tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/student-athletes-60197/articlesStudent athletes – The Conversation2024-03-20T12:22:19Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2226722024-03-20T12:22:19Z2024-03-20T12:22:19Z40 years ago, the Supreme Court broke the NCAA’s lock on TV revenue, reshaping college sports to this day<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582552/original/file-20240318-18-t8ggbg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C2986%2C1980&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A cameraman films the Ohio State Buckeyes before a 2018 game.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/cameraman-for-the-big-ten-network-television-show-the-news-photo/915548694">Michael Allio/Icon Sportswire/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Pac-12 is likely to be competing in its last March Madness, as realignment has <a href="https://www.latimes.com/sports/story/2023-09-01/pac-12-obituary">pushed 10 of its schools to other conferences</a>. What led the most decorated conference in the NCAA to dissolve so quickly? </p>
<p>This surprising development arguably dates back to a decades-old court decision. As the NCAA prepared for its tournament regional basketball semifinals in March 1984, the Supreme Court heard opening arguments in a case, <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/463/1311">NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma</a>, that would change how Americans watch college sports.</p>
<p>After the court’s ruling, there were no limits on how much college football could be broadcast on TV, which previously was restricted to a <a href="https://www.oklahoman.com/story/sports/college/cowboys/2013/08/25/exploring-the-history-of-college-football-media-rights/60887384007/">maximum of six nationally broadcast games every two years</a>. The regionally focused conferences of the NCAA would become a national business, driven by television money from football. As a <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/ethnicstudies/people/core-faculty/jared-bahir-browsh">professor of critical sports studies</a>, I see the court ruling’s influence today with the downfall of the Pac-12.</p>
<h2>A history of televised college sports</h2>
<p>Even during TV’s experimental era of the 1930s, college sports were an attraction. The first televised college football game was <a href="https://www.ncaa.com/news/ncaa/article/2023-08-04/college-football-history-notable-firsts-and-milestones#:%7E:text=The%20first%20college%20football%20game%20on%20TV%20was%20between%20Fordham,NBC%20and%20aired%20on%20W2XBS.">broadcast in 1939</a>. By 1950, a few schools, including <a href="https://www.thedp.com/article/2021/01/penn-football-ncaa-television-controversy-1951">the University of Pennsylvania and Notre Dame</a>, had signed deals to air their football games regionally.</p>
<p>But that changed in 1951, when the NCAA took control of football television rights – and, in an effort to protect attendance at games, <a href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1951/01/13/84672687.html?login=smartlock&auth=login-smartlock&pageNumber=19">attempted to eliminate live TV broadcasts</a>. Some universities, unsurprisingly, weren’t thrilled with the news. Penn told the association it would continue airing games, but gave up when it was <a href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1951/11/20/87281672.html?pageNumber=27">threatened with sanctions</a>. </p>
<p>The NCAA eventually relented later that year, <a href="https://www.footballarchaeology.com/p/1951-and-college-footballs-first">allowing sold-out games to be shown on TV</a>. That led to the first coast-to-coast broadcast of a live sporting event, when Duke visited the University of Pittsburgh for a football game in September 1951.</p>
<p><a href="https://125.nd.edu/moments/small-screen-debut-1952-vs-oklahoma/">By 1952</a>, the NCAA allowed one national game to be broadcast each week, and in 1953, it allowed NBC to provide <a href="https://floridagators.com/news/2023/10/26/football-carters-corner-florida-georgia-game-a-TV-staple-70-years-after-small-screen-debut.aspx">“panorama” coverage of regional games</a>. In 1955, the NCAA acquiesced to pressure from conferences, including the Big Ten, and increased the availability of regional games, offering one national game for eight weeks and <a href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1955/03/15/83353580.html?pageNumber=35">regional games the other five weeks of the season</a>.</p>
<p>Throughout this time, the <a href="https://en.as.com/ncaa/the-reason-why-college-football-bowl-games-are-called-bowl-games-n/">bowl games</a> – such as the Rose Bowl, which started in 1902 as part of a holiday festival – remained independent of the NCAA’s policy. The exposure from these games proved to university administrators that televised college sports could be lucrative and boost applications.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582550/original/file-20240318-16-mvepy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="In a black-and-white image, an NBC cameraman is seen filming a Rose Bowl game in Pasadena, California, in 1970." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582550/original/file-20240318-16-mvepy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582550/original/file-20240318-16-mvepy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582550/original/file-20240318-16-mvepy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582550/original/file-20240318-16-mvepy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582550/original/file-20240318-16-mvepy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582550/original/file-20240318-16-mvepy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582550/original/file-20240318-16-mvepy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Rose Bowl was broadcast on TV in the early 1970s, when the NCAA severely restricted regular season broadcasts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/camera-during-a-circa-1970s-rose-bowl-game-in-pasadena-news-photo/98749899">Robert Riger/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Tired of the restrictions on media exposure and revenue during the regular season, several universities got together in 1977 to form the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1981/08/23/sports/tv-issue-dividing-football-colleges.html">College Football Association</a> and challenge the NCAA’s control of television rights. Two years later, the CFA began negotiating a television contract with NBC – while the NCAA was <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-VYmEb44o0U">in the midst of negotiations with CBS and ABC</a>. </p>
<p>The organizations were on a collision course. By 1981, the CFA <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1981/08/22/sports/rival-football-unit-approves-tv-pact.html">agreed to a contract with NBC</a>, and the NCAA declared that any CFA members who participated in the contract would be <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1981/08/22/sports/rival-football-unit-approves-tv-pact.html">sanctioned in all sponsored sports</a>. Two CFA member schools, the University of Oklahoma and the University of Georgia, immediately <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1983/83-271">filed suit to gain control of their television rights</a>.</p>
<h2>From the gridiron to the Supreme Court</h2>
<p>After both district and circuit courts ruled that the broadcast restrictions qualified as unfair restraint on the free market, the NCAA appealed to the Supreme Court. Oral arguments took place on March 20, 1984. By June, the court had ruled against the NCAA, allowing the CFA to oversee media contracts for its members. </p>
<p>By 1996, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1996/06/01/sports/college-football-its-power-eroding-cfa-will-disband.html">the major conferences broke from the CFA</a>, which ceased operations in 1997, and began negotiating on their own in an environment that now included a number of national and regional networks <a href="https://www.oklahoman.com/story/sports/college/cowboys/2013/08/25/exploring-the-history-of-college-football-media-rights/60887384007/">interested in broadcasting college football</a>. </p>
<p>In 1987, NCAA member schools also voted to allow conferences with two divisions of at least six teams to hold a conference championship that wouldn’t count against their game limit. This motivated conferences to gain control of their television rights and <a href="https://www.si.com/college/2014/05/16/conference-championship-games-rule-origin">leverage a championship game for more money</a>.</p>
<h2>A flood of money</h2>
<p>As conferences took control of their media rights, TV networks continued to pour money into college football and were soon joined by streaming services. The Big Ten alone commands over <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/19/sports/ncaafootball/big-ten-tv-deal-student-athletes.html">US$1 billion</a> in media rights, up from $10 million in 1996. </p>
<p>In addition to the conference media rights, the bowl games and College Football Playoff negotiated separate contracts – the latter of which was signed with ESPN in February 2024 for <a href="https://apnews.com/article/cfp-espn-34efc26e96a0596547b8b0dbcfb3287a">$1.3 billion a year</a> over six years. </p>
<p>This flood of money comes at a time when <a href="https://www.sportico.com/leagues/college-sports/2023/americans-favor-college-athletes-pay-harris-poll-1234734402/">67% of Americans</a> question the relationship between the NCAA, conferences, colleges and student-athletes. The NCAA has allowed athletes to profit from their <a href="https://www.ncaa.org/news/2021/6/30/ncaa-adopts-interim-name-image-and-likeness-policy.aspx">name, imagine and likeness since 2021</a>, after several states legalized the practice. The same year, NCAA initiated new rules <a href="https://www.si.com/college/2021/04/14/ncaa-transfers-rule-change-football-basketball">giving athletes more freedom to transfer</a>.</p>
<p>In spite of these changes, the NCAA faces several lawsuits that challenge the <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/39485414/nlrb-lawsuits-mounting-legal-challenges">nonemployee status of student-athletes</a>. Formerly regional conferences have become national businesses, and it’s becoming harder to argue that college athletes are amateurs as their talent brings in more and more revenue for schools. </p>
<h2>The Conference of Champions connection</h2>
<p>So, what does this have to do with the Pac-12 as it faces extinction? Everything. In 2022, the Big Ten negotiated a historic deal that would pay schools, including Pac-12 defectors University of Southern California and University of California Los Angeles, <a href="https://www.uscannenbergmedia.com/2022/09/13/the-big-ten-breakdown-how-uscs-move-to-the-big-ten-will-affect-the-school-the-fans-and-players-alike/#:%7E:text=In%202021%2C%20the%20average%20Pac,dollars%20annually%20from%20that%20deal.">between $80 million and $100 million a year from media rights</a>. </p>
<p>Even without the Los Angeles market, Pac-12 administrators tried to cash in, countering ESPN’s $30 million-a-school offer with <a href="https://arizonasports.com/story/3531384/big-12-yormark-brought-urgency-tv-deal-pac-12-didnt">one valued at $50 million a year</a>.</p>
<p>But ESPN quickly walked, and when the only deal on the table was a short-term one with Apple TV for just $25 million per school, eight more universities <a href="https://www.si.com/college/2023/08/11/pac-12-espn-media-rights-negotiations-50-million-ask-per-report">left for other conferences</a> offering more lucrative deals. This is why the conference with the most NCAA championships may not have another opportunity to add to its trophy case in 2025.</p>
<p>Although many people saw changes on the horizon, few could have imagined this much “madness” when the court ruled in favor of the University of Oklahoma back in 1984 The nearly 75-year television tug of war isn’t over, and the money it generates will continue to transform college sports. Money has seemingly toppled tradition, <a href="https://www.latimes.com/sports/story/2023-09-01/pac-12-obituary">as the Pac-12 schools walk away from 108 years of history</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222672/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jared Bahir Browsh does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>March Madness might look very different if not for the Supreme Court.Jared Bahir Browsh, Assistant Teaching Professor of Critical Sports Studies, University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2001432023-03-10T13:39:57Z2023-03-10T13:39:57ZAs March Madness looms, growth in legalized sports betting may pose a threat to college athletes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514515/original/file-20230309-121-7lawh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C14%2C4977%2C2679&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Americans are expected to bet $167 billion on sports in 2029.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/businessman-holding-large-amount-of-bills-at-soccer-royalty-free-image/1166524604?phrase=sports%20betting&adppopup=true">Sutad Watthanakul via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When <a href="https://www.ncaa.com/news/basketball-men/bracketiq/2023-02-07/what-march-madness-ncaa-tournament-explained">March Madness</a> begins on <a href="https://www.ncaa.com/news/basketball-men/article/2023-03-02/2023-march-madness-mens-ncaa-tournament-schedule-dates-times">March 14, 2023</a>, it’s a sure bet that millions of Americans will be making wagers on the annual college basketball tournament.</p>
<p>The American Gaming Association estimates that in 2022, 45 million people – or more than 17% of American adults – <a href="https://www.americangaming.org/resources/march-madness-2022/">planned to wager US$3.1 billion</a> on the NCAA tournament. That makes it one of the nation’s most popular sports betting events, alongside contests such as <a href="https://www.olbg.com/us/blogs/biggest-sports-betting-events">the Kentucky Derby and the Super Bowl</a>. By at least one estimate, March Madness is the <a href="https://www.goldengatecasino.com/blog/biggest-sporting-events-betting/">most popular betting target of all</a>. </p>
<p>While people have been <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2015-march-madness-gambling/">betting on March Madness for years</a>, one difference now is that betting on college sports is legal in many states. This is largely due to a 2018 Supreme Court ruling that <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2018/05/14/politics/sports-betting-ncaa-supreme-court/index.html">cleared the way</a> for each state to decide whether to permit people to gamble on sporting events. Prior to the ruling, legal sports betting was only allowed in Nevada. </p>
<p>Since the ruling, sports betting has grown dramatically. Currently, <a href="https://www.cbssports.com/general/news/u-s-sports-betting-heres-where-all-50-states-stand-on-legalizing-sports-gambling-usa-mobile-bets/">36 states allow</a> some form of legalized sports betting. And now, Georgia, Maine and Kentucky are <a href="https://www.cbssports.com/general/news/u-s-sports-betting-heres-where-all-50-states-stand-on-legalizing-sports-gambling-american-mobile-bets/">proposing legislation to make sports betting legal</a>.</p>
<p>About two weeks after sports betting became <a href="https://www.americangaming.org/research/state-gaming-map/">legal in Ohio on Jan. 1, 2023</a>, someone, disappointed by an unexpected <a href="https://www.si.com/college/2023/01/18/dayton-basketball-coach-anthony-grant-slams-gamblers-who-threaten-players">loss of the University of Dayton men’s basketball team</a> to Virginia Commonwealth University, <a href="https://www.cincinnati.com/story/sports/college/othercolleges/2023/01/18/dayton-coach-anthony-grant-sickened-by-sports-gambling-related-threats-directed-at-flyers-players/69817189007/">made threats</a> and <a href="https://sports.yahoo.com/dayton-coach-anthony-grant-points-to-gambling-while-sharing-threatening-voicemail-he-received-225615341.html#:%7E:text=Grant%20erupted%20on%20certain%20Dayton,1.">left disparaging messages</a> against Dayton <a href="https://spectrumnews1.com/oh/columbus/news/2023/01/19/-how-sports-betting-effects-college-athletes">athletes and the coaching staff</a>. </p>
<p>The Ohio case is by no means isolated. In 2019, a Babson College student who was a “<a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2019/05/30/sports-gambling-college-addison-chois-racist-death-threats-athletes/1284309001/">prolific sports gambler</a>” was <a href="https://www.justice.gov/usao-ma/pr/california-man-sentenced-sending-death-threats-dozens-professional-and-college-athletes">sentenced to 18 months in prison</a> for sending death threats to at least 45 professional and collegiate athletes in 2017.</p>
<p>Faculty members of <a href="https://miamioh.edu/aspire/muirgls/index.html">Miami University’s Institute for Responsible Gaming, Lottery, and Sports</a> are concerned that the increasing prevalence of sports betting could potentially lead to more such incidents, putting more athletes in danger of threats from disgruntled gamblers who blame them for their gambling losses.</p>
<p>The anticipated growth in sports gambling is quite sizable. Analysts estimate the market in the U.S. may reach <a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/en/news-release/2022/07/14/2479929/0/en/Sports-Betting-Market-Size-Is-Likely-to-Experience-a-Tremendous-Growth-of-USD-167-66-billion-by-2029-registering-a-CAGR-of-10-26-by-Size-and-Share-Industry-Growth-Regional-Outlook-.html">over US$167 billion by 2029</a>.</p>
<h2>Gambling makes inroads into colleges</h2>
<p>Concerns over college athletes being targeted by upset gamblers are not new. <a href="https://www.si.com/betting/2021/08/09/gambling-issue-the-athletes">Players</a> and <a href="https://www.covers.com/industry/massachusetts-player-union-athlete-protection-sports-betting-january-2023">sports organizations</a> have expressed worry that expanded gambling could lead to harassment and compromise their safety. Such concerns led the nation’s major sports organizations – MLB, NBA, NFL, NHL and NCAA – to <a href="https://www.espn.com/espn/story/_/id/8243013/ncaa-4-pro-leagues-sue-new-jersey-sports-betting">sue New Jersey in 2012</a> over a plan to initiate legal sports betting in that state. They argued that sports betting would make the public think that games were being thrown. Ultimately, the Supreme Court ruled that it was <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2018/05/14/politics/sports-betting-ncaa-supreme-court/index.html">up to states to decide</a> if they wanted to permit legal gambling.</p>
<p>Sports betting has also made inroads into America’s college campuses. Some universities, such as Louisiana State University and Michigan State University, have <a href="https://www.usnews.com/education/best-colleges/articles/sports-betting-on-college-campuses-what-to-know">signed multimillion-dollar deals with casinos or gaming companies</a> to promote gambling on campus.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514531/original/file-20230309-26-vkd0po.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A girl looks excitedly at her cell phone." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514531/original/file-20230309-26-vkd0po.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514531/original/file-20230309-26-vkd0po.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514531/original/file-20230309-26-vkd0po.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514531/original/file-20230309-26-vkd0po.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514531/original/file-20230309-26-vkd0po.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514531/original/file-20230309-26-vkd0po.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514531/original/file-20230309-26-vkd0po.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Sports betting has made inroads into colleges.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/studio-portrait-of-happy-girl-reading-message-with-royalty-free-image/1371177390?phrase=college%20students%20betting%20on%20sports&adppopup=true">Wpadington via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Athletic conferences are also cashing in on the data related to these games and events. For instance, the Mid-Atlantic Conference <a href="https://www.sportsbusinessjournal.com/Daily/Issues/2022/03/09/Marketing-and-Sponsorship/MAC-Genius.aspx">signed a lucrative five-year deal</a> in 2022 to provide real-time statistical event data to gambling companies, which then leverage the data to create real-time wager opportunities during sporting events.</p>
<p>As sports betting comes to colleges and universities, it means the schools will inevitably have to deal with some of the <a href="https://www.cbssports.com/college-football/news/college-sports-overlooked-gambling-issue-improprieties-being-ignored-as-betting-soars-nationwide/#:%7E:text=The%20NCAA%20continues%20to%20prohibit,some%20time%20to%20be%20refined.">negative aspects of gambling</a>. This potentially includes more than just gambling addiction. It could also involve the potential for student-athletes and coaches to become targets of threats, intimidation or bribes to influence the outcome of events.</p>
<p>The risk for addiction on campus is real. According to the National Council on Problem Gambling, over 2 million adults in the U.S. <a href="https://www.ncpgambling.org/help-treatment/faq/">have a “serious” gambling problem</a>, and another 4 million to 6 million may have mild to moderate problems. One report estimates that <a href="https://www.usnews.com/education/best-colleges/articles/sports-betting-on-college-campuses-what-to-know">6% of college students have a serious gambling problem</a>.</p>
<h2>What can be done</h2>
<p>Colleges and universities don’t have to sit idly by as gambling grows.</p>
<p>Two faculty fellows at Miami University’s <a href="https://miamioh.edu/aspire/muirgls/index.html">Institute for Responsible Gaming, Lottery, and Sport</a> – former Ohio State Senator William Coley and Sharon Custer – recommend that regulators and policymakers work with colleges and universities to reduce the potential harm from the growth in legal gaming. Specifically, they recommend that each state regulatory authority:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Develop plans to coordinate between different governmental agencies to ensure that individuals found guilty of violations are sanctioned in other jurisdictions.</p></li>
<li><p>Dedicate some of the revenue from gaming to develop educational materials and support services for athletes and those around them.</p></li>
<li><p>Create anonymous tip lines to report threats, intimidation or influence, and fund an independent entity to respond to these reports.</p></li>
<li><p>Assess and protect athlete privacy. For instance, schools might decline to publish contact information for student-athletes and coaches in public directories.</p></li>
<li><p>Train athletes and those around them on basic privacy management. For instance, schools might advise athletes to not post on public social media outlets, especially if the post gives away their physical location.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The NCAA or athletic conferences could lead the development of resources, policies and sanctions that serve to educate, protect and support student-athletes and others around them who work at the schools for which they play. This will require significant investment to be comprehensive and effective.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200143/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason W. Osborne is affiliated with Miami University</span></em></p>As sports betting becomes more prevalent, so do the risks to college athletes, gaming experts argue.Jason W. Osborne, Professor of Statistics, Institute for Responsible Gaming, Lottery, and Sport, Miami UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1992282023-02-21T13:25:09Z2023-02-21T13:25:09ZFlorida will no longer ask high school athletes about their menstrual cycles, but many states still do – here are 3 reasons why that’s problematic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510662/original/file-20230216-20-2sy4zs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">If female athletes have to answer menstruation-related questions in order to play team sports, that could be a form of sex-based discrimination. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/arvada-and-columbine-face-off-at-jeffco-stadium-in-lakewood-news-photo/1431460237">AAron Ontiveroz/MediaNews Group/The Denver Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/brucelee/2022/10/05/florida-high-schools-are-asking-female-athletes-5-questions-about-their-menstrual-periods/">Concerns are being raised</a> across the U.S. about whether schools have a right to compel female athletes to provide information about their menstrual cycles.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://fhsaa.com/index.aspx">Florida High School Athletic Association</a> Board of Directors <a href="https://www.palmbeachpost.com/story/news/education/2023/02/07/florida-legislators-call-on-fhsaa-to-scrap-menstrual-history-questions/69882335007/">rejected a proposal</a> in February 2023 that would have required high school girls to answer <a href="https://fhsaa.com/documents/2023/1/19//SMAC_PPE_Draft_1_17_2023.pdf?id=3887">four questions about their menstrual cycles</a> in order to play on school sports teams. The questions had previously been optional.</p>
<p>The four questions were: Have you had a menstrual cycle? How old were you when you had your first menstrual period? When was your most recent menstrual period? How many periods have you had in the past 12 months? </p>
<p>The answers, along with the rest of students’ medical history, would have been entered into an online platform and stored on a third-party database called <a href="https://www.aktivate.com/">Aktivate</a>. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/09/us/florida-student-athlete-periods.html">School personnel</a> would have had access to this information.</p>
<p>While Florida decided to scrap the questions from their student forms, many states currently ask similar questions of their female athletes prior to participation in their sport.</p>
<p>As researchers who are experts in <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=dYfhb9sAAAAJ&hl=en">Title IX</a>, sports and health care equity, and <a href="https://law.umn.edu/profiles/david-schultz">constitutional law</a>, we have identified three reasons why schools and states tracking female athletes’ menstrual history may conflict with federal laws.</p>
<p><iframe id="M8CbI" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/M8CbI/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>1. It may violate federal anti-discrimination law</h2>
<p><a href="https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/tix_dis.html">Title IX</a>, a federal policy passed in 1972, prohibits federally funded schools from discriminating against students based on sex, sexual orientation or gender identity. The goal of the policy is to <a href="https://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/us-department-education-releases-proposed-changes-title-ix-regulations-invites-public-comment">end sex discrimination, sex-based harassment and sexual violence </a> in education.</p>
<p>While Title IX applies to all school settings, it is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/wspaj.2022-0053">often most associated with athletics</a>. </p>
<p>Requiring female student-athletes to submit menstrual cycle data to their schools could be a form of <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/policy/rights/guid/ocr/sexoverview.html">sex discrimination</a> and therefore violate <a href="https://www.nfhs.org/articles/nine-ways-title-ix-protects-high-school-students/">Title IX</a>. The reason it is potentially discriminatory is because girls are the only students at risk of being denied the opportunity to play sports if they choose not to provide schools with details about their menstrual cycles.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://scholarworks.law.ubalt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2114&context=all_fac">2020 Harvard Journal of Law and Gender study</a>, three scholars argue that schools should create educational settings free of “unnecessary anxiety about the biological process of menstruation.”</p>
<p>“Because menstruation is a biological process linked to female sex,” they write, “educational deprivations connected with schools’ treatment of menstruation should be understood as a violation of Title IX’s core proposition.” </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510680/original/file-20230216-18-n8pjoe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Screenshot of a medical form with questions about menstrual history" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510680/original/file-20230216-18-n8pjoe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510680/original/file-20230216-18-n8pjoe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510680/original/file-20230216-18-n8pjoe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510680/original/file-20230216-18-n8pjoe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510680/original/file-20230216-18-n8pjoe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510680/original/file-20230216-18-n8pjoe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510680/original/file-20230216-18-n8pjoe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Questions about students’ menstrual history were removed from the Florida High School Athletic Association’s physical evaluation form.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://fhsaa.com/documents/2023/1/19//SMAC_PPE_Draft_1_17_2023.pdf?id=3887">Florida High School Athletic Association</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. It threatens constitutional rights</h2>
<p>Tracking female athletes’ menstrual history may be downright unconstitutional. </p>
<p>Forcing only females to disclose private medical information may violate the <a href="https://constitutioncenter.org/the-constitution/amendments/amendment-xiv/clauses/702">equal protection clause</a> of the <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/amdt14-S1-8-8-1/ALDE_00000830/">14th Amendment</a> of the U.S. Constitution, which prohibits sex-based discrimination.</p>
<p>Also, <a href="https://www.npwomenshealthcare.com/privacy-rights-in-state-constitutions-may-protect-their-abortion-access/">11 states</a> have a “right to privacy” written into their state constitutions. For example, the <a href="https://www.flsenate.gov/laws/constitution#A1S23">Florida Constitution</a> states that “all natural persons, female and male alike, are equal before the law and have inalienable rights,” including “the right to be let alone and free from governmental intrusion into the person’s private life.”</p>
<p>While other states do not explicitly provide a right to privacy in their constitutions, legal precedent has determined that this right is <a href="https://www.dataguidance.com/jurisdiction/arkansas">implicit in the U.S. Constitution</a>.</p>
<p>And finally, federal laws that protect <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/phlp/publications/topic/hipaa.html">medical</a> and <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/ferpa/index.html">educational</a> records do not have <a href="https://rems.ed.gov/docs/2019%20HIPAA%20FERPA%20Joint%20Guidance.pdf">standards</a> for maintaining medical records that are shared with schools and stored on third-party databases. This lack of precedent may result in privacy breaches.</p>
<h2>3. It could be used against transgender students</h2>
<p>The recent passage of several anti-LGBTQ+ policies in Florida made the Florida High School Athletic Association’s attempts to track and digitally store menstrual data particularly worrisome to trans rights advocates.</p>
<p>In June 2021, Gov. Ron DeSantis <a href="https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2021/1028">signed a bill</a> <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/06/02/1002405412/on-the-first-day-of-pride-month-florida-signed-a-transgender-athlete-bill-into-l">prohibiting trans girls from playing on girls athletic teams</a>. </p>
<p>In March 2022, DeSantis signed the Parental Rights in Education bill, better known as the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/03/28/1089221657/dont-say-gay-florida-desantis">“Don’t Say Gay” bill</a>. It prohibits classroom instruction on sexual orientation and gender identity in K-3 public school classrooms. </p>
<p>And just one week after the proposed mandate was struck down, a <a href="https://www.tampabay.com/news/florida-politics/2023/02/16/fhsaa-desantis-board-private-homeschool-prayer-announcements-menstrual/">Florida House committee advanced a bill</a> that would place the Governor’s office in control of the Florida High School Athletic Association.</p>
<p>As more states try to <a href="https://apnews.com/article/ron-desantis-health-business-florida-government-and-politics-78e417a184718de8b9e71ff32efbc77f">ban trans youth from receiving gender-affirming medical care</a> – including hormone therapy, surgical procedures and other treatments – menstrual tracking in athletes could serve as another mechanism to harm and criminalize transgender youth. </p>
<p>Tracking menstrual cycles could “out” trans youth if they are required to disclose information about their menstrual cycle – whether that is the presence or absence of a cycle. If a school is responsible for outing trans kids, they violate both <a href="https://www.aclu.org/news/lgbtq-rights/trans-students-should-be-treated-with-dignity-not-outed-by-their-schools">constitutional rights</a> and <a href="https://www.knowyourix.org/college-resources/title-ix-protections-lgbtq-students/">Title IX policy</a>, and they risk endangering the outed students’ welfare. </p>
<h2>Protecting period privacy</h2>
<p>While the proposed Florida mandate was rejected, we have found that most states do in fact collect data on high school athletes’ menstrual cycles. </p>
<p>Based on our collection of sports pre-participation forms, only four states – Mississippi, New Hampshire, New York and Oklahoma – as well as Washington, D.C., do not currently ask any questions about menstrual history on the sport pre-participation medical forms provided by their state athletic association. </p>
<p>Following the vote on the Florida proposal, <a href="https://www.news-press.com/story/news/education/2023/02/09/congress-introduces-menstrual-questions-legislation-aimed-at-florida/69889797007/">three House Democrats introduced legislation</a> called the Privacy in Education Regarding Individuals’ Own Data Act, or <a href="https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/house/schiff-omar-bill-menstruation-desantis">PERIOD Act</a>. It would prohibit schools from collecting menstrual information altogether. </p>
<p>If this legislation is adopted, the estimated <a href="https://www.nfhs.org/media/5989280/2021-22_participation_survey.pdf">3 million American high school girls</a> who play sports in a state that still asks about menstrual history will no longer have to share this information.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199228/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When schools ask student-athletes about their menstrual cycles, they may be infringing on anti-discrimination and privacy laws.Lindsey Darvin, Assistant Professor of Sport Management, Syracuse UniversityDavid Schultz, Professor of Political Science, Hamline University Tia Spagnuolo, Doctoral Student in Community Research and Action, Binghamton University, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1866992023-01-20T13:36:49Z2023-01-20T13:36:49Z5 ways pressuring young athletes to perform well does them harm<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504049/original/file-20230111-26-50xlpy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Top high school athletes often face significant pressure to perform.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/team-speed-wide-receiver-ashton-cozart-before-the-under-news-photo/1246051598">Chris Leduc/Icon Sportswire via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Buffalo Bills player Damar Hamlin collapsed during a Jan. 3, 2022, NFL football game, much of the public attention was on the pressures athletes face to perform despite the perils they face on the field. </p>
<p>However, as a scholar who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=G1IEKR8AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">specializes in youth sports</a>, I have found that this pressure often begins well before a player enters the pros – often very early in a young athlete’s life. And sometimes the biggest forces behind this pressure are coaches, peers and parents.</p>
<p>Here are five ways young athletes experience unhealthy pressure, and what those influences do to their minds and bodies.</p>
