200373825">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The effects of mobiles phones and other technology at school is a <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-education-minister-we-dont-have-enough-evidence-to-support-banning-mobile-phones-in-schools-151574">hotly debated topic</a> in many countries. Some advocate for a complete ban to limit distractions, while others suggest using technology as a teaching tool.</p>
<p>Kids in public <a href="https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/parenting/school-life/sa-government-bans-mobile-phone-use-at-states-primary-schools/news-story/c13e01ab2c2e6d5cbd3473201dfbe70a">South Australian primary schools</a> started the school year without being allowed to bring their mobile phones to class, unless they are needed for class activity. All students in public <a href="https://www.education.wa.edu.au/mobile-phones#:%7E:text=The%20Student%20Mobile%20Phones%20in,end%20of%20the%20school%20day.">Western Australian</a> <a href="https://www.education.vic.gov.au/parents/going-to-school/Pages/Mobile-phones-in-schools.aspx">Victorian</a>, and <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-02-05/tasmania-mobile-phone-ban-in-schools-proves-a-success/13113128#:%7E:text=The%20state%20school%20ban%20on,would%20ring%20throughout%20the%20day.">Tasmanian</a> schools have a mobile phone ban in place since for all or some of 2020. New South Wales also <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-12-13/nsw-phone-ban-aims-to-reduce-bullying/10612950">banned mobile phones</a> in public primary schools, with secondary schools having the option to opt in, since the start of 2020.</p>
<p>Education departments have introduced the bans for various reasons including to improve academic outcomes and decrease bullying. </p>
<p>Several recent papers point to positive impact of banning mobile phones at school on student performance and other outcomes. Understanding the evidence is crucial for best policy. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-education-minister-we-dont-have-enough-evidence-to-support-banning-mobile-phones-in-schools-151574">No, Education Minister, we don't have enough evidence to support banning mobile phones in schools</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In a 2015 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927537116300136?casa_token=BftSuGIPHFsAAAAA:Si6NTOo4pga0c0zwLi9owgonIiECr1raGURE3FrIsbFpR9QiDlfPE8nVCygV9R9Rb3_2hvRn9Q">paper</a>, we used a method — called a <a href="https://mixtape.scunning.com/difference-in-differences.html">difference-in-difference strategy</a> — as well as student data from England to investigate the effect of banning mobile phones on student performance. In this method, we compared schools that have had phones removed to similar schools with no phone bans. This allowed us to isolate the effect of mobiles phones on student performance from other factors that could affect performance. </p>
<p>We found banning mobile phones at school leads to an increase in student performance. Our results suggest that after schools banned mobile phones, test scores of students aged 16 increased by 6.4% of a standard deviation. This is equivalent to adding five days to the school year or an additional hour a week.</p>
<p>The effects were twice as large for low-achieving students, and we found no impact on high achieving students. </p>
<p>Our results suggest low-performing students are more likely to be distracted by the presence of mobile phones, while high performing students can focus with or without mobile phones.</p>
<p>The results of our paper suggest banning mobile phones has considerable benefits including a reduction in the gap between high- and low- achieving students. This is substantial improvement for a low-cost education policy.</p>
<h2>Other studies show similar results</h2>
<p>Recent studies from <a href="https://www.erices.es/upload/workingpaper/99_99_0420.pdf">Spain</a> and <a href="https://sites.google.com/view/saraabrahamsson/research?authuser=0">Norway</a>, using a similar empirical strategy to ours, also show compelling evidence on the benefit of banning mobile phones on student performance, with similar effect size. </p>
<p>In Spain, banning mobile phones has been shown to increase students’ scores in maths and science. Researchers also documented a decrease in incidences of bullying. </p>
<p>In Norway, banning phones significantly increased middle school students’ grade point average. It also increased students’ likelihood of attending an academic high school rather than choosing a vocational school. And it decreased incidents of bullying. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390012/original/file-20210317-21-1rl9mfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Man's hands holding mobile phone in front of open laptop." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390012/original/file-20210317-21-1rl9mfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390012/original/file-20210317-21-1rl9mfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390012/original/file-20210317-21-1rl9mfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390012/original/file-20210317-21-1rl9mfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390012/original/file-20210317-21-1rl9mfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390012/original/file-20210317-21-1rl9mfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/390012/original/file-20210317-21-1rl9mfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Using any form of technology in class could be seen as a form of multitasking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/side-view-shot-mans-hands-using-268450487">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Evidence from <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/kykl.12214?casa_token=Suyowk5wjT8AAAAA%3AOLsCQOB4FXad_mQqgez2PpOxGAhcZcRl749eAeAkZTwWEzeFAp63yrwpFsVzWoItlYskdMs8y3PljBI">Belgium</a> suggests banning mobile phones can be beneficial for college student performance. This context might be different, but still informative as students are of similar age to those in high school. </p>
<p>Research from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272775719303966?casa_token=GRmr3vHvbZ8AAAAA:rxP1rcaYwFSNkqqYEuD1GfCygj6qhIZS49hqG3TvU33UcGeL9QcnvrckFldDxGqCS8_PTt-6IA">Sweden</a>, however, suggests little effect of banning mobile phones in high school on student performance. It is worth noting, however, the study did not find any detrimental effect of banning mobile phones.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-blame-the-teacher-student-results-are-mostly-out-of-their-hands-124177">Don't blame the teacher: student results are (mostly) out of their hands</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A similar conclusion can be drawn from the literature on the effect of computers used at school. Evidence from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272775716307129?casa_token=XPKWuMLtDfQAAAAA:Kgma8uaSuiDJsI-jowomsz2ltDAr4AAJsExfdR4VgY1g01mDjvX1qvXRF0Jw57uXhwP_-9IySQ">the US</a> suggests using laptops in class is detrimental to learning, and the effects are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272775716303454?casa_token=RA9CuU-d89oAAAAA:NT86LqbLuWGV1FPdxv-lbamuIc9t7_4CLR9_QZUct9jgc7dH0O__tBfeHKnyh7JAf2cJDKWdmQ">large and more damaging</a> for low-performing students.</p>
<h2>Potential psychological mechanisms involved</h2>
<p>The psychological literature might shed lights on the potential mechanisms as to why mobile phones and other technology in school might affect student performance. This literature finds multitasking is detrimental to learning and task execution. </p>
<p>Many recent experimental papers present evidence mobile phone use while executing another task decreases learning and task completion. Research also shows <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/106/37/15583">computers might be</a> a <a href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/cyber.2010.0129">less efficient</a> way <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03634523.2013.767917">to take notes</a> than pen and paper. </p>
<p>It may be that taking notes by hand allows you to remember the material better than typing those notes on a computer. This may be because students are not just typing out every word said, but thinking of how to summarise what they’re hearing.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-best-way-to-take-notes-on-your-laptop-or-tablet-43630">What's the best way to take notes on your laptop or tablet?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These findings do not discount the possibility mobile phones and other technology could be a useful structured teaching tool. However, ignoring or misunderstanding the evidence could be harmful to students and lead to long term negative social consequences.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153792/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louis-Philippe Beland does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A study compared students’ performance in schools that had banned mobiles and schools that hadn’t. They found students who weren’t allowed to use mobile phones in class had higher test scores.Louis-Philippe Beland, Assistant Professor of Economics, Carleton UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1555492021-02-18T04:05:32Z2021-02-18T04:05:32ZWhy the curriculum should be based on students’ readiness, not their age<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384907/original/file-20210218-17-17ekukj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/back-school-education-concept-girl-kids-1478660396">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I handed down the <a href="https://nswcurriculumreview.nesa.nsw.edu.au/home/siteAreaContent/524abec1-f0f9-4ffd-9e01-2cc89432ad52">final report</a> of a two-year review of the New South Wales school curriculum in June 2020. One of the review’s key recommendations was to introduce what I called “untimed syllabuses”. This is where students who need more time for their learning are given it, and those ready to move on to the next stage are able to do so. </p>
<p>The NSW government has <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/schools-will-trial-untimed-syllabuses-before-ambitious-statewide-reform-20210216-p572v7.html">agreed to trial</a> this recommendation over the coming years.</p>
<p>I made this recommendation in response to a problem teachers had identified. They explained the current curriculum lacks flexibility. It expects every student of the same age to learn the same things at the same time. This sounds fair, and it might be if all students began the school year ready for the year’s curriculum.</p>
<p>In reality, as the <a href="https://www.dese.gov.au/uncategorised/resources/through-growth-achievement-report-review-achieve-educational-excellence-australian-schools">Gonski report</a> observed, evidence from <a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/">testing programs</a> shows the most advanced students in each year of school are about five to six years ahead of the least advanced students. Instead of beginning on the same starting line, students begin each school year widely spread on the running track. </p>
<p>Despite this, they are all judged against the same finish line: the year-level curriculum expectations.</p>
<h2>Some students are behind, others ahead</h2>
<p>The differences we see in students’ performances mean many students begin each school year one, two or three years behind average for their year group and struggle. At the end of each year, they are required to move to the next curriculum, often not having mastered the content of the current curriculum. </p>
<p>For some, the year-level curriculum becomes increasingly beyond their reach and they fall further behind each year. The low grades they receive fail to reveal the progress they are making and reinforce their belief they are poor learners.</p>
<p>By 15 years of age, according to the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (<a href="https://research.acer.edu.au/ozpisa/34/">PISA</a>), one in five Australian students has failed to achieve even a minimally acceptable level of reading or maths. Another one in five has failed to achieve a “<a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/results-and-reports/how-to-interpret/standards">proficient</a>” standard (that is, a challenging but reasonable expectation) in these basics. Many of these students have struggled with year-level curricula throughout their schooling. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/aussie-students-are-a-year-behind-students-10-years-ago-in-science-maths-and-reading-127013">Aussie students are a year behind students 10 years ago in science, maths and reading</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Worse, the students most affected are those also disadvantaged by their socioeconomic circumstances.</p>
<p>At the same time, some more advanced students, who are ready for more challenging material, are prevented from advancing to the next curriculum until the allotted time has elapsed.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Students on a starting line on a race track." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/384915/original/file-20210218-21-13lmmkw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Not all students start the school year on the same starting line.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/students-boy-get-set-leaving-starting-571351051">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is not an observation about teachers; they do the best job they can to meet the needs of individual students. But teachers work within the constraints of a timed, lock-step and sometimes crowded curriculum that expects them to deliver the same content to everybody.</p>
