tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/sucrose-26170/articlessucrose – The Conversation2019-04-23T20:13:23Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1134552019-04-23T20:13:23Z2019-04-23T20:13:23ZSickly sweet or just right? How genes control your taste for sugar<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270320/original/file-20190423-15218-9to8i9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Genes not only influence how sweet you think something is, but also how much sugary food you eat.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/123816682?src=AXenF6GhIp4jrizZ5_Awdg-1-14&size=medium_jpg">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You might love sugary doughnuts, but your friends find them too sweet and only take small nibbles. That’s partly because your genes influence how you perceive sweetness and how much sugary food and drink you consume.</p>
<p>Now our <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/ajcn/nqz043/5475742?redirectedFrom=fulltext">recently published study</a> shows a wider range of genes at play than anyone thought. In particular, we suggest how these genes might work with the brain to influence your sugar habit.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fact-or-fiction-is-sugar-addictive-73340">Fact or fiction – is sugar addictive?</a>
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<h2>What we know</h2>
<p>When food touches our taste buds, taste receptors produce a signal that travels along taste nerves to the brain. This generates a sensation of flavour and helps us decide if we like the food.</p>
<p>Genetic research in the past decade has largely focused on genes for sweet taste receptors and whether variation in these genes influences how sensitive we are to sweetness and how much sugar we eat and drink. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/thg.2015.42">Our previous study</a> showed genetics accounts for 30% of how sweet we think sugars or artificial sweeteners are. However, at the time, we didn’t know the exact genes involved.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-do-tongues-taste-food-103744">Curious Kids: how do tongues taste food?</a>
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<h2>What our latest study found</h2>
<p>Our new study looked at data from 176,867 people of European ancestry from Australia, the US and UK.</p>
<p>We measured how sweet 1,757 Australians thought sugars (glucose and fructose) and artificial sweeteners (aspartame and <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/neohesperidin_dihydrochalcone">neohesperidin dihydrochalcone</a>) were. We also looked at how sweet 686 Americans thought sucrose was and whether they liked its taste. </p>
<p>We also calculated the daily intake of dietary sugars (monosaccharide and disaccharide sugars found in foods such as fruit, vegetables, milk and cheese) and sweets (lollies and chocolates) from 174,424 British people of European descent in the <a href="https://www.ukbiobank.ac.uk/">UK Biobank</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270326/original/file-20190423-15221-1hw5opp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270326/original/file-20190423-15221-1hw5opp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270326/original/file-20190423-15221-1hw5opp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270326/original/file-20190423-15221-1hw5opp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270326/original/file-20190423-15221-1hw5opp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270326/original/file-20190423-15221-1hw5opp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270326/original/file-20190423-15221-1hw5opp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270326/original/file-20190423-15221-1hw5opp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">How many lollies do you eat a day? The researchers combined these types of questions with genome analysis to find links between sugar intake and people’s genes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/1092965624?src=cL9zC9-ie-rJm9Emlw2ZFw-1-29&size=medium_jpg">from shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>Then we looked at the associations between millions of genetic markers across the whole genome and the perception of sweet taste and sugar intake, using a technique known as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002822">genome-wide association analysis</a>.</p>
<p>After a 15-year study, we showed that several genes (other than those related to sweet taste receptors) have a stronger impact on how we perceive sweetness and how much sugar we eat and drink.</p>
<p>These included an association between the <a href="https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/FTO">FTO gene</a> and sugar intake. Until now, this gene has been associated with obesity and related health risks. However, the effect is possibly driven <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/fulltext/S1550-4131(15)00475-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1550413115004751%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">not by FTO but nearby genes</a> whose protein products act in the brain to regulate appetite and how much energy we use.</p>
<p>We believe a similar situation may be influencing our sugar habit; genes near the FTO gene may be acting in the brain to regulate how much sugar we eat.</p>
<p>Our study suggests the important role the brain plays in how sweet we think something is and how much sugar we consume. That’s in addition to what we already know about the role of taste receptors in our mouth.</p>
<h2>Why we love sweet foods</h2>
<p>Our natural enjoyment of sweet foods could be an evolutionary hangover. Scientists believe being able to taste sweetness might have helped our ancestors identify energy-rich food, which played a critical part in their survival.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-ancient-obsession-with-food-humans-as-evolutionary-master-chefs-42899">Our ancient obsession with food: humans as evolutionary Master Chefs</a>
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<p>However, being able to taste sweetness doesn’t always mean you prefer to eat lots of sweet-tasting food. </p>
<p>So it looks like there are genes associated with the consumption of sweet foods, but not how sweet we think they are, such as FTO. There might also be genes that influence our perception of sweetness but not how likely we are to eat sweet food.</p>
