tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/tour-de-france-788/articlesTour de France – The Conversation2023-08-08T12:28:10Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2010792023-08-08T12:28:10Z2023-08-08T12:28:10ZYellow jerseys of the fireline: A day fighting wildfires can require as much endurance as riding the Tour de France<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516189/original/file-20230319-26-kbr57v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C2047%2C1333&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ruby Mountain hotshots construct a fire line during the Dixie Fire in 2021.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nifc/51434898834">Joe Bradshaw/BLM</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For three weeks in July, the world’s most elite bike racers climb steep mountains and sprint along historic cobblestones to capture the coveted <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_classification_in_the_Tour_de_France">yellow jersey</a> or the race leader in the Tour de France. It’s a 22-day feat of human endurance that requires constant eating and drinking to manage the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-1024951">average daily energy demand</a> of about 6,000 calories, equivalent to around 12 <a href="https://www.mcdonalds.com/us/en-us/meal/hamburger-happy-meal.html">McDonald’s Happy Meals</a>, and just over 1.5 gallons of water.</p>
<p>Nearly 5,000 miles away in the mountains of North America, radios crackle with chatter from a wildfire incident command post, air operations and other crews fighting a wildfire. Up the fireline, the swings of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulaski_(tool)">Pulaskis</a>, axlike hand tools, are <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/wildland-fire-fireline-construction.htm">carving a fuel break</a> into the land. The weather forecast predicts a high of nearly 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 C) with wind, a combination that can push the fire high up into the canopy of dense lodgepole pines on the mountainside.</p>
<p>The yellow jerseys here are sooty, sweat-stained and <a href="https://www.nwcg.gov/sites/default/files/committee/docs/fsppes-2022-modified-shirt-tech-tip.pdf">flame-resistant</a>, with a strong, earthy odor.</p>
<p>Hotshot crews like this one are the elite workforce of the forest, and the demand on their bodies can rival that of the cyclists in the Tour de France, as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cphy.c220016">my team’s research</a> shows.</p>
<p>On this morning, the Hotshot crew has already hiked 3 miles up steep, uneven terrain and built nearly 1,200 feet of fire line. It is not yet 10 a.m. The day is just beginning, the first day of a 14-day rollout.</p>
<h2>Measuring the physical strain</h2>
<p>The dew hangs heavy on the inside of the small tent as the 4:30 a.m. alarm disrupts my intermittent sleep. The sounds of sleeping bag and tent zippers signals the beginning of a new day in a remote Montana fire camp.</p>
<p>Using a headlamp, I arrange the sample collection tubes in a plastic rack and wait for a few members of the <a href="https://www.lolohotshots.com/">Lolo Hotshots</a> to wander through my field laboratory to drop off an early morning urine sample. </p>
<p>The crew is participating in a study that my team from Montana is conducting to measure the physical strain and total energy demands of work on an active wildfire, with the goal of finding ways to improve firefighter fueling strategies and ultimately health and safety on the line.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A firefighter in the woods loaded with gear, including chain saw, fuel canister and full backpack." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517270/original/file-20230323-1736-9e0l7h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517270/original/file-20230323-1736-9e0l7h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517270/original/file-20230323-1736-9e0l7h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517270/original/file-20230323-1736-9e0l7h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517270/original/file-20230323-1736-9e0l7h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517270/original/file-20230323-1736-9e0l7h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517270/original/file-20230323-1736-9e0l7h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Lakeview Hotshots firefighter carries equipment and fuel for containing the Cedar Creek fire near Oakridge, Ore., in 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/hotshot-firefighter-works-to-contain-the-cedar-creek-fire-news-photo/1243179718">Dan Morrison / AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Crew members are outfitted with a <a href="https://equivital.com/mobile-physiological-monitoring">series of lightweight monitors</a> that measure heart rate, as well as movement patterns and speed using GPS. Each swallows a temperature-tracking sensor before breakfast that will transmit measures of core body temperature each minute throughout the work shift. </p>
<p>Just before 6 a.m., the crew heads west in their <a href="https://www.bmefire.com/apparatus/crew-carrier/">crew carrier rigs</a> into the adjacent wilderness. They have lines to dig and a fire to contain.</p>
<h2>Burning 6-14 calories per minute</h2>
<p>On the fire line, pack straps dig into the neck and shoulders with each swing of the Pulaski. It’s a constant reminder that everything wildland firefighters need, they carry, all day.</p>
<p>The critical water and food items, supplies, extra gear, and fire line tools – Pulaskis, chain saws, and fuel – add up to an average gear weight often exceeding 50 pounds.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wem.2018.03.006">Hiking with a load</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/WF9970069">digging firelines</a> with hand tools burns about 6 to 14 calories per minute. Heart rates rise in response to an increased pace of digging. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516191/original/file-20230319-26-8hpr9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A dozen firefighters, some leaning on their Pulaski tools, look at a map of the fire. They're standing in a wooded area with tall pines behind them." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516191/original/file-20230319-26-8hpr9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516191/original/file-20230319-26-8hpr9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516191/original/file-20230319-26-8hpr9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516191/original/file-20230319-26-8hpr9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516191/original/file-20230319-26-8hpr9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516191/original/file-20230319-26-8hpr9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516191/original/file-20230319-26-8hpr9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Firefighters are often working in rough forest terrain involving long hikes and steep slopes. Here, the Ruby Mountain Hotshot Crew gets a briefing on the Dixie Fire in California in 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nifc/51434899564">Joe Bradshaw/BLM</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Measured with the same techniques used to quantify the <a href="http://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-1024951">energy demands of Tour de France riders</a>, wildland firefighters demonstrate an average total energy expenditure approaching <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12048336/">4,000 to 5,000 calories per day</a>. Some days can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.010">exceed the Tour’s average of about 6,000 calories</a>. Add to that a daily water need of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000089348.39312.4D">1.5</a> to over <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.010">2 gallons</a>. </p>
<p>This isn’t just for a few days. Fire season in the western United States can last five months or more, with most Hotshot crews accumulating four to five times the number of operational days of the 22-day Tour de France and over 1,000 hours of overtime.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Silhouettes of five firefighters, one with a headlamp lighting the way, walking through a wooded field with fire burning in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516190/original/file-20230319-8066-paqnw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516190/original/file-20230319-8066-paqnw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516190/original/file-20230319-8066-paqnw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516190/original/file-20230319-8066-paqnw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516190/original/file-20230319-8066-paqnw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516190/original/file-20230319-8066-paqnw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516190/original/file-20230319-8066-paqnw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Wyoming Hotshots crew conducts night operations on the Pine Gulch fire in Colorado in August 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nifc/50321123752">Kyle Miller, Wyoming Hotshots, USFS</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Every year, on average, about <a href="https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/IF10244.pdf">60,000 wildfires will burn</a> across roughly 70 million acres in the western U.S. Drying grasses and forests create fuel for the spark of a lightning strike, power line or carelessly abandoned campfire, and windy summer weather can spread that into a blaze. When those fires could threaten communities, the Hotshots are mobilized.</p>
<h2>Impact on the wildland firefighter’s body</h2>
<p>As the work shift progresses, the Hotshots constantly monitor their surroundings and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17545892/">self-regulate</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wem.2020.01.009">nutrient</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1580/07-WEME-OR-114.1">fluid intake</a>, knowing their shift will last 12 to 16 hours.</p>
<p>During intense activity in high heat, their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1580/07-WEME-OR-114.1">fluid intake</a> can increase to 32 ounces per hour or more.</p>
<p>The highest-intensity activity is generally during the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wem.2018.03.006">early morning hike to the fire line</a>. However, the metabolic demands can sharply increase if crews are forced into a rapid <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wf/WF02025">emergency evacuation from the fire</a>, as more than <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cphy.c220016">25 years of wildland firefighter physiology research</a> shows.</p>
<p>The most effective way for wildland firefighters to stay fueled is to eat small meals frequently throughout the work shift, similar to the patterns perfected by riders in the Tour. This <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/76.1.120">preserves cognitive health</a>, helping firefighters stay focused and sharp for making potentially lifesaving decisions and keenly aware of their ever-dynamic surroundings, and boosts <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e318040b2fb">work performance</a>. It also helps slow the depletion of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wem.2010.09.019">important muscle fuel</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518540/original/file-20230330-2194-t2x9hy.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Lists of details about wildland firefighter loads like weight, energy demand, water budget, and heart rate." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518540/original/file-20230330-2194-t2x9hy.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518540/original/file-20230330-2194-t2x9hy.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518540/original/file-20230330-2194-t2x9hy.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518540/original/file-20230330-2194-t2x9hy.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518540/original/file-20230330-2194-t2x9hy.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518540/original/file-20230330-2194-t2x9hy.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518540/original/file-20230330-2194-t2x9hy.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Resource demands on a wildland firefighter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christopher Durdle, Brent Ruby</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite the physical and emotional stress of being in an active fire, the firefighters’ <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wem.2014.12.010">heart rates rarely exceed 160 beats per minute</a>, about 70% to 80% of maximal heart rate and an intensity common during a higher-intensity training run. Their heart rates are mostly maintained between 100 and 140 beats per minute, typical of a brisk walk or hike, but they maintain that for hours.</p>
<p>Although crews gradually <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2014.08.009">acclimatize to the heat</a> over the season, the risk for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wem.2011.01.008">heat exhaustion</a> is ever present if the work rate is not kept in check. This cannot be prevented by simply drinking more water during long work shifts. However, regular breaks and having a strong aerobic capacity provides some protection by <a href="https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-12-00524">reducing heat stress</a> and overall risk.</p>
<h2>The season takes a toll</h2>
<p>Hotshots are physically fit, and they train for the fire season just as many athletes train for their competition season. Most crew members are hired temporarily during the fire season – typically from <a href="https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-wildfires">May to October, but expanding as the planet warms</a>. And there are <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/managing-land/fire/safety/wct">distinct fitness requirements for the job</a>.</p>
<p>Still, with the immense physical demands of the job, crew members often experience a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000001535">decay in metabolic and cardiovascular health</a> and an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000002446">increase in cholesterol, blood lipids and body fat</a>. It is unclear why such a hardworking job often makes firefighters less healthy, requiring an off-season reset to recover, retrain and rebuild.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man wearing a head lamp leans over a set of vials with an eyedropper, while a firefighter in a yellow jacket sits nearby." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516412/original/file-20230320-24-f9imbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516412/original/file-20230320-24-f9imbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516412/original/file-20230320-24-f9imbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516412/original/file-20230320-24-f9imbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516412/original/file-20230320-24-f9imbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516412/original/file-20230320-24-f9imbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516412/original/file-20230320-24-f9imbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Getting samples before firefighters head out to the fire lines, as the author, Brent Ruby, is doing here, often means working in the dark.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Brent Ruby</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The season causes damage. This unfolds counter to the commonly accepted benefits of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25905196/">regular exercise</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08958370600985875">Pollutant and smoke exposure</a>, lapses in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31817f4d58">nutrition</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000001175">sleep disorders</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08039488.2017.1368703">chronic stress</a> during the season seems to gradually poke holes in the Hotshot armor.</p>
<p>Progressive intervention strategies can help, such as educational programs to inform specific physical training and nutritional needs, mindfulness training to reduce the risk of job-oriented anxiety and depression and emotional support for individual crew members and families.</p>
<p>Developing off-season practices that pay close attention to both physical and mental health recovery can help limit harm to firefighters’ health. Many Hotshots bounce back and <a href="https://www.govexec.com/workforce/2023/01/federal-firefighter-groups-find-flaws-watchdogs-conclusions-recruitment-retention-challenges/382428/">return season after season</a>.</p>
<h2>Back in camp</h2>
<p>A 14-hour intervention with the land is physically and emotionally exhausting.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three firefighters lounge on air mattresses while reading. Tents are behind them, and boots are in the foreground." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517271/original/file-20230323-2606-r5besf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517271/original/file-20230323-2606-r5besf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517271/original/file-20230323-2606-r5besf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517271/original/file-20230323-2606-r5besf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517271/original/file-20230323-2606-r5besf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517271/original/file-20230323-2606-r5besf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517271/original/file-20230323-2606-r5besf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Home’ on the firelines is typically groups of tents and air mattresses.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/WesternWildfires/0dff6baed4fb4394a72b99895035a1db/photo">AP Photo/Ted S. Warren</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Back in camp, the crew provides another urine sample, and I download their monitors’ data. Their fireline stories have all the elements of American folklore and Western novels, and they bounce between excitement about the events of the day and wondering what the data from their sensors and tests might show. I will use that data combined with our previous research to help crews develop early-season training and advanced nutrition strategies. </p>