<h2>A 21st century approach</h2>
<p>The 21st century requires a more flexible and personalised approach. Learners of the future will learn anywhere at any time, progressing at their own rates, often with the support of technology. In this world, there will be no place for determining what individuals are ready to learn from their age.</p>
<p>My proposal is for a curriculum consisting of a sequence of levels through which every student progresses, but not necessarily at the same pace. This provides teachers with a frame of reference for establishing where individuals are in their learning and ensuring every student is taught and challenged at their current level.</p>
<p>Under this proposal, schools would continue to be organised into year groups and students in each year group normally would work in mixed-ability classes. The difference is that students in the same year group could be working at different curriculum levels.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1275206896031416321"}"></div></p>
<p>This is not the same as streaming. When students are assigned permanently to different instructional groups, they usually become “locked in” to those groups, with the result that ceilings are set on how far some students can progress. Under my proposal, every student progresses over time through the same sequence of curriculum levels.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/could-academic-streaming-in-new-zealand-schools-be-on-the-way-out-the-evidence-suggests-it-should-be-145617">Could academic streaming in New Zealand schools be on the way out? The evidence suggests it should be</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Rather than simply judging all students against the same finish line, this approach recognises and rewards the progress individuals make over the course of a year, regardless of their starting points. Every student is expected to make excellent progress every year.</p>
<h2>Is this backed by research?</h2>
<p>It has long been established — including through the work of American psychologist <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1968-35017-000">David Ausubel</a> and Soviet psychologist <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Mind_in_Society.html?id=RxjjUefze_oC&redir_esc=y">Lev Vygotsky</a> — that the way to maximise learning is to stretch or challenge learners in a way that is appropriate to the points they have reached in their learning.</p>
<p>Students do not learn effectively when given material for which they are not ready or material well within their comfort zones. However, this is the experience of many students in our schools.</p>
<p>A number of countries have recognised the importance of providing every student will well-targeted learning challenges. Some, such as high-performing <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/lessons-from-pisa-for-the-united-states/finland-slow-and-steady-reformfor-consistently-high-results_9789264096660-6-en">Finland</a> and Estonia have dedicated teachers or small-group teaching for students who slip behind in their learning. Others, such as <a href="https://education.gov.scot/education-scotland/scottish-education-system/policy-for-scottish-education/policy-drivers/cfe-building-from-the-statement-appendix-incl-btc1-5/what-is-curriculum-for-excellence">Scotland</a> and <a href="https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/the-donaldson-report-an-at-a-glance-guide-8713671">Wales</a>, have restructured their curricula into levels or “steps” through which all students progress. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/estonia-didnt-deliver-its-pisa-results-on-the-cheap-and-neither-will-australia-128455">Estonia didn't deliver its PISA results on the cheap, and neither will Australia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/ditching-unworkable-fantasy-cooked-up-by-out-of-touch-academics-a-win-for-students-and-teachers-20210215-p572k1.html">Arguments</a> against my proposed approach sometimes claim it is “fair” to hold all students to the same age-based expectations. But fairness is not achieved by treating all students equally — it depends on recognising individual differences and meeting each student’s current learning needs.</p>
<p>It is also often argued the best way to improve performance is to hold all students to the same standards. But this is what is currently done in Australian schools, with no evidence of improvement in either <a href="https://theconversation.com/naplan-results-reveal-little-change-in-literacy-and-numeracy-performance-here-are-some-key-takeaway-findings-70208">NAPLAN</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/aussie-students-are-a-year-behind-students-10-years-ago-in-science-maths-and-reading-127013">PISA</a>. The best way to lift standards is to ensure every student is presented with appropriately challenging material. </p>
<p>My review recognised that restructuring the school curriculum would be a major undertaking that would require time to test and get right. As many teachers observed, increased curriculum flexibility is essential if every student is to learn successfully and achieve their potential.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155549/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The Australian Council for Educational Research was funded to undertake the review of the NSW school curriculum.</span></em></p>The NSW curriculum review recommends students be assigned tasks based on their ability, rather than their age. This approach recognises the progress individuals make over the course of a year.Geoff Masters, CEO, Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1450852020-09-17T16:55:39Z2020-09-17T16:55:39ZStrong relationships help kids catch up after 6 months of COVID-19 school closures<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357764/original/file-20200913-14-1ls7zuw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C204%2C3222%2C1967&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Five-year-old Maverick Denette, left, and his six-year-old sister Peyton, centre, talk with a teacher at St. Thomas More Elementary School in Mississauga, Ont., Sept. 9, 2020. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(THE CANADIAN PRESS/Nathan Denette)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many Canadian children are now returning to their classrooms <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-how-different-provinces-have-handled-the-school-closures/">after schools shut down in March</a> to stem the spread of COVID-19. </p>
<p>Classrooms under strict health guidelines are <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/mask-mandates-class-caps-back-to-school-rules-by-province-1.5042739">very different to the settings children knew last spring</a>. The children may be different too, having experienced family stress brought about by fear, uncertainty or <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/08-04-2020-joint-leader-s-statement---violence-against-children-a-hidden-crisis-of-the-covid-19-pandemic">life-changing events related to the pandemic, such as family violence</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/20/03/harvard-edcast-learning-loss-and-coronavirus">Students’ learning loss</a> over the summer months has long been the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066003227">subject of research concern</a> — some call it <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/summer-learning-loss-what-is-it-and-what-can-we-do-about-it/">the “summer slide</a>.” COVID-19 school closures have been almost three times as long as a summer vacation, prompting some to discuss a potential <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/lifestyle/experts-caution-covid-slide-looming-for-children-out-of-school-1.4923826">COVID-19 slide</a>. Researchers have projected <a href="https://www.nwea.org/blog/2020/covid-19-school-closures-could-have-devastating-impact-student-achievement/">that due to pandemic school closures some students may have lost a year’s worth of learning in some elementary grade subjects</a> — particularly more vulnerable students who have faced traumatic events during the shutdown. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1254840355591159811"}"></div></p>
<p>The amplification of the effects of <a href="https://www.nwea.org/content/uploads/2020/05/Collaborative-Brief_Covid19-Slide-APR20.pdf">learning loss</a> is an <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-there-is-a-reading-crisis-in-canada-the-pandemic-will-make-it-worse/">important consideration</a>. But directing attention to missed learning should not mean overlooking the powerful contribution of relationships, well-being and mental health to student success — an elevated priority for children who have experienced fear and trauma related to the pandemic. How school districts respond may have a lasting effect on this generation.</p>
<h2>Excessive stress prevents learning</h2>
<p>Educators can alleviate some of the negative consequences of excessive stress and enhance children’s well-being through <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315680019">positive and attuned relationships</a> — relationships where educators are <a href="https://www.first5la.org/parenting/articles/ages-stages-attachment-and-attunement/">tuned in, aware of and responsive to children’s emotional needs as they are being expressed</a>. Well-being is a required condition upon which achievement is built.</p>
<p>The growing international body of evidence on the impact of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30186-3">social isolation</a> on the mental health and well-being of young people has led to calls for school systems to take a <a href="https://services.aap.org/en/news-room/news-releases/aap/2020/pediatricians-educators-and-superintendents-urge-a-safe-return-to-school-this-fall/">balanced approach</a> to reopening, addressing children’s <a href="https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/publications/children-and-young-people%E2%80%99s-mental-health-during-covid-19-policy-statement">mental health</a> as well as their educational needs. </p>
<p>Children experiencing increased stress, anxiety <a href="http://angusreid.org/covid19-kids-opening-schools/">and worries</a> as a result of the pandemic are operating in a state of high alert. This affects their ability to regulate emotions and impulses, and to attend to, reflect upon and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10195112/">remember information</a>, as well as to engage in constructive relationships with others. </p>
<p>In a spring report for UNESCO, as children and their teachers were entering the new world of distance learning and isolation, renowned educator <a href="https://blogs.sl.pt/cloud/file/9a5cca76215b2eee0e852e791bb5c8f4/workprogress/2020/2020_Research_COVID-19_ENG.pdf">Armand Doucet and his colleagues argued that students needed to feel safe and have their basic needs met as a priority</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A boy and his mother seen from behind walking to school." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357765/original/file-20200913-18-mnoqb8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/357765/original/file-20200913-18-mnoqb8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357765/original/file-20200913-18-mnoqb8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357765/original/file-20200913-18-mnoqb8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357765/original/file-20200913-18-mnoqb8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357765/original/file-20200913-18-mnoqb8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/357765/original/file-20200913-18-mnoqb8.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A student is dropped off at class by his mother at Elizabeth B. Phin Public School ahead of their first day of classes in Pickering, Ont., on Sept. 8, 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Cole Burston</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Regulation of stress through relationships</h2>
<p>The ability to regulate students’ stress and anxiety through classroom relationships is a powerful tool to support academic outcomes.</p>
<p>Attempts to fulfil urgent academic expectations, without addressing children’s fundamental need for emotional safety, will exacerbate children’s feelings of stress and anxiety and even further challenge their ability to self-regulate. </p>
<p>When children experience this state of imbalance, they <a href="http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/ask_a_psychologist/2020/07/stress_can_lead_to_student_failure_new_research_success.html?cmp=eml-enl-eu-new">perform more poorly in school</a>. Their bodies go into a state of fight-or-flight, with survival being the primary focus, leaving little room for learning. </p>