<h2>1. Harsh criticism</h2>
<p>Coaches who belittle athletes, yell and emphasize winning over personal improvement use what is known as a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00572">controlling style</a>” of coaching. Rather than provide information and feedback about technique, tactics and attitude, controlling-style coaches tend to communicate objections to obvious mistakes and personal insults during crucial moments. </p>
<p>This style of coaching shifts athletes’ attention <a href="https://youthsafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/2018_yRed_JulyThe-influence-of-coaching-style-on-player-injury-and-participation.pdf">away from their abilities and toward mistakes</a>, a win-at-all-costs attitude, unethical behavior, injury and burnout. Many athletes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/hukin-2015-0047">value their coaches’ perceptions</a> more than their own self-perceptions.</p>
<p>When coaches focus on the negative, they influence their athletes to <a href="https://elevatecounselingaz.com/dont-think-of-a-pink-elephant/">do the same</a>. But it’s much more effective to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2015.11.013">tell athletes what they should do</a> with <a href="https://www.scienceforsport.com/coaching-cues/">concrete specifics</a>, like “push the ground away” or “aim for the rim.”</p>
<p>Often, these sorts of old-school controlling-style coaches <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/16138171.2020.1792076">use methods that were used on them</a> as young people, despite years of research showing such methods are dangerous. For instance, it is now known that punishing athletes with physical activity – running so-called “suicide” sprints, staying late to run laps, and dropping for 20 pushups – does more harm than good. Expending energy randomly at the end of practice <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2010.10598479">increases the likelihood of fatigue and injury</a>.</p>
<h2>2. Peer pressure and influence</h2>
<p>Peers also follow the behavior they see from coaches.</p>
<p>Athletes who perform well in matches and within-team scrimmages find <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19357397.2019.1581512">acceptance and opportunities for meaningful connections</a> with their teammates. For many athletes, making <a href="https://www.2adays.com/blog/5-ways-to-make-friends-outside-of-your-sport/">friendships outside of sport</a> is challenging, especially in collegiate athletics.</p>
<p>But teammates who observe and repeat <a href="https://sportsconflict.org/effects-of-bullying-in-sports">ridicule, bullying and exclusion</a> can create conflicts with other team members. As a result, their fellow athletes may approach practice not seeking to master skills, test abilities and make friends but rather to avoid conflict and targeting. Those mental and emotional distractions <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115828">break their performance focus and consistency</a>.</p>
<p>Coaches and players who focus on athletes’ looks and weight – often in aesthetic or weight-restricted sports like gymnastics and wrestling – <a href="https://femaleandmaleathletetriad.org/body_shaming_fat_talks/">contribute to a culture of body shaming</a> that <a href="https://globalsportmatters.com/health/2019/10/09/body-shaming-athletes-a-form-of-mental-abuse">values athletes’ physical attributes</a> rather than what their bodies can accomplish. Athletes who <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-tj/FullText/2016/07150/Body_Image,_Maturation,_and_Psychological.1.aspx">think that others want them to be smaller</a> or bigger than they are can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.08.013">experience anxiety, depression and eating disorders</a>. Expectations like participating in public weigh-ins, avoiding sweets and wearing revealing <a href="https://www.heraldweekly.com/all-the-ridiculous-rules-nfl-cheerleaders-have-to-follow/47/">competitive uniforms</a> are common in upper echelons of sports like cheerleading.</p>
<h2>3. Parental expectations</h2>
<p>The effects of competition begin long before the start of a season, game or match. How kids feel about themselves in sports, especially after a loss, is often linked to how parents view, value and teach competition. </p>
<p>When parents pay their kids for scoring points or winning the game, they turn their kids into <a href="https://sportsconnect.com/2021/12/21/parents-please-dont-pay-your-kids-to-score-points/">selfish teammates and decrease their long-term motivation</a>. Of course, most parents can’t continue opening their wallets forever, and even students who earn scholarships to college tend to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17461390500440889">lose their motivation</a> when they’re paid for performance.</p>
<p>Parents can behave badly when they are <a href="https://ojs.acadiau.ca/index.php/phenex/article/view/1610">looking for external signals</a> of their children’s achievements, like championship trophies, selection for elite teams, scholarships, endorsements and, now, <a href="https://businessofcollegesports.com/name-image-likeness/how-to-get-started-with-nil-a-guide-for-athletes-and-parents/">name-image-likeness deals</a>, in which student-athletes can earn money from product endorsements and advertising appearances. But those goals can conflict with children’s natural motives in sports – including to <a href="https://balanceisbetter.org.nz/self-determination-theory-what-is-it-and-what-does-it-mean-practically-for-coaches">demonstrate competence, make decisions and be with friends</a>.</p>
<p>When kids sense their parents’ stress over expectations, they shift their ideals and become more prone to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102100">perfectionism</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2021.1916080">burnout</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465821000357">anxiety and depression</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(01)00018-8">eating disorders</a>.</p>
<h2>4. Early specialization</h2>
<p>Parents push their kids into year-round intensive training in a single sport as early as age 7. Overuse injuries, psychological stress and burnout are <a href="https://doi.org/10.4085%2F1062-6050-380-18">well-documented consequences</a> of specializing before 12. But is this necessary? Super-early training isn’t really helpful for sports whose athletes tend to peak later in life, like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181fb4e00">marathon runners</a>, for example.</p>
<p>Transitioning to higher levels of play during <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph18147331">adolescence strengthens athletic identity</a> as training expectations expand to diet and exercise. To conform, athletes may begin using anabolic steriods, overtraining, playing through injury and restricting their diets. Encouraging a healthy diet for training purposes can translate to compulsive ingredient checking, food planning, restricted eating and other symptoms of a relatively new eating disorder: <a href="https://truesport.org/nutrition/orthorexia-nervosa-safeguard-athletes/">orthorexia nervosa</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scispo.2014.08.133">Trying out various sports while young</a> helps athletes discover what they enjoy most, and which activities work well for their <a href="https://art-sheep.com/photographer-howard-schatz-celebrates-the-bodies-of-the-worlds-best-athletes-in-stunning-series/">body types</a>.</p>
<h2>5. Overtraining</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/overuse-injuries">Overuse injuries</a> like “<a href="https://www.childrenshospital.org/conditions/little-league-elbow">Little League elbow</a>” and Osgood-Schlatter disease, a cause of knee pain, <a href="https://middleearthnj.org/2020/02/24/overuse-injuries-drastically-increasing-in-youth/">are becoming more common</a>. American high school athletes who specialize in just one sport are <a href="https://www.nfhs.org/media/1020399/sport-specialization-postion-statement-april-2019-final-copy.pdf">50% more likely</a> to experience an injury from overuse than people who play multiple sports – and athletes who focus on two sports are 85% more likely. High-pressure environments that expect athletes to endure injuries can lead to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ocl.2013.06.009">long-term conditions like arthritis and tendonitis</a>.</p>
<p>In such sports as football, boxing and mixed martial arts, the culture even <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-044199">rewards injuries and risk-taking</a>. But when an injury forces an athlete into an early and unexpected retirement, coping with the transition is tough. Identity loss and purpose can exacerbate mental illness and even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2022.2073188">increase the risk of domestic violence</a>, particularly when the injury involves <a href="https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.17070141">mild traumatic brain injuries</a>.</p>
<p>Witnessing sports-related injuries – just as the millions of NFL fans who watched Hamlin did – has consequences for observers, too, such as psychological trauma. Symptoms, which can include intrusive thoughts linked to the injury, nightmares and anxiety, can last from a single day to more than a month. The situation can even escalate to post-traumatic stress disorder. In the coming weeks, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-100695">teammates who witnessed Hamlin’s collapse</a> may be up to 25% more likely to develop symptoms of psychological trauma than the rest of us. </p>
<p>That’s something to keep in mind as people watch and cheer young athletes to run faster, jump higher or score more points. The question becomes: At what expense?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186699/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eva V. Monsma does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Well-publicized professional sports stars’ injuries draw attention to dangerous influences on young athletes.Eva V. Monsma, Professor, Developmental Sport Psychology, Department of Physical Education, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1801912022-05-11T12:05:56Z2022-05-11T12:05:56ZTop athletes have special advantages entering college, like children of alumni<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462108/original/file-20220509-17-gw8sgn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C25%2C5559%2C3625&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Top college sports prospects get special advantages in their application and admission processes.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/near-capacity-crowd-packed-the-rose-bowl-in-pasadena-on-news-photo/1235062265">Will Lester/MediaNews Group/Inland Valley Daily Bulletin via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In recent years, colleges have <a href="https://hub.jhu.edu/magazine/2020/spring/ending-legacy-admissions/">paid more attention</a> to complaints that their <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/20/us/amherst-college-legacy-admissions.html">admissions decisions give unfair advantages</a> to children of their alumni. Lawmakers in <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2022/02/07/bill-would-cut-student-aid-colleges-legacy-preferences">Congress</a> and <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2021/06/01/colorado-bars-public-colleges-using-legacy-admissions">state</a> <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2022/03/14/new-york-bill-would-ban-legacy-admissions-and-early-decision">legislatures</a> are deciding whether to address the advantages given to these so-called “legacy” admissions.</p>
<p>But as a <a href="https://www1.villanova.edu/villanova/artsci/peaceandjustice/facstaff/biodetail.html?mail=rick.eckstein@villanova.edu&xsl=bio_long">scholar of higher education and intercollegiate athletics</a>, I see another group of college applicants also getting preferential treatment: recruited athletes. Recruited athletes are those who are actively pursued and invited by college coaches to join a team, unlike so-called “walk-ons,” who must try out for teams after arriving at college. </p>
<p>The advantages athletes have in college admissions received national attention in 2019. That year, the U.S. Justice Department’s “Operation Varsity Blues” announced <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2019/03/13/dozens-indicted-alleged-massive-case-admissions-fraud">dozens of federal criminal charges</a> against parents, coaches and others who allegedly helped college applicants fake sporting prowess. But this alleged fraud would not have been possible without the <a href="https://theconversation.com/college-admission-scandal-grew-out-of-a-system-that-was-ripe-for-corruption-113439">systemic admissions advantages</a> already afforded recruited athletes, who tend to be <a href="https://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/special-admission/9781978821200">whiter, wealthier and more suburban</a> than the average college applicant.</p>
<h2>Streamlined admissions</h2>
<p>There are three main ways that college admissions practices significantly advantage recruited athletes over academically superior applicants.</p>
<p>The first is a streamlined, hassle-free application process. In her 2021 book,“<a href="https://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/special-admission/9781978821200">Special Admission</a>,” <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=5H0MUckAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Kirsten Hextrum</a>, an education professor at the University of Oklahoma, found that recruited athletes were largely chaperoned through the admissions process by athletics staff. This included staff filling out forms for the recruit, hand-delivering application materials to admissions staff and advocating for increased financial aid. </p>
<p>I had similar findings in my own <a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781442266285/How-College-Athletics-Are-Hurting-Girls-Sports-The-Pay-to-Play-Pipeline">research on college and youth sports</a>. A recruited soccer player told me she only ever heard from the coaching staff between submitting her application materials – to the coaches – and the first day of practice. This included the notification of her acceptance to the school, which normally comes from the admissions office. College officials told me that this service was common for recruited athletes but rare for nonathletes. </p>
<h2>Overlooking academic shortcomings</h2>
<p>A second advantage is that admissions officers at the most elite schools have historically ignored below-average grades and standardized test scores for athletes, but not for other groups.</p>
<p>A study in the early 2000s <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691096193/the-game-of-life">found that athletes</a> recruited to Ivy League universities tended to have significantly lower SAT scores than their nonathlete classmates.</p>
<p>Talented nonathletes, like musicians and actors, were not given similar leeway in their test scores during admissions decisions. <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691123141/reclaiming-the-game">The data</a> specifically showed that athletes with below-average standardized test scores were twice as likely to be admitted as legacy applicants and four times more likely to be admitted as applicants from traditionally underrepresented groups. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462310/original/file-20220510-20-7xzfbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man and a woman look to the right of the frame" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462310/original/file-20220510-20-7xzfbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462310/original/file-20220510-20-7xzfbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462310/original/file-20220510-20-7xzfbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462310/original/file-20220510-20-7xzfbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462310/original/file-20220510-20-7xzfbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462310/original/file-20220510-20-7xzfbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462310/original/file-20220510-20-7xzfbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Actor Lori Loughlin and her husband, clothing designer Mossimo Giannulli, left, depart a federal court in Boston on April 3, 2019, after a hearing on charges in a nationwide college admissions bribery scandal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CollegeAdmissionsBribery/1c7c6f91e61441e2a1e203e5882c90f5/photo">AP Photo/Steven Senne</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Athlete recruitment and early decision</h2>
<p>Another admissions advantage offered recruited athletes is almost guaranteed acceptance and roster placement if the applicant uses a school’s early decision process.</p>
<p>Journalist Daniel Golden’s 2005 book, “<a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/68794/the-price-of-admission-updated-edition-by-daniel-golden/">The Price of Admissions</a>,” was among the first detailed accounts of how this privilege operates in practice. Focusing mostly on rowing programs, Golden exposed the streamlined admissions process afforded to recruited athletes but not to applicants with other nonacademic talents. </p>
<p>In their more recent books, former admissions officer <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/09/10/magazine/college-admissions-paul-tough.html">Paul Tough</a> and investigative reporter <a href="https://jeffselingo.com/books/who-gets-in-and-why/">Jeffrey Selingo</a> shared firsthand accounts of how athletes were given an added boost during the early admission process. One of the strategies used was to provide early reads of athlete applications that all but guarantee admission so long as the applicant used the school’s early decision process. Nonathletes applying through the early decision process also enjoyed <a href="https://jeffselingo.com/books/who-gets-in-and-why/">higher acceptance rates</a> than students applying in the regular decision process, but not as much as athletes.</p>
<h2>Athletics and institutional survival</h2>
<p>Recruited athletes are not just members of sports teams. They are also increasingly integral to the very survival of many colleges, especially smaller liberal arts colleges.</p>
<p>Newly published research in the <a href="http://csri-jiia.org/the-role-of-athletics-in-the-future-of-small-colleges-an-agency-theory-and-value-responsibility-budgeting-approach/">Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics</a> shows that smaller schools are increasingly relying on expanded sports programs to maintain enrollments and keep from closing. At some schools, <a href="http://csri-jiia.org/the-role-of-athletics-in-the-future-of-small-colleges-an-agency-theory-and-value-responsibility-budgeting-approach/">athletes comprise more than half of the student body</a>. Without athletes, these schools would probably shut down.</p>
<p>This <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/higher-ed-gamma/can-these-colleges-be-saved-0">survival strategy</a> means schools are continually competing with each other for athletes by spending more on coaches, sports facilities and recruitment. This requires shifting institutional resources away from nonathletic areas, including academics. It also encourages colleges to give top athletes advantages in the admissions process.</p>
<p>Reflecting this trend, data from the <a href="https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2018/10/10/ncaa-sports-sponsorship-and-participation-rates-database.aspx">NCAA</a> and the <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d18/tables/dt18_303.10.asp">National Center for Educational Statistics</a> show that, between 2000 and 2020, the number of intercollegiate athletes increased 45%. During that period, the number of full-time undergraduates increased only 33%. At small liberal arts colleges, the number of varsity athletes increased 55% over that same period. </p>
<h2>The myth of college sports and diversity</h2>
<p>Admitting more varsity athletes does little to improve the diversity of social class or racial or geographical diversity in higher education. Except in football, basketball and track, college varsity athletes are disproportionately <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-some-college-sports-are-often-out-of-reach-for-students-from-low-income-families-167334">white, wealthy and suburban</a>. Those sports comprise <a href="https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2018/10/10/ncaa-sports-sponsorship-and-participation-rates-database.aspx">less than one-third</a> of all college athletes and only 22% of women athletes.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, the same <a href="https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2018/12/13/ncaa-demographics-database.aspx">NCAA data</a> shows that only 4% of women’s varsity soccer players and 2% of field hockey players identify as Black, despite Black women comprising <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cha">14% of full-time undergraduates</a>. Rowing and ice hockey, the two fastest-growing women’s college sports, have, respectively, <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cha">2% and 0% of participants</a> identifying as Black.</p>
<p>Colleges’ increased recruitment of athletes has also spawned an enormous suburban youth sports industry that feeds this increased demand and exacerbates social inequality. My own <a href="https://theconversation.com/until-youth-soccer-is-fixed-us-mens-national-team-is-destined-to-fail-85585">research</a> identifies so-called “showcase” tournaments and meets as the key interface between college athletics recruitment and hyper-commercialized youth sports. </p>
<p>Accessing these events requires a family to invest thousands of dollars annually in club and travel sports for their kids. If colleges choose to recruit at these exclusive and expensive events rather than in high schools, intercollegiate sports – and its admissions advantages – will continue to reinforce existing class, racial and geographic inequalities, likely far more than legacy admissions advantages.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rick Eckstein does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>College admissions advantages for recruited athletes likely perpetuate educational inequality even more than those given to children of alumni.Rick Eckstein, Professor of Sociology, Villanova UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1771252022-03-24T12:15:39Z2022-03-24T12:15:39ZMarch Madness stars can now cash in on endorsements – but some limits set by states and universities may still be unconstitutional<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453994/original/file-20220323-30834-1r5d3oi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=53%2C106%2C4347%2C2836&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Gonzaga forward Drew Timme's mustache – and his basketball skills – helped him earn an endorsement from Dollar Shave Club.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/NCAAMemphisGonzagaBasketball/f8b7de5e82334dd09a8fb4d4d2ab2a5f/photo?Query=Drew%20Timme&mediaType=photo&sortBy=creationdatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=841&currentItemNo=6">AP Photo/Craig Mitchelldyer</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>March Madness is proving lucrative for some of its <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-much-is-the-media-buzz-from-a-march-madness-cinderella-run-worth-to-a-school-like-saint-peters-179742">Cinderella stories</a> and standout stars, thanks to a 2021 <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=18386472160721780784">Supreme Court ruling</a> that led the NCAA <a href="https://www.gfrlaw.com/what-we-do/insights/college-athletes-beat-ncaa-supreme-court-9-nil-allowing-endorsements">to end its longstanding ban</a> on student athletes earning money from endorsement deals. </p>
<p>Doug “Dougie Buckets” Edert, who led the Saint Peter’s Peacocks to their first ever Sweet 16 appearance <a href="https://www.ncaa.com/march-madness-live/bracket">on March 25, 2022</a>, has already <a href="https://www.si.com/extra-mustard/2022/03/23/saint-peters-guard-signs-nil-deal-with-buffalo-wild-wings">signed deals</a> with <a href="https://twitter.com/FOS/status/1506628145910276101">Buffalo Wild Wings</a> and sports site <a href="https://twitter.com/FOS/status/1506634718321823757">Barstool</a>. Drew Timme, the mustachioed star forward at Gonzaga, <a href="https://news.yahoo.com/sky-limit-march-madness-stars-150148714.html">agreed to use his whiskers</a> to sell razors for Dollar Shave Club. And Deja Kelly, a star sophomore at the University of North Carolina, <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/2022/02/16/sports/dunkin-signs-its-first-college-athletes-endorsement-deals/">became one of Dunkin’s’ first</a> college endorsements in February when she agreed to promote the brand’s doughnuts and coffee. </p>
<p>But the Supreme Court ruling doesn’t mean anything goes. The NCAA’s <a href="https://www.ncaa.org/news/2021/6/30/ncaa-adopts-interim-name-image-and-likeness-policy.aspx">new endorsement policy</a> simply pushes its authority over so-called name, image and likeness deals to universities and states. And many have established their own policies both regarding what deals college athletes can enter into and, perhaps more importantly, what deals college athletes can’t enter into. </p>
<p>At least 92 universities <a href="https://businessofcollegesports.com/tracker-nil-policies-by-institution">have created rules governing</a> what kinds of deals athletes can enter into. And 25 states <a href="https://businessofcollegesports.com/tracker-name-image-and-likeness-legislation-by-state/">have passed laws</a> or issued executive orders that affect all public and private schools under their jurisdiction. </p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kvBKEkUAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">We study</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=NbVWe8cAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">the interaction</a> between sports and law. While many of these endorsement deal restrictions are innocuous, such as <a href="https://www.the33rdteam.com/nil-update-policy-breakdowns-for-the-five-states-that-begin-on-july-1/">requiring financial literacy classes</a>, we believe others may actually be unconstitutional.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Black woman wearing a blue jersey jumps as she holds a basketball in her hands and prepares to shoot it over another woman's outstretched arm" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454024/original/file-20220324-21-whgfve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454024/original/file-20220324-21-whgfve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454024/original/file-20220324-21-whgfve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454024/original/file-20220324-21-whgfve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454024/original/file-20220324-21-whgfve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454024/original/file-20220324-21-whgfve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/454024/original/file-20220324-21-whgfve.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">UNC star Deja Kelly inked a deal to promote Dunkin’ doughnuts and coffee.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/NorthCarolinaNCStateBasketball/a7e8c121fa8243f29f3c34e090ebb237/photo?Query=Deja%20Kelly&mediaType=photo&sortBy=creationdatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=41&currentItemNo=18">AP Photo/Karl B. DeBlaker</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Letting ‘amateurs’ profit from their name</h2>
<p>The NCAA <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2021/06/15/nil-ncaa-paying-college-athletes/">had long prohibited student athletes</a> from profiting off their image. The idea is grounded in the notion that they’re amateurs, not professionals. </p>
<p>Responding to growing calls to change the policy, the college sports governing body <a href="https://www.ncaa.org/news/2019/10/29/board-of-governors-starts-process-to-enhance-name-image-and-likeness-opportunities.aspx">agreed in 2019 to do so</a> and asked regional divisions to draft new rules and restrictions. Meanwhile, states, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/colleges/california-lawmakers-voted-to-let-ncaa-athletes-get-paid-its-unclear-whats-next/2019/09/10/80d0a324-d3e6-11e9-9343-40db57cf6abd_story.html">notably California</a>, were already passing laws to allow athletes to earn money off their names. </p>
<p>In June 2021, the Supreme Court <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=18386472160721780784">ruled the NCAA couldn’t limit the kinds</a> of benefits universities offer students. That prompted the NCAA to simply drop the <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/college/2020/11/13/ncaa-nil-name-image-likeness-proposal/6281507002/">draft policy</a> governing name, image and likeness deals it had been working on rather than risk further litigation. </p>
<p>In doing so, the NCAA left it up to states or individual universities to establish their own rules. That opened the door for college athletes across the country to begin signing endorsement deals – as long as they don’t run afoul of rules at their school or in their state.</p>
<p>While the NCAA <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10849297194755368230">is considered a private entity</a> not bound by the First Amendment, states and public schools are. That means any restrictions they place on athletes’ endorsements – a form of commercial speech <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=16793921065105715309">afforded some protection by the Constitution</a> – need to respect athletes’ free speech rights. </p>
<h2>The most problematic restrictions</h2>
<p>Broadly speaking, we see three types of restrictions that appear problematic. The first type prevents deals with brands that are rivals of one that already has a deal with a university. The second group forbids contracts with “vice” industries like alcohol and gambling. And the third prohibits partnerships with anything that might reflect poorly on the educational institution. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://governor.ky.gov/attachments/20210624_Executive-Order_2021-418_Student-Athletes.pdf">2021 Kentucky executive order</a> is an example of the first kind. The governor’s order, <a href="https://www.lanereport.com/153350/2022/03/name-image-likeness-is-now-law-in-kentucky/">now codified into law</a>, explicitly allows athletes to get paid for likeness deals unless the university determines it “is in conflict with an existing contract of endorsement, promotional or other activity entered by the postsecondary educational institution.” In other words, if the school already had an endorsement deal with a company, an athlete can’t sign one with a rival.</p>
<p>For example, athletes at the University of Kentucky, which <a href="https://www.kentucky.com/news/local/education/article177171821.html">is sponsored by Nike</a>, legally can’t sign up for <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/23/adidas-announces-new-network-that-will-allow-more-than-50000-student-athletes-to-be-paid-ambassadors-.html">Adidas’ new program to share sales</a> of its products with student athletes who drive traffic to its website if Adidas wanted to open up this program to these athletes. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://wvusports.com/documents/2021/7/8//NIL_Policy_WVU_7_1_2021.pdf?id=21271">West Virginia University policy</a> illustrates the second restriction. The school’s guidelines, released on July 1, 2021, explicitly forbid athletes from deals associated with alcohol, gambling, banned substances, adult entertainment and other “vice” businesses. </p>
<p>The third kind poses what we believe are the most glaring First Amendment issues. An example of this is <a href="https://legiscan.com/MS/text/SB2313/id/2351829">Mississippi’s state law</a>, which flatly forbids athletes from signing deals with any product or service that is “reasonably considered to be inconsistent with the values or mission of a postsecondary educational institution or that negatively impacts or reflects adversely on a postsecondary education institution or its athletic programs.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young white man wearing a saint peter's basketball jersey uses a scissors to cut the net off of a basketball hoop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453951/original/file-20220323-21-1ywo6oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=83%2C0%2C4971%2C3258&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453951/original/file-20220323-21-1ywo6oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453951/original/file-20220323-21-1ywo6oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453951/original/file-20220323-21-1ywo6oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453951/original/file-20220323-21-1ywo6oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453951/original/file-20220323-21-1ywo6oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453951/original/file-20220323-21-1ywo6oh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Doug Edert won an endorsement deal with Buffalo Wild Wings for his part in taking Saint Peter’s to the Sweet 16 of the NCAA college basketball tournament.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/MAACMonmouthStPetersBasketball/046016718b57458db7fe7ccbf2be7281/photo?Query=Doug%20edert&mediaType=photo&sortBy=creationdatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=8&currentItemNo=6">AP Photo/Matt Rourke</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2 thorny legal issues</h2>
<p>Two legal concepts reveal the problems with these restrictions: “<a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/prior_restraint">prior restraint</a>” and “<a href="https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1005/overbreadth">overbreadth</a>.”</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=14051829728005364054">Courts</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10240616562166401834">are</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=17571244799664973711">unanimous</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=5179591971825287612">in their</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=200006">disapproval</a> when government entities – <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=14594875101335864684">including public universities</a> – restrict speech before it happens, rather than punish speakers for objectionable and unprotected speech after it is made. </p>
<p>That’s why a prior restraint – like a policy that prevents athletes from signing certain types of endorsement deals - will be scrutinized more heavily by courts than if, say, a school simply forces an athlete to stop endorsing an objectionable product after the fact. While that doesn’t mean a prior restraint is never allowed, courts would require schools to show they have a very good reason to have the restriction.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=15763855873494372375">Courts also don’t like it</a> when restrictions on speech are written too broadly, meaning that they affect speech other than the intended target. In the university context, you can see this legal concept in action in campus speech codes. For example, a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=500746032283305681">1995 appellate court ruling struck down</a> a Michigan school’s campus speech code because it gave university officials too much power to determine what is deemed offensive – which meant they could hypothetically use the policy to restrict the most protected form of speech: political speech. </p>
<p>All three restrictions listed above could potentially be broad enough to cover political speech. But it’s the third category that poses the biggest problems because of the vagueness of language like “reasonably considered to be inconsistent with the values or mission of a postsecondary educational institution or that negatively impacts or reflects adversely on a postsecondary education institution or its athletic programs.” Virtually any endorsement an athlete might consider could be deemed “inconsistent” with the values of a university. </p>
<p>It’s not surprising that schools wouldn’t want to be linked to a provocative company or a product they consider inappropriate. But granting administrators too much editorial power over the kinds of deals athletes are allowed to sign can easily stray into the kinds of areas that the Constitution explicitly protects. And a promise to use the power responsibly <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12907128943316010890">is unlikely to survive Supreme Court scrutiny</a>. </p>
<p>As a result, you’re asking athletes to trade their First Amendment freedoms in exchange for their newfound right to profit from their skills on the field or court. In our view, the Supreme Court is unlikely to find that an acceptable trade-off.</p>