<p>A large, warm meal starts to reload precious muscle fuel. In a few hours, a new shift will begin for the Hotshots, and another day in the yellow jersey.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201079/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brent C. Ruby currently receives funding from the Air Force Research Labs and The US Army Medical and Materiel Command. The research in wildland fire has been funded by the US Forest Service, the US Army, the US Air Force, the Office of Naval Research, and the Gatorade Sports Science Institute</span></em></p>Twenty-five years of research show what it takes to fuel wildland firefighters through an average day, and the toll the long seasonal work takes on their bodies.Brent C. Ruby, Research Professor, School of Integrative Physiology and Athletic Training, University of MontanaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1877252022-07-27T15:42:23Z2022-07-27T15:42:23ZTour de France: future heatwaves may make it untenable to hold the race in July<p>As the men’s Tour de France wraps up and the <a href="https://www.letourfemmes.fr/en">women’s race</a> begins, the European heat wave rages on. If you look closely, the heat can be seen in photos of the event: cooling towels around racers’ necks, water splashed over red faces, ice packs sticking out from under race jerseys.</p>
<p>Compounding the temperatures is the heat island effect created by roads which absorb and radiate heat. On the hottest days of the men’s race, with temperatures nearing 40°C, organisers even <a href="https://www.cyclingnews.com/news/tour-de-france-organisers-deny-using-10000-litres-of-water-to-cool-roads/">watered some of the roads</a> to lower the surface temperature. And while this works, it also adds to the humidity – solving one problem but contributing to another. It also doesn’t account for the environmental implications of using that much water to hose down a road.</p>
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<p>The heatwave comes as no surprise to those who follow cycling. Mudslides, extreme heat, hail and a surprising amount of snow have interrupted stages of the Tour in recent years. </p>
<p>In 2019, for instance, a severe mudslide covered the whole road in stage 19 of the race, forcing the race to stop. Since athletes had no idea what was ahead of them, they spent several hours toiling on the course that day until the race director stopped the race and called in bulldozers to clear the debris.</p>
<p>The Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) has an <a href="https://assets.ctfassets.net/761l7gh5x5an/7MLz0Fo06hpqNvEvrlXaf2/b5ffbf462d47f4d559d90d2089d128ae/2-ROA-20220401-E.pdf">extreme weather protocol</a> to guide race organisers in their response to such weather events. The policy calls for the convening of a meeting between the race doctor, chief of security, representatives for riders and teams, and representatives from the UCI when extreme weather conditions are anticipated prior to the start of a stage. No policy exists for inclement weather that crops up when a race is already in motion.</p>
<p>Conspicuously absent from the policy is any regard for whether the policy could be activated by specific thresholds for <a href="https://www.popsci.com/environment/wet-bulb-globe-temperature/">wet-bulb globe temperature</a> – a measure which includes temperature, humidity and wind speed, and which is taken in direct sunlight and so closely matches how hot it actually feels for the cyclists. It’s left up to the named stakeholders to determine what constitutes “extreme weather” and the lines on this are blurry. </p>
<p>The policy is also limited in the actions it permits for combating inclement conditions. These include:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>take no action</p></li>
<li><p>change the location or time of the start or finish</p></li>
<li><p>change the course or neutralisation of a section of the stage/race</p></li>
<li><p>reinforce safety arrangements for the course and organisation</p></li>
<li><p>any other corrective measure or action adopted by the stakeholders in compliance with the UCI Regulations</p></li>
<li><p>cancel the stage/race.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Historically the UCI has acted on its extreme weather protocol to address snow or extreme cold, not heat. For example, the 2016 Tour De Suisse saw the final stage shortened to just 57.3km due to snowy conditions. </p>
<p>But as the peloton raced across the finish line at Champs-Elysées on Sunday, temperatures hovered around 30°C, five degrees warmer than average Parisian temperatures in July, offering a final glimpse of the race under increasingly common strenuous conditions.</p>
<h2>Heatwave hotspot</h2>
<p>France sits in the middle of a western European region which has emerged as a heatwave hotspot, with the number of heatwaves increasing <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-31432-y">roughly three-to-four times faster</a> compared to the rest of the northern mid-latitudes over the past four decades. The heat has caused health concerns for athletes. This year, Alexis Vuillermoz <a href="https://cyclingtips.com/2022/07/alexis-vuillermoz-leaves-in-an-ambulance-after-collapsing-at-stage-9-finish/">collapsed at the finish line </a> of the ninth stage, was taken to hospital to treat heat illness, and later pulled out of the Tour. </p>
<p>The heat also brings a suite of indirect impacts like drought and wildfires along the route. This summer, France has seen some of the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jul/25/wildfires-continue-to-burn-across-france-and-spain">worst wildfires in its history</a>, burning more than 41,000 hectares and requiring the evacuations of more than 36,000 people. It’s a stroke of luck that the Tour escaped the flames. </p>
<p>Though riders came within 100km of the blaze as they rode through one affected region, Gironde, the route didn’t go through any town that was evacuated and no changes were needed. But timing is everything: Villandraut, which was on the 2021 route, was evacuated <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/07/23/tour-de-france-heat-wave-climate-change/">during this year’s race</a>.</p>
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<p>Ironically, this year’s race was only disrupted by climate protesters who chained themselves together to block the roads in two stages. But if climate trends continue apace, it’s only a matter of time before larger structural changes will be needed to safely host this event. Specifically, the Tour may not be tenable in July anymore, which doesn’t bode well for other summer events in France, namely the Paris 2024 Olympic Games.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187725/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Madeleine Orr's research has received funding from GRID Arendal. She is affiliated with The Sport Ecology Group.</span></em></p>This year’s Tour was marked by near-40°C temperatures, roads cooled with water, and heatstroke.Madeleine Orr, Lecturer in Sport Business and Program Director for Sustainable Sport Business, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1865482022-07-14T13:20:52Z2022-07-14T13:20:52ZHow the Tour de France helped me think about geology in a new way<p>As I write this, the Tour de France has reached its halfway point, with the cyclists climbing the Alps. Or, to put it another way, the race has left Armorican continent and entered the folded relics of the Valais Ocean and the Briançonnais microcontinent. </p>
<p>For me, as an academic geologist and cycling enthusiast, this year’s edition of the world’s biggest cycle race is particularly exciting as colleagues and I launched the <a href="https://geotdf.org">Geology of the Tour de France</a> blog and the <a href="https://twitter.com/geotdf">@GeoTdF twitter account</a>. </p>
<p>The project first came about when we noticed how much time the TV commentators had to fill while the riders cycle through interesting landscapes. Though viewers watch for hours in anticipation of the action that will end every stage, for most of that time 150 riders are chasing five or so others with little change to the status quo. In that time, the broadcasters explain everything about almost everything you can see on screen. </p>
<p>Organisers of cycling races therefore provide the commentators with a Lonely Planet-style route book with information about castles, cities and individuals. And then it struck me: we are not only watching potential holiday destinations, but also geological excursions. All we had to do is provide the commentators with geo-information. </p>
<p>So I assembled a team of <a href="http://geotdf.org/team-geotdf">28 geoscientists and web developers</a>, several from my department at Utrecht University in the Netherlands, but also from institutes in France, Germany, Denmark, Spain, the UK and the US, who together wrote 29 blogs about the geology along the Tour de France stages, and translated these into seven languages. </p>
<p>For the men’s tour, each blog explains a geological phenomenon or process whose signatures are visible along the stage route. We’re looking at many different topics, from the <a href="http://geotdf.org/men-2022/stage-2-roskilde-nyborg-early-danian">extinction of the dinosaurs</a> to the subduction zones of the Alps, and from the origin of the volcanoes of the Massif Central to the question why the <a href="http://geotdf.org/men-2022/stage-8-dole-lausanne-france-s-youngest-mountain-range">Jura Mountains of stage 8</a> are a separate range from the Alps.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ASOUf0kcqX8?wmode=transparent&start=3" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Scientists used sand to show how the Alps and Jura may have formed in one related process, despite being some distance apart.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Tour de France Femmes begins on the day the men’s tour finishes, and the women’s peloton will race over older rocks every day in the Paris Basin and the Vosges mountains of eastern France. Each blog of the Tour de France Femmes explains what the world would have looked like if the race was held when the rocks below the road formed. The blogs offer a five minute read, but if you read them every day, you end up with a extended geology class.</p>
<h2>Public and scientific benefits</h2>
<p>The GeoTdF project aims to be a light-hearted way to educate people about processes that impact our society, from <a href="http://geotdf.org/men-2022/stage-10-morzine-megeve-landslides">landslides</a> and <a href="http://geotdf.org/men-2022/stage-18-lourdes-hautacam-seismic-crisis">earthquakes</a> to the finding of <a href="http://geotdf.org/men-2022/stage-15-rodez-carcassone-hard-rock-with-element-lithium">ore deposits</a> that we need for the green energy revolution. And the public can respond and ask questions through Twitter.</p>
<p>But the project also has scientific benefits. It provides geoscientists and our colleagues with a platform to showcase our findings, for all of us who want to share knowledge and insight freely and enthusiastically. </p>
<p>This is why I like the project so much. Scientists are always trying to find where they are wrong, for that is where they can learn and advance. As a result, they are always scrutinising themselves and each other, through peer review, discussion, debates. The criticism is vocal, the appreciation silent. That wears me down at times. The sense of community and enthusiasm around the GeoTdF project is a nice change. So if you have something to tell or ask, please join in. </p>
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<p>At the same time, letting something as random as cycling routes determine the order in which you read up on geology turns out to be an idea and knowledge generator. Natural scientists logically tend to choose the boundaries of their study areas based on interpreted system boundaries, and dig deeper into the details to find how the natural world works, but it comes with the risk of tunnel vision. </p>
<p>I have studied plate tectonics and mountain building, through systematically finding the same geological systems and boundaries and reconstructing them (for instance in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1342937X19302230">Mediterranean region</a>). </p>
<p>But cycling route designers force me to cross all those boundaries. No geologist would read up on a region along such a geologically non-organised and random route as a Tour de France stage – and doing so is eye-opening. I learned that the cliffs of Stevns Klint in Denmark close to stage 2, and of Calais in north west France in stage 4 are the same formation of upper Cretaceous chalks. And that the uplift in the past 20 million years of the <a href="http://geotdf.org/men-2022/stage-6-binche-longwy-pushed-up-sleeve">Ardennes hills of stage 6</a> and the Massif Central of stage 15 are both associated with formation of intraplate volcanic fields that may suggest a common underlying process. </p>
<p>Many of these chance observations connect pieces of knowledge that I picked up during my career, and some of them challenge systems that I thought I understood. As the writer Isaac Asimov is <a href="https://quoteinvestigator.com/2015/03/02/eureka-funny/">believed to have said</a>, scientific discovery rarely starts with “Eureka!” but normally with “Hey, that’s funny.” Whether the GeoTdF project will lead to the former remains to be seen, but it certainly is fun.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186548/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Douwe van Hinsbergen receives funding from the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research (NWO) and Utrecht University. </span></em></p>The world’s biggest cycling race is a great way to teach people about geology – and test our own ideas.Douwe van Hinsbergen, Chair in Global Tectonics and Paleogeography, Utrecht UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1860662022-07-06T12:48:07Z2022-07-06T12:48:07ZTour de France: why we celebrate suffering in sport<p>The <a href="https://www.letour.fr/en/">Tour de France</a> is one of the hardest sporting events in the world. This year 176 cyclists have started the Tour, attempting to race for 3,328km over 21 stages to the scheduled finish in Paris on July 24. The riders will push themselves to their limits up mountains and often carry on through pain and injury. This might lead us to question why anyone would voluntarily put themselves through such an arduous event. What’s more, why do we celebrate those who suffer in this way? </p>
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<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>The first question is easier to answer. For the very best cyclists, there is the glory and honour associated with winning, alongside the financial and reputational rewards. For the rest, there is the great satisfaction that comes with competing, facing adversity, and completing the course. This is a central motivation for many cyclists, amateur as well as professional.</p>
<p>And such thinking isn’t confined to endurance cycling. For very many of us, facing difficulty and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00948705.2019.1615837">overcoming adversity</a> is an important part of doing satisfying, fulfilling things: mountain climbing, gaming, playing a musical instrument or renovating a house.</p>
<p>The second question is more difficult to answer. Supposing that we are not sadists, why do we enjoy watching watching riders in the Tour de France suffer, endure and (hopefully) overcome? </p>
<p>One answer is that the Tour follows a certain familiar <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-quest-851677">story or narrative</a>. It is a competition or quest, where there are winners and losers, heroes and sometimes villains, good fortune and bad luck, and eventually triumph and disappointment. We derive great satisfaction from following such stories to their conclusion. </p>
<p>However, this doesn’t get to the heart of our fascination with, and celebration of, the suffering involved. A better answer can be found if we delve a little deeper into the motives of those who engage in arduous activity.</p>
<p>In psychology, there is a distinction between what are called proximate causes and distal or <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/animal-social-behaviour/The-how-and-why-of-social-behaviour">ultimate causes</a>. Proximate causes are ones that are closely related to some event, and might be thought of as the direct cause of what happens. So the proximate cause of my craving a pie is that it tastes good. </p>
<p>Distal causes, on the other hand, can be thought of as the ultimate or real reason why something happened. The distal cause might have a historical or social origin, as in the case of people <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/05/history-wristwatch-apple-watch/391424/">wearing watches on wrists</a> because it was safer in wartime to look quickly at your wrist rather than fish out a pocket watch. </p>
<p>Alternatively, it might be found far back in our evolution. A tendency to like fatty foods gave my ancestors an evolutionary advantage over those who lacked this tendency. That is the distal cause for my desire for pie.</p>
<h2>Communicating virtue</h2>