<p>Educators have been subject to the stresses of the pandemic too. <a href="https://vox.ctf-fce.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Teacher-Experience-Survey_OVERVIEW_EN.pdf">In a survey</a> of 17,352 Canadian educators by the Canadian Teachers’ Federation, 44 per cent expressed concerns about their own mental health and well-being. </p>
<p>Here are three ways school systems and school leaders can support student emotional well-being to ground academic success.</p>
<p><strong><em>1. Foster teachers’ sense of personal and professional safety.</em></strong> In order for educators to attend to the well-being of their students, they must also prioritize their own well-being. </p>
<p>When school systems and school leaders provide reassurance of personal safety, opportunity to collaborate with peers and time to adapt their classroom practices, they contribute to educators’ sense of well-being. Research suggests that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019675218338">perceiving that decisions and actions can impact life outcomes</a> is associated with lower work stress, greater likelihood of asking for support and positive thinking.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-prevent-teacher-burnout-during-the-coronavirus-pandemic-139353">How to prevent teacher burnout during the coronavirus pandemic</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Teachers need to have agency to shape the learning environment, and to assess and address their students’ emotional well-being and readiness to learn before embarking on an ambitious plan to make up for lost academic time. When teachers feel safe and supported, they will be better positioned to support their students through responsive relationships. </p>
<p>In turn, students connect to teachers’ cues and feel soothed and safe. Through the important co-regulating responses of the educator-student relationship, children’s autonomic nervous systems (the primary mechanism <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-the-stress-response">behind the fight-or-flight response</a>) are calmed. This creates a state of readiness to engage and learn. </p>
<p><strong><em>2. Modify academic expectations</em>.</strong> Curriculum documents lay out expectations for each grade. There is no prescription for the timing of delivery, nor of the pacing. As professionals, teachers are well-aware of curricular expectations, and they modify pace and order to suit their class. Principals, vice-principals and any teachers in school leadership roles should recognize this need, and signal to teachers that this is OK. Teachers will plan to meet curriculum expectations as they always have, but there may be modification in their planned timelines particularly at the start of the year.</p>
<p>Encouraging teachers to set reasonable expectations and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26311196/">being kind</a> to themselves will also support positive mental health. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00330.x">Self-compassion</a> supports feelings of safety and security.</p>
<p>By accepting that things are different, and curbing the propensity to take on unrealistic timelines for improvement, educators can help students transition from a state of heightened stress to a more balanced state — a precursor to learning and success.</p>
<p><strong><em>3. Build relationships with families</em>.</strong> By taking an interest in how families are doing, and really listening, school-based educators take the lead on building more caring relationships with children and their homes. Home-school partnerships are crucial to understanding children’s well-being needs, and prioritizing them would help realize the pandemic’s catch phrase of collaboration and mutual support: “We’re all in this together.”</p>
<p>Making children feel emotionally safe and supporting their ability to self-regulate through positive relationships, and prioritizing teacher well-being and family connections, will support the quest for academic success. </p>
<p><em>This article was co-authored by Penny Patrician, who holds a PhD from the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, and who works as an education consultant.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/145085/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa Bayrami does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The approach that schools take to addressing how to get students caught up in learning they missed due to COVID-19 school closures may have a lasting impact on this generation.Lisa Bayrami, Contract Lecturer, Department of Education and Department of Interdisciplinary Studies, Lakehead UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1264812019-11-14T12:59:06Z2019-11-14T12:59:06ZDemocratic candidates want to boost school funding – research shows that will help low-income students<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301341/original/file-20191112-178490-1my85rc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research shows that school funding impacts student achievement.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-african-girl-writing-solution-sums-1078335890?src=ab1f0691-bc85-40e8-af2f-43e1b4f3b31e-1-1">Rido/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With few exceptions, the various Democratic plans for public education share a common theme: more funding, less privatizing. </p>
<p>Candidates Joe Biden, Kamala Harris and Bernie Sanders have promised to <a href="http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/campaign-k-12/2019/10/harris-education-plan-trauma.html">dramatically increase</a> or <a href="http://laschoolreport.com/2020-democrats-want-to-dramatically-increase-title-i-funding-but-without-more-accountability-is-this-just-the-santa-claus-approach-to-education-policy/">triple</a> current federal funding for low-income students and curtail <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/democrats-abandon-charter-schools-as-reform-agenda-falls-from-favor/2019/06/25/3cf4817e-904e-11e9-aadb-74e6b2b46f6a_story.html">charter school growth</a>. Elizabeth Warren recently went even further, promising to <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/posts/us/2019/10/21/elizabeth-warren-education-plan/">quadruple</a> federal funding for low-income students and end federal funding for charter expansion.</p>
<p>These proposals have provoked a deluge of harsh responses from commentators. Increasing public education funding and limiting charters, critics say, is nothing more than <a href="https://www.nationalreview.com/2019/05/bernie-sanders-launches-a-deeply-misguided-attack-on-charter-schools/">pandering to teacher unions</a> and demonizing <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/children-are-the-losers-in-elizabeth-warrens-plan-for-charter-schools/2019/10/28/1dbc7e88-f769-11e9-8cf0-4cc99f74d127_story.html">charter schools</a>. While this critique may resonate on the surface, it ignores a decade of gross underfunding and privatization of public education. As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=eVP-tTgAAAAJ&hl=en">my research</a> shows, addressing these problems is key to improving student achievement.</p>
<h2>Shrinking government by shrinking education</h2>
<p>The way taxpayers do or do not fund public schools goes to the core question of the role of government in democracy. Public schools have long consumed the <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/policy-basics-where-do-our-state-tax-dollars-go">lion’s share</a> of state and local tax dollars. No other single program comes close. </p>
<p>Many of the earliest statewide <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Democracy_s_Schools.html?id=UZ47DwAAQBAJ">tax systems</a> came into existence for the express purpose of funding schools. And later major expansions of state taxes, like the state income tax in <a href="http://governors.rutgers.edu/on-governors/nj-governors/governor-brendan-t-byrne-administration/governor-brendan-t-byrne-issues-income-tax/">New Jersey</a>, were solutions to unequal funding across school districts. Education holds this special status because state constitutions specifically <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3256887">require</a> legislatures to fund uniform and adequate systems of public schools.</p>
<p>Powerful <a href="https://www.kansascity.com/news/politics-government/article207953054.html">politicians</a> and <a href="https://www.cato.org/research/public-schools">advocates</a>, however, object to the demands public education places on government. The Koch brothers, for instance, have claimed that government illegitimately <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielfisher/2012/12/05/inside-the-koch-empire-how-the-brothers-plan-to-reshape-america/#381e272f650b">coerces</a> excessive taxes from the wealthy and redistributes them to the masses through <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/jun/22/koch-brothers-social-security">social programs</a>. <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/powerpost/paloma/daily-202/2019/01/29/daily-202-koch-network-poised-to-scale-up-efforts-to-remake-k-12-education-with-a-pilot-project-in-five-states/5c4fd5091b326b29c3778cfa/">Public education</a> is one of the forms of redistribution that <a href="https://educationopportunitynetwork.org/how-public-schools-became-the-koch-brothers-lowest-hanging-fruit/">most concerns</a> them. </p>
<p>The Kochs’ donor network heavily invests in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/sep/07/arizona-fight-koch-brothers-school-vouchers">campaigns</a> to reduce public school expenditures, expand charter schools and subsidize private education through vouchers and tax credits. The theory behind these campaigns is getting government out of the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2017/06/18/531929217/democracy-in-chains-traces-the-rise-of-american-libertarianism">business of education</a> and elevating <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielfisher/2012/12/05/inside-the-koch-empire-how-the-brothers-plan-to-reshape-america/#712dc211650b">property and liberty rights</a> above all else. These campaigns, in my opinion, have never been about improving educational outcomes for all students, but about changing how American democracy works.</p>
<h2>A decade of harm</h2>
<p>Public education has suffered steep <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/a-punishing-decade-for-school-funding">funding declines</a> over the past decade. Even once the Recession passed and tax revenues fully rebounded, states <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/a-punishing-decade-for-school-funding">failed to replace</a> those funds. </p>
<p>In Arizona, public school funding was down <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/a-punishing-decade-for-school-funding">35%</a> in real dollar terms as of 2015. My work shows that this is in part due to efforts to <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3058266">privatize public education</a>. Rather than cure the public school funding problem, the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2019/10/16/koch-network-says-it-wants-remake-public-education-that-means-destroying-it-says-author-new-book-billionaire-brothers/">Koch network</a> and <a href="https://apnews.com/4ccd97c187b3404a896000b7e6fa3428">state government officials</a> have pushed for vast new private school voucher plans and charter school expansions across the nation.</p>
<p>Over the past decade, charter funding streams steadily grew and charter school enrollment <a href="https://www.publiccharters.org/latest-news/2017/10/23/annual-enrollment-share-report-finds-charter-school-enrollment-has-tripled">tripled</a> nationally. Vouchers in places like Florida <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3058266">quadrupled</a> in just a few years, only to be surpassed by states like <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3058266">Indiana</a> shortly thereafter. Now, the secretary of education – Betsy DeVos – is fighting to expand charter schools and vouchers even <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/what-are-charter-schools-2017-2">further</a>.</p>
<h2>Money matters for student outcomes</h2>
<p>The longstanding research consensus shows that fairly funding public schools is key to <a href="https://docs.google.com/viewerng/viewer?url=http://www.shankerinstitute.org/sites/shanker/files/moneymatters_edition2.pdf">boosting student achievement</a> for low-income students – and the precise connection between funding and student outcomes grows stronger and more detailed with each passing year. A new <a href="https://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/news-center/news/2014/07/kirabo-jackson-school-spending-helps-poor-kids.html">study</a> of four decades of the nation’s school finance data shows, for instance, that a <a href="https://www.vox.com/2014/5/13/5710988/boosting-school-funding-20-percent-erased-the-graduation-gap-between">20% increase</a> in school funding corresponds with low-income students learning almost an additional year’s worth of material over the course of their education – enough to bring their <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w20118.pdf">graduation rates</a> up to par with wealthier students. Kansas’ own legislative <a href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/ks-supreme-court/1876225.html">study</a> showed that “a 1% increase in student performance was associated with a .83% increase in spending.”