<h2>Regional differences</h2>
<p>We were surprised to find genes for sweet taste receptors had no effect on either the ability to taste sweetness or on the amount of sugar consumed in our study, which looked only at large populations of European descent.</p>
<p>But by comparing people of different ancestries in the UK Biobank, we showed there was some variation between different populations that variations in genes for sweet taste receptors might explain. For instance, we found people of African descent tended to eat more sugar than people of European and Asian descent.</p>
<h2>So, how can we use this?</h2>
<p>Just like genetics can help explain <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-you-like-coffee-and-i-choose-tea-its-in-the-genes-106854">why some people choose tea over coffee</a>, our latest study helps explain why some people prefer sweet food. That could lead to personalised diets to improve people’s eating habits based on their genetics.</p>
<p>However, genetics is not the only factor to influence your taste for sugary foods and how much of these you eat or drink. So you can’t always blame your genes if you’ve ever tried to quit sugary drinks or snacks and failed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113455/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Liang-Dar Hwang is affiliated with The University of Queensland and QIMR Berghfoer Medical Research Institute. </span></em></p>People with a sweet tooth can (partly) blame their genes for their sugar habit. New research shows how the brain also gets involved.Daniel Liang-Dar Hwang, Postdoctoral Researcher, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/789212017-06-09T05:01:06Z2017-06-09T05:01:06ZWe know too much sugar is bad for us, but do different sugars have different health effects?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/172880/original/file-20170608-29563-1dmhqa8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The type of sugar in popular soft drinks varies from country to country even if the brand name is the same.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our recent article published in the <a href="https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2017/206/10/sugar-content-soft-drinks-australia-europe-and-united-states">Medical Journal of Australia</a> found that Australian and European soft drinks contained higher concentrations of glucose, and less fructose, than soft drinks in the United States. The total glucose concentration of Australian soft drinks was on average 22% higher than in US formulations.</p>
<p>We compared the composition of sugars in four popular, globally marketed brands – Coca-Cola, Fanta, Sprite and Pepsi – using samples from Australia, Europe and the US. While the total sugar concentration did not differ significantly between brands or geographical location, there were differences between countries in the concentrations of particular sugars, even when drinks were marketed under the same trade name.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/172874/original/file-20170608-29563-pnrhx8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/172874/original/file-20170608-29563-pnrhx8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/172874/original/file-20170608-29563-pnrhx8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=913&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/172874/original/file-20170608-29563-pnrhx8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=913&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/172874/original/file-20170608-29563-pnrhx8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=913&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/172874/original/file-20170608-29563-pnrhx8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1148&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/172874/original/file-20170608-29563-pnrhx8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1148&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/172874/original/file-20170608-29563-pnrhx8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1148&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Sucrose is made up of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
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<p>Whether these differences have distinct effects on long-term health is currently unclear. Certainly, over-consumption of either glucose or fructose will contribute to <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/98/4/1084.full.pdf">weight gain</a>, which is associated with a host of health conditions such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15328324">type 2 diabetes</a> and <a href="http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/121/11/1356">heart disease</a>. And because the body metabolises glucose and fructose in different ways, their effects may differ.</p>
<h2>Sucrose, glucose and fructose</h2>
<p>Soft drinks, as they are referred to in Australia, or “sodas” in the US and “fizzy drinks” in the UK, are non-alcoholic, carbonated, sugar-sweetened beverages. <a href="http://www.coca-colacompany.com/cs/tccc-yir2012/operating_groups.html">Australia ranks seventh out of the top ten countries</a> for soft drink sales per capita.</p>
<p>Sugars are the chief ingredient in soft drinks and include glucose, fructose and sucrose. The source of sugars in popular soft drinks varies between global regions. This is because sugars are sourced from different crops in different areas of the world. </p>
<p>Soft drinks in Australia are primarily sweetened with sucrose from sugar cane. Sucrose, often referred to as “table sugar”, is composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule joined by chemical bonds. This means equal amounts of glucose and fructose are released into the bloodstream when sucrose is digested.</p>
<p>Overseas, soft drinks are sweetened with sucrose-rich sugar beet (Europe) or high-fructose corn syrup (US). High-fructose corn syrup is also made up of glucose and fructose, but contains a higher fructose-to-glucose ratio than sucrose.</p>
<h2>Do they have different health impacts?</h2>
<p>Fructose over-consumption is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26055949">known to contribute</a> to <a href="http://christinecronau.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/nrgastro.2010.41.pdf">fatty liver disease</a>. Fatty liver disease affects <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/liver-fatty-liver-disease">about one in ten people</a> in the West. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease is the leading cause of liver disease.</p>