<p>For cyclists in the Tour de France, the proximate cause of their facing adversity might well be things like the desire for glory and a sense of personal satisfaction. The distal cause, though, is arguably something in our social or evolutionary past that gave those who tended to embrace suffering an advantage over those who didn’t. </p>
<p><a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12879700/">Some scholars think</a> that communicating pain through facial expressions and other bodily actions gives an evolutionary advantage, because it can be used to signal a need for help. But it can be argued that the facial and bodily <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2014-06689-002">communication of pain and suffering</a> also gives another advantage. It can <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00948705.2019.1615837?journalCode=rjps20">signal to others</a> that the person suffering possesses a certain set of virtues or excellences – such as courage, fortitude, stamina and commitment.</p>
<p>Possessing traits such as courage and stamina is typically an advantage. Those who have these qualities can better attain their goals as a result. Communicating that you have qualities like this to others is also important. It means that other people know who can be relied upon to be courageous, honest or wise in future. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02691728.2012.727193">Knowledge like this</a> is likely to help a social group to flourish. </p>
<p>In addition, suffering through adversity can enhance a person’s social reputation for virtue, and so enable them to have higher status – an <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1754073909354627">evolutionary benefit</a>. </p>
<p>Our interest in and celebration of suffering in the Tour de France might well, then, be the result of a psychological impulse to find out who has the virtues of courage, fortitude and stamina, and a subsequent tendency to be satisfied when we have gathered this information. Ultimately, our fascination may be the result of an evolutionary trait that benefits our social groups.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186066/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Brady does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The answer could lie in evolution.Michael Brady, Professor of Philosophy and Head of the School of Humanities, University of GlasgowLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1861622022-06-30T19:55:40Z2022-06-30T19:55:40ZTour de France: analysing what makes cycling’s premier race exciting<p>In 2019, the Tour de France changed its rules so that teams consisted of eight riders instead of nine. Christian Prudhomme, director of the Tour, justified the decision by citing safety issues (fewer riders, therefore less risk of crashes) and the dynamism of the race (fewer riders, therefore fewer locked-in stages). The change was <a href="https://www.granfondoguide.com/Contents/Index/3196/uci-to-reduce-team-sizes-to-eight-in-grand-tours-">initially proposed in 2017</a> by the International Cycling Union (UCI), and other major races such as the Tour d’Italie (the Giro) et the Tour d’Espagne (the Vuelta) also followed suit.</p>
<p>While the change <a href="https://www.velonews.com/news/road/explainer-team-size-debacle/">was controversial</a>, major sporting events often adjust their rules to improve safety, spectacle, fairness or possible economic interests; Formula 1 is a classic example.</p>
<p>With the 109th edition of the Tour de France starting on 1 July in Copenhagen, Denmark, how does the future look for <em>La Grande Boucle</em>?</p>
<h2>Slipping interest from spectators – but also a rebound</h2>
<p>Commentators and viewers of the Tour de France are entranced with its storied past, and many assert that it was better “before” – there was more uncertainty, more spectacle, fewer locked-in races. The thought is that cycling epics of the past were because technological had not yet taken over from the human factor, and the striking <a href="https://www.eurosport.fr/cyclisme/grand-et-puissant-comme-le-cyclisme-en-noir-et-blanc_sto7819066/story.shtml">black-and-white images</a> of the classic battles bring the idea home. Philosopher Roland Barthes called the Tour de France a <a href="http://gravillon.net/le-tour-au-rang-des-mythologies/">“modern myth”</a> and linked it to the importance of collectively held beliefs built in the past.</p>
<p>Technology such as radio headsets that relay orders from team managers and components that measure riders’ power are regularly accused of dulling the Tour de France. A decade ago, we were already paying attention to the <a href="https://aisel.aisnet.org/sim/vol12/iss3/3/">impact of radios on the course of the races</a>, and the debate is far from over.</p>
<p>While the Tour’s viewership has been <a href="https://sport-index.fr/2019/07/23/audience-en-hausse-pour-le-tour-de-france-2019/">steadily falling in recent years</a>, the 2021 edition had an overall audience of <a href="https://www.lequipe.fr/Medias/Actualites/42-4-millions-de-telespectateurs-ont-suivi-le-tour-sur-france-televisions/1271456">42.4 million</a>, a record. The creation of half-stages, time bonuses, the introduction of different jerseys, intermediate sprints and other measures have all been taken to make the race more dynamic, the last two editions of which were won by Slovenian rider Tadej Pogacar.</p>
<p>Does this mean that such changes have helped the Tour de France become more interesting to follow?</p>
<h2>The value of the yellow jersey</h2>
<p>For the sake of consistency, our analysis will take as its starting point the 1969 tour, when <a href="https://www.lesechos.fr/2016/07/pourquoi-ny-a-t-il-plus-dequipes-nationales-sur-le-tour-de-france-213568">branded teams returned</a>, more than five decades’ worth of data.</p>
<p>Over the past 50 years, the average speed of the race has increased (nowadays, just under 41 km/h) while the total distance has decreased. The equipment is also better, the teams are more structured, and the preparation of the riders is even more serious. The proof is in that the <a href="https://www.francetvinfo.fr/sports/tour-de-france/pourquoi-y-a-t-il-de-moins-en-moins-d-abandons-sur-le-tour-de-france_988069.html">drop-out rate</a> in the Tour de France has been falling – more than ever, the presence of team members is essential right to the end.</p>
<p>The following figure shows the percentage of final drop-out rate and the average final speed.</p>
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<p>We can also see that there is a clear decrease in the average gaps between the final winner and the runners-up. The following figure shows, for the last five decades, the gap between the winner and his runner-up and between the winner and the third.</p>
<p>Could this be a sign of a race that is becoming more and more competitive? One should be wary of such an interpretation, as the gaps can be controlled while minimising the risk, thanks to the work of the team members who control the race. So what objective criteria allow us to think that a Tour de France is truly disputed and potentially interesting to follow?</p>
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<p>Deliberately putting aside the jerseys or stage victories, the interest of the race is often linked to the “battle” for the yellow jersey (the first in the time classification). In other words, if control of the yellow jersey is uncertain, there should be a greater interest in following the race.</p>
<p>The uncertainty inherent in the control of the yellow jersey is based on two dimensions: the strong variation of the riders wearing it throughout the race and the weakness of the final gaps.</p>
<h2>The 2010s, the era of “controlled” Tours</h2>
<p>Based on the data collected on the website <a href="http://www.procyclingstats.com/">procyclingstats.com</a>, we made a series of measurements for each Tour concerning the number of different yellow jersey wearers, the number of days the final winner held the jersey, the number of the stage that saw the last yellow jersey change hands, and then, as seen above, the final gaps between the first three.</p>
<p>An analysis allows us to position and rank the 51 Tours de France since 1969 as shown in the following diagram. (Note that while the US rider Lance Armstrong’s seven victories were withdrawn due to doping, the data has been retained for statistical analysis.)</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353128/original/file-20200817-22-oem397.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353128/original/file-20200817-22-oem397.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353128/original/file-20200817-22-oem397.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353128/original/file-20200817-22-oem397.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353128/original/file-20200817-22-oem397.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=687&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353128/original/file-20200817-22-oem397.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=687&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/353128/original/file-20200817-22-oem397.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=687&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Positioning of the Tours de France according to the size of the gaps and the variation in yellow jerseys.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">author</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The top-left quadrant (in red) corresponds to the Tours that are strongly dominated (large gaps and few different yellow jerseys). We will call them “locked” races, and they’re often the least interesting to follow. We will find a good number of Tours from the 1970s with the domination of the Belgian champion Eddy Merckx. The last “locked” Tour was in 2014 with the victory of Italian Vincenzo Nibali when several favourites abandoned.</p>
<p>The top-right quadrant (in orange) corresponds to Tours where the number of riders wearing the yellow jersey has varied greatly, but the final gap is significant. This is a classic pattern during the 1980s when large gaps were created. These are “open and then closed” Tours.</p>
<p>The bottom-left quadrant (in blue) shows Tours where the final gaps are smaller but the control of the yellow jersey is higher. These are the “controlled” Tours, the basic trend of the 2010s with the victories of the British team Sky with Bradley Wiggins, Christopher Froome and Geraint Thomas.</p>
<p>The racing patterns of Spain’s Miguel Indurain in the 1990s are linked to this category. With the strength of his team and his domination of the time trial, the winner does not need to open up a big gap. It is a scientific management of the race where the “marginal gains” prove decisive and the suspense is short-lived.</p>
<p>The bottom-right quadrant corresponds to the most interesting Tours de France – in our opinion – because the final gap is small and there was a strong variation in the yellow jersey holders. They include 1983 (the first victory of Laurent Fignon, with 20 different stage winners), 1987 (Irishman Stephen Roche and his neck-and-neck race with Spanish rival Pedro Delgado), 1989 (which ended with American Greg LeMond winning by a mere 8 seconds over Laurent Fignon) and 1990 (also won by LeMond). The 2019 Tour de France, with the victory of Colombian Egan Bernal and the pugnacity of France’s Julian Alaphilippe, was a pleasant surprise.</p>
<p>Our results clearly indicate the advent of races where the gaps are small but where the final winner emerges very early on; these “controlled” Tours are dominant in the recent past (2010s).</p>
<h2>Technology does not explain everything</h2>
<p>Yes, the cycling authorities are right to change the rules of the races to encourage more dynamism, but the Tours back in the “glory days” were not necessarily more exciting. Certainly, the reduction in the gaps between the frontrunners suggests that the latest Tours de France show a greater control of the race: the winner, without failing, keeps his opponents at a close distance. The banning of technology (earpieces, power meters, GPS) may make sense, but the recent trend is similar to that of the 1970s, which were devoid of such informational tools.</p>
<p>Technology does not explain everything, and regulation of team composition seems more sensible than a ban on technology used in racing (like the <a href="https://www.rtl.fr/sport/autres-sports/tour-de-france-2009-les-equipes-refusent-d-abandonner-l-oreillette-5564657">2009 attempt</a>).</p>
<p>The question of the viewer’s perception of the race also seems to be crucial to better understand the problem. Historically, the Tour has been a race magnified by the written press and then by the radio, which have capitalised on a few race facts to tell what the audience could not see.</p>
<p>The stages are now covered in full, with cameras more important than pens, GPS transponders placed on the bikes and the real-time processing of data indicate to everyone the precise position of the riders.</p>
<p>Uncertainty, in economic theory, is based on an absence of information. The viewer is less and less in a state of uncertainty and this changes his or her perception of the race. As a result, a moderating effect may appear, which indicates that races without a real battle will be perceived as much more boring, whereas races with a lot of action will be more appreciated. This effect amplifies the relationship between the actual event and the viewer’s perception of it, will continue to grow with the technologies available to the viewers and the media.</p>
<p>It is therefore even more crucial that the rules be modified, possibly in a heuristic way, to encourage the appearance of exciting race events. It’ll be interesting to see how the 2022 Tour turns out, to find which quadrant it ends up in.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186162/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gaël Gueguen ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Technology is often blamed for “locking down” major bike races and making them predictable. Yet data analysis shows that Tours in the “classic era” weren’t always thrill rides.Gaël Gueguen, Professeur en Stratégie et en Entrepreneuriat, TBS EducationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1860882022-06-30T14:25:25Z2022-06-30T14:25:25ZWinning the Tour de France requires subtle physics, young muscles and an obscene amount of calories – 3 essential reads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471684/original/file-20220629-15-kvfn1y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C52%2C2992%2C2053&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Last year's Tour de France winner was Tadej Pogacar, in the yellow jersey here – his second consecutive Tour title.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/tadej-pogacar-followed-by-jonas-vingegaard-during-the-climb-news-photo/1234302769?adppopup=true">SOPA Images/LightRocket via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.letour.fr/en/">2022 Tour de France is here</a>. Starting in Copenhagen on July 1, the tour <a href="https://www.letour.fr/en/overall-route">covers almost 2,100 miles (3,380 kilometers)</a> over 24 days of riding through Denmark, Belgium, Switzerland and France. The tour is a feat of human athleticism, but to really understand how incredible it is to complete the race – much less win it – requires thinking about a unique blend of physics, biology and physiology. Mix those up just right and you get a Tour de France champion.</p>
<p>Over the years, The Conversation has published a series of stories covering the science of the Tour de France and elite athletics. Below are excerpts from three of those stories to help you better appreciate this spectacular race.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471687/original/file-20220629-22-3rg1tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A wood engraving of two people riding old-school big wheel bikes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471687/original/file-20220629-22-3rg1tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471687/original/file-20220629-22-3rg1tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471687/original/file-20220629-22-3rg1tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471687/original/file-20220629-22-3rg1tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471687/original/file-20220629-22-3rg1tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=654&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471687/original/file-20220629-22-3rg1tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=654&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471687/original/file-20220629-22-3rg1tr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=654&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Bicycles have changed a lot since they were first invented in the early 1800s, but the principles of keeping the bike below the rider’s center of gravity remain the same.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_American_Velocipede.jpg#/media/File:The_American_Velocipede.jpg">Theodore R. Davis / Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
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<h2>1. The biomechanics of riding a bike</h2>
<p>Riding a bike is an easy thing to do once you learn, but the physics of how bikes and riders work together is surprisingly complicated. As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=7XdBQfAAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Stephen Cain, a mechanical engineer</a> at West Virginia University, explains, “A big part of balancing a bicycle has to do with controlling the center of mass of the rider-bicycle system.” Basically, you have to keep the center of mass above the wheels – otherwise you tip over. </p>
<p>“Bicycle riders can use two main balancing strategies: steering and body movement relative to the bike,” says Cain. Steering keeps the bike underneath you while body movements subtly shift your center of gravity. Cain and his colleagues ran a study to understand the difference between how novice and professional cyclists balance a bike, and as he says in his article, they found that “both novice and expert riders exhibit similar balance performance at slow speeds. But at higher speeds, expert riders achieve superior balance performance by employing smaller but more effective body movements and less steering.” </p>