New <a href="https://works.bepress.com/c_kirabo_jackson/35/">research</a> also shows that recent funding cuts depressed student achievement.</p>
<h2>Growing sense of outrage</h2>
<p>The average person wants our leaders to reinvest in traditional public schools. <a href="https://pdkpoll.org/assets/downloads/2019pdkpoll51.pdf">Polling</a> across the nation shows that 60% of adults think schools are underfunded. Those numbers run even higher in the Deep South, where <a href="http://www.gpee.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Education_Poll_of_the_South_Fact_Sheet_R2.pdf">three out of four voters</a> are upset with how their states fund schools and want a fix. In fact, <a href="http://www.gpee.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Education_Poll_of_the_South_Fact_Sheet_R2.pdf">no more than a couple of points</a> separate Republicans from Democrats on that issue there. And when teachers protested across the nation for two straight years over salaries and school resources, overwhelming majorities <a href="http://neatoday.org/2018/08/27/pdk-poll-2018/">supported</a> them. </p>
<h2>Something new, not more of the same</h2>
<p>Plans to substantially increase funding for low-income students have a deep substance and research base to them. Research and federal law has long indicated that low-income students need <a href="https://edtrust.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/FundingGap2006.pdf">at least 40%</a> more resources than their peers to achieve at comparable levels. But on average, schools serving the poorest students actually <a href="https://edtrust.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/FundingGapReport_2018_FINAL.pdf">receive less</a> than their peers. The poorest districts in the nation are a staggering <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1cm6Jkm6ktUT3SQplzDFjJIy3G3iLWOtJ/view">US$14,000 to $16,000</a> per pupil short of what they need to achieve average outcomes.</p>
<p>The devil is always in the <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1943557">details</a> with school funding, but these new Democratic proposals try to do something that the nation has never before attempted, much less achieved: fully funding the educational needs of every poor, disabled and English language learner student in the nation. One of the Democratic plans, for instance, proposes to cover half the cost of fully funding low-income students’ needs if <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/posts/us/2019/10/21/elizabeth-warren-education-plan/">states agree</a> to cover the other half.</p>
<p>The candidates are surely looking to earn teacher unions’ support, but that does not mean their plans are flawed. In my view, eliminating public schools’ funding crisis is a good idea, both <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2848415">practically</a> and <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2982509">constitutionally</a>. </p>
<p>Doing that moves toward, not away from, kids finally receiving what <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-constitutional-right-to-education-is-long-overdue-88445">state constitutions and the Founding Fathers</a> long ago promised them.</p>
<p>[ <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=expertise">Expertise in your inbox. Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter and get a digest of academic takes on today’s news, every day.</a></em> ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126481/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Derek W. Black does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Democratic plans to boost school funding are rooted in research that shows more funding really does boost achievement for low-income students.Derek W. Black, Professor of Law, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/861442017-11-15T19:17:19Z2017-11-15T19:17:19ZNAPLAN only tells part of the story of student achievement<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193347/original/file-20171106-1068-8x3q38.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">After 10 years of minimal breakthroughs, NAPLAN doesn't seem to be going anywhere but online.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><hr>
<p><em>Since it was introduced in the 1800s, standardised testing in Australian schools has attracted controversy and divided opinion. In this <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/standardised-testing-series-46310">series</a>, we examine its pros and cons, including appropriate uses for standardised tests and which students are disadvantaged by them.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>The National Assessment Program – Literacy And Numeracy (<a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/naplan">NAPLAN</a>) had its 10th birthday this year, but few well-wishers came to the party. </p>
<p>Administered in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9, NAPLAN measures the performance of educational programs, schools and each student’s literacy and numeracy achievements against benchmarks. In short, the aim of NAPLAN is to ensure that students’ and the nation’s literacy and numeracy skills are improving. This year, 10 years of <a href="http://www.nap.edu.au/results-and-reports/national-reports">data</a> revealed that <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-02/naplan-results-show-small-change-in-school-students-performance/8764994">little has changed</a> since NAPLAN began. </p>
<p>After millions of dollars of investment, as well as the abundance of data that NAPLAN has created, we are still not seeing amazing leaps and bounds in achievement. The nation is effectively standing still. </p>
<h2>NAPLAN is good at measuring differences and change over time</h2>
<p>NAPLAN gives us a picture of several aspects of students’ learning. These include: their performance under test conditions, their basic use of punctuation, grammar, spelling, numeracy skills and writing an exposition or narrative text. </p>
<p>NAPLAN has provided data to help us quantify the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students’ literacy and numeracy, and provide indicators of <a href="http://closingthegap.pmc.gov.au/education">where the gap is closing</a>. </p>
<p>We can see the <a href="http://ftp.iza.org/dp9535.pdf">differences in boys’ and girls’ achievements</a>, and the significant difference that a <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/widening-gaps/">parent’s level of education</a> makes to results. </p>
<p>NAPLAN can, importantly, track a student’s improvement, or lack thereof, from one exam to the next. It can also highlight changes, although it can’t specify the factors involved in it. </p>
<p>Finally, NAPLAN can <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=yJ7hCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT171&dq=identify+disadvantage+NAPLAN&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2yd7R2qjXAhUCmJQKHeMjASoQ6AEIPzAF#v=snippet&q=disadvantage&f=false">identify areas of disadvantage</a> or need, for example geographical areas, state or territory differences or demographics.</p>
<h2>NAPLAN cannot measure creativity or engagement</h2>
<p>Despite all that NAPLAN can measure, it only tells part of the story of literacy and numeracy achievement. Results may not show growth of learning in schools with students from low socio-economic backgrounds or culturally and linguistically diverse students, because it only measures a narrow skill set on one particular day of the year. It does not represent student achievements across the year, nor across the breadth of the curriculum which schools use to evaluate their programs. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193340/original/file-20171106-1014-tqsoqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193340/original/file-20171106-1014-tqsoqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=856&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193340/original/file-20171106-1014-tqsoqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=856&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193340/original/file-20171106-1014-tqsoqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=856&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193340/original/file-20171106-1014-tqsoqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1076&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193340/original/file-20171106-1014-tqsoqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1076&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193340/original/file-20171106-1014-tqsoqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1076&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Bard of Avon’s creative use of language and love of making up words would likely earn him a poor score on a NAPLAN test.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It also does not measure engagement in learning. Engagement can look like students’ enjoying reading, willingness to engage in numeracy tasks or whether they are using these skills outside a test situation. </p>
<p>This leaves little room for creative play with the style of writing prescribed, promoting very structured teaching of the texts. It’s far easier to provide students with a simplistic structure and key language features, rather than encourage a creative response with more complexity. An assessor may not value the difference in writing style, as it is not reflected in the marking criteria. One wonders how Shakespeare would have performed on NAPLAN. Our prediction is that his phrase “the world’s my oyster”, would have placed him in the bottom two bands. </p>
<h2>NAPLAN’s influence on learning</h2>
<p>This narrow version of literacy, numeracy and writing isn’t reflected in the rich learning that occurs in classrooms. NAPLAN places children as young as eight in an exam environment, and asks them to think in a way they aren’t used to. Classroom life in year 3 <a href="http://www.pdst.ie/sites/default/files/Session%203%20-%20PS%20Co%20-%20Op%20%EF%80%A2%20Group%20Work.pdf">is usually more accustomed to</a> collaborative learning, using problem-solving and discovery methods are essential for knowledge and understanding. </p>
<p>In contrast, NAPLAN reflects little of the ways that children understand and interpret the world. Two weeks before NAPLAN, many years 3 and 5 teachers start teaching to the test by developing exam skills, practising answering multiple choice questions, teaching the structure and language features of an exposition and/or narrative text. Teachers feel they must simulate the exam environment, practice and even guess the questions that might be asked.</p>
<p>This narrows the curriculum as well as the types of literacy and numeracy activities that students usually engage in as part of their learning. It takes up classroom time that could be spent teaching literacy and numeracy skills meaningfully, by reading quality children’s literature, creating various text types, engaging in <a href="https://ukla.org/research/projects/details//agentic-writing-across-the-primary-curriculum">process drama pedagogies</a> or trying creative tasks. </p>
<p>Standardised tests like NAPLAN also diminish the joy of learning. Teachers have <a href="http://www.whitlam.org/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/694199/The_experience_of_education_-_Qualitative_Study.pdf">reported</a> that 90% of students feel stressed before the test. In fact, a 2016 <a href="https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_383374/s4261111_phd_final.pdf?Expires=1509676745&Signature=OcZOE8k7ACzOXg86mBn21rIlOM-AP2j5Jxp57p8pLWjER9U5RlHnWj7WpsiYRqpgiqHcj8ra86i8kH%7EbDv3xLoI1QoYz8RLW-Cqs2lmtcNIiYA6HlbNXyZjiIHbToxVa0UcszBfVQAfBYOkOu-l6ns4dMpWuCHTLuUYez0T61adCZ3KtB7nZbN183JLhMbwQWPfgMo5WLjTizf25jIYusOqFdNVRCB3X7kMvas14gEHSW2PnBQ7CRq2YDnDYTqxV9-59UUg4gpwJlCjO4NLXW2PaEd99UyztpIWeTtFaP-coKiWihkY0goWukNdCVGQNT1JblWVEEDtcO8cXat7-MQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ">study</a> found that students in high school do not see the relevance of NAPLAN to their education. Year 7 students even felt it stopped their learning.</p>
<p>Dangerously, NAPLAN frames mistakes as bad. Mistakes are essential if schools are going to encourage original thoughts. Lateral and creative thinking is required to conquer challenges like climate change, global inequality and rising global conflicts. Students will need to take risks, understand that problems may have multiple solutions and they mustn’t only look for a singular right answer. </p>
<h2>Creative alternatives</h2>
<p>Teachers are not to blame for any of these issues. Throughout the teaching year, teachers use creative strategies to improve students’ outcomes. Philosophy has been <a href="http://www.sapere.org.uk/Portals/0/SAPERE%20P4C%20Research%20map%20-%20first%20draft%20June%202011.pdf">found</a> to make a significant and impressive difference. Sydney Theatre Company’s School Drama <a href="https://www.aare.edu.au/blog/?tag=stc">program</a> has been <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14452294.2015.1083152">found</a> to improve literacy outcomes as well as empathy, confidence, motivation and engagement. These approaches are not available to every child in every school. This should be a priority, but education is like a large ship - slow to turn around. Wide-scale reform that prioritises creativity and philosophical thinking takes time. </p>