<p>[<em>Science, politics, religion or just plain interesting articles:</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-checkoutweekly">Check out The Conversation’s weekly newsletters</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177125/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>States and universities have passed many rules governing what types of name, image and likeness deals athletes can sign. Most are innocuous, but three may violate their First Amendment rights.Sam C. Ehrlich, Assistant Professor of Legal Studies, Boise State UniversityNeal Ternes, Assistant Professor, Arkansas State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1560952021-03-10T13:33:50Z2021-03-10T13:33:50ZNetflix series ‘Last Chance U’ speaks to the reality of athletes I study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388596/original/file-20210309-21-17byplr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3000%2C1850&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Junior college athletes work hard to get noticed by big-time schools. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/john-morgan-southern-maine-community-college-basketball-in-news-photo/632095092?adppopup=true">Shawn Patrick Ouellette/Portland Portland Press Herald via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The concept behind Netflix’s hit docuseries “<a href="https://www.netflix.com/title/80091742">Last Chance U</a>” is simple: Locate a junior college sports team, follow the team around for an entire season with video cameras, and show how team members struggle to realize their dreams of going pro despite their difficult pasts.</p>
<p>The show’s popularity rests on the fact that athletes often end up in junior college – or “JUCO,” as it’s often called – through adverse circumstances. These colleges often represent their last chance to get recruited to a big-time college team, or at least a four-year college. The prospect of going from “rags to riches” as an athlete is a narrative that seems to resonate well. </p>
<p>While “Last Chance U” has dealt with junior college football, on March 10 an <a href="https://tvblackbox.com.au/page/2021/03/10/gripping-new-documentary-series-last-chance-u-basketball-arrives-on-netflix/">eight-episode</a> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b-YCKtBb0L4">spinoff</a> will focus on junior college basketball.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/b-YCKtBb0L4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A new series of “Last Chance U” that focuses on junior college basketball debuts on Netflix March 10.</span></figcaption>
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<p>For me, “Last Chance U” is more than just a TV show. It’s emblematic of a championship-winning junior college basketball team in the Midwest that I have been following since 2019 as a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Robert-Book-3">researcher</a> focusing on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2020.1735258">athletes who come from adverse circumstances</a>.</p>
<h2>‘Out of options’</h2>
<p>Much of my work for this study took place during the winter of 2020, when I spent two weeks with the team and shadowed the head coach – Coach Steve – from morning to night.</p>
<p>Coach Steve – who has been the head coach since 2004 – told me during our first conversation since “Last Chance U” came on TV that people have been “1,000 times more curious” about his job.</p>
<p>“I get all these people asking me, ‘Is your job really that hard?‘ or, 'Do your players really come from situations like this?’” Coach Steve explained.</p>
<p>He said part of what makes junior college sports so intriguing – and different from big-time college sports – is that “no one wants to come to JUCO; they come because they are out of options.”</p>
<p>“I get these players who are not academically eligible, or they have done something that has scared away NCAA recruiters,” Coach Steve said, using the well-known acronym for the National Collegiate Athletic Association, the organization that governs sports at four-year colleges. One player, for instance, had a gun possession charge that made recruiters turn away. Several other players simply didn’t have a good enough academic standing to play.</p>
<p>“They are extremely talented, but also very vulnerable,” he says of the players, “and now I have to deal with the baggage.”</p>
<p>What Coach Steve describes is similar to the experiences of dozens of other athletes who have told me about the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2020.1735258">circumstances they struggled to overcome</a>.</p>
<h2>Preparing for college</h2>
<p>The goal, then, is for Coach Steve and his support team to spend a year or two improving the player’s athletic and academic standing so he can earn the NCAA scholarship that he missed out on after high school. Sports teams at junior colleges, or community colleges, are governed by the National Junior College Athletic Association.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/387566/original/file-20210303-19-rkf4tz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A basketball player attempts to go for a slam-dunk." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/387566/original/file-20210303-19-rkf4tz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/387566/original/file-20210303-19-rkf4tz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=919&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387566/original/file-20210303-19-rkf4tz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=919&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387566/original/file-20210303-19-rkf4tz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=919&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387566/original/file-20210303-19-rkf4tz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1155&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387566/original/file-20210303-19-rkf4tz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1155&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387566/original/file-20210303-19-rkf4tz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1155&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Adeola Dagundunro of Mt. San Antonio College drives to the basket during an 87-75 victory in 2005.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/adeola-dagundunro-of-mt-san-antonio-college-drives-to-the-news-photo/118647086?adppopup=true">Kirby Lee/WireImage</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The name of Coach Steve’s school is being withheld to protect the privacy of his players.</p>
<p>“My players are almost all local kids, meaning they come from some really tough neighborhoods with minimal prospects,” Coach Steve told me. “So I feel great pressure to make sure they get scholarship offers, since most of them will not play professional basketball.”</p>
<p>Junior colleges are not required to report the percentage of students who transition to four-year NCAA schools, according to Wanda Bodey, director of compliance and eligibility at the NJCAA.</p>
<p>However, Bodey told The Conversation that the NJCAA is trying to build a database to capture the data.</p>
<p>Coach Steve told me that about 90% of his players get offers to four-year colleges. </p>
<p>I have no reason to doubt Coach Steve’s figures, which may even be conservative. When I followed the team in 2020, every player got a scholarship offer to an NCAA Division I or Division II school or a college where sports is governed by the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics.</p>
<h2>Streets are calling</h2>
<p>Coach Steve has no shortage of stories about the challenges that his players face.</p>
<p>“Halfway through this season my best player disappeared for a week, went radio silent,” he told me in 2020. “Then he comes back and tells me one of his friends was murdered in a drive-by shooting and his gang was pressuring him to help retaliate against the rival gang. So, against my better judgment, I bring him back, then he disappears again, then comes back. What am I supposed to do? If I cut this kid his life is over; if I keep him, the team is jeopardized.”</p>
<p>In this case, the player had some outside mentors who set up meetings with the coach to bring him back.</p>
<p>“People might think this kind of thing is a rarity,” Coach Steve explained. “But the problem is, I deal with something like this almost every season, and it just comes with the territory.”</p>
<h2>More than championships</h2>
<p>While Coach Steve says championships are desirable, his view of success transcends wins and losses on the court.</p>
<p>“Winning is important, especially since I need to do so to keep my job, but what I really value is moving my players on from here to the NCAA so they get a college education and are prepared for life after basketball.”</p>
<p>To accomplish this goal, Coach Steve relies upon the efforts of employees who go far beyond their job description. </p>
<p>The academic counselor, for instance, was crucial in supporting the emotional needs of the players. The counselor had a role similar to that of the beloved Brittany Wagner, academic adviser from the first and second seasons of “Last Chance U,” who is <a href="https://www.sportscasting.com/where-is-former-last-chance-u-star-brittany-wagner-now/">now a motivational speaker</a>. The counselor understood the players’ needs, since she grew up in the community and even got a degree from the same junior college where she now works.</p>
<p>“My job is exhausting, but I love it, and I know how to keep our players on the right track,” the counselor told me. “It sounds crazy, but I treat them the same as I treat my toddler: tire them out and keep them busy during the day so they go home and go to sleep, instead of go home and make bad decisions.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388599/original/file-20210309-15-1j3t6vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Basketball players huddle together with their coach." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388599/original/file-20210309-15-1j3t6vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/388599/original/file-20210309-15-1j3t6vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388599/original/file-20210309-15-1j3t6vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388599/original/file-20210309-15-1j3t6vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388599/original/file-20210309-15-1j3t6vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388599/original/file-20210309-15-1j3t6vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/388599/original/file-20210309-15-1j3t6vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Southern Maine Community College basketball coach Matt Richards talks with his team in 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/basketball-coach-matt-richards-talks-with-his-team-prior-to-news-photo/632095114?adppopup=true">Shawn Patrick Ouellette/Portland Portland Press Herald via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>All-volunteer force</h2>
<p>Coach Steve has no money to pay for assistant coaches, so he has to rely upon highly qualified volunteer coaches who use the job as a resume builder. The number of assistant coaches fluctuates. He had two at the time of my study but has had as many as five in the past.</p>
<p>One of this year’s assistants said: “I lost my coaching job at (a Division I school) because that is just the nature of this business. With nothing available I took the assistant coaching job here to build up my resume and hopefully use it as a steppingstone. I am sacrificing a lot to be here. I am 35 years old, living with my parents, I have no money, no girlfriend, and no salary from the school.”</p>
<p>I wondered why Steve – with all the challenges at the junior college level and a resume that includes a national championship and a proven record of success – has not moved on to coach an NCAA program.</p>
<p>He said the answer is simple. “I do feel that this is my calling, and that is why I don’t even really care about moving on. But a lot of people ask, ‘When are you going to coach at a higher level?’ I would do that if there was a no-brainer opportunity, but that doesn’t flood my mind with doubt and wonder. If my career ends here, I’m good, and to be honest, I could do this forever.”</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rob Book does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A basketball coach at a small community college in the Midwest reveals the challenges he faces on a regular basis to save his players from the pitfalls of the streets.Rob Book, Ph.D. Candidate, Lecturer in Cultural Sport Psychology, University of Southern DenmarkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1489652021-03-03T13:26:43Z2021-03-03T13:26:43ZColleges are eliminating sports teams – and runners and golfers are paying more of a price than football or basketball players<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386178/original/file-20210224-17-p7jmc1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C5%2C3624%2C2417&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Over 5,000 student-athletes were directly affected by a recent wave of shutdowns of intercollegiate sports teams.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/alyssa-chen-of-northwestern-and-madeline-liao-of-stanford-news-photo/1132302138?adppopup=true">Frank Jansky/Icon Sportswire via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>North Carolina Central University, a historically Black college, <a href="https://twitter.com/NCCUAthletics/status/1359956563667128320">announced</a> in February that its men’s baseball team – which formed in 1911 – would cease to exist after this season. The school’s <a href="https://www.newsobserver.com/sports/article249187170.html">athletic director called it</a> “one of the most disappointing days in my career.” University leaders concluded that financial shortfalls due to COVID-19 were too much to support the team going forward.</p>
<p>Since COVID-19 emerged, dozens of colleges and universities have announced the elimination of different <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/13/sports/college-sports-cuts.html">intercollegiate athletics teams</a>. The vast majority of these cuts are at schools and teams that never show up on <a href="http://www.espn.com/video/sportscenter">ESPN’s SportsCenter</a>. </p>
<p>As professors who study higher education, we took a closer look at the <a href="https://sites.google.com/asu.edu/covid-19-cuts">300 teams</a> that were dropped between March and October 2020 by 78 colleges and universities. </p>
<p>It’s a diverse group of institutions. Some – like <a href="https://news.stanford.edu/2020/07/08/athletics-faq/">Stanford</a> and Brown – have multibillion-dollar endowments. They compete in the NCAA’s Division I, which is the top level of college sports. </p>
<p>But the majority of closures came at regional and local campuses that participate in the NCAA’s Division II and Division III, or the <a href="https://www.naia.org/">National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics</a>. Also, around 30 teams were eliminated by community colleges. </p>
<p>Regardless of campus differences, COVID-19’s financial consequences are a shared rationale cited by university leaders for the recent closures. The 78 schools we examined spend around $87 million a year to keep all those teams going. </p>
<p>The impact of shutting down college sports teams goes beyond an athletic department’s bottom line. Many in the sports world have focused on what it means for <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/sports/college-sports-cuts-wake-covid-19-are-clouding-future-certain-n1243803">U.S. participation in the Olympics</a>. </p>
<p>But there are other implications – positive as well as negative – for campuses themselves and how schools attract prospective students. </p>
<h2>Entertainment and cultural value</h2>
<p>Last season was also the final one for the University of Alaska-Anchorage’s men’s hockey and women’s gymnastics programs. In September, UAA’s Board of Regents <a href="https://www.adn.com/sports/uaa-athletics/2020/09/10/regents-eliminate-uaa-hockey-gymnastics-and-alpine-skiing-but-offer-each-chance-at-reinstatement/">voted to shut down</a> both teams as well as alpine skiing. A last-minute fundraising drive raised <a href="https://skiracing.com/university-of-alaska-ski-team-reinstated-after-successful-628k-fundraising-campaign/">over US$600,000 to save the latter</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="ddZdf" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/ddZdf/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Most university administrators don’t expect their athletics programs to make a lot of money. Only about <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/research/finances-intercollegiate-athletics">25 of the 1,100 NCAA member schools’</a> athletics departments generate a profit. Institutions often spend far more money than their teams will earn from ticket sales, broadcasting contracts and the like. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00948705.2006.9714687">Higher ed leaders say</a> sports provide entertainment and cultural value for students and the local community. Along with civic and performing arts activities, they liven up a campus. </p>
<h2>Funding and donors</h2>
<p>Certain sports, like football, are also useful for cultivating donor and political relationships. A 2003 study found that public universities with NCAA Division I football teams received about <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brad_Humphreys/publication/5142723_The_Relationship_Between_Big-Time_College_Football_and_State_Appropriations_for_Higher_Education/links/0c96052556639c21dc000000/The-Relationship-Between-Big-Time-College-Football-and-State-Appropriations-for-Higher-Education.pdf">6% more in state funding</a> annually than other institutions. And when those football teams win – especially against in-state rivals – state financial support goes up even more the next year. </p>
<p>Research also shows that having a varsity football program increases a school’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040714533353">national visibility and status</a>. Given this, we weren’t surprised that only four of the 300 teams eliminated between March and October were football.</p>
<h2>A changing student body</h2>
<p>Many colleges and universities depend on varsity sports – like rowing, track and swimming – to attract more students to attend. Athletes make up a sizable proportion of the general undergraduate population, especially at smaller schools. For example, NCAA Division III campuses enroll an average of 2,600 students, and <a href="https://ncaaorg.s3.amazonaws.com/about/d3/D3_FactandFigures.pdf">one out of every four</a> is a varsity athlete. </p>
<p>Approximately <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/research/ncaa-sports-sponsorship-and-participation-rates-database">500,000 athletes</a> compete across the three NCAA divisions each year. Research shows <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/sites/default/files/GOALS_convention_slidebank_jan2016_public.pdf">sports is the top factor</a> in athletes’ college choice decision – outweighing academics, the campus social scene or proximity to home.</p>
<p>For the 300 teams in our analysis that were recently cut, 2018-19 <a href="https://ope.ed.gov/athletics/#/">federal data</a> for each intercollegiate program indicates more than 5,400 athletes were members of those teams each year. </p>
<p>Most students who play college sports – including all of those at <a href="https://ncaaorg.s3.amazonaws.com/about/d3/D3_FactandFigures.pdf">Division III</a> and <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2018/10/college-sports-benefits-white-students/573688/">Ivy League</a> programs – are <a href="https://ncaaorg.s3.amazonaws.com/about/ncaa/101/NCAA101_Our3Divisions.pdf">not on an athletic scholarship</a>. </p>
<p>So with fewer sports, the student body at some of these schools might change. For example, Stanford’s admissions office will no longer need to reserve <a href="https://www.si.com/college/2021/02/12/stanford-save-cut-sports-movement-ncaa">240 or so spots</a> for accomplished fencers, field hockey and squash players, rowers, sailors, synchronized swimmers, men’s volleyball athletes and wrestlers. </p>
<p>Cutting those sports could open up <a href="https://news.dartmouth.edu/news/2020/07/dartmouth-announces-changes-varsity-athletics-program">new opportunities</a> for applicants with different backgrounds, interests and achievements. </p>
<p>For students themselves, participating in varsity athletics is generally advantageous. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.0.0083">Research</a> shows that athletic talent <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.0.0083">improves an applicant’s chances of admission</a> to top schools. </p>
<p>Playing sports can also help with the transition into college. An intercollegiate team provides a ready-made social group that can help the new team member adjust to their new school. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/387335/original/file-20210302-17-1uysbd2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Baseball players celebrate on the field" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/387335/original/file-20210302-17-1uysbd2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/387335/original/file-20210302-17-1uysbd2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387335/original/file-20210302-17-1uysbd2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387335/original/file-20210302-17-1uysbd2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387335/original/file-20210302-17-1uysbd2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387335/original/file-20210302-17-1uysbd2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/387335/original/file-20210302-17-1uysbd2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Student-athletes often have a built-in social group that helps with their college transition.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/chapman-university-celebrates-a-division-iii-mens-baseball-news-photo/1148075109?adppopup=true">Jack Dempsey/NCAA Photos via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While the demands of big-time programs in men’s basketball and football <a href="https://129.237.36.133/jams/article/view/7731">can cause academic challenges</a> for these students, studies have found that overall, athletes perform <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/B:RIHE.0000040264.76846.e9">just as well in classes</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1536-7150.00219">have a higher likelihood of graduating</a> compared to other students. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2010.12.001">Research</a> also shows that hiring managers value college sports experience. Some studies have found that former athletes have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-08-2012-0149">higher salaries and career success</a>, on average, than other post-secondary graduates. </p>
<p>The full implications of the abrupt, unprecedented stop of intercollegiate athletics – and what it means for athletes, coaches, schools and beyond – is still unclear. </p>
<p>Eventually, “big-time” programs like <a href="https://www.wsmv.com/news/us_world_news/duke-wont-play-in-march-madness-after-university-suspends-sports-competition/article_ab594ba2-45fe-5b70-9d1b-50bd74c5c484.html">Duke men’s basketball</a> and <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-football/insider/story/_/id/30965191/ohio-state-lsu-college-football-teams-fast-start-recruiting-class-2022">Louisiana State University football</a> will be <a href="https://www.si.com/college/2020/12/29/global-pandemic-exposed-ncaa-inc">back to business as usual</a>. For many other schools, COVID-19’s effects will be more expansive and long-lasting. </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>The financial savings for athletics departments are immediate and obvious. But a longer-term impact will be seen on enrollment, campus life and the communities where colleges are located. </p>
<p>Being a team member in a sport that doesn’t draw thousands of spectators or bring in millions of dollars still builds special connections to campuses that can foster institutional giving and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13250">enhance the health</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11556-010-0076-3">longevity of participants</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148965/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Shutting down sports teams can save schools millions of dollars but create longer-term challenges for enrollment, fundraising and campus life.Molly Ott, Associate Professor of Higher & Postsecondary Education, Arizona State UniversityJanet Lawrence, Professor of Education, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1488982021-01-19T13:09:00Z2021-01-19T13:09:00ZFor these students, using data in sports is about more than winning games<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378921/original/file-20210114-18-ydjg2l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2935%2C2201&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The 'DATA Bulls' use computer science skills to create data analytics for college sports teams. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Felesia Stukes</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When professional sports teams use big data and analytics, their objective is to improve player performance and win more games.</p>
<p>That approach is paying off in a major way.</p>
<p>For instance, after the Golden State Warriors became <a href="https://www.nba.com/warriors/news/warriors-earn-best-analytics-organization-award-2016-mit-sloan-sports-analytics-conference">one of the first NBA teams to invest in analytics</a>, the team subsequently won league championships in <a href="https://www.nba.com/history/season-recap-index">2015, 2017 and 2018</a>. Analytics is the science of looking for patterns in data to make more informed decisions. The Warriors also get regular assists from <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/patrickmurray/2019/05/26/inside-how-silicon-valley-helps-keep-the-golden-state-warriors-at-the-cutting-edge/#41f590803847">partners in Silicon Valley</a> – the famed tech hub near where the team is based. For that reason, it’s a small wonder why, in 2016, the Warriors were recognized at a sports analytics conference as the “<a href="https://www.nba.com/warriors/news/warriors-earn-best-analytics-organization-award-2016-mit-sloan-sports-analytics-conference">Best Analytics Organization</a>.”</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379058/original/file-20210115-13-op6rl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A basketball player passes the ball to another player." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379058/original/file-20210115-13-op6rl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379058/original/file-20210115-13-op6rl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379058/original/file-20210115-13-op6rl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379058/original/file-20210115-13-op6rl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379058/original/file-20210115-13-op6rl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379058/original/file-20210115-13-op6rl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379058/original/file-20210115-13-op6rl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stephen Curry passes the ball around Anthony Davis during the 2018 NBA Playoffs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/stephen-curry-of-the-golden-state-warriors-passes-the-ball-news-photo/958148100?adppopup=true">Sean Gardner/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>National Football League teams rely heavily on data as well. For instance, the Philadelphia Eagles <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/02/sports/football/eagles-analytics-super-bowl-lii.html">used analytics</a> for everything from in-game strategy to roster management as the team ultimately went on to win Super Bowl LII – its first Super Bowl victory in franchise history – in 2018.</p>
<p>With the sports market expected to reach <a href="https://www.pwc.com/us/en/industries/tmt/assets/pwc-2021-tmt-sports-outlook.pdf">US $83.1 billion</a> in 2023, it’s a safe bet that big data and analytics will continue to play a big role in it.</p>
<p>That’s why, as a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=_iv5C-EAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">computer science researcher and educator</a>, when I use big data and analytics to help the men’s and women’s basketball teams at Johnson C. Smith University, where I teach, my objective is much broader than just figuring out how players can score more points and win more games.</p>
<p>Rather, using <a href="https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/Article/1996576/defense-department-announces-fiscal-year-2019-research-equipment-awards-to-mino/">federal grant money</a> that the Department of Defense has allocated for Historically Black Colleges and Universities – like mine – I have designed and expanded an entire research project that deals with the use of big data in sports.</p>
<p>My students are known as “DATA Bulls.” That name is a combination of the acronym for “Data, Analytics, Technology and Athletics,” and the nickname for our teams: the <a href="https://goldenbullsports.com/sports/2014/6/24/GEN_0624141114.aspx">Golden Bulls</a>. One of our chief aims is to use sports to boost the number of Black students in computer science education and research. </p>
<p>While we spend a lot of time using tracking devices and analyzing the data we get from those devices to help the Golden Bulls win games, the ultimate goal of the DATA Bulls project is to use sports data as an engaging way to help students learn computer science. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379048/original/file-20210115-19-53pert.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two African American students each hold a basketball as they sit down on a bench." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379048/original/file-20210115-19-53pert.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379048/original/file-20210115-19-53pert.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379048/original/file-20210115-19-53pert.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379048/original/file-20210115-19-53pert.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379048/original/file-20210115-19-53pert.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379048/original/file-20210115-19-53pert.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379048/original/file-20210115-19-53pert.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ‘DATA Bulls’ project allows students to apply computer science skills toward athletics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Felesia Stukes</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>My students may not necessarily land coveted jobs as <a href="https://www.si.com/nfl/2017/06/28/nfl-analytics-front-office-old-school-approach-draft-game-planning-charting">in-house data scientists for a professional sports team</a>, although they will certainly be better positioned to do so. But even if they don’t, I believe the experience will better prepare them to get good-paying jobs in the computer science field. </p>
<h2>Growth expected</h2>
<p>Federal data show that computer and information research scientist jobs are <a href="https://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/computer-and-information-research-scientists.htm">expected to grow 15% by 2029 over what they were in 2019</a> – much faster than the average for all occupations. That means job prospects are expected to be excellent.</p>
<p>But colleges and universities are coming up short when it comes to preparing students to take these jobs.</p>
<p>For instance, the Business Higher Education Forum found in 2016 that while <a href="https://www.pwc.com/us/dsa-skills">69% of employers</a> in 2021 would prefer job candidates with data science and analytics skills, only 23% of educators said at the time that all students graduate with these skills.</p>
<p>Despite numerous efforts to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.12-12-0207">increase the participation of racial and ethnic minorities</a> in computer science, students of color are still <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028918">underrepresented in the field</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379051/original/file-20210115-21-14si1ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two African American students use iPads in a computer room." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379051/original/file-20210115-21-14si1ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379051/original/file-20210115-21-14si1ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379051/original/file-20210115-21-14si1ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379051/original/file-20210115-21-14si1ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379051/original/file-20210115-21-14si1ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379051/original/file-20210115-21-14si1ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379051/original/file-20210115-21-14si1ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Black students are underrepresented in the field of computer science.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Felesia Stukes</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For instance, of the <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d18/tables/dt18_322.30.asp">71,420 bachelor’s degrees awarded in computer and information sciences</a> in the 2016-2017 school year, just 6,391 – or 8.9% – went to Black graduates, and 7,233 – or 10.1% – went to Hispanic graduates – even though <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=98">Black and Hispanics represent 14% and 19% of U.S. college students</a>, respectively. Technically, white students are underrepresented in computer science as well, but still make up the majority. <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d18/tables/dt18_322.30.asp">White students earned 39,492</a> – or 55.2% - of bachelor’s degrees in computer and information sciences in the 2016-2017 school year.</p>
<p><a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d18/tables/dt18_322.30.asp">Asian students are the only overrepresented group</a>, having earned 10,425 – or 14.5% – of the computer and information sciences degrees awarded that year. Asian Americans represent <a href="https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=3&lvlid=63">5.6%</a> of the U.S. population.</p>
<p>The problem is even more dire for women of color in computer science. For instance, Black and Hispanic women, separately, earned about <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_322.50.asp">1 out of every 10</a> computer science and information bachelor’s degrees that went to women.</p>
<p>Broadening participation through university programs is just one way to narrow the gap. And by teaching the use of analytics in sports, it’s a way to get students to see computing as much more than just programming or fixing computers, as important as those tasks may be.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379049/original/file-20210115-23-oafr8x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Coaches and basketball players huddle around each other." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379049/original/file-20210115-23-oafr8x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379049/original/file-20210115-23-oafr8x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379049/original/file-20210115-23-oafr8x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379049/original/file-20210115-23-oafr8x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379049/original/file-20210115-23-oafr8x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379049/original/file-20210115-23-oafr8x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379049/original/file-20210115-23-oafr8x.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Basketball players and coaches use ‘ShotTracker’ to calculate their performance on the court.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Felesia Stukes</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sensors and shots</h2>
<p>The premier sports analytics equipment used in my project involves work with <a href="https://shottracker.com/sports-analytics-in-the-classroom">ShotTracker</a>, a sensor-based system that automatically captures real-time statistical and performance basketball analytics. </p>
<p>With ShotTracker, players place wearable sensors on their shoes. Sensors are also placed in basketballs and in the arena rafters to track the activity on the court below. Collectively, these sensors help provide data on over 70 different statistics, such as shots made, rebounds, turnovers and assists.</p>