<p>This fine-scale control is why the racers in the Tour de France barely look like they are steering at all. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-mysterious-biomechanics-of-riding-and-balancing-a-bicycle-55093">The mysterious biomechanics of riding – and balancing – a bicycle</a>
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<h2>2. How many calories do Tour riders burn?</h2>
<p>Think back to the last time you did some hard exercise and how hungry you were that evening. Now imagine how hungry you would be if you needed to ride your bike over 100 miles (165 km) and climb nearly 10,000 feet (about 3,050 meters) of elevation in less than five hours. This is what racers will have to do during Stage 12 of this year’s race as they traverse mountain passes through the French Alps. As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=eHzYy_EAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Eric Goff, a sports physicist</a> at the University of Lynchburg explains, the cyclists are going to need a lot of fuel to pull this off. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471689/original/file-20220629-26-6ezm1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A pile of hamburgers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471689/original/file-20220629-26-6ezm1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471689/original/file-20220629-26-6ezm1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471689/original/file-20220629-26-6ezm1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471689/original/file-20220629-26-6ezm1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471689/original/file-20220629-26-6ezm1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471689/original/file-20220629-26-6ezm1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471689/original/file-20220629-26-6ezm1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Riders will burn around 120,000 calories over the course of the race, roughly equivalent to 210 Big Mac hamburgers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/set-of-tasty-and-delicious-burgers-royalty-free-image/1318786684">Arbi Lena / iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
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<p>“To make a bicycle move, a Tour de France rider transfers energy from his muscles, through the bicycle and to the wheels that push back on the ground,” says Goff. Professional cyclists are in another league when it comes to producing power with their legs, but they are still limited by basic human biology. “Muscles, like any machine, can’t convert 100% of food energy directly into energy output,” explains Goff. “Muscles can be anywhere between 2% efficient when used for activities like swimming and 40% efficient in the heart.”</p>
<p>With mountains to climb and glory to claim, riders need to fuel their muscles with food. In his story, Goff calculates that over the course of the Tour de France, racers will burn an astonishing 120,000 calories – the equivalent of about 210 Big Macs.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tour-de-france-how-many-calories-will-the-winner-burn-163043">Tour de France: How many calories will the winner burn?</a>
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<h2>3. Biology explains why professional athletes are young</h2>
<p>When you watch the Tour de France, soccer’s World Cup or the Olympics, it’s common to see a young teenage phenom, but it’s rare for anyone over the age of 40 to be competing.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LVVwm9EM4XM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Professional cyclists are some of the fittest people on the planet, able to race up hills after biking for a hundred miles.</span></figcaption>
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<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4-73LroAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Roger Fielding, an aging and exercise researcher</a> at Tufts University, writes that “old and young people build muscle in the same way.” But there is a biological reason no 50-year-old has ever won the Tour de France: “As you age, many of the biological processes that turn exercise into muscle become less effective.”</p>
<p>Muscles grow thanks to a number of complicated cellular pathways that are activated during exercise. When this network of receptors and signaling chemicals gets triggered, the body responds by increasing muscle size – and even makes some small tweaks to what genes are active. But as Fielding explains, in older people “the signal telling muscles to grow is much weaker for a given amount of exercise. These changes begin to occur when a person reaches around 50 years old and become more pronounced as time goes on.” </p>
<p>Many people can and do get into the best shape of their lives when they are in their 50s or 60s. But the fact that it is harder to get fit as you age is a major reason why it’s so important for older people to exercise – and why you won’t see any retirees leading the peloton in the Tour de France. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/50-year-old-muscles-just-cant-grow-big-like-they-used-to-the-biology-of-how-muscles-change-with-age-172941">50-year-old muscles just can’t grow big like they used to – the biology of how muscles change with age</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186088/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Three scientists explain the biology and physics of what goes into one of the world’s most grueling races, the Tour de France.Daniel Merino, Associate Breaking News Editor and Co-Host of The Conversation Weekly PodcastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1860972022-06-30T12:23:47Z2022-06-30T12:23:47ZTour de France: How many calories will the winner burn?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471704/original/file-20220629-22-qb8z5u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4132%2C3229&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Tour de France is one of the most physically taxing sporting feats imaginable.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/team-uae-emirates-tadej-pogacar-of-slovenia-wearing-the-news-photo/1233993203?adppopup=true">Phillippe Lopez/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">CC-BY-ND.</span>
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<p>Imagine you begin pedaling from the <a href="https://www.letour.fr/en/stage-12">start of Stage 12</a> of <a href="https://www.letour.fr/en">this year’s Tour de France</a>. Your very first task would be to bike approximately 20.6 miles (33.2 km) up to the peak of <a href="https://www.cyclinglocations.com/col-du-galibier-alps/">Col du Galibier</a> in the French Alps while gaining around 4,281 feet (1,305 m) of elevation. But this is only the first of three big climbs in your day. Next you face the peak of <a href="https://climbfinder.com/en/climbs/col-de-la-croix-de-fer">Col de la Croix de Fer</a> and then end the 102.6-mile (165.1-km) stage by taking on the famous <a href="https://climbfinder.com/en/climbs/alpe-d-huez">Alpe d'Huez</a> climb with its 21 serpentine turns. </p>
<p>On the fittest day of my life, I might not even be able to finish Stage 12 – much less do it in anything remotely close to the five hours or so the winner will take to finish the ride. And Stage 12 is just one of 21 stages that must be completed in the 24 days of the tour.</p>
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<iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/tour-de-france-how-many-calories-will-the-winner-burn-186097&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
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<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=eHzYy_EAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">I am a sports physicist</a>, and I’ve <a href="http://johnericgoff.blogspot.com/">modeled the Tour de France</a> for nearly two decades using terrain data – like what I described for Stage 12 – and the laws of physics. But I still cannot fathom the physical capabilities needed to complete the world’s most famous bike race. Only an elite few humans are capable of completing a Tour de France stage in a time that’s measured in hours instead of days. The reason they’re able to do what the rest of us can only dream of is that these athletes can produce enormous amounts of power. Power is the rate at which cyclists burn energy and the energy they burn comes from the food they eat. And over the course of the Tour de France, the winning cyclist will burn the equivalent of roughly 210 Big Macs.</p>
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<h2>Cycling is a game of watts</h2>
<p>To make a bicycle move, a Tour de France rider transfers energy from his muscles, through the bicycle and to the wheels that push back on the ground. The faster a rider can put out energy, the greater the power. This rate of energy transfer is often measured in watts. Tour de France cyclists are capable of generating enormous amounts of power for incredibly long periods of time compared to most people.</p>
<p>For about 20 minutes, a fit recreational cyclist can consistently put out <a href="https://www.roadbikerider.com/average-wattage-cycling/">250 watts to 300 watts</a>. Tour de France cyclists can produce <a href="https://www.bicycling.com/racing/a20041587/cool-things-we-learned-from-tour-de-france-strava-files/">over 400 watts for the same time period</a>. These pros are even capable of <a href="https://www.cyclist.co.uk/in-depth/539/how-much-better-are-pro-cyclists">hitting 1,000 watts</a> for short bursts of time on a steep uphill – <a href="https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x6l981y">roughly enough power</a> to run a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(power)">microwave oven</a>.</p>
<p>But not all of the energy a Tour de France cyclist puts into his bike gets turned into forward motion. Cyclists battle air resistance and frictional losses between their wheels and the road. They get help from gravity on downhills but they have to fight gravity while climbing. </p>
<p>I incorporate all of the physics associated with cyclist power output as well as the effects of gravity, air resistance and friction <a href="http://johnericgoff.blogspot.com/">into my model</a>. Using all that, I estimate that a typical Tour de France winner needs to put out an average of about 325 watts over the roughly 80 hours of the race. Recall that most recreational cyclists would be happy if they could produce 300 watts for just 20 minutes!</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A pile of hamburgers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Racers in the Tour de France need to eat three to four times as many calories as a person does normally.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/close-up-of-stack-against-black-background-royalty-free-image/1208752640?adppopup=true">Pietro Agliata/EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Turning food into miles</h2>
<p>So where do these cyclists get all this energy from? Food, of course! </p>
<p>But your muscles, like any machine, can’t convert 100% of food energy directly into energy output – muscles can be anywhere between <a href="https://www.pearson.ch/HigherEducation/Pearson/EAN/9780139228162/Mechanics-Heat-and-the-Human-Body">2% efficient when used for activities like swimming and 40% efficient in the heart</a>. In my model, I use an average efficiency of 20%. Knowing this efficiency as well as the energy output needed to win the Tour de France, I can then estimate how much food the winning cyclist needs.</p>
<p>Top Tour de France cyclists who complete all 21 stages burn about 120,000 calories during the race – or an average of nearly 6,000 calories per stage. On some of the more difficult mountain stages – like this year’s Stage 12 – racers will burn close to 8,000 calories. To make up for these huge energy losses, riders eat delectable treats such as <a href="https://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/racing/tour-de-france/this-is-what-you-have-to-eat-to-compete-in-the-tour-de-france-182775">jam rolls, energy bars and mouthwatering “jels” so they don’t waste energy chewing</a>. </p>
<p>Tadej Pogačar won both the 2021 and 2020 Tour de France and <a href="https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/tadej-pogacar">weighs only 146 pounds</a> (66 kilograms). Tour de France cyclists don’t have much fat to burn for energy. They have to keep putting food energy into their bodies so they can put out energy at what seems like a superhuman rate. So this year, while watching a stage of the Tour de France, note how many times the cyclists eat – now you know the reason for all that snacking.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=youresmart">You can read us daily by subscribing to our newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of a story originally published on June 24, 2021.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186097/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Eric Goff does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Riders in the 2022 Tour de France will ride more than 2,100 miles (3,400 km) over the 21 flat and mountainous stages of the race. And they will burn an incredible amount of energy while doing so.John Eric Goff, Professor of Physics, University of LynchburgLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1636052021-06-30T13:28:42Z2021-06-30T13:28:42ZTour de France crash: Legal action not worth disrupting the long history of fan involvement<p>Calamity marred the opening stage of the 2021 Tour de France, with two harrowing crashes in the final 45km of the stretch from Brest to Landernau. </p>
<p>The second of the two was a “normal” cycling crash – one rider’s wheels clipped another, causing a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8u8SCv6qI-M">mass pile up</a> and leaving two riders unable to continue.</p>
<p>But it was the first incident that has been controversial due to its cause – a roadside spectator’s homemade cardboard sign. French police have arrested the fan whose sign interfered with the race, causing German rider Tony Hans-Joachim Martin to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bh5y1q-MDl0">swerve into other riders</a> and bring down most of the peloton. The fan holding the sign that read “Allez Omi Opi!” (roughly translated as “Go Grandpa and Grandma”) left the scene, and Belgian rider Jasper Stuyven later <a href="https://twitter.com/Jasperstuyven/status/1408817818854998017">tweeted</a> “I hope Omi & Opi are proud of you.”</p>
<p>Race deputy director Pierre-Yves Thouault <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210626-spectator-to-be-sued-after-tour-de-france-crash">announced</a> organisers’ plans to take legal action against the fan: “We are suing this woman who behaved so badly. We are doing this so that the tiny minority of people who do this don’t spoil the show for everyone.” </p>
<p>The spectator was clearly careless, looking the wrong way and creating an obstruction with her sign, but it is questionable whether legal action is either realistic or sensible. A huge attraction of the Tour, which is economically important for host cities, is the shared experience of its history and culture among spectators, and with that, the possibility of crashes. </p>
<h2>Spectators and speeding objects</h2>
<p>In 1994, a policeman stepped out to take a photograph around a corner, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5n6RjE-oWCE">causing a crash</a> and several rider injuries. Five years later, Giuseppe Guerini <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QFbGAdUkBPQ">crashed</a> into another spectator standing in the middle of the road taking a picture.</p>
<p>In 2006, it was again cardboard that was the cause of an injury, when Norwegian rider Thor Hushovd was cut by a green cardboard hand waved by a spectator. Ironically, these “hands” had been given out by one of the sponsors. </p>
<p>These incidents are almost inevitable given the proximity of spectators to the fast-travelling riders. The Tour is a huge affair, taking place over 23 days with 21 stages covering 3,500km. It attracts somewhere between 10 and 12 million spectators annually, making it France’s <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/16078055.2020.1798054">second most popular tourist attraction</a> behind Disneyland Paris. </p>
<p>Of course, there is potential to cause harm whenever you pair sports spectators with fast-moving objects. However, in other sports the injury is normally to the viewers – especially if they stray onto the track. In January 2021, a racegoer entered the Wellington Cup racetrack in New Zealand, <a href="https://www.tvnz.co.nz/one-news/sport/other/-idiot-trespasser-runs-onto-track-wellington-cup-narrowly-avoids-disaster">narrowly avoiding injury</a> as the horses sped past him. </p>
<p>The most infamous racecourse example was the death of suffragette Emily Davison who was killed by King George V’s horse Anmer at the 1913 Epsom Derby as she made a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qkU_imbFoE">political protest</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1408817818854998017"}"></div></p>
<h2>Regulating on the roads</h2>
<p>Leaving aside the cultural history of spectator involvement, it is the Tour’s sheer enormity that makes strict crowd control challenging, especially in more remote viewing areas. It is particularly difficult for organisers to control and regulate events that take place on public roads where fans have easy access and can get close to the action. </p>
<p>There are many examples aside from the Tour de France in motor sports, such as the infamous and often deadly Isle of Man TT races and the Monaco Grand Prix. The 24 hours of Le Mans combines a private track and public roads – this event was the site of the worst motor sport disaster, <a href="https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/lifestyle/article/le-mans-1955-disaster">killing 83 spectators</a> in 1955.</p>