<p>Some researchers have suggested too much fructose in the diet can harm the liver in a similar fashion to alcohol. However, this concern is related to <em>added</em> fructose in the diet, not natural sources. Natural sources of fructose, such as fruit, honey and some vegetables, are not generally over-consumed and provide other important nutrients, such as dietary fibre and vitamins. So, fruit does not generally pose a risk for fatty liver disease.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173054/original/file-20170609-1721-1lht3p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173054/original/file-20170609-1721-1lht3p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/173054/original/file-20170609-1721-1lht3p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173054/original/file-20170609-1721-1lht3p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173054/original/file-20170609-1721-1lht3p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173054/original/file-20170609-1721-1lht3p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173054/original/file-20170609-1721-1lht3p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/173054/original/file-20170609-1721-1lht3p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Natural sources of fructose, such as fruit, are generally not over-consumed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
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<p>High glucose consumption rapidly elevates blood glucose and insulin. This may affect <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15451897">brain function</a>, including <a href="https://lipidworld.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1476-511X-13-195">mood and fatigue</a>. Because high blood glucose is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16919548">linked to diabetes</a>, consumption of high-glucose drinks may also raise the risk of diabetes and cardiovascular (heart) disease. </p>
<p>All soft drinks are considered energy-dense, nutrient-poor and bad for health. However, one of the inherent challenges in the field has been an inability to determine the actual dose of glucose or fructose in these drinks. </p>
<p>Studies that follow people over time, and link soft drink consumption to adverse health effects, are complicated by not knowing whether individuals in these studies are simply eating too many energy-rich foods, and whether soft drink consumption coincides with other poor health behaviours. So, further research is required to determine whether soft drinks containing different concentrations of fructose and glucose are associated with differing health risks. </p>
<h2>Soft drink policies</h2>
<p>There is still much to learn about the differences in composition of sugars and patterns of soft drink intake between countries. A small number of countries, including <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/feb/22/mexico-sugar-tax-lower-consumption-second-year-running">Mexico</a> and <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-38767941">France</a>, have already implemented taxation on soft drinks. It remains to be determined whether these actions reduce the incidence of obesity, diabetes and heart diseases.</p>
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<span class="caption">Over-consumption of any kind of sugar leads to weight gain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
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<p>Australian policymakers are yet to take action to reduce soft drink consumption. A range of intervention strategies have been considered, including banning sugary soft drinks in schools and hospitals, taxation, and regulating beverage marketing. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-06-08/sugary-drinks-to-be-phased-out-of-nsw-health-facilities/8599820">New South Wales Health Department</a> has just announced sugary drinks will be phased out of vending machines, cafes and catering services in the state’s health facilities by December. This is a great move. Importantly, we must continue to increase public awareness of the adverse health effects of sugary soft drinks.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78921/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bronwyn Kingwell receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pia Varsamis and Robyn Larsen do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A recent study found Australian soft drinks had higher concentrations of glucose than US soft drinks, which had more fructose. Does this mean Australian drinks are worse for health than US drinks?Bronwyn Kingwell, Head, Metabolic and Vascular Physiology NHMRC, Senior Principal Research Fellow, Baker Heart and Diabetes InstitutePia Varsamis, PhD Student, Metabolic and Vascular Physiology, Baker Heart and Diabetes InstituteRobyn Larsen, Postdoctural Research Fellow in Nutritional Biochemistry, Baker Heart and Diabetes InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/570032016-04-01T11:47:35Z2016-04-01T11:47:35ZWhy finding a real alternative to sugar is so difficult<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116777/original/image-20160330-28455-1j1phef.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sweets for my sweets ...</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&searchterm=spoonful%20of%20sugar&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=237309733">Kozlenko</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>So much for the decades in which fats and oils were public enemy number one on our dinner plates. There is <a href="http://www.actiononsugar.org/index.html">more and more evidence</a> that sugar – or more precisely, carbohydrate – is behind our increasing rates of <a href="http://www.healthdata.org/news-release/nearly-one-third-world%E2%80%99s-population-obese-or-overweight-new-data-show">obesity</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/04/150402101410.htm">heart disease</a>. Even if the mechanisms by which this occurs are still not well defined, there are endless <a href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2015/sugar-guideline/en/">calls for</a> reducing its quantities in the foods we eat. Most recently in the UK this led to the chancellor, George Osborne, <a href="https://theconversation.com/sorry-jamie-oliver-id-be-surprised-if-sugar-tax-helped-cut-obesity-56471">announcing</a> a tax on sugary soft drinks. </p>