<p>Coaches and players use this data to improve how the team performs throughout the season.</p>
<p>The data also enables my students to develop and explore questions. So far, students have used ShotTracker data to analyze things such as how individual players and the entire team performs per possession. They have also compared shooting percentages during practice versus actual games. We have analyzed shot attempts, makes and misses, and have discussed how this data could inform players shot choices. </p>
<p>We have also used Python – a widely used programming language for data analytics – along with our own datasets to <a href="http://savvastjortjoglou.com/nba-shot-sharts.html">create custom shot charts</a>. The ShotTracker app creates a shot chart as well, which can be used for analysis after every practice.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378928/original/file-20210114-20-13pihe3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A data graphic of a basketball court." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378928/original/file-20210114-20-13pihe3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/378928/original/file-20210114-20-13pihe3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=284&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378928/original/file-20210114-20-13pihe3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=284&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378928/original/file-20210114-20-13pihe3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=284&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378928/original/file-20210114-20-13pihe3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378928/original/file-20210114-20-13pihe3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/378928/original/file-20210114-20-13pihe3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A shot chart graphic automatically developed within the ShotTracker Team App.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Felesia Stukes</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A shot chart takes a half-court view of the floor, splits it into various zones, and tracks where players attempt, make or miss shots. With shooting data, players and teams can identify their strengths and improve shooting weakness from a variety of locations on the floor. </p>
<h2>Beyond the court</h2>
<p>The DATA Bulls project has implications that go beyond my campus.</p>
<p>For starters, it pairs sports tech companies and coaches, who – as far as I know – typically don’t work with computer science professors in this way. It’s also a way to enable athletic programs and teams with small budgets to use technology they may not otherwise be able to afford to improve their performance.</p>
<p>Perhaps most importantly, I believe it serves as a model for universities to expose more students to technologies that might otherwise be out of reach.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148898/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Felesia Stukes received funding from The Department of Defense Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Minority-Serving Institutions Research and Education program (DoD HBCU/MSI). She is affiliated with the Association for Computing Machinery and the American Statistical Association.</span></em></p>Pro sports teams use big data to win big. It’s time for colleges to get students in on the action, a computer science professor argues.Felesia Stukes, Assistant Professor of Computer Science, Johnson C. Smith UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1462792020-11-30T13:32:10Z2020-11-30T13:32:10ZNCAA amateurism appears immune to COVID-19 – despite tide in public support for paying athletes having turned<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360086/original/file-20200925-20-1m08bc3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C17%2C2964%2C1976&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The pandemic has laid bare just how few economic rights college athletes possess.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SpecialTeamsWoesFootball/6555e8056ffc46b2a0a1c1ef83a0d382/photo?Query=college%20AND%20football&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=357974&currentItemNo=97">AP Photo/Keith Srakocic</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Despite the coronavirus pandemic, college sports have <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/29036650/the-coronavirus-college-sports-ncaa-reopening-plans-latest-news-program-cuts-more">mostly</a> chugged along – <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/11/college-football-denial/617225/">albeit with cancellations, postponements and pauses in play</a>.</p>
<p>While many college athletes <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/colleges/grateful---players-celebrate-big-tens-reversal-on-season/2020/09/18/6b92e498-f9fd-11ea-85f7-5941188a98cd_story.html">are grateful</a> for the opportunity to compete, the pandemic has laid bare just how <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2020/08/college-football-unpaid-stars-with-no-power">few basic rights</a> they possess. College athletes are navigating this <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/29036650/the-coronavirus-college-sports-ncaa-reopening-plans-latest-news-program-cuts-more">strange sports season with increased health risks</a>, but <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2020/aug/03/college-football-coronavirus-athletes?CMP=share_btn_tw">with little leverage or say about the conditions under which they’ll play</a>. </p>
<p>In contrast, their professional counterparts in leagues such as the NBA, WNBA, MLB and NFL, thanks to their respective unions, actively negotiated <a href="https://www.newyorker.com/culture/persons-of-interest/nneka-ogwumike-and-the-wnbas-big-complicated-moment">special accommodations</a>, <a href="https://nba.nbcsports.com/2020/06/05/nba-players-union-approves-22-team-format-restart-of-season/">health measures</a>, <a href="https://sports.yahoo.com/timeline-on-how-mlb-season-has-been-pushed-to-the-brink-coronavirus-013338726.html">truncated seasons</a> and <a href="https://www.nfl.com/news/list-of-nfl-players-to-opt-out-of-2020-season">the ability to opt out of playing</a>. They also continually negotiate their <a href="https://www.si.com/nba/2020/04/17/nba-nbapa-pay-cut-agreement-coronavirus">economic rights</a>, such as how their sport’s revenue is split up and the minimum and maximum amounts that players may be paid. </p>
<p>Will this unusual season be the one that finally compels the NCAA to grant players broad economic rights, too?</p>
<p>The public, it seems, is increasingly on board.</p>
<p>According to a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.2020-0015">newly published study</a> I conducted with Ohio University sports management professor Dave Ridpath, the tide in public opinion – at least when it comes to pay – has already been turning. However, race plays a big role in determining the level of support. </p>
<h2>The public support is there</h2>
<p>In our study, we analyzed <a href="https://nsass.org/">survey data</a> that I collected from nearly 4,000 U.S. adults in late 2018 through early 2019. One of the questions we asked respondents was whether college athletes should be allowed to be paid, as athletes, beyond the costs to attend school.</p>
<p><a href="https://news.osu.edu/51-of-americans-agree-paying-college-athletes-should-be-allowed/">Based on our findings</a>, 51% of U.S. adults indicated support for this right by early 2019. This coincides with subsequent results from other polls that indicate rising levels of support for college athletes’ basic economic rights. For example, an October 2019 Seton Hall Sports Poll <a href="https://blogs.shu.edu/sportspoll/2019/10/03/american-public-supports-college-athletes-receiving-endorsement-money-for-image-and-likeness-as-approved-in-california-this-week/">found</a> that 60% of U.S. adults supported college athletes being allowed to be paid for the use of their names, images and likenesses. <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaeltnietzel/2020/02/11/americans-now-overwhelmingly-support-college-athletes-earning-endorsement-and-sponsorship-money/#20cf0ce3648e">Results</a> from an AP-NORC survey in December 2019 pegged that support at 66%.</p>
<p>Previous research had <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17430437.2015.1096250?casa_token=-arGhUsCvaQAAAAA%3A3e-sn9O_3_VhMUODSFJDtGgXgBC_fKCivPrg3ZDs92lF_VQDCrxXFwpUNp3KJX8DTdZFf4ZhRukn">consistently found</a> that most U.S adults were opposed to college athletes being paid and were even against college athletes being able to negotiate for rights through a union.</p>
<p>The rising support for some basic economic rights for college athletes comes at a time when people are paying more attention to the massive <a href="https://sports.usatoday.com/ncaa/finances">financial hauls</a> of some college sports programs, particularly through men’s college football and basketball. These profits have led to enormous salaries for <a href="https://sports.usatoday.com/ncaa/salaries">many coaches</a> and <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1z97vhcjErrHIvuO3Nu2wUWbG90bFKnm_/view">administrators</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A college football player wearing a mask stretches during practice." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360085/original/file-20200925-14-ytv122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C0%2C5946%2C3988&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360085/original/file-20200925-14-ytv122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360085/original/file-20200925-14-ytv122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360085/original/file-20200925-14-ytv122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360085/original/file-20200925-14-ytv122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360085/original/file-20200925-14-ytv122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360085/original/file-20200925-14-ytv122.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">While many college athletes are eager to compete during the pandemic, they lack the leverage held by America’s unionized professional athletes to negotiate the conditions of play.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirusOutbreakStillPlayingFootball/ccf368a6f36e4a42a6aa2342b3a1d803/photo?Query=college%20football%20mask&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=245&currentItemNo=9">AP Photo/Nati Harnik</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The NCAA has long <a href="https://harvardjsel.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2020/06/HLS203.pdf">claimed</a> that college sports would lose their allure if college athletes were paid – that the magic of watching amateurs simply playing for pride while representing a cherished university would disappear, and fans would become less enchanted by college sports. </p>
<p>Yet we found that the most passionate sports fans were actually the most likely to support the idea of permitting college athletes to be paid.</p>
<h2>Class, race and amateurism</h2>
<p>Race, however, does seem to influence respondents’ support for college athletes’ economic rights. </p>
<p>In our study, the odds for white adults strongly agreeing that college athletes should be allowed to be paid were 36% lower than those for nonwhite adults. When we zeroed in on Black and white respondents, we found that the odds for Black adults strongly agreeing with payment allowances were two-and-a-half times those of whites.</p>
<p>Why might this be the case? </p>
<p>It could have to do with the way race and class are intertwined with amateurism. </p>
<p>In the 19th century, white, upper-class Europeans invented the concept of amateurism. They claimed that paying athletes <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-doping-wasnt-considered-cheating-63442">would corrupt the purity of the game</a> and make participants more likely to cheat. In reality, they wanted to discourage working-class athletes from competing, as most couldn’t afford to play for free.</p>
<p>When American universities <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1z97vhcjErrHIvuO3Nu2wUWbG90bFKnm_/view">adopted amateurism</a> in the early 20th century as its model for college sports, these social class distinctions were still in play. There was also a racial element, since, at the time, higher education was the domain of the white and wealthy.</p>
<p>Over the course of the 20th century, nonwhite – particularly, Black – athletes were gradually integrated into college sports, which became increasingly commercialized. Today, Black athletes constitute an <a href="https://abfe.issuelab.org/resources/29858/29858.pdf">outsized proportion</a> of college football and basketball rosters. </p>
<p>Yet amateurism, a relic of classist and racist attitudes, remains, and the bulk of the revenue that Black athletes disproportionately generate – a number that now amounts to <a href="http://assets.usw.org/ncpa/pdfs/6-Billion-Heist-Study_Full.pdf">billions of dollars</a> – doesn’t go to them. Nor have they or other athletes been permitted to accept outside payments aside from the full cost of attendance. </p>
<p>So, there is <a href="https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=20935">very much a racial element</a> to the economic exploitation that seems to be occurring. But this is not solely a racial issue. Self-serving profit motives are also at play. The NCAA has inconsistently applied the principles of amateurism <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0193723513498606?casa_token=w_V9s1qweEwAAAAA%3AmKcdYN2FsCfd-RBmn4cqzEkrEgIdRQXguhyAMDrzGemAKm4tlqZ6gE53_dyJM6txCF3U8oQcik5q">in order to exert more control over college sports and generate more revenue</a>.</p>
<p>Still, perhaps the Black respondents in our survey were more aware of this discrepancy between profits, race and labor. We also discovered that – regardless of the respondent’s racial identity – a recognition of racial discrimination in society coincided with greater support for college athletes’ right to be allowed to be paid. This suggests that those inclined to perceive racial exploitation in American society might see college sports through the same lens.</p>
<h2>Are the times finally changing?</h2>
<p>Pay, of course, is just one right. College athletes <a href="https://theconversation.com/dj-durkins-firing-wont-solve-college-footballs-deepest-problems-106118">can be subjected to abuse</a>, forced to risk their health and made to prioritize sports over academics – and still find themselves powerless to protest or enact changes. </p>
<p>Thanks to <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/29578950/pac-12-player-group-threatens-opt-makes-list-demands-injustice-safety">athlete activism</a>, <a href="https://harvardjsel.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2020/06/HLS203.pdf">media attention, legal challenges, state legislation and shifts in public opinion</a> on the issue of economic rights, the NCAA seems to be on the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-if-college-athletes-got-paid-3-questions-answered-123832">precipice</a> of allowing college athletes to receive some forms of additional compensation. </p>
<p>In April, after being pressed to allow college athletes to profit from the use of their names, images and likenesses, the NCAA <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/media-center/news/board-governors-moves-toward-allowing-student-athlete-compensation-endorsements-and-promotions">signaled that they will grant permission</a> for this and <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2020/10/14/ncaa-proposal-athletes-endorsement-deals/">will vote on proposals</a> in January 2021. A <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/29302748/florida-name-image-likeness-bill-now-law-meaning-state-athletes-profit-endorsements-next-summer">Florida law</a> is slated to permit this to occur in their state with or without NCAA approval in the summer of 2021.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>If the NCAA won’t grant basic economic and other rights to college athletes, it might be up to lawmakers to keep applying the pressure. That’s exactly what a group of senators tried to do in August when they introduced <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2020/08/13/kamala-harris-college-athlete-pay-394580">a College Athletes Bill of Rights</a> that would guarantee NCAA players financial compensation, representation, long-term health care and lifetime educational opportunities.</p>
<p>The bill is languishing in the Senate, where it currently <a href="https://www.si.com/college/2020/08/13/senators-announce-college-athletes-bill-of-rights-proposal">lacks any Republican support</a>. Until that changes, it may be up to the athletes themselves to <a href="https://www.theringer.com/2020/8/3/21352951/pac-12-players-letter-we-are-united-college-sports-model">raise awareness and instigate change</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146279/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The National Sports and Society Survey was supported by the Sports and Society Initiative, The College of Arts and Sciences, and the Center for Human Resource Research at The Ohio State University.</span></em></p>Someone’s race, however, seems to be a factor in whether they support college athletes’ economic rights.Chris Knoester, Associate Professor of Sociology, The Ohio State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1492432020-11-04T19:17:08Z2020-11-04T19:17:08ZEven if you’re asymptomatic, COVID-19 can harm your heart, study shows – here’s what student athletes need to know<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/366871/original/file-20201101-21-1s3rpx6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=712%2C134%2C1995%2C1262&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Over one-third of college athletes in the study who tested positive for COVID-19 had evidence of inflammation around the heart.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/american-football-player-taking-time-out-royalty-free-image/1127509982">Miodrag Ignjatovic via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>COVID-19 can do some pretty scary things to the human heart. It can trigger <a href="https://news.weill.cornell.edu/news/2020/07/what-is-known-about-covid-19-and-abnormal-blood-clotting">blood clots</a> in severe cases and <a href="http://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2020.3557">cause inflammation and scarring</a>.</p>
<p>New research now shows that even young people with COVID-19 who are asymptomatic are at risk for developing potentially dangerous inflammation around the heart.</p>
<p>I am an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=UJCvLzwAAAAJ&hl=en">imaging cardiologist</a> who is developing diagnostic techniques to assess changes in heart muscle function in patients with COVID-19. In a <a href="https://www.jacc.org/doi/10.1016/j.jcmg.2020.10.023">study released Nov. 4</a>, my colleagues and I found evidence of heart abnormalities in over one-third of student athletes who tested positive for COVID-19 and underwent cardiac screening at West Virginia University this fall. </p>
<p>While we didn’t detect ongoing damage to the heart muscle itself, we frequently found evidence of inflammation and excess fluid in the pericardium, the sac around the heart. Almost all of the 54 students tested had either mild COVID-19 or were asymptomatic. </p>
<p>Based on our results and other studies, a group of experts convened by the Journal of the American College of Cardiology: Cardiovascular Imaging has also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmg.2020.10.005">published a list of recommendations</a> for heart testing and recovery times before student athletes return to play.</p>
<p>An important takeaway: Student athletes who test positive for COVID-19 should consult their primary care physicians to determine if heart screening tests are needed – even if they never showed symptoms. </p>
<h2>COVID-19 is bad news for hearts</h2>
<p>There is still a lot we don’t know about COVID-19 and its lingering effects on the human body.</p>
<p>SARS-CoV-2, the coronavirus that causes COVID-19, can cause a <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-coronavirus-does-to-your-body-that-makes-it-so-deadly-133856">mind-boggling array of damage</a>, including triggering inflammatory responses in the heart muscle and surrounding tissue as the body tries to fight it off. As many as <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmg.2020.05.017">1 in 8</a> hospitalized COVID-19 patients have some form of heart damage.</p>
<p>What we worry most about with competitive athletes is whether the virus can get into the heart muscle and trigger <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459259/">myocarditis</a>, rare inflammation of the heart muscle that can be caused by viral infections. Myocarditis can <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/myocarditis/symptoms-causes/syc-20352539">disrupt your heart’s ability to pump blood</a> and cause arrhythmias. It can also cause <a href="http://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2020.4916">sudden heart failure</a> in athletes who seemed healthy. If you have myocarditis, you should not be on the field or in training until well after you recover.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Illustration of the heart wall" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/366841/original/file-20201101-13-1pfpbxp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/366841/original/file-20201101-13-1pfpbxp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/366841/original/file-20201101-13-1pfpbxp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/366841/original/file-20201101-13-1pfpbxp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/366841/original/file-20201101-13-1pfpbxp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/366841/original/file-20201101-13-1pfpbxp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/366841/original/file-20201101-13-1pfpbxp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blausen_0470_HeartWall.png">Bruce Blaus/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A small number of college athletes with COVID-19 are known to have been <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/29633697/heart-condition-linked-covid-19-fuels-power-5-concern-season-viability">diagnosed with myocarditis</a>. In one study, Ohio State University doctors tested 26 college athletes in September and found signs of heart inflammation <a href="http://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2020.4916">consistent with myocarditis</a> in four.</p>
<p>Myocarditis isn’t the only heart problem to worry about, however. Sports doctors for years have warned that athletes who develop pericarditis <a href="http://doi.org/10.1097/01.CSMR.0000306524.82124.47">should not return to play</a> until it resolves.</p>
<h2>Here’s what we found in student athletes</h2>
<p>At West Virginia University, my colleagues and I examined 54 student athletes who had tested positive for COVID-19 three to five weeks earlier.</p>
<p>We didn’t find convincing signs of ongoing myocarditis, but we did see a lot of evidence of pericarditis. Among the student athletes screened, 40% had pericardial enhancement, suggesting resolving inflammation in the sac that protects the heart, and 58% had pericardial effusion, meaning excess fluid had built up.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Illustration of a heart showing pericarditis" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/366839/original/file-20201101-20-1nrn226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/366839/original/file-20201101-20-1nrn226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=773&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/366839/original/file-20201101-20-1nrn226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=773&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/366839/original/file-20201101-20-1nrn226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=773&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/366839/original/file-20201101-20-1nrn226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=971&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/366839/original/file-20201101-20-1nrn226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=971&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/366839/original/file-20201101-20-1nrn226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=971&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericarditis#/media/File:Pericarditis.jpg">National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Usually, this kind of inflammation heals within a few weeks with no residual effects. However, in some cases, there can be long-term effects, like pericardial inflammation recurring. It can lead to scarring of the pericardial sac, which in rare cases can be severe, and the pericardium can constrict around the heart. This can lead to symptoms similar to heart failure and cause congestion in the lungs and liver. </p>
<p>It’s difficult to predict if a patient will develop any of these rare long-term complications, and it’s too soon to tell if it’s happening.</p>
<h2>Advice for college athletics programs</h2>
<p>Currently, athletic programs around the country have a patchwork of rules for <a href="https://www.si.com/college/2020/10/28/big-ten-covid-protocol-21-days-heart-screening">quarantining and screening</a> COVID-19-positive athletes for heart damage as they try to balance players’ health and the desire to return to play.</p>
<p>To help them develop standards, I and other cardiologists from the U.S., Canada, U.K. and Australia reviewed the current evidence and wrote an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmg.2020.10.005">expert consensus statement</a>. A <a href="http://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2020.5890">similar statement</a> focused on myocarditis was published by some of the same doctors in JAMA Cardiology.</p>
<p>We suggest the following:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Any student athlete testing positive for COVID-19 should follow quarantine rules and avoid exposing their teammates, coaches or anyone else to the virus.</p></li>
<li><p>Before returning to play, athletes who test positive for COVID-19 should consult with their physicians to determine if heart screening tests are needed. Although routine testing is not recommended for all asymptomatic individuals, a physician should determine on an individual basis when the risks are high enough. </p></li>
<li><p>If an athlete has active myocarditis, we recommend no competition or strenuous training for three to six months, with follow-up exams with a cardiologist. Exercise can worsen the disease’s progression and create arrhythmias, or irregular heartbeat. After that period, the athlete can gradually resume exercise and play if he or she has no lingering inflammation or arrhythmia.</p></li>
<li><p>If an athlete has active features of pericarditis, we also recommend restricting exercise, since it can exacerbate inflammation or cause inflammation to return. Athletes should avoid competitive sports during the acute phase. Once tests show no inflammation or excess fluid, the athlete should be able to return to play.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>COVID-19 is no joke. The best way for athletes to stay healthy so they can keep playing sports is to avoid getting the coronavirus in the first place. Teams should test student athletes for the virus and make sure those who test positive see a doctor to determine if screening tests for heart damage are needed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/149243/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Partho Sengupta receives funding from the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health. </span></em></p>Cardiologists say student athletes who test positive for COVID-19 should see their doctors to determine if heart tests are necessary, even if they don’t have symptoms.Partho Sengupta, Abnash C Jain Chair and Professor of Cardiology, Cardiology Division Chief and Director of Cardiac Imaging, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1466452020-09-23T12:31:11Z2020-09-23T12:31:11ZRevenue goals lurk behind decision to hold Big Ten college football games amid pandemic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359460/original/file-20200922-24-g3904j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C5%2C3631%2C2419&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Games are set to resume this October.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/northwestern-quarterback-hunter-johnson-is-sacked-during-a-news-photo/1171804610?adppopup=true">Lawrence Iles/Icon Sportswire via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Editor’s note: Despite concerns about COVID-19, Big Ten college football is <a href="https://www.ncaa.com/news/football/article/2020-09-19/2020-big-ten-football-schedule-dates-matchups">set to begin Oct. 24</a>. Here, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=rbh-JkAAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Mark Rosentraub, a professor of sport management</a>, addresses some of benefits and potential drawbacks of playing football too soon.</em></p>
<h2>How much of this decision is related to revenue?</h2>
<p>From my perspective, it is largely driven by revenue. The university presidents and provosts effectively lost control of football and basketball when they let college coaches be paid salaries that rival those offered to those in the NFL and NBA. Jim Harbaugh is paid <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/2018/10/03/jim-harbaugh-do-michigans-results-justify-coachs-7-5-million/1489623002/">US$7.5 million a year</a> to coach the University of Michigan football team, although his pay was <a href="https://www.cbssports.com/college-football/news/college-football-rankings-ucf-eyes-the-top-10-boston-college-surges-in-cbs-sports-76/">cut by 10%</a> – dropping him down to $6.75 million for this season – as part of the university’s efforts to cut costs amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Before the cut, Harbaugh had been the <a href="https://www.sportingnews.com/us/ncaa-football/news/highest-paid-college-football-coaches-2019-dabo-swinney-nick-saban/1tm0hym5dtina1ms02d4davsfp">third-highest-paid college football coach</a> in the nation.</p>
<p>Harbaugh’s defensive coordinator, Don Brown, is paid <a href="https://www.crainsdetroit.com/sports/michigan-near-top-million-dollar-assistant-coaches">$1 million a year</a>. Two other assistant coaches also have <a href="https://www.crainsdetroit.com/sports/michigan-near-top-million-dollar-assistant-coaches">million-dollar salaries</a>; and five assistant coaches are paid at least $500,000. Michigan’s athletic director is paid <a href="https://www.freep.com/story/sports/college/university-michigan/wolverines/2020/04/20/michigan-football-warde-manuel-pay-cut-coronavirus/5166581002/">more than $900,000 each year</a>. Michigan Athletics is <a href="https://mgoblue.com/news/2020/6/29/general-revenue-losses-from-covid-19-make-u-m-athletics-deficit-likely-in-fy-21.aspx#:%7E:text=For%20the%20fiscal%20year%202020,operating%20expenses%20of%20%24186.4%20million.&text=Spectator%20admissions%20revenues%20are%20projected,percent%20between%20FY2020%20and%20FY2021">responsible for all of its expenses</a>, and for the past several years revenues have exceeded expenses. Just like the rest of the university, Michigan Athletics will have to consider changes to cover any deficits. If the games are played, there will be significant media income to help offset any deficit.</p>
<p>In addition, to sustain the image of college sports and to comply with <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/tix_dis.html">Title IX requirements</a>, federal rules that prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex in education or programs that get federal funding, campuses must finance a number of non-revenue-generating teams such as track, rowing, tennis, softball, baseball, lacrosse and the like. Together, those sports offer opportunities for a larger number of student athletes. Those teams, however, must be financed, too, and with few paying fans at their games and matches, revenue from football and men’s basketball essentially pays for those teams. </p>
<p>Consider, for instance, what took place at Stanford University this year. Faced with the loss of football and basketball revenues, Stanford University <a href="https://news.stanford.edu/2020/07/08/athletics-faq/#:%7E:text=Stanford%20will%20discontinue%2011%20of,swimming%2C%20men's%20volleyball%20and%20wrestling">terminated 11 teams</a> in July. Other universities are likely to have to make similarly difficult choices that will impact many students because football and men’s basketball games are not played or they will be played without paying fans. </p>
<h2>Why are administrators saying it is OK to bring back football players but not other students?</h2>
<p>From my perspective, this is sheer hypocrisy because to protect athletes they must be treated differently than other students. There are 1,036 students on the 74-player rosters of Big Ten football teams. Contrary to what the name suggests, a total of <a href="https://bigten.org/confstats.aspx/2019-20/fb?path=football">14 universities</a> play in the Big Ten conference. They will be <a href="https://bigten.org/news/2020/9/16/the-big-ten-conference-adopts-stringent-medical-protocols-football-season-to-resume-october-23-24-2020.aspx">tested for COVID-19 and, if necessary, isolated, treated and protected</a> in a way that is not being offered other students. </p>
<p>In addition, the University of Michigan, the Big Ten school where I teach sport management, believes it is best to send all students home on Nov. 20 to complete the semester. However, football games will be played through Dec. 19, and basketball will start Thanksgiving weekend, after other students are sent home. I see no justification for treating most students differently from student athletes, but that is what is going to take place. </p>
<h2>What are the pros and cons for players?</h2>
<p>There are two benefits for the students who play.</p>
<p>First, for the vast majority who will not play at the professional level, this season could be their last chance to enjoy what they love. For that reason alone there is merit in finding the safest way to have the games played.</p>
<p>Second, for the few who have a shot at being drafted by the pro leagues, this season could be their best chance to showcase their skills. The risk for these benefits is exposure to COVID-19 from close contact for which they are not properly compensated. Professional athletes were <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/22/mlb-players-union-rejects-latest-league-proposal-to-start-2020-season-delayed-by-covid-19.html">represented by unions</a> that could work to secure appropriate compensation for their willingness to play. And if they decided not to play, they, too, were financially protected, as when the NFL <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/sports/nfl-coronavirus-opt-outs-pay-stipend-benefits">agreed to offer</a> as much as $350,000 in salary to a player if he or his immediate family had an underlying condition.</p>
<p>If the student athletes had a union that represented all of their interests, and they were appropriately compensated, then it could be argued there is a fair risk-vs.-reward calculation. There is no appropriate compensation paid for the risks assumed by the student athletes, and there is no union representing student athletes. </p>
<h2>Are there any red flags that the fall schedule won’t work?</h2>
<p>Several games have <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2020/09/09/college-football-covid-postponements/">already been postponed</a>. With more leagues and schools prepared to launch their seasons, the earlier warning signs are emerging that more postponements or cancellations are on the horizon.</p>
<p>Universities do not make it easy to know how many student athletes have tested positive for COVID-19. Universities like Michigan report the total number of students, including athletes, who test positive. For each of the first two weeks of September 2020, <a href="https://campusblueprint.umich.edu/dashboard/">more than 40 students</a> on the Ann Arbor campus tested positive. The New York Times <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/us/covid-college-cases-tracker.html">tracks the number of college students testing positive</a> but does not report how many of these students are athletes.</p>
<p>Several states do not now permit fans to attend games, and some do. That creates another strange situation. As of late September, <a href="https://www.clickondetroit.com/news/local/2020/09/16/what-governor-said-about-fans-attending-michigan-michigan-state-football-games-this-year/">fans will not be allowed at Michigan’s football games</a>. Also, fans are not expected at <a href="https://www.dispatch.com/story/special/2020/09/17/ohio-state-football-to-begin-reinstated-2020-season-without-fan-attendance/114042376/">Ohio State’s home games</a>, but that could change.</p>