<p>In the case of the Tour de France, the potential danger of mixing speeding cyclists and spectators is trumped by the historic, cultural link between the public and the race. This dimension is part of what makes the Tour de France a globally beloved event, and any legal action against the fan will not have a positive outcome. Barriers cannot be installed everywhere, so self-policing is fundamental, but people will always do careless things. No doubt the mystery fan, who will undoubtedly be embarrassed and appalled at the outcome of her actions, will be found and castigated on social media.</p>
<p>Little is to be gained by legal action – though the threat alone may have the desired effect of reminding spectators of their responsibilities. Of the two crashes on stage one of the Tour, the one caused by the careless fan led to one rider withdrawing. But the other accident – caused by riders – led to two cyclists leaving the tour. Crashes are part of the event, however they happen.</p>
<p>Doug Ryder, team principal of African team Qhubeka NextHash, disagreed with the race promoter’s intention to pursue the viewer. “A good conversation has to take place, but I don’t think suing … can help,” <a href="https://www.fr24news.com/a/2021/06/its-not-a-circus-tour-de-france-accident-caused-by-fan-is-last-on-long-list.html">he said</a>. “But people need to realise that the speed is high and focus on the riders not on a screen or a moment of glory.”</p>
<p>This incident is a reminder of both the thrill of the close physical relationship between fan and rider, and also the potential risks to both parties. But it is not an area where the law needs to become unnecessarily involved.</p>
<p><em>Update: The original version of this article said that “the French police are now seeking the fan whose sign interfered with the race”. The article has been update to reflect the fact that the fan, suspected of causing the fall, has <a href="https://www.francetvinfo.fr/tour-de-france/tour-de-france-la-spectatrice-soupconnee-d-avoir-provoque-la-chute-de-coureurs-interpellee_4684399.html">been arrested</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163605/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steve Greenfield does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A fan’s sign caused a massive pile up at the Tour de France. But should the event’s organisers take legal action?Steve Greenfield, Professor of Sports Law and Practice, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1630432021-06-24T18:17:19Z2021-06-24T18:17:19ZTour de France: How many calories will the winner burn?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407957/original/file-20210623-17-1ye6i7d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C16%2C1569%2C1015&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tour de France riders have to eat constantly to replenish the energy they burn. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/filipbossuyt/50369397086/">Filip Bossuyt/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407956/original/file-20210623-21-1kl10a5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">CC-BY-ND.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Imagine you begin pedaling from the <a href="https://www.letour.fr/en/stage-17">start of Stage 17</a> of <a href="https://www.letour.fr/en">this year’s Tour de France</a>. First, you would bike approximately 70 miles (112 km) with a gradual increase in elevation of around 1,300 feet (400 m). But you’ve yet to hit the fun part: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hautes-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es">Hautes-Pyrénées</a> mountains. Over the next 40 miles (64 km) you would have to climb three <a href="https://www.letour.fr/en/stage-17">mountain peaks with a net increase of a mile (1.6 km) in elevation</a>. On the fittest day of my life, I might not even be able to finish Stage 17 – much less do it in anything remotely close to the five hours or so the winner will take to finish the ride. And Stage 17 is just one of 21 stages that must be completed in the 23 days of the tour.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=eHzYy_EAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">I am a sports physicist</a>, and I’ve <a href="http://johnericgoff.blogspot.com/">modeled the Tour de France</a> for nearly two decades using terrain data – like what I described for Stage 17 – and the laws of physics. But I still cannot fathom the physical capabilities needed to complete the world’s most famous bike race. Only an elite few humans are capable of completing a Tour de France stage in a time that’s measured in hours instead of days. The reason they’re able to do what the rest of us can only dream of is that these athletes can produce enormous amounts of power. Power is the rate at which cyclists burn energy and the energy they burn comes from the food they eat. And over the course of the Tour de France, the winning cyclist will burn the equivalent of roughly 210 Big Macs.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/S4O5voOCqAQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Cycling is a game of watts</h2>
<p>To make a bicycle move, a Tour de France rider transfers energy from his muscles, through the bicycle and to the wheels that push back on the ground. The faster a rider can put out energy, the greater the power. This rate of energy transfer is often measured in watts. Tour de France cyclists are capable of generating enormous amounts of power for incredibly long periods of time compared to most people.</p>
<p>For about 20 minutes, a fit recreational cyclist can consistently put out <a href="https://www.roadbikerider.com/average-wattage-cycling/">250 watts to 300 watts</a>. Tour de France cyclists can produce <a href="https://www.bicycling.com/racing/a20041587/cool-things-we-learned-from-tour-de-france-strava-files/">over 400 watts for the same time period</a>. These pros are even capable of <a href="https://www.cyclist.co.uk/in-depth/539/how-much-better-are-pro-cyclists">hitting 1,000 watts</a> for short bursts of time on a steep uphill – <a href="https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x6l981y">roughly enough power</a> to run a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(power)">microwave oven</a>.</p>
<p>But not all of the energy a Tour de France cyclist puts into his bike gets turned into forward motion. Cyclists battle air resistance and frictional losses between their wheels and the road. They get help from gravity on downhills but they have to fight gravity while climbing. </p>
<p>I incorporate all of the physics associated with cyclist power output as well as the effects of gravity, air resistance and friction <a href="http://johnericgoff.blogspot.com/">into my model</a>. Using all that, I estimate that a typical Tour de France winner needs to put out an average of about 325 watts over the roughly 80 hours of the race. Recall that most recreational cyclists would be happy if they could produce 300 watts for just 20 minutes!</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A pile of hamburgers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407960/original/file-20210623-21-fn773v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Racers in the Tour de France need to eat three to four times as many calories as a person does normally.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/close-up-of-stack-against-black-background-royalty-free-image/1208752640?adppopup=true">Pietro Agliata/EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Turning food into miles</h2>
<p>So where do these cyclists get all this energy from? Food, of course! </p>
<p>But your muscles, like any machine, can’t convert 100% of food energy directly into energy output – muscles can be anywhere between <a href="https://www.pearson.ch/HigherEducation/Pearson/EAN/9780139228162/Mechanics-Heat-and-the-Human-Body">2% efficient when used for activities like swimming and 40% efficient in the heart</a>. In my model, I use an average efficiency of 20%. Knowing this efficiency as well as the energy output needed to win the Tour de France, I can then estimate how much food the winning cyclist needs.</p>
<p>Top Tour de France cyclists who complete all 21 stages burn about 120,000 calories during the race – or an average of nearly 6,000 calories per stage. On some of the more difficult mountain stages – like this year’s Stage 17 – racers will burn close to 8,000 calories. To make up for these huge energy losses, riders eat delectable treats such as <a href="https://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/racing/tour-de-france/this-is-what-you-have-to-eat-to-compete-in-the-tour-de-france-182775">jam rolls, energy bars and mouthwatering “jels” so they don’t waste energy chewing</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/tadej-pogacar">Last year’s winner</a>, Tadej Pogačar, weighs only 146 pounds. Tour de France cyclists don’t have much fat to burn for energy. They have to keep putting food energy into their bodies so they can put out energy at what seems like a superhuman rate. So this year, while watching a stage of the Tour de France, note how many times the cyclists eat – now you know the reason for all that snacking.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=youresmart">You can read us daily by subscribing to our newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163043/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Eric Goff does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Riders in the 2021 Tour de France will ride more than 2,100 miles (3,400 km) over the 21 flat and mountainous stages of the race. And they will burn an incredible amount of energy while doing so.John Eric Goff, Professor of Physics, University of LynchburgLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1463742020-09-22T15:29:52Z2020-09-22T15:29:52ZCycling: head injuries ignored because of entrenched macho culture<p>Competitive road cycling is a demanding and unique sport. One where <a href="https://theconversation.com/tour-de-france-does-pro-cycling-have-a-concussion-problem-100419">crashing is inevitable</a> – especially at the professional level. </p>
<p>While the risk of head injury is relatively low in cycling – <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/50/11/669.short">approximately 5-13%</a> – compared to contact sports such as rugby, the consequences of a head impact when riding at speeds of over 40 kilometre per hour can be life changing or worse. </p>
<p>Yet too often, riders are helped back onto their bikes following a crash, without a clear examination for head injuries. And little seems to have changed in the past three years since the high-profile case of Latvian cyclist <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2017/05/16/concussed-cyclist-crashes-in-tour-of-california-tries-to-rejoin-race-and-is-pulled/">Tom Skujins</a> – who was allowed to continue racing at the 2017 Tour of California while showing clear signs of head trauma. </p>
<p>Even in the recent 2020 Tour de France, French rider <a href="https://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/racing/tour-de-france/scan-reveals-romain-bardet-suffered-small-brain-haemorrhage-in-tour-de-france-crash-467917">Romain Bardet crashed</a> on stage 13 and was cleared to ride the remaining 90 km by race medics. This was despite showing clear signs of concussion. He was later diagnosed with a brain haemorrhage. </p>
<p>Cycling’s world governing body, Union Cycliste Internationale, UCI, <a href="https://www.uci.org/docs/default-source/rules-and-regulations/part-xiii--medical-rules.pdf">regulations state</a> that: “any rider with a suspected concussion should be immediately removed from the competition or training and urgently assessed medically”. Yet this is rarely enforced in road cycling, at any level. </p>
<h2>Head injury in other sports</h2>
<p>In other sports, visible efforts and new policies are being developed to help tackle this issue. In the 2019 Rugby World Cup, for example, the implementation of the <a href="https://playerwelfare.worldrugby.org/concussion">head injury assessment</a> protocol was more prominent than ever, with fans witnessing the use of this in the competition. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/cricket/ashes-2019-icc-england-australia-concussion-rules-news-latest-a9012471.html">Cricket has also introduced</a> concussion substitutions to minimise risk to players. And some football teams have now imposed <a href="https://www.skysports.com/football/news/11743/11845087/eddie-howe-bournemouth-have-heading-ban-for-youth-players">heading bans</a> at youth level.</p>
<p>Seeing these measures in place at professional and grassroots levels helps to normalise safer injury management and raises awareness of traumatic brain injuries. It also empowers athletes to more readily disclose any concerns about potential head injuries. </p>
<p>Yet cycling remains a leading example of athletes sacrificing their bodies for sporting glory. Indeed, <a href="https://jsc-journal.com/index.php/JSC/article/view/499/534">new research</a> reveals a significant numbers of competitive cyclists would compete following a concussion – or mask it to continue in a competition. </p>
<p>These athletes are often then celebrated for <a href="https://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/other-sports/cycling/tour-de-france-fractured-pelvis-2947799">competing through injury</a> and are usually met with cheering fans – all of which only serves to reinforce a vicious cycle. </p>
<h2>Cycling problems</h2>
<p>Of course, traumatic brain injuries and concussions, can and do have life changing impacts. And many <a href="https://cyclingtips.com/2020/01/the-crash-that-ended-one-career-and-started-another/">high profile athletes</a> have been forced to retire as a result – often living with the aftereffects of brain injury for a long time to come.</p>
<p>But part of the problem within cycling is that there are no internationally agreed concussion management <a href="https://www.headcheckhealth.com/concussion-cycling-call-to-action/">protocols in place</a>. This risks the health of the athletes at all levels of the sport and fails to protect young aspiring riders as they work their way up the ranks.</p>
<p>The management of injuries in cycling is also frequently sacrificed to the entrenched “hardman” culture of the sport and the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/apr/30/philippa-york-macho-culture-cyclists-coming-out">macho environment</a> of professional road cycling. </p>
<p>The structural makeup of cycling also jeopardises safe injury management. Races are rarely stopped for medical assessments after crashes and during high-profile multi-day races athletes must complete all stages to continue in competition – withdrawal is seen as an absolute last resort. </p>
<h2>Challenging attitudes</h2>
<p>A shift in the way the media reports crashes and injuries would help. Framing riders as heroes for removing themselves from competition, rather than praising athletes for putting sporting glory before their health, would be a first step. This would help to increase awareness and protect the long-term health of the athletes – and would also hopefully lead to action by the sport’s governing bodies.</p>
<p>This is important because the current situation not only puts pro cyclists at high risk of injury, but many amateur athletes also model their behaviours, training and style on their professional idols. And with limited protocols in place around head injuries, it’s likely they’ll turn to the culture of the sport – and what their idols do – for guidance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146374/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cycling remains a leading example of athletes sacrificing their bodies for sporting glory.Howard Hurst, Senior lecturer in Sport, Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, University of Central LancashireJack Hardwicke, PhD candidate in Sport, Health and Social Policy, University of WinchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1420922020-08-26T14:21:26Z2020-08-26T14:21:26ZTour de France 2020: facing up to professional cycling’s history of anti-blackness<p>This year’s edition of the Tour de France, cycling’s most prestigious event, begins on August 29. It would be a huge surprise if we see any riders during the event taking the knee and raising their fists in solidarity with Black Lives Matter and anti-racism, as has taken place this summer in sports such as <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/christopher-jullien-proud-to-take-the-knee-on-return-to-france-3mgw0t8r5">football</a>, <a href="https://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/cricket/breaking-england-cricket-players-take-22322435">cricket</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2020/aug/13/this-weekend-has-to-be-day-one-of-rugby-unions-fight-against-racism">rugby</a>.</p>
<p>Cycling’s world governing body, the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), resumed its racing season on August 1 with the <a href="https://www.strade-bianche.it/en/?refresh_ce-cp">Strade Bianche</a> race in Italy. Cyclists at this event and other UCI events which have followed have made no explicit gestures like the above mentioned sports towards championing anti-racism.</p>
<p>My <a href="https://road.cc/show/tags/dr-marlon-moncrieffe/168400">research</a> has shown evidence of racism and <a href="https://www.theroadbook.co.uk/2020/06/04/dr-marlon-moncrieffe-blackbritishlivesmatterincycling/">particularly anti-blackness</a> in elite and professional <a href="http://lacourseentete.com/2020/06/the-peloton-of-whiteness-must-now-embrace-change/">cycling</a>. In 2018 and 2019, I toured this research work as an exhibition across the UK for public engagement, sharing what I had uncovered and exposed as a history of inequalities suffered by black British athletes in road and track cycling from the grassroots to the highest levels. </p>