<p>Had we ever come up with a proper substitute for sugar, of course, we wouldn’t need to have this debate. In <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-happens-to-your-brain-when-you-give-up-sugar-for-lent-37745">our sweetness-addicted era</a>, it is one of science’s greatest challenges. So why has it eluded us for so long, and are we any closer to a solution?</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116984/original/image-20160331-31093-1gmtfqu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116984/original/image-20160331-31093-1gmtfqu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116984/original/image-20160331-31093-1gmtfqu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116984/original/image-20160331-31093-1gmtfqu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116984/original/image-20160331-31093-1gmtfqu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=587&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116984/original/image-20160331-31093-1gmtfqu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=738&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116984/original/image-20160331-31093-1gmtfqu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=738&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116984/original/image-20160331-31093-1gmtfqu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=738&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Saccharine on sale.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&searchterm=saccharine&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=240640765">Lunasee Studios</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Replacing the sweetness of sugar in foods is actually relatively straightforward. The first synthetic sweetener, saccharine, was <a href="http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2014/05/saccharin-discovered-accident/">discovered accidentally</a> by a young Russian chemist named Constantin Fahlberg in 1879 while studying coal-tar derivatives, when he unknowingly got it on his hands and licked his fingers. Saccharine became widely used around World War I, when natural sugar was in short supply. In the 1960s scientists discovered several more artificial sweeteners in similarly serendipitous ways, including aspartame and acesulfame K.</p>
<p>As well as these discoveries, there are naturally occurring sweeteners that we have actually known about for much longer (see table below). The <a href="http://linguistics.byu.edu/classes/ling450ch/reports/Guarani1.html">Guarani</a> peoples of modern-day Brazil and Paraguay have been using the leaves of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-rose-by-any-other-name-the-low-down-on-healthy-coke-33552">stevia</a> plant as a sweetener for about 1,500 years. And the seeds of the West African katemfe fruit, which contain a sweet chemical called thaumatin, have been on our radar since the 19th century. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116771/original/image-20160330-9712-1frvkxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116771/original/image-20160330-9712-1frvkxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=185&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116771/original/image-20160330-9712-1frvkxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=185&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116771/original/image-20160330-9712-1frvkxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=185&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116771/original/image-20160330-9712-1frvkxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=233&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116771/original/image-20160330-9712-1frvkxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=233&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116771/original/image-20160330-9712-1frvkxu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=233&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Sweetness’ is relative to sugar – stevia is 275 times as sweet.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sweet but sour</h2>
<p>Yet while we have plenty of options for sweetness, there are several difficulties associated with using non-sugar sweeteners in foods. There have been various cancer scares over the years, which have affected <a href="http://drrichswier.com/2015/05/25/fda-generated-stevia-myth/">stevia</a>, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1637197/">saccharine</a> and <a href="http://www.mercola.com/article/aspartame/hidden_dangers.htm">aspartame</a>, among others. Some artificial sweeteners have <a href="http://www.nhs.uk/news/2014/09September/Pages/Do-artificial-sweeteners-raise-diabetes-risk.aspx">also been</a> linked to type 2 diabetes. </p>
<p>To compound this, governments class all non-sugar sweeteners as additives, which means they are assigned an E-number – even stevia and thaumatin. In an era where consumers have become increasingly wary of these numbers even when there aren’t specific health risks, manufacturers have been moving towards so-called “clean-label” products that are free of them. This puts these sweeteners at a disadvantage. </p>
<p>Aside from health and labelling, sugars have chemical functions in foods that make them difficult to replace. Sugar solutions freeze at a lower temperature than pure water, for instance. In products like ice cream, this is critical to maintaining a soft texture at freezer temperatures. </p>
<p>Sugars play an important role in giving products like bread, cakes and even wine their darker colour, through what chemists call <a href="http://www.scienceofcooking.com/browning_of_foods.htm">non-enzymatic browning reactions</a>. Artificial