<h2>Is there a possible alternative?</h2>
<p>Universities need more time to make their campuses safe for all students, faculty and staff. For other students to attend games, the nation would need to be closer to the reality of a vaccine. Some observers and athletics officials have discussed whether the games can be <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/29456649/a-spring-2021-college-football-season-coronavirus-impacted-schedule-look-like">played in 2021</a> instead.</p>
<p>But I see several problems with playing the 2020 season in the winter of 2021. First, playing in winter 2021 would lead there to be two seasons in one calendar year, which could stress players’ bodies. Plus, the season could conflict with the the NFL’s planned April 2021 draft. These issues will have to addressed, especially if the NFL agrees to postpone its draft until May. </p>
<p>Starting the season in 2021 would give the universities more time to protect all students, staff and faculty through aggressive testing, tracking and appropriate quarantine procedures. With those improvements in place, athletes would have more of the opportunities they deserve while universities could do a better job of striving to protect every student.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146645/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark S. Rosentraub does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A sports management scholar weighs in on the potential consequences of holding Big Ten football games in the fall instead of waiting for a vaccine or better safety procedures.Mark S. Rosentraub, Professor of Sport Management, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1428002020-07-21T12:08:07Z2020-07-21T12:08:07ZColleges expect athletes to work but not to air any grievances – here’s why that’s wrong<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/348688/original/file-20200721-29-10tp576.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The world of college athletics promises many opportunities to young players, but at what cost?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/laughing-football-players-in-locker-room-royalty-free-image/599944209?adppopup=true">Thomas Barwick/GettyImages</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Northwestern University created its 2013 football <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/1127/Northwestern_Code_of_Conduct.pdf?1595341423">team handbook</a>, the guide included a list of 50 “Twitter tips” for the athletes.</p>
<p>Tip #10 told the players not to use Twitter as “an outlet to complain about how rough your life is.”</p>
<p>“You are getting a college education, traveling to interesting places, getting free athletic shoes and apparel and more,” the handbook stated. “Thousands of people would crawl over glass for the chance to enjoy the opportunities you have.”</p>
<p>This censoring of college athletes is not unique.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/12/sports/ncaafootball/george-floyd-protests-college-sports.html">Again and again</a>, <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Sports/social-media-bans-violate-college-athletes-amendment-rights/story?id=33482714">coaches</a>, <a href="https://splc.org/2017/02/nlrb-college-athlete-gag-orders/">university administrators</a>, other <a href="https://www.redandblack.com/sports/you-go-go-go-hunnay-basketball-players-should-stop-complaining-about-one-and-done-rule/article_0cb504c6-ed05-51b3-996a-bfd39096df0a.html">college students</a>, <a href="http://www.dailynebraskan.com/schubert-players-who-complain-only-gain-resentful-fans/article_a140c061-5ea1-5bab-beb7-8612287c958e.html">fans</a> and even <a href="https://thegame730am.com/riley-bullough-to-student-athletes-stop-complaining/">athletes themselves</a> have essentially told elite college athletes the same thing: You’re lucky, so <a href="https://pursuitathleticperformance.com/2014/dont-whine-dont-complain-dont-make-excuses-life-lessons-from-two-great-coaches/">don’t complain</a>.</p>
<p>And when athletes do complain – or, more accurately, when they demand rights and protections – they are <a href="https://profootballtalk.nbcsports.com/2013/09/20/arian-foster-admits-getting-money-in-college/">chastised</a> for “crying” and being “whiny,” overly “pampered,” and unduly “entitled.”</p>
<h2>Athletes speaking up</h2>
<p>Though this type of talk has been long used in an effort to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/12/sports/ncaafootball/george-floyd-protests-college-sports.html">silence college athletes</a>, college athletes have been increasingly speaking up. The athletes are <a href="https://www.latimes.com/sports/ucla/story/2020-06-19/ucla-football-players-demand-protections-amid-pandemic-return">demanding</a> protections from exposure to the novel coronavirus. They are <a href="https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2019/12/heroes-of-the-2010s-kain-colter-jock-revolutionary/">fighting</a> for the right to unionize and bargain collectively. And they are <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/04/sports/ncaa-obannon-case-ruling-supreme-court.html">challenging</a> the prohibition by the National Collegiate Athletic Association, or NCAA, on their ability to earn money from their athleticism – the same thing that generates millions of dollars for <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/schools-most-revenue-college-sports-2016-10">universities</a>, <a href="https://www.edsmart.org/ncaa-football-coach-salaries/">coaches</a>, <a href="https://www.murphy.senate.gov/download/madness-inc&&">private corporations</a> and even the <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/22678988/ncaa-tops-1-billion-revenue-first">NCAA itself</a>.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=xg0YkMsAAAAJ&hl=en">sociologist</a> who examines the dynamics of work, I see this resistance as brave because it comes with great risk. </p>
<p>I learned just how much of a risk college athletes take by speaking up when I interviewed several former elite college football and basketball players for my recent book, “<a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520305410/coerced">Coerced: Work Under Threat of Punishment</a>.” Through these interviews, I came to see just how much power coaches wield over college athletes.</p>
<p>[<em>Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybest">Sign up for our weekly newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>For instance, coaches determine whether athletes can compete.</p>
<p>It’s up to coaches to either play or bench players in the limited number of college games that represent the pinnacle of most athletes’ careers. Coaches also <a href="https://www.athleticscholarships.net/2012/07/02/coaches-making-scholarship-decisions.htm">control athletes’ scholarships</a>, which give them access to a subsidized university education, bachelor’s degrees and future career opportunities.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347972/original/file-20200716-17-1jtno3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347972/original/file-20200716-17-1jtno3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347972/original/file-20200716-17-1jtno3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347972/original/file-20200716-17-1jtno3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347972/original/file-20200716-17-1jtno3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347972/original/file-20200716-17-1jtno3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347972/original/file-20200716-17-1jtno3b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For many female basketball players, being drafted to the WNBA is a dream come true.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/christy-hedgpeth-poses-with-arike-ogunbowale-after-being-news-photo/1136467468">Catalina Fragoso/NBAE via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Coaches even affect whether top athletes can be recruited to play professionally. For instance, a woman I’ll call Lindsay, a former college basketball player who went on to play for the Women’s National Basketball Association, or WNBA, told me: “Your coach is going to be talking to the coaches of the WNBA.” And those WNBA coaches, Lindsay said, will ask, “’What’s this kid like on your team? Like, does she get along with everybody? Is she a troublemaker? Does she cause problems? Or does she fall in line?’” </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347968/original/file-20200716-21-1d5sljm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/347968/original/file-20200716-21-1d5sljm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347968/original/file-20200716-21-1d5sljm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347968/original/file-20200716-21-1d5sljm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347968/original/file-20200716-21-1d5sljm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347968/original/file-20200716-21-1d5sljm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/347968/original/file-20200716-21-1d5sljm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">College athletes risk being seen as uncoachable if they refuse to follow their coaches’ demands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/ilang-stares-at-the-camera-as-she-sits-on-the-bench-during-news-photo/462435706">Jeff Golden / Contributor/GettyImages</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Professional prospects threatened</h2>
<p>The primary risk, Lindsay and the other athletes told me, is that their coaches would characterize them as “un-<a href="https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/14844347/coach-rompola-says-athlete-entitlement-factor-retirement">coachable</a>.” “That’s a big thing for coaches,” said Lindsay, a Black woman who was 25 at the time of our interview. “’Yeah, she’s un-coachable, she doesn’t really listen, she talks back.’”</p>
<p>Thus, in order to retain their hard-won status as elite athletes and to maintain a chance at going professional, these athletes said that they needed to – as Lindsay put it – “fall in line” and compliantly and completely adhere to their coaches’ directives. These directives might include <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d76d/1b504550e191b77a3b3efe4127dd293a136e.pdf">playing through injuries</a> or, these days, feeling compelled to return to campus for “<a href="https://www.cbssports.com/college-football/news/as-workouts-begin-a-reminder-that-voluntary-only-means-so-much-in-the-college-football-world/">voluntary</a>” training despite the risks associated with COVID-19.</p>
<p>In short, college athletes labor under the threat of punishment. Whether or not they get disciplined, they are acutely aware of the punitive power their coaches can wield. This awareness fundamentally shapes their actions and experiences as athletes.</p>
<p>I call this type of power “status coercion” because coaches wield expansive punitive power over their status as college athletes and all of the rights, privileges and opportunities that this status confers.</p>
<p>Therefore, I argue that college athletes need to be broadly protected from coaches’ expansive power and the system that supports it.</p>
<p>Not only should coaches not be able to <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2020/06/22/college-football-coronavirus-334344">pressure athletes</a> into risking exposure to a deadly virus, they should not be able to strong-arm them into <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d76d/1b504550e191b77a3b3efe4127dd293a136e.pdf">playing through injuries</a> at the risk of lifelong – or potentially life-ending – bodily damage, such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy, or CTE, a degenerative brain disease linked to repeated concussions, which football players (and other athletes) may <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/07/25/sports/football/nfl-cte.html">experience</a>. </p>
<p>Beyond asking athletes to risk their health, coaches should not be able to compel athletes to <a href="https://diverseeducation.com/article/71169/">choose easy majors over more time-consuming ones </a> – such as engineering – or attend football practice rather than mental health sessions.</p>
<p>In my research, I found such coercive pressure is not the result of a few “bad apples,” the occasional coaches who abuse their power. The entire system of college athletics is predicated on coaches’ ability to leverage such power: NCAA revenue, advertisers’ profits, universities’ fame and coaches’ success – including their ability to retain high-paying jobs – often depend on how far they can <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/24342005/maryland-terrapins-football-culture-toxic-coach-dj-durkin">push athletes</a>. These power dynamics have become even clearer in the context of COVID-19. So, while many fans <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/is-college-football-happening-or-not-11594908015">wonder</a> whether college football will happen in the fall, athletes are increasingly <a href="https://www.latimes.com/sports/ucla/story/2020-06-19/ucla-football-players-demand-protections-amid-pandemic-return">speaking out</a> against a system built on their compliance and silence.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142800/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erin Hatton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When college athletes practice or play, they’re really performing work. But are they able to speak up when the work conditions threaten their health? And what happens when they do?Erin Hatton, Associate Professor of Sociology, University at BuffaloLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1401952020-06-08T12:22:58Z2020-06-08T12:22:58ZStar player who expressed interest in going to an HBCU may shake up how athletes select a college<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/340157/original/file-20200605-176550-rekk6d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mikey Williams dribbles through a crowd during the Pangos All-American Camp on June 2, 2019 at Cerritos College in Norwalk, CA. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/mikey-williams-tries-to-dribble-through-traffic-during-the-news-photo/1147665585"> Brian Rothmuller/Icon Sportswire via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/mikey-williams">Mikey Williams</a>, one of the nation’s best 15-year-old basketball players, sent <a href="https://sports.yahoo.com/mikey-williams-considering-an-hbcu-a-move-that-could-shake-up-college-basketball-150047572.html">shockwaves through the sports world</a> when he <a href="https://twitter.com/619CONFIDENTIAL/status/1267869043479810049">tweeted</a> that he might go to a <a href="https://sites.ed.gov/whhbcu/one-hundred-and-five-historically-black-colleges-and-universities/">historically black college or university</a>, also known as an HBCU. Here, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=btoK1KsAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Jasmine Harris</a>, a researcher who studies student-athletes, elaborates on why Williams’ potential decision is generating so much interest.</em></p>
<h2>1. What’s the big deal?</h2>
<p>There is a lot of money at stake. Before he became an NBA star, Zion Williamson was worth an <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/audio/2019-11-20/zion-williamson-was-worth-5-million-a-year-to-duke-podcast#:%7E:text=Scott%20Soshnick%2C%20Eben%20Novy%2DWilliams,paid%20while%20still%20in%20school.">estimated US$5 million</a> per year for Duke University. That figure is based on media exposure, marketing deals and ticket sales.</p>
<p>Williamson is not unique. Many a college sports star have <a href="https://bleacherreport.com/articles/1779801-whats-johnny-manziel-worth-how-about-740-million">made a lot of money</a> for their college. Convincing a talented high school player to commit to a particular school is one of the most <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/sports/wp/2015/11/23/running-up-the-bills/">critical aspects</a> of <a href="https://watchstadium.com/this-is-how-much-it-costs-to-land-one-of-college-footballs-top-recruiting-classes-07-24-2019/">recruitment</a>. A star player can help a school <a href="https://www.murphy.senate.gov/download/madness-inc">generate lots of revenue</a> and <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/media-center/news/growth-division-i-athletics-expenses-outpaces-revenue-increases">expand their sports program</a>. This is why I believe that college sports programs are more like businesses than part of a school.</p>
<p>HBCUs are historically <a href="https://diverseeducation.com/article/73463/">underfunded</a>. For that reason, HBCUs can’t recruit as competitively as some of their <a href="https://hbcugameday.com/2018/07/02/ballin-on-a-budget-how-hbcus-make-and-spend-their-money-on-athletics/">Division I peers</a>. Without the funds to build programs and modern facilities capable to showcase star players in their quest to go pro, HBCUs are unlikely landing spots for the country’s most talented student athletes.</p>
<p>When HBCUs can’t attract the best young players, they miss out on the larger shares of <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/">NCAA</a> revenue they could get from televised games, <a href="https://www.ncaa.com/march-madness">March Madness</a> tournament participation and apparel and ticket sales. An HBCU has never won an NCAA national championship in football or men’s basketball. Instead, HBCUs compete in their own championship tournaments for the semi-segregated Mid-Eastern Atlantic Conference (MEAC) and Southwestern Atlantic Conference (SWAC). One player may not change the entire system, but one player can make a big difference for an individual school.</p>
<h2>2. Is there anything special about the timing?</h2>
<p>The convergence of increased <a href="https://www.detroitnews.com/story/business/2020/04/01/growing-discontent-among-some-essential-workers-during-covid-19-crisis/5105760002/">discontent</a> regarding the COVID-19 pandemic, news coverage of videos that show the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/george-floyd-investigation.html">killing of George Floyd</a> at the hands of police, and the persistence of <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/05/29/amy-cooper-white-woman/">racist rhetoric</a>, has created a perfect storm to re-envision which college a young black student should choose. College men’s basketball teams are made up of 56% black <a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/college/ct-spt-ncaa-tournament-race-pool-20180311-story.html">players</a> student-athletes, but only about half of those athletes <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/03/12/graduation-rates-black-athletes-lower-most-students-study-shows">graduate</a> from college after six years, in some cases that number is well <a href="https://web-app.usc.edu/web/rossier/publications/231/Harper%20Sports%20(2016).pdf">below</a> 50%. Less than 2% will be <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/research/estimated-probability-competing-professional-athletics">drafted</a> into professional leagues.</p>
<p>These are black kids who are grappling in <a href="https://sports.yahoo.com/star-player-disputes-new-fsu-coachs-claim-that-hes-had-open-communication-with-team-amidst-george-floyd-protests-124805160.html">real time</a> with their own racial identities, their place in the social hierarchy, and the systemic <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/01/business/economy/black-workers-inequality-economic-risks.html">disadvantages</a> of race in the U.S. </p>
<p>As the NCAA tries to maintain institutional status quo where student-athletes are prevented from being paid for sports participation, while players advocate for their right to <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/10/29/ncaa-allows-athletes-to-be-compensated-for-names-images.html">generate their own revenue</a>, black student-athletes like Williams are recognizing their role in the financial health of the schools for which they choose to play. As Williams <a href="https://hbcugameday.com/2020/06/05/mikey-williams-hbcu-offers-hampton-grambling-nccu/2/">stated</a> on Instagram, “WE ARE THE REASON THAT THESE SCHOOLS HAVE SUCH BIG NAMES AND SUCH GOOD HISTORY … But in the end what do we get out of it?”</p>
<p>Committing to play for an HBCU isn’t just a neutral, short-term decision in this case. The potential for change instigated as a result of a top player rejecting a predominantly white college in favor of an HBCU is <a href="https://theathletic.com/1796298/2020/05/06/hbcu-college-football-coronavirus-financial-status/">particularly significant</a>, specifically in 2020 as black colleges struggle to stay afloat, but also more possible than ever.</p>
<h2>3. Can just one player shake things up?</h2>
<p>In the short term, probably not. However, Williams has the potential to influence other players in the future – and that may be more important. <a href="https://chicago.suntimes.com/2020/4/29/21241424/college-sports-football-economics-notre-dame-universitiy-coronavirus-covid">Colleges and universities depend heavily</a> on revenue from men’s basketball and football games to maintain stable operating budgets across the entire institution. The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed how <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/29198526/college-football-return-key-athletic-departments-deal-financial-wreckage-due-coronavirus-pandemic">precarious the financial relationship</a> is between sports and <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/d1">Division I</a> programs. Forfeiting 2020 revenue means these schools will have even thinner margins, and reduced budgets in the years immediately after the pandemic. This will create greater opportunity for a reorganization of the <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/d1">Division I</a> sports hierarchy. </p>
<p>If Williams were to attend an HBCU, his presence would immediately improve the school’s bargaining position for television contracts and marketing deals. It could also lead to an increase in ticket sales and attract additional potential star players.</p>
<p>His decision could ultimately change how star high school athletes choose which college to attend. And if more choose HBCUs, these players have the power to shift a longstanding system which benefits predominantly white schools, to one where black colleges can become more competitive in sports.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re too busy to read everything. We get it. That’s why we’ve got a weekly newsletter.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybusy">Sign up for good Sunday reading.</a> ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/140195/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jasmine Harris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When Mikey Williams, one of the nation’s top high school basketball players, announced that he was thinking about going to a historically black college, the college basketball world paid attention.Jasmine Harris, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Ursinus CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1370302020-04-29T12:12:43Z2020-04-29T12:12:43ZTop football recruits bring in big money for colleges – COVID-19 could threaten revenue<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331123/original/file-20200428-110761-s2rrwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=32%2C0%2C3600%2C2376&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Football glory costs money.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/dan-cathy-hands-the-defensive-player-mvp-trophy-to-news-photo/1190750820?adppopup=true">Icon Sportswire/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Colleges and universities are spending more than ever to land the nation’s top football recruits, with some schools having boosted their recruiting budgets by <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/ncaaf/2019/08/20/college-football-recruiting-georgia-leads-pack-in-soaring-costs/2059273001/?utm_source=feedblitz&utm_medium=FeedBlitzRss&utm_campaign=usatodaycomcollegefootball-topstories">more than 300%</a> in the last five years.</p>
<p>These budgets can surpass <a href="https://247sports.com/LongFormArticle/college-football-biggest-recruiting-budgets-Georgia-Bulldogs-Alabama-Crimson-Tide-134630146/">US$2 million for schools like the University of Tennessee</a>. Is it worth it?</p>
<p>I study <a href="https://www.asc.ohio-state.edu/logan.155/">economics</a>. <a href="https://economics.osu.edu/sites/default/files/Revenue%20Per%20Quality%20of%20College%20Football%20Recruit_Logan%20and%20Bergman.pdf">Research</a> I recently did shows just how big the payoff for spending money to recruit the best players can be. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331126/original/file-20200428-110738-10vtik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331126/original/file-20200428-110738-10vtik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331126/original/file-20200428-110738-10vtik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331126/original/file-20200428-110738-10vtik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331126/original/file-20200428-110738-10vtik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331126/original/file-20200428-110738-10vtik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/331126/original/file-20200428-110738-10vtik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teams like the Alabama Crimson Tide regularly recruit multiple top-tier players.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-alabama-crimson-tide-football-team-takes-the-field-news-photo/630729180?adppopup=true">Streeter Lecka/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Half a million dollars</h2>
<p>The schools that secure five-star recruits – the 30 or so players judged to be in the <a href="https://www.sbnation.com/college-football-recruiting/2019/1/30/18202661/recruiting-stars-rankings-high-school-football">top one-hundredth of the top 1%</a> of high school football players – can <a href="https://economics.osu.edu/sites/default/files/Revenue%20Per%20Quality%20of%20College%20Football%20Recruit_Logan%20and%20Bergman.pdf">increase total revenue by over $500,000</a> for a university’s athletic department. Most football teams never secure a five-star recruit. Others, such as the University of Alabama and Louisiana State University, <a href="https://247sports.com/season/2020-football/compositeteamrankings/">recruit three or four every year</a>.</p>
<p>My research team came to this $500,000 figure by linking 10 years’ worth of football recruiting information from <a href="https://n.rivals.com/">Rivals.com</a> and <a href="https://www.scout.com/">Scout.com</a>, two of the top recruiting services for prospective college football players, with <a href="https://ope.ed.gov/athletics/#/">federal data</a> on how much colleges take in and spend on athletics, win-loss records for individual schools and post-season bowl appearances.</p>
<p>The data shows revenue and expenditures for each sport separately, which made it possible to determine what a football recruit added to football revenue at each university.</p>
<p>Schools like the University of Oklahoma, the University of Michigan and Notre Dame, which on average bring in over a dozen four- or five-star recruits every year, bring in millions of dollars more in revenue when they land more of the top recruits in a given year.</p>
<p>For instance, my estimates suggests that Clemson University’s five-star recruits, of which there were five, and 12 four-star recruits – also in top one-quarter of 1% of all players – in the <a href="https://247sports.com/season/2020-football/compositeteamrankings/">2020 recruiting class</a> will increase the school’s football revenue by well over $3 million, <a href="https://247sports.com/LongFormArticle/College-football-recruiting-biggest-spenders-Alabama-Michigan-Ohio-State-LSU-Florida-State-Tennessee-Texas-143656317/#143656317_6">well above its $1.8 million recruiting budget</a>.</p>
<p>The reason is simple: Top recruits help teams win.</p>
<p>Since a top recruit correlates strongly with increases in the number of victories, they help determine the type of post-season play. Five-star recruits are not the deciding factor in whetehr a school gets to a bowl game, the mark of a winning season – the big-time programs will have winning records every year without fail. </p>
<p>But they do push them to the upper echelon of post-season play – the College Football Playoffs or its forerunner, the Bowl Championship Series. Reaching the championship level in college football <a href="https://www.sportspromedia.com/news/sec-football-tv-rights-espn-abc-cbs">contributes to lucrative broadcast contracts</a>, <a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/college/ct-spt-big-ten-discover-sponsor-20171108-story.html">corporate partnerships</a> and even more successful recruiting.</p>
<p>Very few schools are consistently successful in the race to recruit top football talent and win at the highest levels. Just as nine schools have been responsible for <a href="https://www.ncaa.com/news/football/article/2020-04-27/college-football-teams-most-nfl-draft-picks-2000">20% of all players drafted into the NFL</a> over the past two decades, only six schools have made it to the College Football Playoff championship game.</p>
<h2>Financing other sports</h2>
<p>There is more than hoisting football trophies at stake.</p>
<p>College football is a key driver of athletic department revenue as well, helping to pay for other sports programs. Athletic departments that field more than 30 varsity teams do so understanding that fewer than five varsity teams generate enough revenue to cover the entire athletics department’s expenses.</p>
<p>In fact, some critics argue that big-time college sports, which feature rosters made up <a href="https://time.com/4110443/college-football-race-problem/">primarily of black student-athletes</a>, <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2018/10/college-sports-benefits-white-students/573688/">pay for the sports programs that include overwhelmingly white student-athletes</a>, such as lacrosse and swimming, which receive far less media attention but are the bulk of athletes in major collegiate sports programs. <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2018/10/college-sports-benefits-white-students/573688/">Sixty-one percent</a> of all student athletes are white.</p>
<p>Football revenue also helps finance athletic recruiting efforts and amenities, such as <a href="https://247sports.com/LongFormArticle/Alabama-football-Clemson-Tigers-Nick-Saban-Ohio-State-Buckeyes-LSU-college-facilities-rankings-2019-134061740/">state-of-the-art facilities</a>. All of that takes money, which takes recruits, which takes money. Every recruiting video, campus visit and hosted meal is a line item on an athletic department’s budget.</p>
<h2>COVID-19 repercussions</h2>
<p>The possibility of there being no college football season in the fall of 2020 is <a href="https://fortune.com/2020/04/02/college-football-coronavirus-ncaa-d1-sports/">making athletics departments fear</a> big budget cuts. </p>
<p>Already, some schools are dropping sports that were subsidized by college football revenues, <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/29034684/cincinnati-drops-men-soccer-program-amid-widespread-uncertainty">like men’s soccer</a> and <a href="https://www.wtkr.com/sports/old-dominion-university-discontinues-wrestling-program">wrestling</a>. Smaller schools that depend on a few $1 million paydays in September from the major programs, may be left with gaping holes in their athletic budgets, threatening all sports.</p>
<p>There is little doubt that changes are coming to the current model of athletic department operations through a variety of converging forces. COVID-19 is unleashing <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2020/04/02/unemployment-claims-coronavirus-pandemic-161081">widespread job losses</a>, <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2020/04/10/businesses-closed-coronavirus/111526546/">business closures</a> and <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2020/04/15/the-economic-data-is-even-worse-than-wall-street-feared-the-economy-is-clearly-in-ruins-here.html">declining consumer spending</a> that will limit what fans and advertisers can spend on football.</p>
<p>Another factor could be a change by the National Collegiate Athletic Association – which governs college athletics – that could allow student-athletes to get paid from their <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/andrewzimbalist/2019/12/20/the-ncaa-sports-model-is-broken-and-its-time-for-congress-to-step-in/#e4de4583d09c">name, image and likeness</a>.</p>
<p>While schools rich with talent may continue to get richer, those schools further down the recruiting pecking order will be left to wonder how they can survive at all.</p>
<p>[<em>Insight, in your inbox each day.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=insight">You can get it with The Conversation’s email newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/137030/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trevon Logan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Much more than trophies are at stake when colleges recruit football players.Trevon Logan, Professor of Economics, The Ohio State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1307872020-01-31T13:03:44Z2020-01-31T13:03:44ZThe Kobe legacy: Should the NBA let high school players skip college?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312651/original/file-20200129-93004-t7i6gi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=167%2C136%2C855%2C542&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kobe Bryant #24 of the Los Angeles Lakers waves to the crowd after passing Michael Jordan on the all-time scoring list in 2014</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/kobe-bryant-of-the-los-angeles-lakers-waves-to-the-crowd-news-photo/460472466?adppopup=true">Hannah Foslein/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Less than a decade after 18-year-old Kobe Bryant got drafted into the NBA in 1996, the league made all players spend at least one year in college or playing overseas <a href="http://www.thepostgame.com/blog/throwback/201507/remember-nba-david-stern-collective-bargaining-agreement-players-union">before they could enter the professional basketball league</a>.</p>
<p>That rule may be about to be rescinded, paving the way for today’s star high school players to follow in Kobe’s footsteps. I have seen both professional and college athletics up close, first working for the Philadelphia 76ers in the mid-1980s, then as a sportswriter, and now as a <a href="https://comm.osu.edu/people/kraft.42">professor of sports media</a> and the director of Ohio State’s <a href="https://sportsandsociety.osu.edu/">Sports and Society Initiative</a>. Each summer I teach a course to help prepare freshmen for the demands of college, so I see both opportunities and challenges associated with the NBA’s <a href="http://www.thepostgame.com/blog/throwback/201507/remember-nba-david-stern-collective-bargaining-agreement-players-union">collegiate attendance requirement</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312654/original/file-20200129-92964-3h3znl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312654/original/file-20200129-92964-3h3znl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312654/original/file-20200129-92964-3h3znl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312654/original/file-20200129-92964-3h3znl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312654/original/file-20200129-92964-3h3znl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1038&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312654/original/file-20200129-92964-3h3znl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1038&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312654/original/file-20200129-92964-3h3znl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1038&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kobe Bryant’s high school jersey on display at Lower Merion High School.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Kobe_Bryant_retired_HS2.jpg">Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>The early days</h2>
<p>When the National Basketball Association first formed in 1946, it didn’t let anyone join a team until <a href="https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1447&context=mjlr">four years</a> after their high school class graduated. That restriction lasted until a player named Spencer Hayward sued the NBA in 1971. </p>
<p>Ultimately, the U.S. Supreme Court <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/30/sports/basketball/spencer-haywood-rule-nba-draft-underclassmen.html">struck down the rule</a> in <a href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/401/1204.html">1971</a>.