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<p>Access to the dominant white world of cycling was the least of the issues for those very few British champion black athletes I spoke with in the course of my research. It was when they defeated the best of their white peers in high-stakes races that they became a serious threat to the status quo. Their existence in the white world of cycling became oppressive and difficult for them to navigate. </p>
<p>Take, for example, the experiences of <a href="https://journal.rouleur.cc/the-six-day-rider-maurice-burton/">Maurice Burton</a> and <a href="https://cyclingtips.com/2020/02/in-allegations-of-institutional-racism-a-black-british-riders-quest-for-change/">Russell Williams</a> in the prime of their careers. Between the 1970s and 1990s they amassed 21 British Championship titles between them. Nevertheless, they were both overlooked for Olympic selection. </p>
<p>Maurice left Britain and raced for a large amount of his career in Belgium. Russell stuck it out in Britain, but was short-changed for his efforts. </p>
<p>Another black British road-racer that followed was <a href="https://www.veloveritas.co.uk/2014/05/06/dave-clarke-may14/">David Clarke</a>. He was almost unbeatable as a prolific junior athlete, and after he won the Junior Tour of Wales in 1997, it was widely expected that he would be selected to represent Great Britain at the World Junior Championships later on that year, but the call never came. </p>
<p>UK cycling’s governing body, British Cycling, has <a href="https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=588702208592801">given some attention</a> to my research. Still, the extent to which it will reflect upon the historical evidence of racism given by black British cyclists is yet to be known.</p>
<p>The recent <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/03/us/george-floyd-protests-crowd-size.html">Black Lives Matter</a> protests in the UK and across the world have also offered British Cycling the opportunity to provide their 160,000 membership with a strong message on anti-racism in cycling, as it looks to <a href="https://www.britishcycling.org.uk/campaigning/article/cam20140207-British-Cycling-launches-10-point-plan-to-transform-Britain-into-a-true-cycling-nation-0">transform Britain</a> into a great cycling nation. This opportunity seems to have been missed.</p>
<h2>Anti-racist education</h2>
<p>In the midst of the Black Lives Matter protests, the world-governing UCI <a href="https://www.uci.org/news/2020/the-uci-for-diversity-in-cycling">produced a statement</a> which spoke of “respect of diversity” and how the “federation is closely associated with the symbol of the rainbow – representing the five continents”. </p>
<p>However, there is a difference between championing diversity and championing anti-racism in cycling. The former speaks to broadening ethnic representation and inclusion. An increase in ethnic diversity (particularly non-white cyclists) may be seen by some as being the natural transformation of a culture seeking worldwide appeal. However, by others this can be seen as threat to that culture’s traditions and norms in athlete representation. The latter can increase racial ignorance and racial prejudices. </p>
<p>Therefore, anti-racist education and messaging in cycling must be constant. Championing anti-racism in cycling means undertaking a lengthy campaign to eliminate the violence of racist behaviours that seek to undermine and oppress people – generally black people. </p>
<p>In 2019, the Tour de France produced its <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/jul/28/egan-bernal-becomes-first-colombian-to-win-the-tour-de-france">first non-white winner</a>: the Team Ineos rider Egal Bernal of Colombia. The possibility of a Colombian rider winning the tour <a href="https://www.velonews.com/news/road/why-colombia-keeps-producing-talented-cyclists/">was not a surprise</a>. Colombian athletes have been given access to the dominant white world of cycling for nearly 40 years, crossing the symbolic cultural boundaries of Eurocentrism and whiteness. The presence and participation of Colombian cyclists are now accepted as a norm in the race.</p>
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<img alt="Columbian cyclist Egan Bernal wearing the Tour de France yellow jersey." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/354075/original/file-20200821-22-1kincol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/354075/original/file-20200821-22-1kincol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=856&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354075/original/file-20200821-22-1kincol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=856&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354075/original/file-20200821-22-1kincol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=856&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354075/original/file-20200821-22-1kincol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1076&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354075/original/file-20200821-22-1kincol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1076&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/354075/original/file-20200821-22-1kincol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1076&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Egan Bernal, winner of the 2019 Tour de France.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://webgate.epa.eu/?20370008538715063107&SCOPE=QUEUE&EVENT=DISPLAY&LIGHTBOX=12808">EPA-EFE/GUILLAUME HORCAJUELO</a></span>
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<p>Over the last few years, the ethnic diversity of riders at the Tour de France has grown. Black cyclists who have ridden in the race include French riders <a href="https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/yohann-gene">Yohan Gène</a> and <a href="https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/kevin-reza">Kévin Reza</a>, <a href="https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/daniel-teklehaimanot">Daniel Teklehaimanot</a> and <a href="https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/merhawi-kudus">Merhawi Kudus</a> of Eritrea and <a href="https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/nickolas-dlamini">Nicholas Dlamini</a> of South Africa. However, the proportion of black riders in the Tour de France peloton remains extremely small.</p>
<p>It would be significant indeed if Bernal, along with Dlamini or Reza, decided to take the knee and raise a fist in solidarity with Black Lives Matter and anti-racism. What would be the response of their white European sponsors and peers? Would they see, understand and respect this message of anti-racism, joining them in solidarity, or would they shun them?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142092/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marlon Moncrieffe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>My research has shown evidence of racism and particularly anti-blackness in elite and professional cycling.Marlon Moncrieffe, School of Education, University of BrightonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1435472020-07-28T13:42:00Z2020-07-28T13:42:00ZVirtual Tour de France shows how esports has come of age during lockdown<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349895/original/file-20200728-27-1ffmh4k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1%2C1194%2C658&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Australian Will Clarke winning the 2020 Virtual Tour de France.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zwift</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Elite sports events are still largely closed to the world – but July 2020 has still been an unprecedented month for the global sporting calendar thanks to the world’s first Virtual Tour de France, which – despite the name – was based nowhere in particular, as riders took part from their homes in all parts of the world.</p>
<p>It’s historic, not just because the event brought together the world of esports cycling and the iconic and gruelling race – this was also the first time that women competed in a multistage Tour.</p>
<p>There were some key differences. Rather than being an individual race, it was run in teams, it was a lot shorter than the actual Tour and, most importantly, it involved cyclists sitting on their bikes indoors plugged into the Zwift virtual cycling system. Yet, for the audiences tuning in via YouTube, it’s easy to mistake it for an actual broadcast of a road race, as the graphics emulate the physical map and terrain of the route. Even the broadcast commentary was similar.</p>
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<p>The Tour is the latest in a whole range of digital innovations that have brought sports into the homes of millions of people during the COVID-19 lockdown, when they all had to press pause on their physical events programmes. </p>
<p>Yet, the foundation for these experiments were laid in January, when the president of the International Olympic Committee, Thomas Bach, told all International Sports Federations to <a href="https://youtu.be/rihy7JLpTwo?t=3328">figure out their esports strategy</a>. The urgency is all the more apparent when observing that all those sports sponsors – and broadcasters – are already aligning their brands with esports.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/esports-is-the-future-of-all-sports-heres-why-121335">Esports is the future of all sports – here's why</a>
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<p>Coca-Cola, Intel and Samsung, among many others, are <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/ef8539b6-be2a-11e7-9836-b25f8adaa111">already highly invested</a> in esports. David Beckham’s newly formed Guild Esports company <a href="https://www.guildesports.com/rocketleague">announced it will establish</a> a professional esports team for the 21st-century version of football, Rocket League, a videogame in which players race cars around an arena driving a ball towards a goal using the online platform Battlefy.</p>
<h2>Virtually the same</h2>
<p>COVID-19 has accelerated the alignment of elite sports industries with esports – and even those who previously dismissed esports as not being like real sport now have the IOC president to contend with. Bach noted that platforms like Zwift were absolutely the same as sports, suggesting a future in which virtual sport may be a bigger part of the elite sports scene. It may be no coincidence that the IOC’s Esports Liaison Group is chaired by the president of the International Cyclists Union, <a href="https://www.cyclist.co.uk/news/2997/who-is-new-uci-president-david-lappartient">David Lappartient</a>.</p>
<p>Soon after lockdown began, sports were racing to get in on the virtual action. Among the first was Formula One, which was nudged into producing “<a href="https://www.thesportsman.com/articles/norris-drives-on-at-not-the-australian-grand-prix-to-help-break-records">Not the Australian Grand Prix</a>”, when its Melbourne race was cancelled. Teaming up with Veloce Esports, F1’s first digital event used its official computer game to produce a unique experience, where gamers, F1 drivers and celebrities came together to race the Australian track.</p>
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<p>In the end, esports racer <a href="https://the-race.com/esports/f1-stars-charge-bereznay-wins-in-veloces-not-the-aus-gp/">Daniel Bereznay took the chequered flag</a> with former Dutch racing driver-turned-sim racer <a href="https://www.driverdb.com/drivers/jarno-opmeer/">Jarno Opmeer</a> coming in second.</p>
<p>In April, the ATP and WTA organised an esports tennis competition instead of the Mutua Madrid Open, using Nacon’s Tennis World Tour video game. Again, some of the world’s biggest names came together to compete. Great Britain’s <a href="https://www.lta.org.uk/about-us/tennis-news/news-and-opinion/general-news/2020/april/mutua-madrid-quarter-finals/">Andy Murray took the title</a>.</p>
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<p>Also in April, we saw the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/live/2020/apr/04/virtual-grand-national-2020-live-horse-racing-aintree">virtual Grand National</a> take place for the fourth time. This year was special, as – thanks to COVID-19 there was no accompanying physical race. Instead, racing fans – and gamblers – could tune into YouTube and watch a race of computer-generated horses, all of which had been expected starters for the actual race. The winner was decided in advance of the start gun being fired, based on the rider’s previous form, day conditions, among <a href="https://www.racingpost.com/news/2020-virtual-grand-national-runners-odds-how-it-works-and-all-the-key-details/430661">other factors</a>.</p>
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<p>This algorithm-driven sport may not feel much like sport for many – but it worked. We can expect to see a significant amount of business generated from gambling opportunities around virtual sports. </p>
<p>Football was slow to get back on to the pitch, and many clubs began experimenting with in-stadia innovations. By the time players were back on the field – without spectators – some clubs had set up <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1t2Han5IXAM">giant screens</a> inside the stadium giving the impression of thousands of fans. Clubs also experimented with <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevemccaskill/2020/03/31/sports-tech-comes-of-age-with-vr-training-coaching-apps-and-smart-gear/#54e4387d19c9">virtual reality to train players</a> and real-time canned audience sounds became part of a new language of broadcast production.</p>
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<p>The international basketball federation was next, producing the world’s first international <a href="http://www.fiba.basketball/news/stage-set-for-inaugural-fiba-esports-open-2020">esports version of its sport</a> in May using the game <a href="https://www.nba2k.com/">NBA 2K</a>. While the game has not previously impressed gamers, it did well to bring new audiences to basketball at a time when no live events were taking place.</p>
<p>Finally, there has also been a whole lot of esports happening during lockdown, occupying the space where many of these aspiring sports brands seek to locate themselves. Gaming has had a very good lockdown indeed – data shows that game sales and use have <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1109977/video-game-sales-covid/">grown significantly over 2020</a>.</p>
<h2>New ways to play</h2>
<p>Lockdown brought esports further into the mainstream – even the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/l002gjk1/esports-northern-league-of-legends-championship-league-stage-day-12">BBC broadcast</a> events on its digital platform. We also saw how the creative and cultural industries are coming together around esports titles. Of note were the virtual concerts that took place in Fortnite, particularly the American rapper Travis Scott’s spectacular performance, which could only be seen live if you were logged in as a player within Fortnite, prompting fans to download the title just to see the concert.</p>
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<p>In the same way that social media platforms such as TikTok and Instagram are establishing new markets and audiences, esports and the virtualisation of sport are showing how new economies are emerging around novel, digital sports experiences through gaming platforms.</p>
<p>While many of the COVID-19 esports events from international sports federations have been more showcase events than elite competition, they have paved the way for a new normal to emerge, not just for participants, but for the many industries that produce media events.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143547/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andy Miah is Board Member of the British Esports Association and Commission Member of the Global Esports Federation. Each of these roles is advisory and voluntary.</span></em></p>The success of the virtual road race shows how quickly esports are moving into the mainstream.Andy Miah, Chair in Science Communication & Future Media, University of SalfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1209472019-07-25T16:41:00Z2019-07-25T16:41:00ZA French victory in the Tour de France would mean ‘cycling’s coming home’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285722/original/file-20190725-136781-1n38qg0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C0%2C3372%2C2297&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/saintquentinfallavierfrance-jul-16the-french-national-champion-487812610">Radu Razvan/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>England’s football fans know what it is to have their hopes raised and then cruelly dashed as they watch their team outplayed and outmanoeuvred in a sport they consider to be their own. For English fans, this recurring nightmare is a biennial experience that coincides with the European Championships and the World Cup, and is mostly played out abroad. But pity the French, who must sit through their equivalent annually, when for three weeks each year for more than 30 years French riders in the Tour de France have struggled to impose themselves over their foreign rivals. All this in front of their home fans.</p>
<p>But this may be about to change. The young French rider <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cycling/49102194">Julian Alaphilippe</a> has worn the <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cycling/0/tour-de-france-2019-rules-what-jersey-colours-how-toilet/">yellow jersey</a> for most of this year’s edition and his compatriot <a href="http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/pinot-its-up-to-thomas-and-bernal-to-attack-in-final-tour-de-france-stages/">Thibaut Pinot</a> is well placed to win the general classification. Should either rider win, it will be the first French victory in the Tour since 1985, when <a href="https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/bernard-hinault">Bernard Hinault</a> won the general classification. Why, though, does this matter to a nation that, beyond the Tour, now pays less attention to cycling as a sport?</p>