sweeteners are not good at reproducing either of these. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116781/original/image-20160330-28472-616nos.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116781/original/image-20160330-28472-616nos.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116781/original/image-20160330-28472-616nos.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116781/original/image-20160330-28472-616nos.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116781/original/image-20160330-28472-616nos.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116781/original/image-20160330-28472-616nos.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116781/original/image-20160330-28472-616nos.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116781/original/image-20160330-28472-616nos.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Mmmm aspartame.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-12164185/stock-photo-man-checking-food-labelling-on-supermarket-products.html?src=csl_recent_image-1">Monkey Business Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Then there is aftertaste. This arises from the mechanism by which sweetness is detected in the taste buds. One problem is that the structural features of any sweet molecule that allow them to bind to the sweetness receptors on the tongue are <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867403000710">similar to</a> the ones that bind to our bitterness receptors. This is why some sweeteners leave a bitter aftertaste, which is of course undesirable to some consumers. </p>
<p>But looking at the previous table again, for sweeteners that don’t have a bitter aftertaste there is another issue. Artificial sweeteners bind more strongly to the sweetness receptors and have a different and longer-lasting taste profile to sugar, and so are perceived as tasting different by consumers. </p>
<p>All in all, although non-sugar sweeteners are a multi-billion-pound industry, these drawbacks help to explain why they are nowhere near eclipsing sugar. In 2014 sugar (sucrose) <a href="http://www.preparedfoods.com/articles/114720-alternative-sweeteners-gain-12-share-of-734-billion-market">accounted for</a> 78% of all sweetener sales. Artificial sweeteners made up 8%, with acesulfame k the market leader. Natural alternatives like stevia, which was <a href="https://www.acefitness.org/certifiednewsarticle/1644/the-truth-about-stevia-the-so-called-quot-healthy/">banned</a> in the US and EU until fairly recently, made up 1%. (The rest of the market comprises everything from glucose to syrups). </p>
<h2>Where sweeteners go from here</h2>
<p>The cancer evidence against non-sugar sweeteners has turned out to be thinner than feared. <a href="http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/food-controversies#food_controversies1">Cancer Research UK</a> and the US <a href="http://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet/artificial-sweeteners-fact-sheet">National Cancer Institute</a> both say there is no increased risk regarding artificial sweeteners. Stevia’s years in the wilderness were the result of an anonymous complaint about the cancer risks to the US authorities <a href="https://health.thefuntimesguide.com/2014/08/what-is-stevia.php">commonly thought</a> to have come from artificial-sweetener producers, but it has since been rehabilitated. As for type 2 diabetes, the <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v514/n7521/full/nature13793.html">evidence linking it</a> to artificial sweeteners is <a href="http://nutritionreviews.oxfordjournals.org/content/71/7/433">inconclusive</a> and we need more research – so far it has all been done on animals. </p>
<p>On the physical issues, food scientists have had to think creatively. When it comes to texture, for instance, manufacturers add protein texturisers instead – <a href="http://www.clextral.com/food-feed-2/food/extured-protein/">soy</a>, for example. Or you can turn to other substances that have a similar effect as sugar on the freezing properties of water – the sugar alcohol erythritol is one option. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116779/original/image-20160330-28443-133low5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116779/original/image-20160330-28443-133low5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/116779/original/image-20160330-28443-133low5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=792&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116779/original/image-20160330-28443-133low5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=792&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116779/original/image-20160330-28443-133low5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=792&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116779/original/image-20160330-28443-133low5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=995&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116779/original/image-20160330-28443-133low5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=995&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/116779/original/image-20160330-28443-133low5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=995&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stevia wonder?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&autocomplete_id=&searchterm=stevia&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=99968267">Olivier le Moal</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Manufacturers seek to overcome the aftertaste issue by mixing sweeteners. We perceive the aftertaste of different sweeteners over differing timescales, so one sweetener can be used to mask the aftertaste of a second. It is common to use stevia in combination with acesulfame K, for instance. </p>
<p>Another increasingly common ploy is to mix sugar and other sweeteners together. This helps explain why the use of non-sugar sweeteners in new product launches <a href="http://www.mintel.com/press-centre/food-and-drink/stevia-set-to-steal-intense-sweetener-market-share-by-2017-reports-mintel-and-leatherhead-food-research">rose from</a> 3.5% in 2009 to 5.5% in 2012. It also explains why stevia is rocketing. Food analysts Mintel and Leatherhead forecast it will have become the most widely used non-sugar sweetener by as early as next year. </p>
<p>In the absence of a Holy Grail for sugar replacement, this could be as good as it gets any time soon. No wonder the authorities are beginning to intervene to save us from our sweet tooth instead.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/57003/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Euston has received research funding from BBSRC, EPSRC, Innovate UK and EC Horizon2020, though the views in this piece are entirely his own. He is also a committee member of the Agri-Food group of the Society of Chemical Industry. </span></em></p>If only it were as simple as sweetness.Stephen Euston, Professor, Heriot-Watt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.