The league soon welcomed <a href="https://www.nba.com/history/legends/profiles/moses-malone">Moses Malone</a> in 1974. Malone proved the poster child for skipping college and heading to the pros as he led the Houston Rockets and then the Philadelphia 76ers to NBA titles. He ultimately earned a spot as one of the <a href="https://www.nba.com/history/legends/profiles/moses-malone">top 50</a> basketball players of all time.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312653/original/file-20200129-92987-1er08dh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312653/original/file-20200129-92987-1er08dh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=894&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312653/original/file-20200129-92987-1er08dh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=894&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312653/original/file-20200129-92987-1er08dh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=894&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312653/original/file-20200129-92987-1er08dh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1123&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312653/original/file-20200129-92987-1er08dh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1123&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312653/original/file-20200129-92987-1er08dh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1123&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Moses Malone looks for a pass at the Great Western Forum in 1983.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/moses-malone-of-the-philadelphia-76ers-looks-for-a-pass-as-news-photo/51763575">Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>The league also welcomed high schoolers <a href="https://www.espn.com/nba/story/_/id/13526002/darryl-dawkins-dies-age-58">Darryl Dawkins</a> and <a href="https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/?date=20010624&slug=bill24">Bill Willoughby</a>, star players whose lack of maturity on and off the court indicated they may have benefited from a bit more development before their pro careers. </p>
<p>Eventually the league was home to such 18-year-old NBA rookies as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kevin-Garnett">Kevin Garnett</a>, in 1995, <a href="https://ballislifeofficial.tumblr.com/post/165149695220/in-1996-tracy-mcgrady-was-an-unknown-high-school">Tracy McGrady</a>, in 1996, <a href="https://www.psacard.com/autographfacts/basketball/amare-stoudemire/1236">Amar'e Stoudemire</a>, in 2002, <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/picture-gallery/sports/nba/2016/12/15/lebron-james-through-the-years/95385300/">LeBron James</a>, in 2003, <a href="https://www.nba.com/magic/news/Magic_Select_Howard-112523-66.html">Dwight Howard</a>, in 2004 and <a href="https://peoplepill.com/people/andrew-bynum/">Andrew Bynum</a>, in 2005.</p>
<p>In 2005, <a href="https://www.thesportster.com/basketball/top-40-nba-players-who-were-drafted-out-of-high-school-where-are-they-now/">Amir Johnson</a>, of Westchester High School in California, became the <a href="https://www.thesportster.com/basketball/official-ranking-of-all-nba-players-drafted-out-of-high-school/">40th player</a> to get drafted into the NBA without playing in college.</p>
<h2>Rules change</h2>
<p>Then-NBA-Commissioner David Stern successfully lobbied for a stipulation in the league’s 1995 collective bargaining agreement, known as <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/28/sports/basketball/nba-draft-will-close-book-on-high-school-stars.html">Article X</a>. It limited draft eligibility to players who were at least 19 years old and stated that an NBA season had to elapse following their graduation from high school.</p>
<p>The new rule was intended to give all players a chance to experience college basketball. The league, according to this line of thinking, would become more professional and feature higher-quality performances by players who were more physically mature and had built up a fan based during <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2001/05/12/sports/pro-basketball-early-entrants-worry-stern.html">collegiate play</a> This change, the NBA hoped, would also cut down on the scouting that it was then doing in high school and even middle school gyms.</p>
<p>Aspects of the rule worked.</p>
<p>There is no doubt some players who may have been compelled to make the leap instead gained much-needed experience – and education – in college that enabled them to handle the physical and emotional demands of professional sports. As collegiate student-athletes, players take classes, which can give them career options later.</p>
<p>But it also led to many “<a href="https://www.si.com/nba/2019/03/03/legal-analysis-change-age-eligibility-rule-one-and-done">one-and-done</a>” players – that is, players who spend one year in college and then seek to get drafted into the NBA. Examples include Ben Simmons, who left Louisiana State to join the Philadelphia 76ers, D'Angelo Russell, who left Ohio State to play with the LA Lakers, Andrew Wiggins, who went from the University of Kansas to the Cleveland Cavaliers and Jabari Parker, who departed Duke for the Milwaukee Bucks. </p>
<p>This arrangement enabled universities to capitalize on these incredible athletes, who developed a strong and loyal collegiate fan base before going pro. That fan base buys jerseys and clamors for television access to those stars, resulting in <a href="https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/22678988/ncaa-tops-1-billion-revenue-first">significant revenue</a>. College teams aiming for single-season success have been built around one-and-done players.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/sports/march-madness-one-and-dones/">They can even win championships</a>, as was proven by Kentucky and Duke, who <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2019/sports/march-madness-one-and-dones/">each had three one-and-done players </a> when they won championships 2012 and 2015, respectively.</p>
<h2>Top players may soon skip college altogether</h2>
<p>The NBA in February 2019 <a href="https://www.nba.com/article/2019/02/21/nba-and-union-look-end-one-and-done">proposed lowering the minimum age</a> for playing professional basketball from 19 to 18. The <a href="https://www.nba.com/article/2019/02/21/nba-and-union-look-end-one-and-done">change could come soon</a>.</p>
<p>The rationale is that the difference between 18 and 19 is not significant enough to curtail career potential. Injuries are an all-too-real possibility for top collegiate players who put their bodies – and potential livelihoods – on the line while gaining <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/zion-williamson-injury-nba-draft-college-rules-2019-2">no financial security</a>.</p>
<h2>Education as a fallback</h2>
<p>Meanwhile, the NBA’s <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nba/2018/10/18/g-league-to-offer-125000-contracts-to-elite-prospects/38197689/">G League</a> – an official minor league – is also offering US$125,000 contracts, plus health care and employment benefits, to prospects who are at least 18. By way of comparison, the <a href="http://www.espn.com/nba/salaries">vast majority</a> of NBA players command salaries of at least $1 million or more.</p>
<p>The change seems to satisfy opponents of the NBA rule that requires NBA draftees to be 19 and a year out of high school. Critics of the rule include Haywood, who has decried the rule as “<a href="https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2765594-spencer-haywood-sees-a-tinge-of-slavery-in-college-basketball-very-racist">very racist</a>.” Haywood also said the rule has a “<a href="https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2765594-spencer-haywood-sees-a-tinge-of-slavery-in-college-basketball-very-racist">tinge of slavery</a>” because it forces talented college Division I basketball players to play for free in college while at the same time generating wealth for college sports. Although <a href="https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045218">blacks represent only about 13%</a> of the U.S. population, black Division I basketball players outnumber their white counterparts by a ratio of <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/research/ncaa-demographics-database">more than 2 to 1</a>.</p>
<p>Less obvious, however, is the impact of allowing players to forgo education when their professional reality does not match their dream. Not everyone who makes the NBA will win a championship. Some may not even play a game. There is a benefit to the education afforded student-athletes, whether it is appreciated at the time or not.</p>
<p>One of the clearest examples of how education can be significant to the development of a student not as an athlete but as person can be seen in <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/static/champion/the-one-and-done-dilemma/">Greg Oden</a>, whose place in history is both cautionary tale and an inspiration.</p>
<p>In 2005, Oden was a 7-foot star weighing a stopover in college or a leap straight to the pros. The NBA made the decision for him in his senior year of high school when it enacted the rule that makes players spend at least a year in college. He enrolled at Ohio State University for a spectacular freshman season that helped lead the Buckeyes to the Final Four – the last two games to decide who will go on to play for the National Collegiate Athletic Association’s Divison I championship.</p>
<p>Oden was drafted No. 1 in 2007 by Portland Trail Blazers. But Oden’s future was filled with surgeries, not championships; knee braces, not rings. The Blazers let him go in 2012.</p>
<p>To find his future, he came to his past, back to Ohio State. The university promises all former student-athletes the <a href="https://ohiostatebuckeyes.com/second-chance-at-degree-an-attractive-option-for-former-buckeye-student-athletes/">opportunity to return</a> to finish their degree when they are ready.</p>
<p>Oden <a href="https://www.elevenwarriors.com/ohio-state-basketball/2019/05/104057/greg-oden-graduate-ohio-state-pursue-coaching-career-overcoming-emotional-turmoil-derailed-nba-career">graduated from the university</a> with a <a href="https://buckeyeswire.usatoday.com/2019/05/06/former-ohio-state-big-man-greg-oden-officially-graduates/">bachelor’s degree in sport industry</a> in 2019.</p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130787/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Kraft does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Unlike when Kobe Bryant went straight from high school to the NBA, future superstars must now spend at least one year in college or overseas. A sports scholar explains how that could soon change.Nicole Kraft, Associate Professor of Clinical Communication, The Ohio State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1261592019-10-31T12:54:37Z2019-10-31T12:54:37ZWill the NCAA’s move to let college athletes get paid endorsements make a difference? 3 questions answered<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299586/original/file-20191030-162164-1y7t91b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The NCAA has moved to permit college athletes to seek endorsement deals. under new rules to be adopted by 2021.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Arizona-St-UCLA-Football/f0f1c76970fd4adeaa2998f9d4901c65/7/0">AP Photo/Marcio Jose Sanchez</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Editor’s note: The NCAA moved on Oct. 29 to <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/media-center/news/board-governors-starts-process-enhance-name-image-and-likeness-opportunities">allow student-athletes to profit from their image and likeness</a> – something the association had <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/10/29/california-governor-ncaa-decision-is-a-step-in-the-right-direction.html">opposed</a> until California passed a law to allow the practice. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=btoK1KsAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Jasmine Harris</a>, a sociologist and expert on the academic lives of Division I college men’s basketball and football players, explains how the change will affect college athletes.</em></p>
<h2>1. Will this measure bring new opportunities for student athletes?</h2>
<p>I think that remains to be seen. For the few college superstars in football and mens’ basketball, there will potentially be more marketing opportunities at the large-scale level, such as national and international endorsement deals, camp appearances and apparel contracts. For others, there may be more small-scale opportunities to be paid for work that has to do with their athletic connections to their university. So, for example, if I am a swimmer, I can now use my position on the swim team to advertise lessons and make money off of that. </p>
<p>And I think that that is really what the NCAA has in mind, because in the <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/media-center/news/board-governors-starts-process-enhance-name-image-and-likeness-opportunities">NCAA’s statement</a> about their decision, they make clear they want to “assure student-athletes are treated similarly to non-athlete students unless a compelling reason exists to differentiate.” </p>
<p>One of the main arguments for paying NCAA athletes is that non-athlete students can work to make money while they are at school and most athletes are too busy to do so. I think in that way there may be additional opportunities for student-athletes to make money. But I’m not sure that the compensation that most athletes can potentially get will alleviate some of the <a href="https://www.cougcenter.com/2016/10/16/13299392/hamza-abdullah-broke-college-athlete-wsu-football">economic stressors</a> that student-athletes – especially men’s basketball and football players – experience while they’re at campus.</p>
<h2>2. The NCAA says it plans to “maintain the priorities of education and the collegiate experience” of student athletes. Has it until now?</h2>
<p>Well, it’s not a priority in practice. My <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-naive-to-think-college-athletes-have-time-for-school-100942">research</a> looks at the hour-per-week differential in terms of how much time student athletes – specifically football and mens’ basketball players – are spending on athletics versus academics. Much more time is spent focusing on their athletic responsibilities rather than their academic ones, which means the priorities of education are not first and foremost in the experiences of these athletes.</p>
<p>Now, for sports that have less of a corporate aspect to them, such as swimming, tennis and soccer, there is more time and less responsibility required to be members of those teams. And in that way, I suppose the NCAA can continue to use this language of “maintaining the priorities of education” without being totally hypocritical. But what I think the NCAA is doing in order to shield themselves from criticism, is to talk about student-athletes as a monolithic group. </p>
<p>The reality is there is a big difference between revenue-generating student-athletes – and those are specifically football and men’s basketball players at Division 1 schools – and all the other student athletes at Division 1 schools, as well as Division 2 and Division 3 schools. The latter don’t have the same public exposure or institutional responsibilities that add to the pull away from education as part of their collegiate experience.</p>
<p>In my view, the NCAA uses this idea that there is this priority of education as a cover. And that’s where some of this feels to me a bit disingenuous. They are not offering to provide a piece of the <a href="https://www.si.com/college-basketball/2018/03/07/ncaa-1-billion-revenue">billion dollars in revenue</a> they had in 2018. They’re simply allowing student athletes to go out and try to make money on their own.</p>
<p>This is going to be a deep strain on the students’ ability to spend time doing homework, seeing professors in office hours, going to study groups, working with tutors, spending time in the writing center. All of these things are a fundamental part of the educational experience, even for non-athlete students who work outside of campus to make money.</p>
<h2>3. Do you see any potential pitfalls with this new policy?</h2>
<p>One, you’re going to see students being pulled further and further away from campus in order to strike business deals. Two, there’s going to be a natural inequity that occurs in the amount of compensation that students can get and how they can get it. And while that’s something that should be understood as a necessary or an unavoidable consequence of allowing students to be compensated for their image and likeness, it’s also something that will probably cause some discontent among the student-athletes themselves.</p>
<p>In fact, when I started collecting interview data from some football and men’s basketball players, the first questions they always had in any conversation about the ability to get compensation are always, “Well, how much is it going to be?” and “Is it going to be different from school to school and person to person?” The answer is probably yes. </p>
<p>Regardless of how the system is put together, there’s still going to be this difference in how much companies are willing to pay student-athletes based on their public image, how well their team is doing, how well they’re doing individually, if they’ve won any awards recently, if they’ve been on any national media outlets. And people have a problem when they find out that they’re being compensated differently, especially when they feel like – on the field and in terms of the labor that they’re providing for the colleges and universities – those things are relatively equal. So I see that as being a big issue that’s going to fall on the academic institutions, not the NCAA, to figure out.</p>
<p>[ <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=expertise">Expertise in your inbox. Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter and get a digest of academic takes on today’s news, every day.</a></em> ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126159/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jasmine Harris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Now that the NCAA will allow college athletes to seek paid endorsements, questions abound about how the players will be able to cash in on those deals. An expert on student athletes weighs in.Jasmine Harris, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Ursinus CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1238322019-09-20T12:36:33Z2019-09-20T12:36:33ZWhat if college athletes got paid? 3 questions answered<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293226/original/file-20190919-22437-13ud0v3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">California lawmakers have approved a bill that would enable college athletes to get paid endorsements. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Stanford-USC-Football/2fbc02df188f412bb66d214fa14d95df/22/0">AP Photo/Marcio Jose Sanchez</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The California state legislature has approved a bill that allows college athletes to earn money through athletic endorsements starting in 2023. The governor hasn’t said whether he’ll sign the bill into law. Jasmine Harris, an <a href="https://www.ursinus.edu/live/profiles/669-jasmine-harris">expert on student athletes</a>, addresses how the bill, known as “<a href="https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billAnalysisClient.xhtml?bill_id=201920200SB206">Fair Pay to Play Act</a>,” would alter college athletics if it gets signed into law. Her edited comments are below.</em></p>
<h2>1. The Fair Pay to Play Act mentions preventing the exploitation of student athletes. Just how are student athletes being exploited?</h2>
<p>College athletics has become such a business that the exploitation is happening on multiple levels. It’s not just that the colleges are making money off of the student athlete. </p>
<p>Players are also prevented from generating any kind of compensation around their image or likeness while they’re in college, which – for many of them – is going to be the only time when their likeness or their image has any economic value at all.</p>
<p>Right now <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2015/01/27/college-athletes-greatly-overestimate-their-chances-playing-professionally">less than 2%</a> of players end up going pro. And so you’ve got this entire industry that’s built on generating revenue off the athlete through ticket sales, <a href="https://magazine.promomarketing.com/article/forbes-announces-most-valuable-college-apparel-deals/">sponsorship deals</a> with apparel companies, and <a href="https://www.sbnation.com/college-football/2019/3/19/18273232/aac-television-deal-espn-conference-realignment">TV distribution deals</a>.</p>
<p>But that money – instead of being allocated back to the students or making changes that allow additional compensation to be accumulated by the students – goes to things such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-big-bonuses-for-winning-coaches-became-a-tradition-in-college-football-108171">coaches’ salaries</a> and new dorms and updated locker rooms with personal barbers and locker seats that <a href="https://www.cbssports.com/college-football/news/look-lsus-new-locker-room-includes-dedicated-sleeping-pods-for-players/">roll out into beds</a>. </p>
<p>It’s enough to make me wonder whether these students are going to be sleeping in the locker rooms because they’re spending so much time in the stadium as opposed to in their own dorms or classrooms.</p>
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<h2>2. Why do student athletes need compensation on top of their scholarships?</h2>
<p>People expect non-student athletes to have a job or two. Studies have found that athletes spend <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/college-student-athletes-spend-40-hours-a-week-practicing-2015-1">32 to 44 hours</a> a week on their respective sports, which is in line with <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-naive-to-think-college-athletes-have-time-for-school-100942">my own research</a>, which shows that they spend three times as much time on their athletic responsibilities than they do on their student responsibilities. </p>
<p>So this idea that a scholarship – which is just tuition, fees, books, room and board – is enough, suggests that that’s enough for all college students and it’s not. And in fact it’s becoming increasingly likely that students across the board, in terms of socioeconomic class, are having to <a href="https://www.us.hsbc.com/content/dam/hsbc/us/en_us/value-of-education/HSBC_VOE5_USA_FactSheet_508r2.pdf">get additional jobs</a> to make more money or their <a href="https://www.us.hsbc.com/content/dam/hsbc/us/en_us/value-of-education/HSBC_VOE5_USA_FactSheet_508r2.pdf">parents are having to put in more money</a> on a day-to-day basis for them to live.</p>
<h2>3. The bill, if enacted, wouldn’t take effect until 2023. Why so long?</h2>
<p>I think the California legislature is hoping that the NCAA will see this and try to institute some of its own policy changes that are more in line with the way that this bill is written. The 2023 deadline for instituting this law is about providing a cushion to allow the NCAA time to adequately adjust its current bylaws to be more in line with this new legislation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123832/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jasmine Harris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>California’s legislature has approved a bill that would let college athletes get paid endorsements. A sociologist explains what the measure would mean for the players.Jasmine Harris, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Ursinus CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1108372019-04-24T10:47:45Z2019-04-24T10:47:45ZLet’s get real with college athletes about their chances of going pro<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270564/original/file-20190423-175535-lbsyzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">While most college football players believe they have a good shot at going pro, very few do.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/NFL-Draft-Football/6a8f537a60fa4b49be4c696bed26262b/945/0">David J. Phillip/AP</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When the <a href="https://www.nfl.com/draft/home">NFL draft</a> takes place, it will represent a professional dream come true for the 224 college football players who get picked.</p>
<p>For most players, however, going pro will never be more than a fantasy. <a href="http://fs.ncaa.org/Docs/PressArchive/2007/Announcements/NCAA%2BLaunches%2BLatest%2BPublic%2BService%2BAnnouncements%2BIntroduces%2BNew%2BStudent-Focused%2BWebsite.html">Fewer than 2%</a> of college student-athletes ever play professional sports at any level for any amount of time.</p>
<p>But that statistic often fails to register with many of the thousands of young people across the nation who enter a university, singularly focused on the rare chance that they will join the ranks of professional athletes. I know this because I worked as a volunteer with Division I football players for the summers of 2015 to 2017 to help develop their leadership skills and build unity among team members. In that capacity, I learned directly from the football players that most of them were focused on going pro and that going to college was just a means to that end.</p>
<p>My impressions are consistent with a <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/sites/default/files/GOALS_convention_slidebank_jan2016_public.pdf">2015 NCAA survey</a> – the latest available – that shows 64% of Division I football players believe it is “somewhat likely” that they will become a professional.</p>
<p>Given that only <a href="https://ftw.usatoday.com/2016/07/here-are-your-odds-of-becoming-a-professional-athlete-theyre-not-good">1 in 4,233</a> high school players go from high school to college to the pros, there is a giant gap between college players’ dreams and reality. In baseball, for instance, only 2.1% of all college players transition from college to the pros. Most other sports have lower rates of going pro than that.</p>
<p>For student-athletes who do not earn college degree, whether it’s because they’re no longer eligible to play, ran out of money for college or declared themselves as eligible for the NFL draft but didn’t get drafted, the end game is the same. They find themselves at the proverbial finish line without a degree or a professional contract. Clearly, this is not the goal.</p>
<h2>Why a degree matters</h2>
<p>While only one college football player wins the coveted <a href="https://www.heisman.com/heisman-winners/">Heisman Trophy</a> each year, a college degree, on the other hand, is attainable by every player on every team. More importantly, a college degree <a href="https://www.campusexplorer.com/college-advice-tips/1FDB725F/Unemployment-Rates-are-Lower-Among-College-Graduates/">enhances a person’s ability to get a job</a> and earn a living. New <a href="https://race.usc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/2018_Sports_Report.pdf">research</a>, however, shows that many college football players are not earning their degrees.</p>
<p>The troubling statistics can be found in “<a href="https://race.usc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/2018_Sports_Report.pdf">Black Male Student-Athletes and Racial Inequities in NCAA Division I College Sports,</a>.” The report, by USC’s Shaun Harper, points out how at <a href="http://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/24570980/power-5-conference-power-rankings">Power Five</a> schools, black men make up 55% of their football teams and 56% of their men’s basketball teams, but just 2.4% of the overall undergraduate population.</p>
<p>Are the student-athletes being brought on campus to earn a degree or play sports? Harper’s research reveals that only about 55% of black male student-athletes graduate within six years. That’s significantly lower than the 60% of all black undergraduate men, 69.3% of all student-athletes and 76.3% of all undergraduate students who graduated within that time frame.</p>
<h2>Clash between academics and sports</h2>
<p>It’s not hard to see why graduation rates are lower for players at schools where football is a priority. Being a college athlete is a demanding and intense full-time job. An NCAA survey, for example, revealed that practicing and playing college football alone required <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/marcedelman/2014/01/30/21-reasons-why-student-athletes-are-employees-and-should-be-allowed-to-unionize/#20689d9d8d05">43.3 hours per week</a>. This practice time doesn’t include the time it takes to attend class, complete assignments and study for exams.</p>
<p>The lower graduation rates for student-athletes are troubling for many reasons, particularly for those who don’t get drafted. As the NCAA acknowledges in one of its ads, “there are more than 380,000 student-athletes and most of them will go pro in <a href="http://fs.ncaa.org/Docs/PressArchive/2007/Announcements/NCAA%2BLaunches%2BLatest%2BPublic%2BService%2BAnnouncements%2BIntroduces%2BNew%2BStudent-Focused%2BWebsite.html">something other than sports</a>.” </p>
<p>The best bet for student-athletes to realize their full potential, then, is to make sure that they stay dedicated to earning their degrees, while continuing to work on becoming professional athletes. This will enable student-athletes to continue to dream the illustrious dream and at the same time, finish the attainable degree.</p>
<p>But student-athletes cannot be expected to do this on their own. They also need the support of people at their institutions – from administrators to coaches to faculty – to help make reaching their academic goals just as important, if not more, as reaching their goals on the field.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/110837/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Angela Farmer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While most college football players believe they have a good shot at going pro, statistics – and the upcoming NFL draft – show most are sadly mistaken and would be well served to earn their degrees.Angela Farmer, Assistant Clinical Professor, Mississippi State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1149042019-04-05T23:58:05Z2019-04-05T23:58:05ZIn the name of ‘amateurism,’ college athletes make money for everyone except themselves<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267884/original/file-20190405-180010-19atsg6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">College athletes are prohibited from profiting from their performance.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/APTOPIX-NCAA-Villanova-Purdue-Basketball/d933b6446f6149a2949c85af678d36c2/3/0">Jessica Hill/AP</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As millions of people tune in to watch the Final Four, much of their focus will be on the numbers on the scoreboard. But a March 2019 report from U.S. Sen. Chris Murphy, a Democrat from Connecticut, calls attention to numbers of a different sort.</p>
<p>The report – titled “<a href="https://www.murphy.senate.gov/download/madness-inc">Madness, Inc.</a>” – details just how much money other people make off Division I athletes versus how much money is being spent on their college education.</p>
<p>Here are three points from the report that struck me as a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=list_works&hl=en&user=btoK1KsAAAAJ">researcher</a> who studies the structure and culture of <a href="https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdSzb2A2auz4zMVysCKSjTlx8HA_pZdaoNPZ0nh5FsuI8JsFw/viewform">academic life for student-athletes</a> at Division I schools.</p>
<h2>College athletes matter to billion-dollar companies</h2>
<p>When one of the Nike shoes being worn by Duke’s Zion Williamson blew out just seconds into the <a href="https://espnmediazone.com/us/press-releases/2019/02/north-carolina-duke-third-highest-rated-regular-season-college-basketball-game-on-record-for-espn/">highly anticipated</a> game between Duke and the University of North Carolina this spring, it showed the increasingly important role that top men’s basketball players play in generating revenue for corporations – not just the schools for which they play.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267879/original/file-20190405-180029-1akhm5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267879/original/file-20190405-180029-1akhm5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267879/original/file-20190405-180029-1akhm5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267879/original/file-20190405-180029-1akhm5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267879/original/file-20190405-180029-1akhm5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267879/original/file-20190405-180029-1akhm5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267879/original/file-20190405-180029-1akhm5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267879/original/file-20190405-180029-1akhm5e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Duke’s Zion Williamson sits on the floor following a freak injury that took place when his Nike shoe blew out in a game against North Carolina, on Feb. 20.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/North-Carolina-Duke-Basketball/194c86fd2e4540db9760fe8e7a908494/1/0">Gerry Broome/AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As noted in the “Madness, Inc.” report, more than 4 million people were watching when Williamson’s shoe failed. After depriving that huge audience of their star, it’s not hard to see why <a href="https://ftw.usatoday.com/2019/02/nike-stock-zion-williamson-injury">Nike’s stock dropped</a>.</p>
<p>Though they are considered student-athletes, the young men who play Division I football basketball are often much more. Quite a few of them are celebrities.</p>
<p>Yet, the NCAA wants to maintain the “amateurism” of college sports. Even though many of these players are nationally recognizable and influential figures, they are prohibited from profiting from their social status. Meanwhile, the people who surround these players, including <a href="https://www.si.com/college-basketball/2019/04/01/kentucky-offers-john-calipari-lifetime-contract-counter-ucla">coaches</a> and <a href="https://sports.yahoo.com/usc-athletic-director-lynn-swann-signed-autographs-for-money-this-weekend-amid-admissions-scandal-fallout-041710651.html">athletic directors</a>, make major money off of these players’ performance.</p>
<p>As noted in the report, college sports programs took in <a href="https://ope.ed.gov/athletics/#/">US$14 billion</a> in 2018 through ticket sales, television contracts, apparel deals and merchandise sales. Tickets for the game in which Zion’s Nike shoe blew out, sold for <a href="https://www.si.com/college-basketball/2019/02/19/duke-unc-ticket-prices-acc-rivalry-game-over-4000-zion-williamson">$4,000 each</a>, with revenue going back to participating schools. There were also purchases of <a href="https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/sports/2016/09/07/iowa-hawkeyes-iowa-state-cyclones-college-athletics-apparel-contracts-nike-under-armour-adidas/89788040/">merchandise</a> by fans online, on campus and at the game. The game aired on ESPN and drew the <a href="https://www.sportsmediawatch.com/2019/02/unc-duke-overnights-espn/">highest rating</a> of any regular season basketball game ever. The ACC conference championship rematch was the <a href="https://keepingitheel.com/2019/03/17/unc-basketball-north-carolina-duke-record-breaking-ratings-espn/">most watched</a> conference championship of all time. For ESPN, this level of interest is more than worth the $1 billion they <a href="https://collegebasketball.ap.org/article/uconn-expresses-reservations-about-aac-media-deal-espn">recently paid</a> ACC schools for exclusive rights to broadcast ACC sports over the next 12 years. </p>