<p>NAPLAN, on the other hand, is high-stakes testing. Schools are required to administer it with <a href="http://www.education.vic.gov.au/about/educationstate/Pages/catchup.aspx">additional funding</a> tied to results of underachieving students and that may not accurately represent data for the whole <a href="https://theconversation.com/naplan-data-and-school-funding-a-dangerous-link-46021">school population</a> if all students do not complete the tests. Using a centrally created test puts enormous pressure on every student, teacher and principal to perform. It discards teachers’ contextual knowledge about the students and the learning environment. Results are published as a comparative analysis of schools on the <a href="https://www.myschool.edu.au/">My School</a> website. </p>
<p>Despite 10 years of minimal breakthroughs and a <a href="http://www.whitlam.org/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/276191/High_Stakes_Testing_Literature_Review.pdf">plethora of evidence</a> that shows that NAPLAN may do more harm than good, there is no sign it’s going anywhere except online. </p>
<p>Governments love NAPLAN. It contains all of their favourite buzz-words: transparency, accountability, data and quality. In the process, look at what it denies our students: innovation, creativity, risk, originality and joy. These are far less attractive to politicians, more difficult to measure in a national multiple choice test, but far more relevant to children’s future achievements.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86144/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachael Jacobs is a member of Teachers for Refugees, the NTEU, the NSW Greens and on the board of Drama Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katina Zammit does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>NAPLAN is great at tracking changes over time and between demographics, but not so great at measuring what factors effect change, engagement or creativity.Rachael Jacobs, Lecturer in Arts Education, Western Sydney UniversityKatina Zammit, Director of Academic Program - Primary, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/621552016-09-30T01:18:23Z2016-09-30T01:18:23ZWant to understand your child’s test scores? Here’s what to ignore<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139806/original/image-20160929-27026-zjhukn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What do you need to know about test score reports?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-425607436/stock-photo-mother-helping-daughter-with-her-homework-at-the-table-in-the-dining-room.html?src=1d99UY_Zz1bXOZR4tlBnTg-10-40">Mother image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Now that the first month of school is over, parents can get ready for the next milestone of the school year – they will soon get reports of the state tests their children took last year.</p>
<p>My estimates show that approximately 26 million students in public schools took statewide tests in reading and math last year. Many of them also took statewide tests in science. These tests provide important information to parents about how well their children are doing in school. </p>
<p>However, my research also shows that when parents receive their child’s test score report, they may have a tough time separating the important information from the statistical gibberish.</p>
<p>What’s more, the results might not even give them accurate information about their child’s academic growth.</p>
<h2>Is your child ‘proficient’?</h2>
<p>The No Child Left Behind law, enacted in 2002, required all states to set “achievement level standards” in reading and math for grades three through eight, and for one grade in high school, typically 10th or 11th grade. States were also required to develop tests to measure students’ level of <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/legislative_sap_107-1_hr1-r">“proficiency”</a> on each test. </p>
<p>The new federal law passed in December 2015, the <a href="http://www.ed.gov/essa">Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)</a>, will continue this practice. </p>
<p>As a result, the test reports parents receive classify children into achievement levels such as “basic” or “proficient.” Each state decides what these classifications are called, but at least one category must signify “proficient.” </p>
<p>These achievement level categories are described on the test score reports, and so this information is easily understood by parents. For example, I find it helpful each year to see if my sons reach proficiency in each subject area.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139810/original/image-20160929-27037-up5dft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139810/original/image-20160929-27037-up5dft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139810/original/image-20160929-27037-up5dft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139810/original/image-20160929-27037-up5dft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139810/original/image-20160929-27037-up5dft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139810/original/image-20160929-27037-up5dft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139810/original/image-20160929-27037-up5dft.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How is student growth being measured?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-352138571/stock-photo-boy-climbing-the-stairs-made-of-books.html?src=GDQj56a0VhPLyUbHVilZ9g-1-40">Student image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But children’s test scores in a given year, and their achievement level, are not the only information reported in some states. A new statistical index, called a “student growth percentile,” <a href="http://kuow.org/post/state-releases-new-student-achievement-statistics-experts-balk">is finding its way into the reports</a> sent home to parents in 11 states. Twenty-seven states use this index for evaluating teachers as well. </p>
<p>Although a measure of students’ “growth” or progress sounds like a good idea, student growth percentiles have yet to be supported by research. In fact <a href="http://www.umass.edu/remp/news_SGPsResearchBrief.html">several studies suggest</a> they <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED563445.pdf">do not provide accurate descriptions</a> of student progress and teacher effectiveness. </p>
<h2>What does it mean?</h2>
<p>What exactly are “student growth percentiles”?</p>
<p>They are indexes proposed in 2008 by <a href="http://nepc.colorado.edu/author/betebenner-damian-w">Damian W. Betebenner</a>, a statistician who suggested they be used as a descriptive measure of <a href="http://www.nciea.org/publication_PDFs/normative_criterion_growth_DB08.pdf">students’ “academic growth”</a> from one school year to the next. The idea was to describe students’ progress in comparison to their peers.</p>
<p>Like the growth charts pediatricians use to describe children’s height and weight, student growth percentiles range from a low of one to a high of 99. However, their calculation involves a lot more error than physical measurement such as height and weight. Our research at the University of Massachusetts Amherst indicates <a href="http://www.umass.edu/remp/pdf/WellsSireciBahryEE_in_SGPs.pdf">substantial error</a> in their calculation. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139797/original/image-20160929-27014-ql2gha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139797/original/image-20160929-27014-ql2gha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139797/original/image-20160929-27014-ql2gha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139797/original/image-20160929-27014-ql2gha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139797/original/image-20160929-27014-ql2gha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139797/original/image-20160929-27014-ql2gha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139797/original/image-20160929-27014-ql2gha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The scores do not actually measure children’s growth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-140540089/stock-photo-school-kids-using-laptop-at-lesson.html?src=uKm7oF4uF6kcagm27-o61A-1-74">Children image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Student growth percentiles are derived from test scores, which are not perfectly accurate descriptions of students’ academic proficiency: Test scores are influenced by many factors, such as the questions asked on a particular day, students’ temperament, their level of engagement when taking the test or just the methods used to score their answers. </p>
<p>Each student’s growth percentile is calculated using at least two different test scores, typically a year or more apart. The most recent test scores of a student are then compared to the most recent test scores of students who had similar scores in previous years. This is to see which of those students had higher or lower scores this year. </p>
<p>The problem, however, is that each of the calculations carries some measurement error. Further calculations only compound that error. So much so that the results end up with twice as much error. <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/emip.12062/abstract">No statistical sophistication</a> can erase this error. </p>
<p>The question is, why are so many states using such an unreliable measure?</p>
<h2>Using it for accountability</h2>
<p>The use of student growth percentiles is due in part to a desire to see how much students learn in a particular year, and to link that progress to accountability systems such as teacher evaluation. </p>
<p>In 2010, the <a href="http://www2.ed.gov/programs/racetothetop/phase1-resources.html">Race-to-the-Top grant competition</a> invited states to come up with innovative ways of using test scores to evaluate teachers, which paved the way for this new measure of “growth” to be quickly applied across many states.</p>
<p>However, the use of student growth percentiles began before research was conducted on their accuracy. Only now is there a sufficient body of research to evaluate them, and all studies point to the same conclusion – they contain a lot of error. </p>
<p>In addition to our research at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, research on the accuracy of student growth percentiles has been conducted by education nonprofits such as <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED563445.pdf">WestEd</a>, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/emip.12062/abstract;jsessionid=EE60D9A2ECD66164111467AE5D35F001.f04t01">Educational Testing Service</a> <a href="http://epm.sagepub.com/content/early/2016/07/27/0013164416659686">and</a> other <a href="http://www.aefpweb.org/sites/default/files/webform/AEFP21.pdf">research institutions</a>. Researchers <a href="http://cepa.stanford.edu/events/jr-lockwood">J.R. Lockwood</a> and <a href="http://epm.sagepub.com/search?author1=J.+R.+Lockwood&sortspec=date&submit=Submit">Katherine E. Castellano</a> <a href="http://epm.sagepub.com/content/early/2016/07/27/0013164416659686">recently concluded</a> that “A substantial research base already notes that student growth percentile estimates for individual students have large errors.”</p>
<p>However, many states seem to be unaware of these research findings. Massachusetts even goes so far as to <a href="http://www.doe.mass.edu/mcas/2015/pgguide/g3-8-10English.pdf">classify children with growth percentiles</a> less than 40 as “lower growth” and children with growth percentiles greater than 60 as “higher growth.” </p>
<h2>Measuring teacher performance</h2>
<p>As I mentioned earlier, 27 states are using student growth percentiles to classify teachers as “effective” or “ineffective.” Research on the use of growth percentiles for this purpose indicates they could <a href="https://www.ets.org/research/policy_research_reports/publications/article/2015/juff">underestimate the performance</a> of the most effective teachers, and <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED563445.pdf">overestimate the performance</a> of the least effective teachers – the exact opposite of what these states are trying to do with their teacher evaluation systems. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139811/original/image-20160929-27058-1c00i9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/139811/original/image-20160929-27058-1c00i9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139811/original/image-20160929-27058-1c00i9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139811/original/image-20160929-27058-1c00i9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139811/original/image-20160929-27058-1c00i9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139811/original/image-20160929-27058-1c00i9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/139811/original/image-20160929-27058-1c00i9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">These measures are being used for teacher performance as well.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-405849895/stock-photo-education-school-teacher-student-digital-tablet-technology-concept.html?src=jySilPadj2412PVoZS0XYw-1-41">Teacher image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A recent report by WestEd evaluated the use of student growth percentiles for evaluating teachers and <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED563445.pdf">concluded</a> they “did not meet a level of stability” that would be needed for such high-stakes decisions. </p>
<h2>Let’s go back to traditional measures</h2>
<p>I believe student growth percentiles have taken us a step backwards in the use of educational tests to improve student learning.</p>
<p>Traditional measures of children’s performance on educational tests, such as whether they are “proficient” in a given year and their actual test scores, give a good idea of how well they performed in math or reading in a particular year. </p>