<h2>Fed by national enmities</h2>
<p>The Tour may well be, as author Chris Sidwell titles his engaging history, <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/13327928-a-race-for-madmen">a race for madmen</a>, but it was mainly conceived as a race for Frenchmen. (And this emphasis on men explains in no small part organisers’ lack of investment in the idea of a <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grande_Boucle_F%C3%A9minine_Internationale">Tour féminin</a></em>.) On the eve of the first Tour de France in July 1903, the race’s founder Henri Desgrange used <a href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k46241894.item">his editorial</a> in the sporting daily L’Auto (which at that time owned the race) to explain how it would unite the French people, teach them about their nation and reinvigorate them through the energetic example set by competitors.</p>
<p>The Tour was launched at a time of immense international rivalry, principally with Germany. The need to re-energise the nation stemmed in part from the memory of the humiliating defeat to <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Franco-German-War">Prussia in 1871</a>, and the need to prepare for a new war with a reunified Germany, as Christopher Thompson notes in his excellent <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/France-Cultural-History-Updated-Preface/dp/0520256301">The Tour de France, A Cultural History</a>. It was a means of forging a new national spirit and a new form of French masculinity. For Desgrange, an arch-conservative, the Tour represented a form of moral as well as physical hygiene, designed to discipline its riders and, through them, to set an example to the crowds that flocked to cycling events throughout the interwar years.</p>
<p>Worried by the dominance of commercial teams but also in order to ensure an overdue French victory, Desgrange introduced national teams in 1930, a formula that was only ended by a boycott by leading professional, commercial teams in the 1960s. The Tour thus became a contest between France and its cycling neighbours, individual victories being shared by France, Belgium and Italy with occasional incursions by Luxembourg and Switzerland.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285740/original/file-20190725-136786-erkbot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/285740/original/file-20190725-136786-erkbot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285740/original/file-20190725-136786-erkbot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285740/original/file-20190725-136786-erkbot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285740/original/file-20190725-136786-erkbot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285740/original/file-20190725-136786-erkbot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/285740/original/file-20190725-136786-erkbot.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The final Tour de France stage on the Champs Elysee; here Chris Froome rides to victory in 2014, this year a Frenchman?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/paris-france-july-24-2016-road-458605333">Frederic Legrand - COMEO/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>A lens through which to see France</h2>
<p>At different times, the Tour de France has been used to say different things about France. The 1947 tour, for example, was a way of highlighting both France’s suffering in World War II and its resurgence. Later, and as the Tour expanded and drew in riders from Australia, the US and the countries of the former Soviet bloc, the inclusion of <em>grands départs</em> in other European nations, such as Brussels in 1958 (the year after the <a href="http://www.europarl.europa.eu/about-parliament/en/in-the-past/the-parliament-and-the-treaties/treaty-of-rome">Treaty of Rome</a>), suggested France’s place at the heart of the European project. But the Tour always comes home and, since 1975, has always finished on the Champs Elysées.</p>
<p>French victors have largely come from the rural and urban working classes, from <a href="https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/antonin-magne">Antonin Magne</a>, the son of farmers from the Cantal region who won in 1931 and 1934, to the legendary five-times winner <a href="https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/bernard-hinault">Bernard Hinault</a>, son of a Breton railway worker. The unpopularity of one of France’s greatest winners, <a href="https://theprologue.com/7-things-you-didnt-know-about-jacques-anquetil/">Jacques Anquetil</a>, among many French cycling fans of the 1960s, was due largely to his aristocratic airs. Nicknamed “<em>Maître Jacques</em>” (Master Jack), a title that suggests both his achievements and aloofness, he suffered through his rivalry with <a href="https://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/raymond-poulidor">Raymond Poulidor</a>, a farmer’s son from Creuse who finished on the podium eight times but never won a single edition.</p>
<p>Similarly, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2010/sep/01/laurent-fignon-obituary">Laurent Fignon</a> could never match the popularity of Hinault in the 1980s, despite being dubbed his successor. Bespectacled and thus nicknamed “the professor”, Fignon suffered the indignity of losing the yellow jersey and the Tour itself to the American Greg LeMond in the final stage in 1989. LeMond’s victory was in part due to his <a href="http://www.220triathlon.com/gear/bike/components/what-are-aerobars/10772.html">use of aerobars</a> that created a lower profile. Retrospectively, it is seen as having ushered in a new phase, dominated by high-end technology and globalisation. (One commentator at the time in fact put it down to the drag created by <a href="https://sportspoetssociety.blogspot.com/2017/02/the-divine-ponytail.html">Fignon’s ponytail</a>).</p>
<p>For French critics of the Tour, the doping scandals of the 1990s and the Lance Armstrong affair are the logical extension of this process. The domination of the Tour by the largely non-French-speaking Team Sky also fitted the narrative of a sport that has lost its way thanks to rampant commercialisation and overseas investment.</p>
<p>A win by Alaphilippe or, more likely, Pinot could begin to restore France’s faith in its Tour. Both offer a familiar story, one that fits the tradition of French cycling. Both are from the depths of rural France dear to a certain vision of the nation, and what opponents of globalisation see as its real values. Pinot especially is known for maintaining his <a href="https://rmcsport.bfmtv.com/mediaplayer/video/sur-les-traces-de-thibaut-pinot-839575.html">rural roots</a>. So a victory by either will go some way to ending the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJqimlFcJsM">30 years of hurt</a> French cycling fans have felt since Fignon’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zzjv1XpGJnc">dramatic failure</a>. England fans, on the other hand, are still waiting.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120947/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martin Hurcombe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If you think English footy fans have it hard losing in the semis in far away away tournaments, imagine being French and losing the Tour de France on your home turf every year.Martin Hurcombe, Professor of French Studies, School of Modern Languages, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1189182019-06-18T19:57:03Z2019-06-18T19:57:03ZSport is full of conspiracy theories – Chris Froome’s horrific cycling crash is just the latest example<p>The <a href="https://www.bbc.com/sport/cycling/48612884">recent crash</a> of four-time Tour de France winner Chris Froome put his attempt for a record-equalling 5th title on hold. (The 2019 <a href="https://www.letour.fr/en/">Tour de France</a> starts on July 6.) </p>
<p>But the spectacular, career-limiting smash also fuelled conspiracy theories surrounding the events leading up to and following the incident. </p>
<p>Conspiracy theories in sport are remarkably common. They help sports fans make sense of significant, unusual, and large-scale events. However, where those conspiracy theories have no basis in fact, they can lead to serious reputational harm to their subjects.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1140288601487478784"}"></div></p>
<p>Froome hit a wall at speed during reconnaissance at a <a href="https://www.letour.fr/en/">Tour de France</a> lead-up race, the <a href="https://www.criterium-du-dauphine.fr/en/">Critérium du Dauphiné</a>. </p>
<p>Team Ineos (formerly Team Sky) manager, Sir Dave Brailsford, told reporters Froome took his hands off the handlebars momentarily to blow his nose, and a gust of wind caused him to lose control.</p>
<p>It was a costly mistake that resulted in horrific, life-threatening injuries, including a <a href="https://www.teamineos.com/article/froome-ruled-out-of-tour-de-france">fractured femur, elbow, ribs, and neck</a>, and the <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cycling/2019/06/14/chris-froome-lost-four-pints-blood-criterium-du-dauphine-crash/">loss of nearly two litres of blood</a>.</p>
<p>This all happened before the day’s stage, so there was limited video or photographic evidence of the crash or injuries. </p>
<p>Almost immediately, <a href="https://twitter.com/MCaseum/status/1136974196607782913">alternative narratives</a> appeared, claiming to explain what really <a href="https://twitter.com/EwonSprokler/status/1140288601487478784">happened</a> and why. Even after images showed <a href="https://twitter.com/chrisfroome/status/1139902071216496640">Froome lying in his hospital bed</a>, the <a href="https://twitter.com/ffflow/status/1139903588661153793">narratives changed</a>.</p>
<p>Froome may take some comfort in not being alone as a target of conspiracy theories in sport. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-conspiracy-theories-arent-harmless-fun-43923">Why conspiracy theories aren’t harmless fun</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Sporting conspiracies are incredibly common</h2>
<p>You might have heard some of these conspiracy theories. There’s the poisoning of the New Zealand All Blacks the night before the <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/04/all-blacks-were-poisoned-before-1995-rugby-cup---mandela-bodygua/">1995 Rugby World Cup final</a>, Michael Jordan’s retirement from basketball to serve a <a href="https://bleacherreport.com/articles/131997-mjs-1st-retirement-was-it-a-secret-suspension">secret suspension for gambling</a>, Muhammad Ali’s <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2015/may/22/muhammad-ali-phantom-punch-sonny-liston-1965">phantom punch</a>, and a <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/sports/comments/113g3t/what_is_your_favorite_sports_conspiracy_theory/">host of other favourites</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1136974196607782913"}"></div></p>
<p>Cycling itself is no stranger to conspiracies theories either. There are claims that Laurent Fignon lost the <a href="https://www.velonews.com/2019/05/news/vn-archives-1984-giro-to-moser_494129">1984 Giro D'Italia to Italian Francesco Moser</a> because of a conspiracy by race organisers. Fignon argued that Moser had help from <a href="http://www.cyclingnews.com/features/the-two-gentlemen-of-verona-moser-vs-fignon-at-the-1984-giro-ditalia/">local race television</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>[…] while the helicopter was pushing Moser along, it was pushing me back.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>More recently, <a href="http://www.fabiancancellara.com/en/">Fabian Cancellara</a> was accused of propelling himself to victories using a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Nd13ARuvVE">hidden motor inside his bicycle</a>. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ynLMfzLTc8M">Spinning wheels</a>, and even <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qy6SCE9sMw8">Froome’s famous accelerations</a> have been questioned by fans.</p>
<p>In response, cycling’s governing body <a href="https://www.uci.org/news/2018/the-uci-presents-a-robust-action-plan-to-combat-technological-fraud-185708">updated its rules</a> and <a href="http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/132-motorised-doping-checks-at-tour-down-under-fdj-celebrate-20th-anniversary-news-shorts/">carried out thousands of bicycle checks</a>. </p>
<p>Despite suggestions of a widespread technological conspiracy by riders and teams, little evidence has surfaced (<a href="https://www.uci.org/news/2016/the-uci-announces-disciplinary-commission-decision-in-the-case-of-femke-van-den-driessche-176133">a single cyclocross rider was sanctioned</a>).</p>
<p>The conspiracy theory behind Froome’s sudden, dramatic and largely undocumented crash is unsurprising. </p>
<p>Being the richest cycling team, Sky/Ineos is no stranger to <a href="https://cyclingtips.com/2016/09/team-sky-tue-controversy-why-one-medical-expert-has-real-concerns/">controversies</a>. With <a href="https://www.bbc.com/sport/cycling/39122401">mystery packages</a> and <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/cycling/team-sky-sir-bradley-wiggins-medical-records-lost-dropbox-a7652936.html">missing medical files</a>, these previous narratives serve as a background for scepticism and distrust in the team and its performances, and are key ingredients in conspiracy theories.</p>
<h2>What are conspiracy theories?</h2>
<p>Here’s a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/acp.1583">useful definition</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Conspiracy theories are lay beliefs that attribute the ultimate cause of an event, or the concealment of an event from public knowledge, to a secret, unlawful, and malevolent plot by multiple actors working together. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Common attributes of conspiracy theories are their negative and distrustful representation of other people and groups. In addition, conspiracy theories <a href="http://www.janwillemvanprooijen.com/conspiracytheoriesbook">require</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Patterns:</strong> connections between actions, objects, and people are non-random – the incidents that caused the event did not occur through coincidence. Sceptics of Froome’s case say he was not simply blown from his bicycle into a wall at speed, but rather argue that evidence related to his <a href="https://twitter.com/MCaseum/status/1139306703554588674">speed</a> and the <a href="https://twitter.com/MCaseum/status/1139348136118444032">number of accounts he was following on Twitter</a> are a nod and wink to the Illuminati and Freemasons.</li>
</ul>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1139348136118444032"}"></div></p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Agency:</strong> the event was planned by intelligent actors. In this example, conspiracy theorists allege that Froome and Ineos <a href="https://twitter.com/EwonSprokler/status/1140163895707021312">orchestrated the crash</a>.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Coalitions</strong>: it involved multiple actors. In the recent case, <a href="https://twitter.com/MCaseum/status/1139311032281812992">Team Ineos</a>, <a href="https://twitter.com/MCaseum/status/1139326013618425856">other cyclists</a>, <a href="https://twitter.com/MCaseum/status/1139128625637314561">photographers</a>, and <a href="https://twitter.com/MCaseum/status/1139304630083567619">doctors</a> have all been accused by conspiracy theorists of involvement in Froome’s crash.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Hostility</strong>: the coalition was pursuing evil and/or selfish goals. For example, it has been suggested on Twitter that Froome crashed to <a href="https://twitter.com/maximus_hoggus/status/1139942582451130368">avoid a doping test</a>.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Continued Secrecy</strong>: it must be unproven, and not yet exposed by evidence. This is key for it to be a conspiracy theory, as opposed to just a conspiracy. In Froome’s case, conspiracy theory exponents have cited the <a href="https://twitter.com/MCaseum/status/1138931304219779073">lack of video or photographic evidence </a>. </p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/conspiracy-theories-fuel-prejudice-towards-minority-groups-113508">Conspiracy theories fuel prejudice towards minority groups</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Ordinary people believe conspiracy theories</h2>
<p>One study of Americans shows <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ajps.12084">more than half of them</a> endorse at least one conspiracy theory, <a href="https://theconversation.com/conspiracy-theories-fuel-prejudice-towards-minority-groups-113508">perhaps more</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0963721417718261">Researchers suggest</a> people are drawn to conspiracy theories because they satisfy three needs, or motives:</p>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>Epistemic</strong>: understanding one’s environment and making sense of the world. Impactful events, such as the multiple Tour de France champion crashing out, are not satisfied by mundane explanations, such as “Froome lost control of his bike while blowing his nose”. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Existential</strong>: being safe and in control of one’s environment. Disempowered fans, such as those who already distrust Team Ineos, regain some personal control by rejecting the official narratives and developing their own. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Social</strong>: maintaining a positive image of the self and the social group.