<h2>Colleges value coaches’ labor more than their players</h2>
<p>Revenue generated from NCAA sports is concentrated among a small number of schools. </p>
<p>Just 65 schools out of 2,078 in the NCAA – less than 3% – were responsible for $7.6 billion in revenue in 2018. That’s more than half of all college sports revenue.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267885/original/file-20190405-180052-xnt46y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267885/original/file-20190405-180052-xnt46y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267885/original/file-20190405-180052-xnt46y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267885/original/file-20190405-180052-xnt46y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267885/original/file-20190405-180052-xnt46y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267885/original/file-20190405-180052-xnt46y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267885/original/file-20190405-180052-xnt46y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267885/original/file-20190405-180052-xnt46y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Auburn head coach Bruce Pearl is set to earn $2.6 million in 2018-19 with $100,000 increases per year for a total of $14 million through 2022-23.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Final-Four-Basketball/cd5624bc03b24484a3bccd262044ea09/9/0">Jeff Roberson</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>How this money is split reveals who is prioritized in the current college sports structure. These priorities become clear when you compare coaches’ salaries to the average athletic scholarship.</p>
<p>According to the “Madness, Inc.” report, $986 million is spent annually on student-athlete scholarships at these schools to support 45,000 student athletes. That ends up being just under $22,000 per student. By comparison, approximately $1.2 billion is spent annually on coaches’ salaries to pay just 4,400 coaches. That averages out to about $273,000 per coach per year.</p>
<p>Make no mistake, the players work hard. The work they do involves much more than what fans see. In addition to regular season practice, team meetings and film sessions, there are media training and appearances, playoff practice and a lot of travel. As I have found in prior research, these activities severely <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-naive-to-think-college-athletes-have-time-for-school-100942">limit the time</a> these students have for academics. Despite the <a href="https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/sports/2016/09/07/iowa-hawkeyes-iowa-state-cyclones-college-athletics-apparel-contracts-nike-under-armour-adidas/89788040/">extra work</a> they do, the financial aid given to student-athletes on revenue-generating teams is <a href="http://www.scholarshipstats.com/average-per-athlete.html">remarkably similar</a> to what is given other student-athletes who don’t have all these additional responsibilities.</p>
<h2>The NCAA is a corporate entity</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267875/original/file-20190405-180052-hatm5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267875/original/file-20190405-180052-hatm5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/267875/original/file-20190405-180052-hatm5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267875/original/file-20190405-180052-hatm5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267875/original/file-20190405-180052-hatm5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267875/original/file-20190405-180052-hatm5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267875/original/file-20190405-180052-hatm5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/267875/original/file-20190405-180052-hatm5x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NCAA President Mark Emmert at the 2019 Final Four college basketball tournament.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Final-Four-Basketball/08610e5d488a4a9aad908ed86b7783f2/60/0">Matt York/AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although the National Collegiate Athletic Association began as an organization focused on sports and education, those two things are no longer balanced in NCAA sports. Broadcast rights and marketing deals have all but eliminated the spirit of amateurism used to justify the maintenance of scholarship aid as appropriate compensation for revenue-generating student-athletes.</p>
<p>Sports apparel companies engage in <a href="https://www.bizjournals.com/portland/blog/threads_and_laces/2015/04/nike-and-adidas-prepare-forncaa-apparel-war-heats.html">bidding wars</a> for logo placement on jerseys. </p>
<p>The evolution of the NCAA from a nonprofit to a billion-dollar corporation is especially clear to the players. When the NCAA <a href="https://twitter.com/NCAA/status/1107386124081811457">tweeted</a> a feel-good commercial detailing a day in the life of a student-athlete, current and former football and basketball players challenged the portrayal of their experiences as generally positive. Some even detailed what the NCAA got wrong about their <a href="https://twitter.com/ZachariahFiya/status/1108247171239948289">busy schedules</a>.</p>
<p>The players told a different story about their lives as athletes. One, Cameron Johnson of the North Carolina Tar Heels, told a newspaper that the life of a college athlete “<a href="https://www.newsobserver.com/sports/article228352354.html">ain’t a breezy existence</a>.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/114904/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jasmine Harris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As the nation prepares to watch the Final Four, a sports scholar examines new information that shows how college athletes make money for their schools, coaches and corporations – but not themselves.Jasmine Harris, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Ursinus CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1134392019-03-13T10:39:30Z2019-03-13T10:39:30ZCollege admission scandal grew out of a system that was ripe for corruption<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263517/original/file-20190313-86696-2gnvbm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Recruited athletes often get a leg up in the admissions process.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lacrosse-team-sports-themed-photo-437537404">Catwalk Photos/www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As part of the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/12/us/college-admissions-cheating-scandal.html">“Operation Varsity Blues” case</a> that federal prosecutors announced March 12, dozens of people – including Hollywood actresses and wealthy businessmen – stand accused of having bought their children’s way into elite colleges and universities.</p>
<p>As a researcher who has studied how young athletes get admitted to college, I don’t see a major difference between this admission fraud case and how many wealthy families can buy their children’s way into elite colleges through <a href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/Justice-Dept-Charges-Dozens/245865?cid=pm&utm_source=pm&utm_medium=en&elqTrackId=7200d16c44ee4221b06770bbd65ad1ad&elq=83266aa0a5144d1298f7367b045b335d&elqaid=22486&elqat=1&elqCampaignId=11094">“back” and “side” doors</a>.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781442266285/How-College-Athletics-Are-Hurting-Girls'-Sports-The-Pay-to-Play-Pipeline">my research</a>, I show how most intercollegiate sports are fed by wildly expensive “pay to play” youth sports pipelines. These pipelines systematically exclude lower income families. It takes money to attend so-called “showcase tournaments” to get in front of recruiters.</p>
<p>In many ways, then, those ensnared in the current criminal case – which alleges that they <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/12/us/college-admissions-cheating-scandal.html">paid for their children to get spots on the sports teams</a> of big name schools – couldn’t have succeeded if the college admissions process wasn’t already biased toward wealthier families.</p>
<h2>Bypassing the front door</h2>
<p>Even if college sports is taken out of the equation, the college admissions process already favors wealthy families in a variety of ways.</p>
<p>It has long been known that higher family income usually correlates with higher standardized <a href="https://theconversation.com/students-test-scores-tell-us-more-about-the-community-they-live-in-than-what-they-know-77934">test scores</a>. There are many test prep companies, including some that <a href="https://www.kaptest.com/hsg">guarantee higher scores</a> for approximately US$1,000. Taking advantage of test prep may not be “fraud.” But it certainly provides advantages to the wealthy that have little to do with academic merit. </p>
<p>In his book “<a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-12572-000">The Price of Admission</a>,” Daniel Golden highlights a number of other ways wealthy families can buy their way into elite universities. These include large donations, financing new buildings, creating endowments and playing on parents’ celebrity status. These also have little to do with an applicant’s academic merit, but would never be considered criminal. </p>
<p>Sociologist David Karen has <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226655821_Achievement_and_Ascription_in_Admission_to_an_Elite_College_A_Political-Organizational_Analysis">documented</a> how attendance at expensive boarding schools gives wealthy students an admissions advantage to Ivy League universities. That may not be fraudulent, but it certainly seems unfair.</p>
<h2>Athletics and admission advantages</h2>
<p>So how do the wealthy get an advantage when it comes to college athletics? Research has shown that recruited athletes receive the <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/%7Etje/files/files/webAdmission%20Preferences%20Espenshade%20Chung%20Walling%20Dec%202004.pdf">largest admissions advantages</a> independent of academic merit.</p>
<p>The advantage varies by sport and athletic division, but is almost universal within higher education. Many sports – particularly squash, lacrosse, fencing and rowing – are pricey to play, so rich kids get opportunities that are out of reach for the poor. Even non-elite sports such as soccer and softball are subject to class-based restrictions. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263519/original/file-20190313-86696-1how2p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263519/original/file-20190313-86696-1how2p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263519/original/file-20190313-86696-1how2p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263519/original/file-20190313-86696-1how2p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263519/original/file-20190313-86696-1how2p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=662&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263519/original/file-20190313-86696-1how2p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=662&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263519/original/file-20190313-86696-1how2p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=662&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many sports are out of reach for children from families of lesser means.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/491389582?size=huge_jpg">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>The Mellon Foundation’s report <a href="https://mellon.org/grants/grants-database/grants/national-opinion-research-center/19600698/">“College and Beyond”</a> found that recruited athletes with lower academic credentials get admitted at four times the rate of non-athletes with similar credentials.</p>
<h2>Athlete screening</h2>
<p>In the Varsity Blues case, some students’ parents essentially bought their children’s spot on a team. For instance, Stanford sailing coach John Vandemoer is <a href="https://www.sfchronicle.com/crime/article/Stanford-sailing-team-implicated-in-college-13682141.php">charged with accepting contributions</a> to the sailing program in exchange for recommending two prospective students. He <a href="https://abc7news.com/stanford-coach-pleads-guilty-in-college-admissions-scam/5186275/please%20update">pleaded guilty</a> March 12.</p>
<p>How could a coach pull off this sleight of hand without drawing attention? </p>
<p>The answer, I believe, lies in the growing role of intercollegiate sports in adding some predictability to the very unpredictable enrollment process. Schools want to lock prospective students in as quickly <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2003/11/the-new-college-chaos/302815">as possible</a>. College athletes are generally admitted through a school’s early decision process. As the proportion of admitted athletes increases, so does the proportion of locked-in applicants.</p>
<p>Colleges also benefit by admitting more students early since those people are not part of acceptance rate calculations. The result is a lower acceptance rate, which inflates the school’s perceived selectivity. This in turn spurs an increase in future applications, which further lowers the acceptance rate – and again increases perceived selectivity – without any objective changes in the actual quality of teaching and research. </p>
<p>College sports teams are an increasingly attractive venue for locking in these early admissions. It is not unusual to have 30 or 40 players on a college soccer or lacrosse team. Most will never play. <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Billion_Dollar_Ball.html?id=n8FJBgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button#v=onepage&q&f=false">Women’s crew teams</a> often have more than 100 rowers. Most will never get into a boat. Many will quit the team after one season but remain students.</p>
<p>Of course, because a family can afford to have their child play a sport doesn’t mean the student is a good athlete. The pipeline system is far better at identifying the <a href="https://theconversation.com/until-youth-soccer-is-fixed-us-mens-national-team-is-destined-to-fail-85585">best payers rather than the best players</a>. Since scholarships are quite rare, it costs colleges almost nothing to have some bad players on the roster. And there are benefits.</p>
<p>I’m certainly not defending the families and entrepreneurs at the heart of the Varsity Blues scandal for breaking the law to take advantage of a system already fraught with inequalities. The prosecutors in this case have insisted that “<a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/college/ct-spt-college-coaches-admissions-bribery-case-20190312-story.html">there can be no separate admissions system for the wealthy</a>.” For that to be true, current practices that favor deep-pocketed families would have to be abandoned. That will require much more than prosecuting a few people who use their wealth to take advantage of an admissions process that already favors the rich.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113439/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rick Eckstein does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The college admission scandal that involved big bribes, coaches and Hollywood actors grew out of a system that favors rich parents and gives coaches too much leeway in admissions, a scholar argues.Rick Eckstein, Professor of Sociology, Villanova UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1114192019-03-12T10:45:56Z2019-03-12T10:45:56ZBeyond blackface: How college yearbooks captured protest and change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263151/original/file-20190311-86678-nfkgq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">College yearbook editors in the 1960s juxtaposed pictures of traditional campus activities, such as Greek Life, alongside images of protests and marches.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://exploreuk.uky.edu/catalog/xt73xs5j9z6w?f%5Bsource_s%5D%5B%5D=University+of+Kentucky+Yearbook+Collection&f%5Bpub_date_sort%5D%5B%5D=1969&per_page=20#page/426/mode/2up">The Kentuckian, 1968</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ever since a photograph surfaced of someone in blackface – and another dressed in a Ku Klux Klan robe – on the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/05/us/northam-yearbook.html">medical college yearbook page</a> of Virginia Gov. Ralph Northam in February, efforts to scour college yearbooks have focused on finding similarly racist imagery.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262981/original/file-20190309-86686-12kakpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262981/original/file-20190309-86686-12kakpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262981/original/file-20190309-86686-12kakpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262981/original/file-20190309-86686-12kakpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262981/original/file-20190309-86686-12kakpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262981/original/file-20190309-86686-12kakpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262981/original/file-20190309-86686-12kakpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262981/original/file-20190309-86686-12kakpj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Virginia Gov. Ralph Northam speaks at a news conference after revelations that his medical school yearbook page features photos of a man in blackface.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Democrats-Zero-Tolerance/958d0b315e7b4e569feb0efbeb2ae3cf/1/0">Steve Helber/AP</a></span>
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<p>USA Today, for instance, <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/investigations/2019/02/20/how-we-tracked-down-blackface-kkk-and-other-racist-yearbook-images/2915964002/">sent 78 reporters</a> to page through more than 900 college yearbooks from the 1970s and ‘80s. The newspaper not only discovered photographs of students dressed in KKK robes and blackface, but also at mock lynchings and other blatant “<a href="https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/investigations/2019/02/20/blackface-racist-photos-yearbooks-colleges-kkk-lynching-mockery-fraternities-black-70-s-80-s/2858921002/">displays of racism</a>.”</p>
<p>This focus on the racist reveling of college graduates from yesteryear who are today’s power elite is justified. However, as one who has <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2018/10/24/supreme-court-confirmation-hearings-showed-yearbooks-can-be-documents-research-well">studied college yearbooks</a> – and who has written a book about <a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/title/going-college-sixties">going to college in the sixties</a> – I believe this narrow focus on racist imagery obscures a similarly important element of college yearbooks that began to appear during a critical turning point for higher education in the United States.</p>
<h2>Black representation</h2>
<p>One of my biggest concerns with the current focus on racist imagery in college yearbooks is that in the search for images of blackface, journalists and others are overlooking the importance of the faces of black students. Black representation is important to consider because it wasn’t until the latter half of the 20th century that many of America’s colleges and universities began to accept black students.</p>
<p>Because of the topic of my book, I’ve mostly studied yearbooks from the 1960s – some 20 years before Northam graduated from medical school. During this time period, in the <a href="http://www.secsports.com/">Southeastern Conference</a> – where a <a href="https://ussporthistory.com/2015/06/29/confederate-iconography-and-southern-college-football/">Confederate legacy still loomed</a> – the first African-American student on a varsity basketball team was Perry Wallace of Vanderbilt during the 1967-68 season when he was a sophomore. Wallace appears on five different pages of the 1969 edition of The Vanderbilt Commodore, the college yearbook at Vanderbilt University. Perry majored in electrical engineering. He graduated from Columbia Law School and went on to become a distinguished law professor at George Washington University.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262982/original/file-20190309-86713-1nxhp56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262982/original/file-20190309-86713-1nxhp56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/262982/original/file-20190309-86713-1nxhp56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=765&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262982/original/file-20190309-86713-1nxhp56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=765&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262982/original/file-20190309-86713-1nxhp56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=765&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262982/original/file-20190309-86713-1nxhp56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=962&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262982/original/file-20190309-86713-1nxhp56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=962&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/262982/original/file-20190309-86713-1nxhp56.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=962&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vanderbilt’s Perry Wallace (25) scoops the rebound down from the Kentucky basket, in 1968, in Lexington, Kentucky.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Watchf-AP-S-BKC-KY-USA-APHS88431-U-Of-Kentucky-/f403487c8ce24e71b4393c843d4a646e/5/0">H.B. Littell/AP</a></span>
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<p>The 1968 and 1969 editions of The Kentuckian – the college yearbook at the University of Kentucky where I teach – are also interesting case studies.</p>
<p>The University of Kentucky is home of the first African-Americans to play football in the Southeastern Conference: <a href="https://www.wymt.com/content/news/Greg-Page-A-dream-cut-short-but-a-legacy-that-shines-bright-367994241.html">Greg Page</a> and <a href="https://theundefeated.com/features/nate-northington-the-first-black-football-player-in-the-sec-finally-understands-his-place-in-history/">Nate Northington</a>, later joined by <a href="https://ukathletics.com/hof.aspx?hof=51">Wilbur Hackett</a> and <a href="https://www.owensboroliving.com/features/10022/">Houston Hogg</a>. The 1968 edition of the university’s yearbook – The Kentuckian – focused on a team <a href="https://www.wymt.com/content/news/Greg-Page-A-dream-cut-short-but-a-legacy-that-shines-bright-367994241.html">tragedy</a> – Page’s death. “Page had lain paralyzed for over a month due to an injury suffered in preseason practice,” an entry in the yearbook states. “But as it had to be, football continued.”</p>
<p>The appearance of black students in college yearbooks during this time period serves as a historical reminder that even though many colleges had become racially desegregated earlier, campus activities were still often racially exclusive. Black students were first admitted to the University of Kentucky in 1949 but were not allowed to participate in many student activities until much later – <a href="https://www.kentucky.com/sports/spt-columns-blogs/mark-story/article176106916.html">1967</a> in the case of varsity sports. That’s a long delay. It indicates that admission did not necessarily mean full citizenship within the campus community.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263137/original/file-20190311-86717-gi41yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263137/original/file-20190311-86717-gi41yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263137/original/file-20190311-86717-gi41yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263137/original/file-20190311-86717-gi41yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263137/original/file-20190311-86717-gi41yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263137/original/file-20190311-86717-gi41yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=942&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263137/original/file-20190311-86717-gi41yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=942&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263137/original/file-20190311-86717-gi41yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=942&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jim Green, the first African-American track and field athlete at the University of Kentucky, who went on to win NCAA championships, was honored in the 1969 Kentuckian as one of the university’s ‘Pacesetters’ for outstanding contributions in 1968-1969.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://exploreuk.uky.edu/catalog/xt73xs5j9z6w?f%5Bsource_s%5D%5B%5D=University+of+Kentucky+Yearbook+Collection&f%5Bpub_date_sort%5D%5B%5D=1969&per_page=20#page/5/mode/1up">The Kentuckian</a></span>
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<h2>An era of protest</h2>
<p>My other concern about the focus on racist imagery is that it distracts from the fact that, particularly during the late 1960s, college yearbooks helped chronicle an era of student protest and campus activism. Sometimes, college yearbook editors deliberately put images of traditional campus events alongside images of demonstrations and protests.</p>
<p>That’s what Gretchen Marcum Brown, editor of The Kentuckian had in mind during her stint as editor for the 1969 edition, which is particularly noteworthy for the amount of material that reflects black culture and politics. For instance, the 1969 yearbook features speakers such as civil rights activist Julian Bond, The Supremes, and extended photo caption information about a black history course and the Black Student Union. In a recent interview for this article, Brown told me she wanted to document the intense political events taking place on and off campus during the 1968-69 academic year.</p>
<p>In her acknowledgments, Brown credited the influence of Sam Abell, her predecessor who went on to become a <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/contributors/a/photographer-sam-abell/">renowned photographer for National Geographic</a>. Abell had advised Brown to start the 1969 yearbook with a photo essay in which traditional campus events, such as a Greek life prom in which students were dressed in Confederate regalia, would be placed alongside or near images of student groups seeking to uproot the status quo.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263163/original/file-20190311-86690-12gmhlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263163/original/file-20190311-86690-12gmhlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263163/original/file-20190311-86690-12gmhlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263163/original/file-20190311-86690-12gmhlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263163/original/file-20190311-86690-12gmhlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263163/original/file-20190311-86690-12gmhlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263163/original/file-20190311-86690-12gmhlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263163/original/file-20190311-86690-12gmhlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A student shown in a 1969 University of Kentucky yearbook examines African art in one photograph, while in another photograph in the same book, a student dances while draped in a Confederate flag.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://exploreuk.uky.edu/catalog/xt73xs5j9z6w?f%5Bsource_s%5D%5B%5D=University+of+Kentucky+Yearbook+Collection&f%5Bpub_date_sort%5D%5B%5D=1969&per_page=20#page/5/mode/1up">The Kentuckian, 1968-69</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The yearbook included extended coverage of controversies within student government. This included the house speaker of the student government telling the 40 black students present to “protest his bill requesting that 'Dixie’ be played at athletic events, that the song was not racist.” </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263167/original/file-20190311-86713-1plp5qc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263167/original/file-20190311-86713-1plp5qc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263167/original/file-20190311-86713-1plp5qc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=746&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263167/original/file-20190311-86713-1plp5qc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=746&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263167/original/file-20190311-86713-1plp5qc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=746&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263167/original/file-20190311-86713-1plp5qc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=937&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263167/original/file-20190311-86713-1plp5qc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=937&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/263167/original/file-20190311-86713-1plp5qc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=937&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A student government house speaker challenges black students to protest a bill he brought forth to have ‘Dixie’ sung before sporting events.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://exploreuk.uky.edu/catalog/xt73xs5j9z6w?f%5Bsource_s%5D%5B%5D=University+of+Kentucky+Yearbook+Collection&f%5Bpub_date_sort%5D%5B%5D=1969&per_page=20#page/5/mode/1up">The Kentuckian, 1969</a></span>
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<h2>Imagining a better future</h2>
<p>At the end of a lengthy section on Greek life, the yearbook editor quoted fraternity leaders who invoked the importance of “brotherhood.” But she didn’t just let the brotherhood claim go unchecked. Instead, Brown broached the sensitive issue of racial exclusion. “Brotherhood is cheering together at a football game. Brotherhood is hanging together when the going gets tough. Brotherhood is borrowing your roommates’ clothes. Brotherhood may or may not be a ‘Caucasian only’ clause in your constitution.”</p>
<p>This wry observation showed awareness of both inclusion and exclusion in campus life. </p>
<p>The yearbook concluded with a photograph of a campus demonstration in which a student holds a placard that asked the University of Kentucky campus, “Will You Grow Up?” The editor’s final comment was, “This book is dedicated to those who have the courage and foresight for true reappraisal.”</p>
<p>The Kentuckian was not unique in its attention to social change. A review of yearbooks from Louisiana State University, North Carolina State University and the University of Mississippi shows a similar emphasis on student awareness of the political climate at the time, balanced by coverage of traditional campus life activities. </p>
<p>Yearbook editors challenged readers to reconsider what college education was about and what a university should be. For example, the <a href="https://d.lib.ncsu.edu/collections/catalog/agromeck1969nort#?c=&m=&s=&cv=91&xywh=-369%2C0%2C5919%2C3509">1969 Agromeck yearbook</a> of North Carolina State University, stated: “N.C. State’s heritage is essentially like that of any other predominantly white, southern technically oriented institution. The virtues which the school extols are Discipline, Patriotism, Hard Work and Good Grades.” </p>
<p>However, the yearbook editor continued: “There are changes afoot. From the past comes a dual tradition of technical and liberal education and the factors have clashed openly in the present.” Its major photographic essay presented themes of conflict and change within the university.</p>
<p>College yearbooks were built to last. They were also meant to commemorate the worlds that students created. This means that in 2019 alumni, and now the public, can look back at the blackface parties of 1984, the year of Gov. Northam’s medical college yearbook – but also at the student protests of 1969.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111419/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John R. Thelin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Recent blackface scandals that involve college yearbooks have overshadowed how yearbooks also chronicled important turning points in the history of US higher education, a historian argues.John R. Thelin, University Research Professor, University of KentuckyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1081712018-12-20T17:19:17Z2018-12-20T17:19:17ZHow big bonuses for winning coaches became a tradition in college football<p>As <a href="http://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/page/cfpbowls2018/2018-19-college-football-playoff-bowl-schedule">college football bowl and playoff games</a> unfold before a <a href="http://www.sportsmediawatch.com/college-football-tv-ratings/">TV audience of millions</a>, most of the attention will be on the final scores. Less is likely to be said about certain bonuses that the coaches get for their bowl and playoff appearances.</p>
<p>For instance, when the Fresno State Bulldogs <a href="https://www.fresnobee.com/sports/college/mountain-west/fresno-state/bulldogs-football/article223134170.html">defeated</a> Arizona State in the Las Vegas Bowl on Dec. 15, the Bulldogs’ coach, Jeff Tedford, already being paid <a href="https://www.fresnobee.com/sports/spt-columns-blogs/marek-warszawski/article139273913.html">US$1.6 million per year</a> through 2021, got <a href="https://www.fresnobee.com/sports/college/mountain-west/fresno-state/bulldogs-football/article139018773.html">a $200,000 bonus for the win</a>. He would have gotten $100,000 even if his team had lost.</p>
<p>Western Michigan’s Tim Lester gets <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/2018/10/21/college-football-coach-bonuses-total-rising-especially-stoops/1719637002/">$25,000</a> for making it to the Famous Idaho Potato Bowl on Dec. 21.</p>
<p>Since college football coaches are already often the <a href="http://www.espn.com/espn/feature/story/_/id/22454170/highest-paid-state-employees-include-ncaa-coaches-nick-saban-john-calipari-dabo-swinney-bill-self-bob-huggins">highest-paid public employees in their state</a> – their eye-popping salaries often dwarfing even those of <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/governor-salary-by-state-2018-1">state governors</a> – it may seem strange that coaches could collect bonuses that surpass <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2018/demo/p60-263.html">most families’ annual income</a>, on top of it all.</p>
<p>It may also be tempting to think of the bonuses as being a byproduct of lucrative <a href="http://seminoles.com/nike-contract-has-helped-school-over-the-years/">marketing deals</a> that colleges started to get in the 1980s and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/25/sports/college-football-notre-dame-scored-a-38-million-touchdown-on-its-tv-deal.html">television contracts</a> that they started to get in the 1990s. But history shows that bonuses for college football coaches stretch back to the early 1900s, well before the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Philo-Farnsworth">invention of television</a> or even the <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dt20ra.html">first commercial radio broadcast</a>.</p>
<p>These bonuses create a market for winning that fuels the business of college sports. In my view as a scholar who studies big-time college football, these bonuses are not a reaction to a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/31/sports/ncaafootball/what-made-college-ball-more-like-the-pros-73-billion-for-a-start.html">multi-billion-dollar market</a> that rewards winning – they are the foundation of it.</p>
<h2>Bonuses go back to early 1900s</h2>