<p>These traditional percentile ranks are still reported on many educational tests, just like they were when we as parents were in school. Traditional percentile ranks compared us to a national or state group in a given year, rather than comparing us to how other kids in the nation or state were “growing” across different tests they took in different years, as student growth percentiles attempt to do.</p>
<p>Given what we now know about student growth percentiles, my advice to parents is not only to ignore them on their children’s test score reports, but also to contact their state department of education and ask why they are reporting such an unreliable statistic. </p>
<p>Developing measures of how much students have learned over the course of a year is a good goal. Unfortunately, student growth percentiles do not do a good job of measuring that.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62155/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Sireci does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Eleven states have introduced a new test score. Here’s what you need to know.Stephen Sireci, Professor of Educational Policy, UMass AmherstLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/564222016-03-21T10:01:44Z2016-03-21T10:01:44ZShould we change the way we measure student progress in schools?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115739/original/image-20160321-4456-zrhp9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We need to understand that some students make faster progress than others. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every year, the National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy <a href="http://www.nap.edu.au/naplan/naplan.html">(NAPLAN)</a> reveals stark inequalities in student achievement in literacy and numeracy across Australian schools.</p>
<p>While <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-03-09/literacy-classes-help-improve-naplan-scores-for-sydney-school/7231232">recent results</a> showed some improvements around the nation, serious performance gaps remain between young people from different backgrounds. </p>
<p>Addressing these gaps is a major policy challenge that both sides of the political divide are struggling and failing to solve.</p>
<p>The Grattan Institute’s new report, <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/widening-gaps/">Widening Gaps</a>, invites us to think differently about how to measure student progress and tackle entrenched inequalities in achievement.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115736/original/image-20160321-4432-xt6dnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115736/original/image-20160321-4432-xt6dnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115736/original/image-20160321-4432-xt6dnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115736/original/image-20160321-4432-xt6dnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115736/original/image-20160321-4432-xt6dnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=909&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115736/original/image-20160321-4432-xt6dnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=909&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115736/original/image-20160321-4432-xt6dnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=909&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Analysis by the Grattan Institute.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The key arguments</h2>
<p>“Widening Gaps” proposes a new way of reporting on and understanding student progress each year, using “time” (years and months of progress) rather than “distance” (gain in NAPLAN scores).</p>
<p>This means instead of simply measuring a student’s progress in terms of the change in scores from year to year, Grattan suggests we should also be looking at how much progress they have made relative to expected years and months of improvement.</p>
<p>This is because some students make faster progress than others and it is crucial, the authors argue, to understand these differing rates of progress.</p>
<p>Let’s take, for example, two imaginary students, Sally and Michael. </p>
<p>In Year 3, both perform at the minimum standard for Year 3. But by the time they reach Year 5, Sally is performing well above the minimum standard but Michael has fallen below. </p>
<p>Sally has progressed, therefore, at a faster rate than Michael, which means Michael needs more help to catch up. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115738/original/image-20160321-4436-1qnkjt1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115738/original/image-20160321-4436-1qnkjt1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115738/original/image-20160321-4436-1qnkjt1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115738/original/image-20160321-4436-1qnkjt1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=559&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115738/original/image-20160321-4436-1qnkjt1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=703&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115738/original/image-20160321-4436-1qnkjt1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=703&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115738/original/image-20160321-4436-1qnkjt1.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=703&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Analysis by the Grattan Institute.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This relates to “the performance gap” problem, the authors argue, because when we analyse student progress at broader system levels, some worrying patterns emerge.</p>
<p>For example, based on its analysis, the authors claim:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>socioeconomic background makes a big difference between Years 3 and 9, with young people attending schools in poorer areas progressing at much slower rates than those in wealthier areas;</p></li>
<li><p>lower-performing students fall behind at a faster rate than higher-performing students, and higher-performing students in low socioeconomic area schools show the greatest loss in potential; </p></li>
<li><p>parental education levels play a key role, with children of parents with lower education levels falling more than two years behind children of parents with a university degree by Year 9;</p></li>
<li><p>geography matters, with students living in inner city areas making much more progress than students in regional or rural areas; </p></li>
<li><p>the overall spread of student achievement increases dramatically as students move through school.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115737/original/image-20160321-4425-1paaoog.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/115737/original/image-20160321-4425-1paaoog.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115737/original/image-20160321-4425-1paaoog.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115737/original/image-20160321-4425-1paaoog.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115737/original/image-20160321-4425-1paaoog.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=626&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115737/original/image-20160321-4425-1paaoog.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=626&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/115737/original/image-20160321-4425-1paaoog.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=626&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Analysis by the Grattan Institute.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The report also argues that national minimum scores (NMS) are far too low, with the NMS for Year 9 in numeracy below the Year 5 student average. </p>
<p>These are worrying findings for anyone concerned by educational standards and inequalities in student achievement.</p>
<h2>So what should be done?</h2>
<p>The report argues that three major reforms are needed. </p>
<p>First, Grattan argues that policy organisations should adopt its “years of progress” approach as a supplement to existing reporting measures. </p>
<p>The authors claim this will produce a more nuanced portrait of student progress and enable more targeted interventions in a range of policy areas, including resource allocation and needs-based funding.</p>
<p>This recommendation arguably has the most relevance for the <a href="http://www.acara.edu.au/">Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority</a> (ACARA), which has responsibility for NAPLAN.</p>
<p>Second, the report argues systemic changes are needed to the way teachers teach and assess student progress, by adopting what Grattan has previously called <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/targeted-teaching-how-better-use-of-data-can-improve-student-learning/">“targeted teaching”.</a> </p>
<p>This basically means teachers should adopt more <a href="http://education.unimelb.edu.au/about_us/clinical_teaching">clinical and reflective approaches</a> that consistently evaluate the impact of their work on student progress, and better cater to the individual needs of students. </p>
<p>Finally, the report argues that young people from disadvantaged backgrounds need more support to close progress and achievement gaps. </p>
<p>This might sound like the bleeding obvious, but it is a message that Australian politicians appear unable to fully comprehend.</p>
<h2>Where to from here?</h2>
<p>While the report signals some interesting reform options, putting its ideas into practice would be another matter entirely. </p>
<p>For one, it is unlikely that all policy stakeholders will agree with Grattan’s position. I can imagine, for example, that ACARA would see its current approach to NAPLAN reporting as effective and sufficient. </p>
<p>The report also signals ideas that require large-scale reform, not only of data reporting, but also of how teachers teach. And large-scale reform is both tricky and expensive.</p>
<p>For example, the overhaul of teaching practice required to have every teacher doing “targeted teaching” would need, by Grattan’s own admission, much more <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/targeted-teaching-how-better-use-of-data-can-improve-student-learning/">“time, tools and training”</a>. </p>
<p>In tight fiscal times in which school funding agreements like Gonski <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/simon-birmingham-dont-expect-schools-election-cash-splash-20151227-glvlpx.html">remain up in the air</a>, it is hard to see where the money for such reforms would come from. </p>
<p>Ultimately, therefore, whether we agree with Grattan’s position or not, driving any major schooling reform is an almighty task. </p>
<p>But it is not a challenge that should simply be put in the “too hard basket”, as quality schooling is central to building the social and economic prosperity of our nation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56422/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Glenn C. Savage receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>The Grattan Institute’s new report, Widening Gaps, invites us to think differently about how to measure student progress and tackle entrenched inequalities in achievement.Glenn C Savage, Senior Lecturer in Education Policy and ARC DECRA Fellow (2016-19), Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/470802015-10-30T10:06:56Z2015-10-30T10:06:56ZWhat gets students motivated to work harder? Not money<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/100237/original/image-20151029-15318-bn8vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What motivates kids?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/wwworks/6235929403/in/photolist-av3Lyc-4axUZm-5V3DPB-7vSGJC-74mHLE-6Dytu3-dPsvb2-6QX8ro-ai7pAx-cm3kf3-2p6Pd-dUQYm-83zxqq-piRUa-5Dz5Pq-4YDEcH-7k7X8-35pt1b-5SMZaV-81JzpW-4z9Kkf-e9S1dz-5aRGj-t9KYWF-8369Jd-e9SdfF-7Bsm4H-4z9NVY-XT8Ls-e3X6Up-oQJYqR-4PsGWL-7Vc8tX-ypRYZ3-fmpQn1-4z5AY2-8367w1-aocv6i-4z9Q9d-4z9LEf-4z9SCb-saPegH-rVoHpV-81Rq8b-avq84n-e9XLkL-8kqWBn-81FtLe-81JCL1-4z5Bhr">woodleywonderworks</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rewarding teachers financially for student achievement is an <a href="https://my.vanderbilt.edu/matthewspringer/files/2015/02/Podgursky-and-Springer-2011.pdf">increasingly common practice</a>, despite <a href="http://wol.iza.org/articles/how-effective-are-financial-incentives-for-teachers">mixed evidence</a> as to whether it improves results. Some scholars have instead suggested <a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w16333">paying students</a>.</p>
<p>But giving kids <a href="http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/fryer/files/092011_incentives_fryer_allen_paper2.pdf">cash for grades and scores</a> hasn’t proved straightforward either. So maybe the answer isn’t monetary. </p>
<p>Could students be better motivated by something as simple as a little formal recognition? </p>
<p>While I was serving as director of the National Center on Performance Incentives at Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, my colleagues and I sought answers in the decisions of various actors in American public schools. </p>
<p>The results may surprise you.</p>
<h2>Which incentives encourage positive behavior?</h2>
<p>Much of public policy can be characterized as attempts to influence individual behavior and decision-making in organizations. </p>
<p>Those who design and evaluate incentives typically operate under the crude assumption that the “target” is a rational actor (processing all available information and quickly identifying the behavior most likely to be the best one for his or her well-being). </p>