<p>The first superstar college football coach contract on record to include compensation beyond base salary was signed by the legendary <a href="http://footballscoop.com/news/coaching-contracts-looked-like-world-war/">John Heisman</a> – for whom the coveted <a href="https://www.heisman.com/">Heisman Trophy</a> is named – to coach Georgia Tech’s football team in 1904.</p>
<p>Records show that Heisman’s contract <a href="http://footballscoop.com/news/coaching-contracts-looked-like-world-war/">added 30 percent</a> of all ticket sales to his annual $2,500, a salary that would have been the equivalent of just under <a href="http://www.in2013dollars.com/1904-dollars-in-2018?amount=2500">$71,000</a> in 2018 dollars.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251451/original/file-20181219-27749-oyxssp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251451/original/file-20181219-27749-oyxssp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251451/original/file-20181219-27749-oyxssp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=979&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251451/original/file-20181219-27749-oyxssp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=979&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251451/original/file-20181219-27749-oyxssp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=979&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251451/original/file-20181219-27749-oyxssp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1231&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251451/original/file-20181219-27749-oyxssp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1231&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251451/original/file-20181219-27749-oyxssp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1231&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Georgia Tech football coach John Heisman, for whom the coveted Heisman Trophy is named, shown here in his University of Pennsylvania football days, circa 1891.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/john-heisman-his-university-pennsylvania-football-339900398?src=Iw4DkltNPVCtWa-wJGQKUQ-1-0">Everett HIstorical/www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Heisman’s contract was an acknowledgment that the football coach was uniquely intertwined with revenue generated during games. But it was also notable, as coaches’ salaries were then often <a href="http://www.huskers.com/ViewArticle.dbml?DB_OEM_ID=100&ATCLID=205424216">decided</a> based on the relationship to faculty and administrator salaries. Ewald Stiehm, University of Nebraska head football coach from 1911 to 1915, was famously <a href="http://www.huskers.com/ViewArticle.dbml?DB_OEM_ID=100&ATCLID=205424216">denied a $750 raise</a> by the school because they didn’t want a coach making more than the top professor. His salary at Nebraska was $4,250. He went to Indiana, which paid him $4,500. </p>
<p>Before television deals and marketing contracts, high salaries and added incentives were reserved for those top-tier coaches deemed capable of bringing a “<a href="https://bleacherreport.com/articles/1584502-college-football-how-coaches-can-change-the-culture-of-a-program">winning culture</a>” to the institution. Bear Bryant’s <a href="https://www.al.com/alabamafootball/index.ssf/2014/04/bear_bryant_made_15000_a_year.html">1954 contract</a> was one of the few before 1980 to rival Heisman’s. It included 1 percent of Texas A&M football ticket sales. Tickets in 1958 went for $3.50 per ticket. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251647/original/file-20181219-45400-1j0foov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251647/original/file-20181219-45400-1j0foov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251647/original/file-20181219-45400-1j0foov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251647/original/file-20181219-45400-1j0foov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251647/original/file-20181219-45400-1j0foov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251647/original/file-20181219-45400-1j0foov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251647/original/file-20181219-45400-1j0foov.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">1958 Texas A&M ticket stub.</span>
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</figure>
<h2>Million-dollar men</h2>
<p>The first million-dollar contract was signed by <a href="http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/1995-11-17/sports/9511170805_1_bowden-clause-new-deal">Bobby Bowden</a> with Florida State University in 1995. Bowden only had one losing season in his 34 years at FSU and was coming off a 1993 National Championship when his contract was extended with a $300,000 per year raise, <a href="https://www.greensboro.com/fsu-bowden-agree-on--year-contract/article_8f70d312-4e08-5f39-884f-b63e33c895d5.html">including</a> another $700,000 in television appearance and apparel promotion bonuses. For the first time, pay was tied not just to winning – but to winning enough and in the right way. Exponential increases in revenue generated via ticket and <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/darrenheitner/2016/04/01/final-four-appearance-shoots-syracuse-apparel-sales-up-750/#4e04d8b83386">apparel sales</a>, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/kristidosh/2018/01/01/how-have-college-football-playoff-payouts-compared-to-bcs-a-conference-by-conference-breakdown/#54f5ef4e2938">bowl appearance payouts</a> and even <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2017/03/the-march-madness-application-bump/519846/">application pools</a> beyond student athletes, are evidence of the value of wins – first culturally to university communities, then economically for universities’ financial health.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251453/original/file-20181219-27767-1fs3d42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251453/original/file-20181219-27767-1fs3d42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251453/original/file-20181219-27767-1fs3d42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251453/original/file-20181219-27767-1fs3d42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251453/original/file-20181219-27767-1fs3d42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251453/original/file-20181219-27767-1fs3d42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251453/original/file-20181219-27767-1fs3d42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Florida State head coach Bobby Bowden, shown here in 2010 after his team’s victory in Gator Bowl, in 1995 became the first college football coach to earn a $1 million salary.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Rating-the-Nation-Best-Coaches-Football/3ec37207110846e49d7331d389001783/105/0">Phil Coale/AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A bonus bonanza</h2>
<p>Today a long <a href="https://projects.newsday.com/databases/long-island/college-football-coaches-salaries-contracts/">list of bonuses</a> are included in contract offers to top coaches as additional compensation for winning.</p>
<p>Beyond incentives like <a href="https://la.curbed.com/2012/12/26/10291368/usc-football-coach-should-fear-trojans-bearing-home-loans">home loans</a>, <a href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/sports/terps/tracking-the-terps/bal-maryland-football-assistants-contract-finalized-20160121-story.html">car allowances</a> and <a href="https://deadspin.com/5863191/urban-meyers-osu-contract-includes-country-club-membership-bonuses-for-graduation-rates">country club memberships</a>, merit bonuses attached to bowl appearances, win-loss records, divisional rankings and national championships emphasize the value of coaches to their institutions. Some bonuses have little to do with the game’s final score – like UConn’s Randy Edsell earning a $2,000 <a href="https://thespun.com/news/a-college-football-coach-gets-2k-every-time-his-team-scores-first">bonus</a> every time his football team scores first or leads at halftime.</p>
<p>The bonus money coaches are paid in exchange for those highly valued wins is a <a href="http://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/12688517/college-bowl-game-payouts-surpass-500-million-first-year-college-football-playoff">small fraction</a> of what the institution earns for those wins. National tournament qualification and bowl appearances trigger additional bonuses, not only because they <a href="https://people.com/sports/villanova-fans-set-fires-climb-poles-after-ncaa-win/">excite the fans</a> but because they mean <a href="https://www.dailyprogress.com/higher-bowl-revenues-meant-more-money-for-acc-members/article_9a9fa5d8-5b96-5900-85a2-bc183399b816.html">more revenue</a> for the institution. Merit bonuses are a small price to pay to keep money flowing into a university through victories on the field – wins.</p>
<h2>Cashing in</h2>
<p>In my opinion, coaches aren’t taking advantage of universities under this scheme. The universities are in on the joke. Universities were heavily involved in creating fiscal environments where high salaries and merit bonuses for coaches were more feasible. Bowden’s 1995 contract would’ve been impossible if not for important legal victories led by individual universities seeking to transform college sports to big business. </p>
<p>For instance, the 1984 Supreme Court ruling in <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/468/85/">NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma</a> found in favor of individual universities <a href="https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=2584&context=flr">negotiating</a> television contracts directly with major networks. The ruling described the NCAA’s control as <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/14/sports/ncaabasketball/30-year-old-decision-could-serve-as-template-for-ncaa-antitrust-case.html">in violation of anti-trust law</a>. The move forever changed the financial landscape of college football and basketball, and introduced an influx of cash into the market. </p>
<p>The 1984 ruling meant schools and division conferences, like the <a href="http://www.secsports.com/">Southeastern Conference</a>, of which schools are members, could negotiate deals independent of the NCAA. The resulting influx of money into college football is directly connected to today’s <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/college/columnist/dan-wolken/2018/12/05/college-football-assistant-coaches-salaries/2206867002/">high coaches salaries</a>. In 2017, when the Big Ten’s <a href="https://awfulannouncing.com/2016/espn-re-ups-with-big-ten-though-2022-2023-season.html">new</a> television deals with cable news networks ESPN and Fox kicked in, the conference was also home to <a href="https://awfulannouncing.com/ncaa/the-big-tens-new-tv-deal-puts-it-into-the-lead-may-provide-a-competitive-edge.html">five</a> of the top 14 highest paid football coaches in the NCAA.</p>
<h2>The win-first mentality</h2>
<p>“Winning cultures” also encourage student athletes to buy into <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/when-colleges-put-winning-football-games-above-all-else/2018/11/01/b553905e-ddf4-11e8-b3f0-62607289efee_story.html?utm_term=.6ecdb08e480b">win-first</a>, team-first thinking. This can be dangerous because it encourages coaches to push players beyond their limits. Earlier this year, University of Maryland football player Jordan McKnight’s death <a href="http://www.espn.com/college-ffootball/story/_/id/24342005/maryland-terrapins-football-culture-toxic-coach-dj-durkin">uncovered</a> a record of dangerous workouts driven by then-head coach DJ Durkin and the university leadership’s <a href="http://www.philly.com/philly/columnists/bob_ford/maryland-football-investigation-jordan-mcnair-dj-durkin-20180813.html">desire</a> for wins and <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/colleges/maryland-joins-big-ten-leaving-acc/2012/11/19/e24531dc-3268-11e2-9cfa-e41bac906cc9_story.html?utm_term=.20731497ddf3">a stronger financial future</a>.</p>
<p>The power given to coaches with winning records is not new. They are the foundation of college football. Before players or fans, there are coaches. As long as millions of people continue to enjoy college football games and attach so much meaning to the final score, football coaches will continue to fatten their pockets as a result.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/108171/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jasmine Harris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While college football coaches who make it to the widely televised bowl games stand to collect major bonuses, history shows that bonuses for top coaches predate the days of TV and radio.Jasmine Harris, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Ursinus CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1061182018-11-02T10:52:31Z2018-11-02T10:52:31ZDJ Durkin’s firing won’t solve college football’s deepest problems<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/243554/original/file-20181101-83641-1mrzub3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Former University of Maryland football coach DJ Durkin pictured on the field in an undated photo.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Maryland-Fires-Coach-After-Reinstatement/5967056d8a2b4b13b9628ecad6339ff9/2/0">mpi34/MediaPunch /IPX</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Maryland college football coach DJ Durkin was ultimately fired after the death of a player during practice – and findings that his players were <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2018/10/25/report-maryland-football-culture-cites-problems-stops-short-toxic-label/?utm_term=.099bf6d97fcb">bullied and abused</a> by coaches and staff over the course his three-year tenure. However, his <a href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/As-Another-Head-Rolls-at-U-of/244975?cid=wsinglestory_hp_1">11th hour ouster</a> on Oct. 31 is evidence of how much the culture of college football still needs to change. </p>
<p>This culture encourages players to ignore signs of physical or mental exhaustion and is present across the college football landscape, not just at Maryland. </p>
<p>Durkin may be gone, but only because the public – including current players, students and alumni at the University of Maryland – wanted him gone. It wasn’t because the people in charge of Maryland’s university system suddenly realized how wrong it was for Durkin to run a program in which <a href="https://247sports.com/college/maryland/Article/Jordan-McNairs-Parents-Attorneys-Calls-DJ-Durkin-Maryland-Football-Coach-Decision-Heartbreaking-124024706/">complaining of pain was seen as unmanly</a>. </p>
<p>The board of regents at the University System of Maryland actually wanted to <a href="http://www.espn.com/college-football/story/_/id/25128085/maryland-board-recommends-keeping-dj-durkin-damon-evans">keep</a> Durkin. The board even <a href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/As-Another-Head-Rolls-at-U-of/244975?cid=wsinglestory_hp_1">reportedly pressured</a> University of Maryland President Wallace Loh to keep Durkin or risk losing his own job.</p>
<p>Loh initially responded by announcing his own resignation. But after hearing the <a href="http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/education/higher-ed/bs-md-umd-protest-20181031-story.html">public outcry</a> after the board moved to reinstate Durkin – Loh <a href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/sports/terps/tracking-the-terps/bs-md-durkin-gone-20181031-story.html">fired Durkin instead</a>.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://president.umd.edu/communications/statements/our-football-program">statement</a>, Loh noted how “the overwhelming majority of stakeholders expressed serious concerns about Coach DJ Durkin returning to the campus.”</p>
<p>“This is a difficult decision, but it is the right one for our entire University,” Loh stated. He also vowed to devote the remaining months of his presidency to “advancing the needed reforms in our Athletic Department that prioritize the safety and well-being of our student-athletes.”</p>
<p>A student-led protest was <a href="http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/maryland/education/higher-ed/bs-md-umd-protest-20181031-story.html">reportedly</a> being planned before the firing took place.</p>
<p>In our view as <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=list_works&hl=en&user=btoK1KsAAAAJ">researchers</a> who focus on the <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YQkG8wIAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">intersection of race and college sports</a>, none of these events will rid big-time college sports of its deepest problems. Those problems include the placing of winning games and generating revenue ahead of the best interests of the student-athletes.</p>
<p>In recent years, legal <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1012690217718170">activists</a> like former athletes Ed O'Bannon, Cain Colter and <a href="https://www.law360.com/cases/53a1a2681101ea59be000001/articles">Martin Jenkins</a> have sought to change this <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1012690217718170">state of affairs</a>.</p>
<h2>Risking their lives</h2>
<p>It would be naive not to view big-time college sports through the lens of race. A recent report that shows black males make up only 2.4 percent of the general student body at Power 5 Bowl Championship Series schools, but <a href="https://race.usc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/2018_Sports_Report.pdf">55 percent and 56 percent</a>, respectively, of football and men’s basketball teams.</p>
<p>Further, black male college athletes graduate at the <a href="https://race.usc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/2018_Sports_Report.pdf">lowest rates</a> among all college athletes and in the NCAA and Division I Power 5 member institutions, which <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/kristidosh/2018/01/01/how-have-college-football-playoff-payouts-compared-to-bcs-a-conference-by-conference-breakdown/#10b7ebc82938">generate</a> <a href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/NCAA-Signs-108-Billion-Deal/65219">billions of dollars</a> primarily off the broadcasting and sponsorship rights for football and men’s basketball.</p>
<p>These trends underscore how black males are primarily valued at these institutions as athletic gladiators, but not as students deserving of quality educational opportunities and support for their <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10665684.2016.1194097">overall well-being</a>.</p>
<h2>Failed to render medical aid</h2>
<p>Had Durkin been allowed to continue to coach despite the toxic culture uncovered at Maryland following the May 2018 death of 19-year-old offensive lineman Jordan McNair, many would have considered it a gross <a href="https://www.si.com/college-football/2018/10/30/jordan-mcnair-parents-dj-durkin-return-maryland">miscarriage of justice</a>.</p>
<p>McNair died of heatstroke during practice earlier this year. A cold-water immersion would have <a href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/sports/terps/bs-sp-jordan-mcnair-heatstroke-treatment-20180717-story.html">likely saved his life</a> but team staff and coaches <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/terrapins-insider/wp/2018/08/14/university-of-maryland-apologizes-to-jordan-mcnair-family-for-mistakes-that-our-training-staff-made/?utm_term=.e66e152d1efb">failed</a> to promptly seek medical assistance.</p>
<p>While player deaths during practice may be rare, indifference toward black athletes, especially their <a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/college/ct-spt-ncaa-brain-injuries-lawsuits-20180703-story.html">physical</a> and <a href="https://theundefeated.com/features/black-student-athlete-summit-raises-awareness-about-mental-health/">mental health</a>, is widespread in college sports.</p>
<p>The prevalence of college athletes’ unmet mental and physical health needs is <a href="https://www.si.com/edge/2017/10/31/former-college-athletes-chronic-injuries-health-issues">well-documented</a>. The NCAA’s Sport Science Institute, through its own research, has acknowledged that college athletes’ <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/sport-science-institute/mind-body-and-sport-depression-and-anxiety-prevalence-student-athletes">health issues</a> remain a major problem.</p>
<h2>Disparities in discipline?</h2>
<p>Yet, as the story of Durkin demonstrates, both the NCAA – and the University of Maryland as one of its member institutions – have failed to create and enforce policies that hold coaches responsible for creating conditions that are injurious to college athletes’ overall well-being.</p>
<p>The system seems more bent on policing and punishing black student-athletes than it does on holding accountable those who are responsible for their care.</p>
<p>For instance, several players on the University of North Carolina football team were <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/ncaaf/acc/2018/08/06/north-carolina-unc-suspensions-team-issued-shoes/917234002/">suspended for four games</a> for selling their team-issued shoes in violation of NCAA rules. Another black player, a University of Central Florida kicker, was <a href="https://www.orlandosentinel.com/sports/ucf-knights/knights-notepad/os-sp-ucf-kicker-ineligible-20170731-story.html">ruled ineligible</a> after receiving money through a YouTube channel he created. </p>
<p>These student-athletes who engaged in victimless acts and tried to make a few dollars in a system that <a href="http://assets.usw.org/ncpa/pdfs/6-Billion-Heist-Study_Full.pdf">makes billions of dollars</a> from their labor are made to sit out games or get kicked off the team entirely. Yet, as demonstrated by the initial decision to keep Durkin, neglecting the health needs of a player in medical distress is excusable.</p>
<h2>Balancing academics and sports</h2>
<p>Being a college athlete is inherently tough work. One of us is <a href="https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdSzb2A2auz4zMVysCKSjTlx8HA_pZdaoNPZ0nh5FsuI8JsFw/viewform">conducting research</a> into black Division I football and men’s basketball players. Thus far, the research shows 64 percent of respondents find it difficult or very difficult to balance their student and athlete identities while they’re in season, compared to only 34 percent when out of season. </p>
<p>These numbers illustrate the imbalance in what college athletes are expected to do versus how much time they have for school. If it’s already difficult for players to manage the demands of college and the obligations to their team, how much more difficult was it for Maryland football players, who faced a <a href="https://www.theringer.com/2018/10/30/18045516/maryland-terrapins-dj-durkin-toxic-culture-college-football">football culture</a> that normalized physical and mental abuse under Durkin. It was noted in a report that before McNair passed away, one of the staff <a href="https://247sports.com/college/maryland/Article/Jordan-McNairs-Parents-Attorneys-Calls-DJ-Durkin-Maryland-Football-Coach-Decision-Heartbreaking-124024706/">called him a vulgar name</a> for a female private part. </p>
<p>College football players are <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/18/sports/ncaafootball/nlrb-says-northwestern-football-players-cannot-unionize.html">not allowed to form a union</a>. In our view, this curtails their ability to seek recourse if their rights are being violated.</p>
<p>Before Durkin was fired, <a href="https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2790984-maryland-strength-coach-rick-court-resigns-in-wake-of-jordan-mcnairs-death">blame</a> initially fell on strength and conditioning coach Rick Court, who resigned after McNair’s death. Court was, in some ways, cast as a bad apple and the tragedy allowed to be seen as an isolated case of inattentiveness to one player’s medical needs by a few replaceable athletic staff.</p>
<h2>The wrong kind of firing</h2>
<p>It’s important to note that in being “fired,” Durkin is still reportedly being <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2018/10/31/maryland-parts-ways-with-head-football-coach-dj-durkin/?utm_term=.253bea052d07">bought out</a> for the remainder of his five-year contract, valued at more than $5 million.</p>
<p>If the University of Maryland had taken <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/ncaaf/2016/10/26/college-football-coach-salary-database-buyouts-kirk-ferentz-iowa-charlie-strong-texas/92417648/">the more difficult route</a> of firing Durkin for just cause and taking away his payout, that would have sent a powerful message that players’ lives matter.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106118/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Even though Maryland college football coach DJ Durkin has been fired, his 11th hour ouster will not rid college football of some of its deepest problems, argue two scholars on race and college sports.Joseph Cooper, Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership, University of ConnecticutJasmine Harris, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Ursinus CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1009422018-10-09T10:55:21Z2018-10-09T10:55:21ZIt’s naive to think college athletes have time for school<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239392/original/file-20181004-52678-vo3e6d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The demands of college sports often take precedence over education.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Oregon-California-Football/04dcc9c972464406b9ed6e02539da782/140/0">Don Feria/AP</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>From my first day as a sociology professor at a university with a Division I football and men’s basketball team, education and athletics struck me as being inherently at odds. </p>
<p>Student-athletes filled my courses to take advantage of the fact that the classes met <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/uloop/the-life-of-a-student-ath_b_2963409.html">early in the morning</a>.</p>
<p>The football and men’s basketball players – <a href="http://time.com/4110443/college-football-race-problem/">most of whom were black</a> – quickly fell behind due to scheduling constraints. Only so much time was set aside for academics and, often, it wasn’t enough. Academic rigor and athletic success were simply incompatible goals.</p>
<p>Now – as <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=list_works&hl=en&user=btoK1KsAAAAJ">a researcher</a> who is studying college athletes through the lens of race and class – I have compiled evidence to show just how much more time college athletes devote to sports over academics.</p>
<h2>Lopsided but ‘normal’</h2>
<p>Early data from my <a href="https://tinyurl.com/ybtgcswj">ongoing research</a> on the academic experiences of black Division I football and men’s basketball players shows that they spend three times as many hours per week on athletics as they do on academics. On average, the players spend more than 25 hours on sports-related activities other than games, such as practice, workouts, general team meetings, film sessions and travel. On the other hand, the player spend less than eight hours on academics outside of class, such as writing papers, studying, getting tutored or working on group projects. This imbalance is institutionally constructed and perpetuated. Perhaps most disturbingly, the student-athletes I surveyed perceive this lopsided situation as “normal.” </p>
<p>Some may <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2016/03/30/opinions/college-athletes-not-exploited-ackerman-scott/index.html">argue</a> that the players should be satisfied with the fact that their scholarships enable them to reap the benefits of a college education. The problem with that argument is that college athletes aren’t able to fully actualize their identities as students to the same degree as their classmates. College sports is just too demanding, and universities do not make any special concessions for athletes’ additional time commitments.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239531/original/file-20181005-72127-5nbyod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/239531/original/file-20181005-72127-5nbyod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239531/original/file-20181005-72127-5nbyod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239531/original/file-20181005-72127-5nbyod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239531/original/file-20181005-72127-5nbyod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239531/original/file-20181005-72127-5nbyod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/239531/original/file-20181005-72127-5nbyod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Indiana’s Romeo Langford poses during an NCAA college basketball media day.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Indiana-Media-Day-Basketball/7173ded23af041318da4d7932f16ec9c/8/0">Darron Cummings/AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Money at stake</h2>
<p>It is important to distinguish the lives of college athletes who don’t generate money for their institutions, such as <a href="https://www.texastribune.org/2016/03/17/how-college-football-props-entire-athletic-departm/">soccer and tennis players</a>, versus those who are deeply intertwined with the generation of revenue for colleges, universities and the NCAA, which cleared <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/college/2018/03/07/ncaa-reports-revenues-more-than-1-billion-2017/402486002/">US$1 billion in revenue in 2017</a>. That kind of money cannot be made without <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/college-student-athletes-spend-40-hours-a-week-practicing-2015-1">serious time commitments</a> among the players.</p>
<p>Every time I watch a college football or men’s basketball game on TV, I can’t help but wonder what the players on my screen missed in class that day. </p>
<p>They are students such as Jalen (a pseudonym), a football player who requested a meeting with me mid-semester. He wanted to discuss how my office hours conflicted with the team practices and film sessions. For an hour we discussed what he understood as unfixable. Jalen wanted and needed to utilize the main academic support systems provided by the college, but literally didn’t have the time.</p>
<p>Jalen was by no means alone. Rather, his plight was emblematic of untold numbers of college athletes who struggle to balance sports and academics.</p>
<h2>Workers or students?</h2>
<p>So, are college athletes workers who attend school part-time? Or are they students who play sports part-time? Players at schools across the country are <a href="http://www.espn.com/mens-college-basketball/story/_/id/17799739/nigel-hayes-wisconsin-badgers-carries-sign-asking-money-college-gameday">speaking up</a> about the fact that they generate revenue for the colleges they play for but not for themselves. They have attempted to <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/georgeleef/2017/02/22/federal-official-again-declares-that-college-football-players-can-unionize/#fb403a942e7e">unionize</a> and <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/college/2018/03/28/ncaa-must-defend-limits-compensation-college-athletes/467495002/">filed lawsuits</a> to get what they see as their fair share.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, the NCAA claims that student-athlete balance is not only possible, but that <a href="https://www.npr.org/2011/11/04/142019366/mark-emmert-ncaa-athletes-need-respect-not-salaries">most Division I players</a> achieve it.</p>
<h2>Disparities persist</h2>
<p>The reality is most football and men’s basketball players
<a href="https://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/black-mail-student-athletes-and-racial-inequities-ncaa-division-i-college-sports">underperform academically</a> and <a href="https://news.usc.edu/138228/leading-sports-schools-black-athletes-graduation-rates-lower/">routinely graduate</a> at lower rates than “other student-athletes, black non-athletes and undergraduates in general.”</p>
<p>Recent academic scandals – from <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/unc-fake-class-scandal-details-2014-10">fraudulent classes</a> to <a href="https://www.kansascity.com/sports/college/sec/university-of-missouri/article209984789.html">inappropriate tutor support</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/09/sports/baylor-football-sexual-assault.html">administrative cover-ups</a> – reveal that a sports-first mentality permeates college campuses.</p>
<p>The NCAA continues to describe Division I football and basketball players as <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/ncaa-president-defends-amateurism-in-college-sports/">“regular students who happen to play sports.”</a> However, the NCAA rarely details how this student-athlete balance is supposed to work. There are <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ltaRIJ0N2o">tournament time commercials</a> that remind viewers how most college athletes “will go pro in something other than sports.” However, less mentioned, if at all, are what kind of practical routes exist to this theoretically “balanced” identity. Even the NCAA’s own <a href="http://www.ncaa.org/sites/default/files/GOALS_2015_summary_jan2016_final_20160627.pdf">surveys of college athletes</a> show that athletics takes precedence over academics. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.al.com/alabamafootball/index.ssf/2018/01/alabama_footballs_piece_of_174.html">Coaches and college staffers are getting rich</a> in the name of higher education while their mostly black players are – in their own words – <a href="http://www.wbur.org/onlyagame/2017/10/13/zach-bohannon-nigel-hayes-wisconsin-ncaa">“broke.”</a> And this despite the fact that student-athlete responsibilities have grown as the business of college sports grows. For instance, some of the games <a href="https://www.cbssports.com/college-football/news/its-time-for-college-football-to-shorten-games-for-the-fans-and-players/">last longer</a>, and the <a href="https://www.alligatorarmy.com/2015/6/9/8752711/florida-gators-football-players-daily-schedule-graphic">average hours</a> that players spend per week on athletes continues to creep upward.</p>
<h2>Conflicts continue</h2>
<p>Recently, 2017 Heisman runner-up, Bryce Love, drew criticism for “<a href="https://www.cbssports.com/college-football/news/why-stanford-star-bryce-loves-absence-from-pac-12-media-day-sets-a-dangerous-precedent/">setting a bad precedent</a>” for choosing to attend summer classes instead of Stanford’s media day.</p>
<p>Almost 60 percent of participants in my current national research study find it difficult or very difficult to balance sports and academics – from the moment they set foot on campus until graduation, if they graduate at all. Considering the fact that less than 2 percent of college football players get into the National Football League, and only 1.2 percent of college basketball players get drafted into the National Basketball Association, the reality is that many college athletes will <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2015/01/27/college-athletes-greatly-overestimate-their-chances-playing-professionally">never see a payoff in professional sports</a>. But the real tragedy is that – having devoted so much time to sports instead of their studies – they won’t really get to see their college education pay off, either.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100942/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jasmine Harris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research shows student-athletes spend triple the amount of time on sports as on academics, raising questions about whether they actually benefit from a college education, a sociology professor argues.Jasmine Harris, Assistant Professor of Sociology, Ursinus CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.