<p>So, policymakers end up offering seemingly beneficial public services at little or no cost. But they still meet with disappointment. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19345747.2015.1017679">Our recent study</a> attempted to better understand the response to a different kind of incentive – for one of the arguably more imperfectly rationale segment of our population: early adolescents. </p>
<p>We explored how incentives – monetary and nonmonetary – might encourage behaviors that lead to increased student learning, such as daily attendance and afterschool tutoring services (free but chronically underutilized).</p>
<p>We found that adolescents do not respond to incentives in ways that can be easily predicted by economic theory. But the right kinds of incentives could well lead adolescents to engage in behaviors likely to enhance their learning. </p>
<h2>Money makes no difference</h2>
<p>Here’s how we did our study.</p>
<p>We selected 300 fifth to eighth grade students in a large southern urban school district who were eligible for free, afterschool tutoring services. </p>
<p>Prior research had shown that these particular tutoring services were relatively high quality and had, in fact, increased student’s test score performance. We then randomly assigned these students to one of three groups:</p>
<ul>
<li>a reward of US$100 (distributed via an online platform) for consistent attendance</li>
<li>certificates of recognition, signed by the school’s district superintendent, mailed to the student’s home, again for consistent attendance</li>
<li>a control group, which received no experimental incentives.</li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99379/original/image-20151022-7999-1wv6dvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99379/original/image-20151022-7999-1wv6dvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99379/original/image-20151022-7999-1wv6dvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99379/original/image-20151022-7999-1wv6dvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99379/original/image-20151022-7999-1wv6dvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99379/original/image-20151022-7999-1wv6dvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99379/original/image-20151022-7999-1wv6dvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Offering students money made no difference.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/hocolibrary/8631289513/in/photolist-e9HBEr-e9PdtW-e9HBk4-e9HB84-e9Pf29-e9PeFh-e9Hyqx-e9Pe7Q-e9HAwv-e9HB9D-e9Pep1-e9PePE-e9PeGm-e9Pdsf-eacEVv-eacEUt-eacETt-eaikNb-3aPxuk-54aWnE-6E5y9k-824H9y-ajn2s3-9oupmE-5dxBST-8pvgnD-qkqRmq-rhiwWk-qZT6ew-qZZhVe-rhiybe-rf7q5J-qZT5Ym-qZZ7J2-qkrdm1-91ygwG-7DP8cr-rhmpsC-qZZayR-rhpBMV-rhpZQn-qZThPq-rhmxD7-qZTjaw-qZZo6V-rhmBpd-qkr4Bh-rhpNUz-qkDa2R-rf7DZC">Howard County Library System</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found that the students who were offered up to $100 for regular attendance were no more likely to attend sessions than if they were offered nothing at all. </p>
<p>In other words, money made no difference.</p>
<p>Alternatively, when students received a certificate of recognition for attending tutoring sessions regularly, the differences were dramatic. The students in the certificate group attended 42.5% more of their allotted tutoring hours than those assigned to the control group. </p>
<h2>Gender, parents and peers</h2>
<p>Gender also played a role. Girls were significantly more responsive to the certificate of recognition than their male counterparts.</p>
<p>On average, girls in the control group attended only 11% of the tutoring hours assigned to them. However, girls receiving the certificate attended 67% of their allocated hours, representing a six-fold increase. </p>
<p>What’s more, the boys that received certificates attended more than two times as many of their allocated tutoring sessions in comparison to the male control-group students. But the girls in the group that received the certificates attended nearly twice as many of their allocated tutoring sessions than the boys who were eligible for certificates of recognition.</p>
<p>Overall, sending certificates directly to the parents seemed to have been effective. One reason for this could be that parents were more likely to reinforce the child’s extra effort when the certificate was received at home. </p>
<p>Often in school settings, parents are not hearing positive news when they are contacted by their child’s school – and this might be especially true of these students who qualified for tutoring services. </p>
<p>This is one time where the parent heard: “way to go, keep it up.” And they heard it directly from the district superintendent.</p>
<p>In addition, a student’s effort was not necessarily observable to peers, which could have helped facilitate the positive response. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272709001406">Prior research</a> suggests that the promise of certificates and trophies presented in a class or at a school assembly in front of peers might not necessarily act as a positive incentive. Academic achievement can often result in diminished social status among peers, especially for minority students.</p>
<h2>Human behavior and education policy</h2>
<p>Indeed, a <a href="http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/leonardo.bursztyn/Peer_Pressure_Education_Bursztyn_Jensen_Jan2015.pdf">recent study</a> of a performance leaderboard system that publicly ranked students in a computer-based high school course in Los Angeles Unified School District was associated with a 24% performance decline.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/leonardo.bursztyn/Peer_Pressure_Education_Bursztyn_Jensen_Jan2015.pdf">The authors</a> attributed this to students trying to avoid social penalties by conforming to prevailing norms. </p>
<p>For these reasons, working with the family to encourage and reward academic behaviors may hold more promise, compared to working directly through school settings where peer pressures and norms play an important role. </p>
<p>Policymakers and philanthropists in New York and Memphis are currently trying to interrupt a cycle of generational poverty through the <a href="http://www.mdrc.org/sites/default/files/CEO_SIF_2014_ES.pdf">Family Rewards Program</a>. It is providing cash rewards to families who improve their short-term health care, education, and labor market participation and outcomes. </p>
<p>The impact results of this program are still awaited. This program doesn’t test other forms of incentives such as certificates. </p>
<p>But there are important implications for education policy discussions and whether cash should be the primary driver of human behavior, particularly for adolescents. </p>
<p>The results of our study show that children’s learning behaviors to incentives change in unpredictable ways. And these behaviors aren’t easily accounted for by models of individuals as rational decision-makers. </p>
<p>Our study provides evidence that for policies to influence adolescent behavior, they may need to draw from research and theory beyond classical economics or behavioral psychology, including what we are learning about <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/amp/64/8/739/">the teenage brain</a> and it’s sociocultural environment.</p>
<p>In short, we need to look at policies that are less Adam Smith and little more Friday Night Lights.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47080/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew G Springer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What role does a bit of recognition play for students?Matthew G Springer, Assistant Professor of Public Policy and Education, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/477442015-10-20T10:04:03Z2015-10-20T10:04:03ZIn 19 states, it’s okay to hit kids with a wooden board<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98900/original/image-20151019-23267-1kjblkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Why use corporal punishment?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/hydrojeno/5792853829/in/photolist-9PTTCa-4C7no1-cWCwn5-rr47zB-cvKuQQ-47gJ5J-khx8jT-6RLWve-5U2WNX-BbnwP-eyXQiK-9EaKem-9K2RXz-bq4tGz-47pLK4-7oHfZw-75MD6d-eyXRHT-zK1NCu-8xq7Ab-boZ2uC-hMakiZ-5mFCsB-8MG3Cu-6mnb33-8DhF9K-bZavvU-rWWD9C-nqdKhP-4LXVYQ-34UPdf-gwAgLB-vF4Xw-8WAZT-2DKw4-qctCRj-Ec4aj-rNgtxq-gPQN8-66LH5F-Ej3H-4poUaF-nkyjjr-5zhMDH-4L3xAG-8P76u6-yjhVLG-6W79Cc-8TJBqn-6Za1FY">Jeno Ortiz</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Terry sat in his middle school principal’s office knowing that in a few short minutes, he would be feeling the pain and humiliation of being paddled. </p>
<p>No parent, administrator or teacher should find this scenario acceptable. Yet, every school day, an <a href="http://www.childrensdefense.org/library/state-of-americas-children/">estimated 838 students</a> like Terry receive corporal punishment in American schools. <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/20120901/corporal-punishment-florida-schools">Nineteen states</a> still allow corporal punishment, despite research that clearly indicates such public humiliation is ineffective for changing student behavior and can, in fact, have long-term negative effects.</p>
<p>For a decade I have studied approaches that are effective for promoting appropriate student behavior. And as a teacher for a dozen years, I experienced personal reward as well as pride in my students, as they learned and used appropriate behaviors. I have not come across a single valid study that showed any positive effect of corporal punishment. </p>
<h2>A form of child abuse</h2>
<p>Corporal punishment is a method of responding to student misbehavior wherein an adult uses a wooden board to strike a child on the buttocks <a href="https://www.aacap.org/aacap/policy_statements/1988/Corporal_Punishment_in_Schools.aspx">in order to inflict pain</a>.</p>
<p>The harm done by corporal punishment is well-recognized by many school administrations across the US. Professional organizations across disciplines including the American Psychological Association, National Education Association, American Bar Association and National Association of School Nurses have called for ending corporal punishment. </p>
<p>In fact, the American Bar Association <a href="http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:7_5w1Js106EJ:www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publishing/criminal_justice_section_newsletter/crimjust_juvjus_jjpolicies_OpposingCorporalPunishment.pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us">condemns</a> the practice in the following words:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Institutional corporal punishment of children should be considered a form of child abuse that is contrary to current knowledge of human behavior and sound educational practices.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Yet, the use of corporal punishment continues.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/20120901/corporal-punishment-florida-schools">recent study</a>, my colleagues and I asked 27 principals from <a href="http://www.fldoe.org/policy/federal-edu-programs/title-i-part-a-improving-the-academic-/improving-the-academic-achievement-of-.stml">Florida Title I schools</a> about their thoughts on using corporal punishment. <a href="http://www2.ed.gov/programs/titleiparta/index.html">Title I schools</a> are those that may receive state funding due to “high numbers or high percentages of children from low-income families.” </p>
<p>Through our other research, we found that schools with students from poor families use corporal punishment more often than schools in more affluent areas. So, we interviewed these principals individually for over an hour. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/98902/original/image-20151019-23270-1sxyiaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many school principals believe in corporal punishment as a way of disciplining kids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usagvicenza/18430266204/in/photolist-u5BW3q-6Pvkab-5vijH8-eF4Gsq-bz9aqJ-ytLg6-7QQUD2-bZLGsq-a3ndDu-a3jmtp-aLTTst-bZLGgN-bZLCEW-bZLBnw-bZLG5Q-bZLDV7-bZLH8Q-bZLHrf-bZLBMY-bZLCem-bZLD5W-bZLEZE-bZLHg5-bZLCUh-bZLGXQ-bZLFEC-bZLB21-bZLE6C-bZLEU7-bZLBd3-bZLDfh-bZLDpq-bZLEwC-bZLEJ1-bZLEmJ-bZLDyE-bZLF9L-bZLFjs-bZLDHu-bZLBB1-bZLGAQ-bZLBYJ-bZLFuy-bZLCtw-bZLFSj-pjkWRh-q4jCa1-9DRK3W-bEP7dT-brUffW">USAG Vicenza</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sadly, despite all evidence to the contrary, many principals do believe that corporal punishment is effective for some students. Also, principals cite pressure from parents as a primary reason for using corporal punishment. Despite the science, the idea that corporal punishment is effective, “Because that’s how I was raised,” pervades the discussion. </p>
<p>However, given the research, perhaps a better view is, “I am ok <em>despite</em> corporal punishment and not <em>because of</em> corporal punishment. </p>
<h2>More suspensions in schools with corporal punishment</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.splcenter.org/20120901/corporal-punishment-florida-schools">acceptance</a> of corporal punishment can create an environment in which schools approach student misbehavior in a reactive and punitive manner.</p>
<p>In Florida, for example, schools in districts that allow corporal punishment enforce more suspensions and expulsions than schools districts that do not allow it. </p>
<p>Harsh punitive approaches to student behavior problems can result in student alienation from school. A <a href="http://www.freepatentsonline.com/article/Journal-Instructional-Psychology/272616385.html">host of problematic student behaviors</a> are related to such alienation, including disruptiveness, absenteeism, low achievement and social withdrawal.</p>
<p>Research shows that students who have a sense of being connected to school and teachers have <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.538.6276&rep=rep1&type=pdf">lower rates</a> of depression, social rejection and violence, as well as greater academic achievement. </p>
<h2>The way forward</h2>
<p>So, what can be done?</p>
<p>First, we need to provide information about the effects of corporal punishment to parents, teachers and administrators in a manner that is effective. The conversation must be redirected toward the science that <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&id=2008-05119-001">shows corporal punishment has negative effects</a>, in the same way that we use science to deter youth from smoking cigarettes. The harm that cigarettes have had on previous generations is acknowledged and shape our approach to youth today.</p>
<p>One would never consider promoting smoking to our children because we smoked as teenagers. </p>
<p>Second, the same needs to be done with legislators in all 19 states. They need to learn about the <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&id=2008-05119-001">very real harm</a> that use of corporal punishment can have on youth. </p>
<p>Third, we must acknowledge the importance of banning corporal punishment within a larger reform movement focusing on schools’ approach to student behavior. Nationally, <a href="http://ocrdata.ed.gov/Downloads/CRDC-School-Discipline-Snapshot.pdf">male and African-American students</a> are disproportionately punished, suspended and expelled. This trend is <a href="http://www.gse.upenn.edu/equity/SouthernStates">particularly pronounced</a> in schools in the southern states that allow corporal punishment. A comprehensive plan requires consideration of these important facts. </p>
<p>As parents, teachers, administrators and concerned adults, we all want to see our children thrive in school and in society. It is time for us to acknowledge that corporal punishment is not an effective tool for our schools. As we do that, we also need to be careful that we do not replace corporal punishment with yet another form of reactive and ineffective approach.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47744/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joseph Gagnon receives funding from the Southern Poverty Law Center </span></em></p>An estimated 838 students per day receive corporal punishment across schools in 19 American states. Why does the practice continue?Joseph Calvin Gagnon, Associate Professor of School of Special Education, School Psychology, & Early Childhood Studies, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/485502015-10-05T09:32:19Z2015-10-05T09:32:19ZA somber message on World Teachers’ Day 2015: our teachers are at risk<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97111/original/image-20151002-23063-1uoafjr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The work of teachers is not valued as much as other professions.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/besphotos/2358166134/in/photolist-4AodCN-7Cv6qi-eJc5nQ-4smAGv-cKqUN1-7mAk3R-aHvVNg-8gdwZF-9TprRe-j587eW-rPEZXm-ryLN2H-7YL6Vw-8ePWKG-7NYcNs-7nS8RE-23EySh-7dujYF-8cBzeW-6VtJ5a-4dxked-8NbVe2-iEvL1r-7YBySL-5iD1Sa-4ragHd-aEDKDN-pfPSMa-9WCrcY-asdPBd-9124du-aywv8r-9CYP1m-6D5fFW-BmeM1-d9Hpn1-q2L9yr-dbKYqL-fy5mc9-wVvnpT-rjLQjT-rPaQek-yUEHce-8oNY9-eWQ7RH-4PuUPc-bGXdU8-uTuLYs-8rxuy8-qYp2AC">BES Photos</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What is among the first actions that brutal totalitarian regimes take upon assuming power? They imprison, exile or <a href="http://store.tcpress.com/0807743593.shtml">“disappear” teachers</a>.</p>
<p>Dictators employ such harsh tactics because of the role teachers play in society. Teachers provide not only a crucial link to our cultural past but also exercise critical influence on the present and the future. Teachers train future citizens on how to think and creatively challenge accepted wisdom, which can threaten the power of tyrants.</p>
<p>But before we rush to congratulate ourselves on how well teachers are treated in our free society, we need to recognize the multiple ways in which damage has been caused to the profession.</p>
<p>The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) established <a href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/events/prizes-and-celebrations/celebrations/international-days/world-teachersday-2015#.Vg6imLRYWJV">World Teachers’ Day</a> – celebrated every year on October 5 since 1994 – as a result of concerns about the historically low status of teachers and their mistreatment. </p>
<p>As a researcher who studies the history of schooling in the United States, I can testify that Americans have long had a deep and enduring ambivalence about teachers: we value their work, but <a href="http://www.epi.org/publication/books_teacher_pay/">we pay them less respect and less money</a> than those in many other comparable professions. There are plenty of signs that teaching as a vocation is in trouble in the US.</p>
<h2>The problem of teacher turnover</h2>
<p>Look at how <a href="https://title2.ed.gov/Public/Home.aspx">enrollments in teacher preparation programs</a> have plummeted in the last few years in US schools.</p>
<p>The hardest-hit state – <a href="http://www.ctc.ca.gov/commission/agendas/2014-10/2014-10-3D.pdf">California</a> – experienced a 53% decline between 2008 and 2013. Other states are not too far behind – <a href="http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2015/04/25/teacher-preparation-programs-declining-enrollment/26379779/">Michigan</a>, for instance, experienced a 38% drop, and <a href="http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2014/10/22/09enroll.h34.html?qs=drop+in+texas+enrollment+in+teacher+education+programs">Texas</a> a 19% reduction, during the same period. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2014/03/23/kindergarten-teacher-my-job-is-now-about-tests-and-data-not-children-i-quit/">Several</a> high-profile educators have either decided to <a href="http://www.edweek.org/tm/articles/2015/04/06/why-im-calling-it-quits-after-six.html?qs=quit+teaching">“hang up their chalk”</a> or encouraged others to <a href="http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2015/04/01/award-winning-educator-decries-current-teaching-climate.html?qs=global+teacher+prize">avoid the profession altogether</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97112/original/image-20151002-23072-10alomf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97112/original/image-20151002-23072-10alomf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97112/original/image-20151002-23072-10alomf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97112/original/image-20151002-23072-10alomf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97112/original/image-20151002-23072-10alomf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97112/original/image-20151002-23072-10alomf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97112/original/image-20151002-23072-10alomf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What is leading teachers to quit?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/peoplesworld/18680600211/in/photolist-usJXBZ-us8a2W-usx7Yx-ub69tP-ub5UpX-us7Qu5-ub5Y1e-tvFW1F-usxy2i-tvw5bQ-9hSvnm-bUvVwv-62wwkq-gHofKz-dacThu-gHnq3B-sKj3hQ-sv2iFY-sMBjVx-sMBvD6-sv1GNE-sv91dM-sKhzGN-sKhiWu-suZBUJ-sMATST-sv2GEy-sMrKCL-sv54hS-rQBsa1-svax8k-sKiXMs-sMBuC4-sMCj6p-sMCJ4V-rQzMX1-rQMrRp-sMC6ZF-sv1EbA-sMzUwk-sMC864-sKj85f-sv4j73-sKjHhJ-sMrMg5-sv2uD9-sv2mTY-sv8hPp-sMDAxv-sv3CgG">peoplesworld</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And what is causing good, experienced educators to flee the ship of teaching? </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/crisis-in-american-education-as-teacher-morale-hits-an-all-time-low-39226">Teacher turnover</a> has long been an area of concern (<a href="http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1239&context=gse_pubs">teachers depart at a higher rate</a> than comparable professions). The more precise reasons for recent departures are under <a href="http://www.gse.upenn.edu/pdf/rmi/RetentionData.pdf">scrutiny</a>, but we can point to a variety of likely causes.</p>
<p>First, teachers have experienced <a href="http://www.newrepublic.com/article/politics/86547/education-reform-nclb-boehner-van-roekel">heavy attacks</a> from a number of directions over the past 15 years. </p>
<p>Ever since the passage of the <a href="http://www2.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml">No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2001</a>, which accelerated an ongoing education accountability movement, teachers and schools have felt under <a href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/n/no_child_left_behind_act/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier">immense pressure</a> to <a href="http://us.macmillan.com/tested/lindaperlstein">improve</a> the annual yearly progress of their students on statewide standardized tests and demonstrate that they are “<a href="http://www2.ed.gov/nclb/methods/teachers/stateplanfacts.html">highly qualified</a>.” </p>
<p><a href="http://faculty.smu.edu/millimet/classes/eco4361/readings/murnane%20papay%202010.pdf">Researchers</a> who investigated these concerns found that teachers generally applaud efforts to improve academic standards, instruction and teacher qualifications. But many of these policies have had profound unintended consequences.</p>
<p>For example, because of the differences between state policies, teachers and schools in one state can be <a href="http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG589.html">punished</a> for <a href="http://www.epi.org/publication/books-teachers_performance_pay_and_accountability/">student achievement scores</a> that in other states would be rewarded. </p>
<p>Second, the accountability movement has led many policymakers, especially those keen on finding ways to measure the worth of all things, to fasten onto “<a href="http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational_leadership/may10/vol67/num08/Using_Value-Added_Measures_to_Evaluate_Teachers.aspx">value-added measures”</a> (VAM) as a way of evaluating teacher performance. </p>
<p>The idea behind VAM is that yearly student test scores can be used not only to track student achievement but also as a way to measure the instructional impact of their teachers. </p>
<h2>Dealing with tests and fixing poverty</h2>
<p>On the face of it, such instructional assessments might seem like a reasonable approach. But there are many pitfalls to using a test originally designed to measure students to evaluate teachers.</p>
<p>So much so that eminent scholars in the field of statistics, economics, psychology and education have issued <a href="http://www.epi.org/publication/bp278/">urgent warnings</a> to policymakers that VAM are far too flawed to be of any value in teacher assessment. </p>
<p>Despite such caution, <a href="http://www.nysed.gov/common/nysed/files/beardsleyputtinggrowthandvalueaddedmodel.pdf">many states</a> have moved forward with the implementation of evaluation systems that employ VAM as a primary mechanism for teacher evaluation, a development that is sure to signal to many teachers that they are in what one researcher calls “<a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2013/10/why-do-teachers-quit/280699/">a very disempowered line of work</a>” because they have so little control over their professional lives.</p>
<p>Finally, and perhaps most importantly, <a href="http://www.lbjlibrary.org/lyndon-baines-johnson/timeline/johnsons-remarks-on-signing-the-elementary-and-secondary-education-act">for decades</a> teachers and schools have been <a href="http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/schools-cant-fix-everything-about-poverty/article/2566473">asked to do something that is beyond their control</a>: fix poverty. </p>
<p>While teachers can have profoundly powerful and positive impacts on students, there is an overwhelming amount of <a href="http://cepa.stanford.edu/content/widening-academic-achievement-gap-between-rich-and-poor-new-evidence-and-possible">research</a> demonstrating that student performance on standardized tests is largely determined by their socioeconomic background. </p>
<p>For a variety of reasons that researchers are still struggling to understand, the achievement scores of students from poor communities across the country <a href="http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED507359.pdf">are lower than their wealthier counterparts</a>. </p>
<h2>Vocation is in trouble</h2>
<p>Until we better understand the mechanisms behind the relationship between poverty and achievement, state leaders should be morally bound to avoid legislation or regulations that can “mis-measure” the value of their teachers.</p>
<p>If we want to encourage smart, creative, passionate individuals to enter the teaching ranks, we must insist that they receive the respect, autonomy and intellectual freedom they deserve. </p>
<p>We cannot afford to lose a whole generation of teachers. We will endanger the crucial <a href="http://www.jstor.org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/stable/23014368?pq-origsite=summon&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">professional and institutional knowledge</a> that one generation of teachers passes on to another.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/48550/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David A Gamson receives funding from the Russell Sage Foundation and the Spencer Foundation. </span></em></p>There are plenty of signs that teaching as a vocation is in trouble in the US.David A Gamson, Associate Professor of Education (Education Theory & Policy), Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.