Believing and sharing these beliefs may satisfy a desire to belong to and maintain a positive image of the self and other like-minded fans. </p></li>
</ol>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-short-history-of-vaccine-objection-vaccine-cults-and-conspiracy-theories-78842">A short history of vaccine objection, vaccine cults and conspiracy theories</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Conspiracies theories <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-conspiracy-theories-arent-harmless-fun-43923">aren’t just harmless fun</a> endorsed by the tinfoil hat brigade. The consequences of some conspiracies (such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/one-nations-malcolm-roberts-is-in-denial-about-the-facts-of-climate-change-63581">climate change</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-short-history-of-vaccine-objection-vaccine-cults-and-conspiracy-theories-78842">vaccination</a>) may seem obvious compared to sporting ones; however, there is still a dark side to sporting conspiracies.</p>
<p>While a healthy scepticism of powerful teams or authorities may be warranted at times, it is important to recognise that conspiracy theories can <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11109-014-9287-z">erode trust</a> between the fans, the sport, and those who govern the sport.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118918/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mathew Marques does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Conspiracy theories help sports fans make sense of unexpected events – like when a whole rugby team becomes sick before a world cup final, or the retirement of Michael Jordan from basketball.Mathew Marques, Lecturer in Social Psychology, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1004192018-07-27T08:59:06Z2018-07-27T08:59:06ZTour de France: does pro-cycling have a concussion problem?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229069/original/file-20180724-194146-r625v7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How to change cycling's concussion culture.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-hear-it-for-carbs-tour-de-france-cyclists-couldnt-do-it-without-them-44923">The Tour de France</a> is unquestionably one of the most famous events in the professional sporting calendar. Some of the finest athletes on the planet, along with their expert, multimillion dollar support teams, display exceptional physical, mechanical, tactical and psychological attributes. </p>
<p>The demands are vast, and many riders suffer a number of illnesses and injuries during the three weeks of the race. While the majority of injuries will tend to be related to soft tissue damage, abrasions, lacerations or bone fractures, there are increasing numbers of head injuries – notably concussions – now <a href="https://www.procyclingstats.com/statistics/rider-injuries">being reported</a> in professional road cyclists.</p>
<p>The death of Italian cyclist and Olympic gold medalist, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabio_Casartelli">Fabio Casartelli</a>, in 1995, was attributed to a major head injury. His death stimulated discussions that led to the enforcement of helmet wearing during events. </p>
<p>Another notorious crash was that of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toms_Skuji%C5%86%C5%A1">Tom Skujiņš</a>, the Latvian professional road racing cyclist, who came off his bike at the 2017 Tour of California. This crash was <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lTn8IPhcDyo">caught on camera</a> and highlights one of the major issues in professional cycling, a lack of an established protocol when a suspected concussion happens. In our view, Skujņš – seen wobbling all over the road after his crash – should never have been allowed to remount his bike</p>
<h2>Spotting a head injury</h2>
<p>A key problem is that there is an incredibly disjointed approach to reporting concussions in cycling events, a problem caused by the complexities of the sport itself. In soccer, football or rugby, if a player is suspected of having a head injury, it is more than likely going to be spotted on one or more of the media platforms recording the event. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/lTn8IPhcDyo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Tom Skujiņš in the tour of California 2017.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These sports occur in closed locations, where multiple viewpoints inform decision making by medical staff stationed in close proximity to the action. In all outdoor cycling events, apart from BMX, this is simply not possible, and such incidents are more challenging to spot. </p>
<p>This is because TV cameras usually focus on the lead group. So if an accident happens further back, it is often not seen by the cameras, race director or team cars. It also means that any head injury assessment can only be applied on an “opportunistic basis” rather than by the structured removal of the player – as seen in many team sports.</p>
<h2>Controlling concussions</h2>
<p>To identify head injuries in cycling, and for medics to be able to undertake roadside assessments, a “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/mar/20/link-between-concussion-and-brain-damage-to-ensure-afl-debate-rages">multiview approach</a>” needs to be used. This has been used successfully in <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/sport/afl/afl-eyes-berlin-concussion-conference-to-guide-head-knocks-policy-20161026-gsb7q8.htmlhttps:/www.theage.com.au/sport/afl/afl-eyes-berlin-concussion-conference-to-guide-head-knocks-policy-20161026-gsb7q8.html">Australian Rules Football</a>, where video footage along with eyewitness observations relays information to clinicians. But in terms of cycling, this would only really work during televised events meaning that addressing the issue at sub-elite levels still remains a challenge. </p>
<p>Contact and collision sports have been extremely proactive in engaging with research on concussion and implementing pitch side “head injury assessments”. This along with “return to play” protocols – which see players only allowed to return when medically approved – and <a href="https://sportscotland.org.uk/media-imported/1534421/scottish-sports-concussion-guidance.pdf">excellent education campaigns</a> has helped to raise awareness of the signs and symptoms of concussions. And there is <a href="http://natajournals.org/doi/full/10.4085/1052-6050-51.6.06?code=nata-site">emerging evidence</a> that such approaches have improved reporting of concussions and have helped to ensure athletes do not “return to play” unless approved.</p>
<p>In cycling, however, there is very limited research available. To date, only a single, unpublished, <a href="http://science-cycling.org/?page_id=524">systematic review</a> investigating concussion in cycling has been undertaken, by Richard Anderson at the University of Cambridge. This valuable review identified that very little published research exists relating to concussions in cycling, which is surprising given the high profile incidents that occur during internationally televised events. </p>
<h2>Cycling forward</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.cyclingcanada.ca/disciplines/sites/default/files/CCA_ConcussionCard_EN.pdf">Cycling Canada</a> is one of the first national governing bodies to formalise an educational package on this topic. It informs riders of concussion signs and symptoms and provides management and rehabilitation advice. Whether this approach is effective remains to be seen, though it is a very positive move forwards in concussion education, management and return to riding. </p>
<p>Another issue that cycling must address is the imperative for riders to “get back on the bike”. Team principals, medics and coaches must engage in concussion education, along with an agreement to utilise recognised concussion based management protocols. <a href="https://sportscotland.org.uk/media-imported/1534421/scottish-sports-concussion-guidance.pdf">Sport Scotland</a>, for example, use a simple message to recognise and manage concussion during events: “If in doubt, sit them out.” This is an excellent mantra for cyclists, and their support teams, to engage with.</p>
<p>Clearly, more must also be done to get an idea of the frequency of concussions during cycling events. This, along with a better understanding of the outcomes associated with concussion, is essential if cycling is going to get to grips with this issue.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100419/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Howard Hurst works for Proform Sport Science coaching consultancy. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephen Atkins does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More needs to be done to manage concussions in road cycling.Stephen Atkins, Director of Sport, Exercise and Physiotherapy, University of SalfordHoward Hurst, Senior lecturer in Sport, Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, University of Central LancashireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/899342018-01-22T13:15:36Z2018-01-22T13:15:36ZDon’t waste your time taking antioxidant supplements after exercise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202472/original/file-20180118-158531-18gqoqw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/adventure-athlete-athletic-daylight-235922/">Pexels</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-antioxidants-and-are-they-truly-good-for-us-86062">The antioxidant</a> market is big business and millions of pounds are spent every year on antioxidant supplements – such as vitamin A, C and E – as well as fruit and vegetable extracts and juices. </p>
<p>Antioxidants are so popular – particularly among people who do a lot of exercise – because it is believed they help to reduce muscle soreness after exercise. It is thought that by taking antioxidant supplements in doses much higher than the recommended amounts, muscles recover quicker by reducing some of the harmful effects of exercise. And this is why so many people swear by antioxidants – such as cherry juice or pomegranate juice – after a workout. </p>
<p>Some people also take antioxidant supplements to improve their general health or protect against certain cancers but the scientific evidence for this <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-antioxidants-might-actually-make-your-cancer-worse-49255">is poor</a>. And similarly, our recent analysis of the existing scientific literature found similar results. </p>
<p>We recently published a <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009789.pub2/full">Cochrane review</a> which included 50 studies looking at the link between antioxidant use and reduced muscle soreness. And we discovered that there is no solid evidence that antioxidants works.</p>
<h2>Aching muscles</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278591911000998?via%3Dihub">Muscle soreness</a> typically occurs following unaccustomed or intense exercise and usually peaks two days afterwards. This can obviously impair future athletic performance, so it’s not surprising that various interventions have been put forward to reduce exercise related muscle aches and pains. </p>
<p>These range from a number of different techniques, including <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD010789.pub2">whole body cryotherapy</a> – which involves getting exposure to extremely cold temperatures for several minutes in a special chamber where temperatures can range from -110 to -140°C. Then there is also the use of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40279-017-0728-9">compression garments</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40279-015-0420-x">massage</a>, as well as antioxidant supplementation. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202473/original/file-20180118-158525-1cpd3sh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202473/original/file-20180118-158525-1cpd3sh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202473/original/file-20180118-158525-1cpd3sh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202473/original/file-20180118-158525-1cpd3sh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202473/original/file-20180118-158525-1cpd3sh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202473/original/file-20180118-158525-1cpd3sh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202473/original/file-20180118-158525-1cpd3sh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Should athletes take antioxidant supplements? Probably not.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/water-swimming-competition-pool-56837/">Pexels</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some athletes also strategically take antioxidant supplements to accelerate recovery during periods of intense competition rather than taking them every day. In professional football for example, when there can often be periods of fixture congestion (a team may play three matches in an eight day period), dietary antioxidants are used to reduce inflammation and muscle soreness. The belief is this will allow the players to recover more quickly in preparation for the next match. </p>
<p>Similarly, in professional cycling, a <a href="http://uk.businessinsider.com/what-tour-de-france-riders-eat-drink-immediately-after-racing-2016-7?r=US&IR=T">Tour de France rider</a> may take antioxidant supplements to accelerate recovery after each stage. The belief is this will help them to recover more quickly for the following day’s riding.</p>
<h2>Antioxidants debunked</h2>
<p>Our recent review compared high-dose antioxidant supplementation with a placebo (a dummy pill or drink with no antioxidant). Various antioxidants were used in the studies ranging from single vitamins to extracts and juices. These included cherry juice, pomegranate juice, vitamins C and E, black tea extract and others in various doses. </p>
<p>The review included 1,089 participants, nearly nine out of ten of these were male and most participants were recreationally active or moderately trained. The age range of the participants varied from 16 to 55 years. </p>
<p>Although we found antioxidant supplementation may very slightly reduce muscle soreness in the first three days after exercise, these reductions were so small, it was unlikely they made any difference at all. </p>
<p>So ultimately, we found that high dose antioxidant supplementation – in excess of the normal recommended daily dose for antioxidants – does not appear to reduce muscle soreness after exercise.</p>
<h2>More harm than good?</h2>
<p>Of the studies we looked at, only nine reported on adverse effects. Two of these found some people who took antioxidants experienced gastrointestinal distress – such as diarrhoea, indigestion and bloating.</p>
<p>On top of our findings, more recently, there has been an emergence of studies showing that chronic antioxidant supplementation may actually be counterproductive. For instance, it has been shown that antioxidant supplements may delay healing and recovery from <a href="https://insights.ovid.com/pubmed?pmid=19657294">exercise</a>, hinder adaptations to <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2013.267419">training</a>, and may even increase <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Bjelakovic+2014+mortality+antioxidants">mortality</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202474/original/file-20180118-158510-1638ndw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202474/original/file-20180118-158510-1638ndw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202474/original/file-20180118-158510-1638ndw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202474/original/file-20180118-158510-1638ndw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202474/original/file-20180118-158510-1638ndw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202474/original/file-20180118-158510-1638ndw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/202474/original/file-20180118-158510-1638ndw.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Antioxidants don’t belong in your workout.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Taking all of this into consideration, the main take home message is to steer clear of antioxidants supplements and save your money. Instead, just try and move more, exercise regularly, and eat a balanced diet that includes at least five or more portions of rainbow coloured fruits and vegetables. Because for now at least, there is no quick fix to easing muscle soreness after exercise. </p>
<p>In fact, it seems muscle soreness is an important part of the recovery process and can help to make your muscles stronger and bigger over time. And that will ultimately help to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/nov/16/should-i-exercise-if-my-muscles-are-sore-google-answer">make you fitter and stronger</a> in the long run.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89934/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mayur Ranchordas does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Turns out taking antioxidant supplements after exercise doesn’t do much to help reduce muscle soreness after all.Mayur Ranchordas, Senior Lecturer and Sport Nutrition Consultant, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/806912017-08-09T11:38:47Z2017-08-09T11:38:47ZMajor sports events: are they worth it?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181380/original/file-20170808-22933-1l9lhub.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=51%2C90%2C2828%2C1810&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/rio-de-janeiro-brazil-august-5-519210082?src=y-SF1CChz1BhThsX8dSX1g-2-0">Leonard Zhukovsk</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It used to be that hosting any of the major sporting events, particularly the <a href="https://www.olympic.org/olympic-games">Olympic Games</a> and the <a href="http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/index.html">FIFA World Cup</a>, would carry significant prestige. It was an honour that would help to shape the legacy of a country or city. It could be a powerful moment of national symbolism and economic transformation.</p>
<p>Why then, over the last few years, have many advanced Western economies decided not to bid for such major events, and in some cases, even withdrawn their proposals?</p>
<p>Hosting an internationally prominent sporting event invites the global spotlight, provides an injection of tourism money, and a chance for a city or a country to rebuild or develop infrastructure. However, it also brings an immense financial commitment and great risk. </p>
<h2>Blame it on Rio</h2>
<p>The <a href="http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/brazil2014/index.html">2014 FIFA World Cup</a> in Brazil came at a huge cost. It <a href="http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/tournament/competition/02/36/32/63/faq_en_neutral.pdf">reached US$15 billion</a> including cost overruns of at least 75% and was the most expensive in FIFA history. The cost of the <a href="https://www.olympic.org/rio-2016">2016 Rio Summer Olympic Games</a> was estimated <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2804554">at US$4.58 billion</a> while costs overran by about 50%. Both mega-events were deemed poor investments. Brazil faced its worst recession in 25 years, there were cuts in healthcare and education and police <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2016/jun/28/rio-olympics-safety-security-budgets-cut">went unpaid</a> for weeks at a time. </p>
<p>Those kinds of costs have become hard to justify. The past couple of years have seen withdrawals from the bidding process by <a href="http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2015/07/27/discussions-underway-that-could-end-boston-olympic-bid/WlJlAoTnCf23rGy5hrpQtN/story.html">Boston</a>, <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-olympics-2024-budapest-idUSKBN16842G">Budapest</a>, <a href="http://www.espn.com/espn/wire/_/section/oly/id/18671462">Davos</a>, <a href="http://www.dw.com/en/officials-hamburg-votes-no-in-2024-olympics-referendum/a-18883362">Hamburg</a>, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2014/05/27/krakow-withdraws-2022-olympic-bid-after-residents-vote-no/?utm_term=.4b5798b234a8">Krakow</a>, <a href="http://www.dw.com/en/voters-reject-munichs-2022-winter-olympics-bid/a-17217384">Munich</a>, <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-37624948">Rome</a> and <a href="https://sports.yahoo.com/news/stockholm-drops-2022-olympic-bid-152519776--spt.html">Stockholm</a>. A lack of candidates meant the 2022 Winter Olympics <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2015/08/07/the-winter-olympics-problem-nobody-wants-them.html">was awarded to Beijing</a> – a city not renowned as a winter sports hub. Away from the Olympics, London made a <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/racing/tour-de-france/london-rejects-2017-tour-de-france-start-193527">last minute decision</a> to pull out of hosting the start of the 2017 Tour de France; less-fashionable Düsseldorf stepped in.</p>
<p>Emerging economies like Brazil, as well as Russia and Qatar, who will host the FIFA World Cups in <a href="http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/index.html">2018</a> and <a href="http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/qatar2022/index.html">2022</a> respectively, do not have the same simple economic rationale to consider. For them, such sporting events are an investment in their global positions; the cost overruns and apparent losses are in fact the price they are willing to pay for that product. The Bryan Fogel <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2017/08/icarus-review-netflix/535962/">doping documentary Icarus</a>, launched recently on Netflix, levelled accusations of just how far Russia was willing to go to acquire that prestige at the Sochi Winter Olympics.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181155/original/file-20170807-16718-1lycbro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181155/original/file-20170807-16718-1lycbro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181155/original/file-20170807-16718-1lycbro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=273&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181155/original/file-20170807-16718-1lycbro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=273&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181155/original/file-20170807-16718-1lycbro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=273&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181155/original/file-20170807-16718-1lycbro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181155/original/file-20170807-16718-1lycbro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181155/original/file-20170807-16718-1lycbro.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sochi opening ceremony.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/koreanet/12446328125/in/photolist-jXQFJe-jXTbrE-jU4PRK-jU7byw-jU7bEy-jXRqeH-jXTbrQ-jXQFie-jXQFXF-jRLT5d-jUtsmc-jRsGmq-jTUZj9-jTS47M-jUqEHx-jZumJi-jU5CPv-jXQG78-jU4Q5v-jXRps2-jXTcjm-jXTbnm-jXRpJe-jRvbNS-jXTcqJ-jXTcAo-jXRq4n-jU4PTi-jXQF6k-jXTcT7-jXRoLH-jXQFQr-jXQFte-jTUTm7-jXQG9T-jXTbyU-jXQFe6-jXQFaP-jVLS6W-hg5X58-jTSYor-jXRaNP-jXTcEb-jXTbS9-jXRp7H-jXSWx7-jXRpj6-jU5D62-jXQFMk-jXRpA8">Republic of Korea/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Declining allure</h2>
<p>The Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup are attracting fewer bids, failing to hit their previous peaks, as illustrated in the chart below. You will notice a spike in bids for the 2022 Winter Olympics, which goes against the general trend, but in fact, most candidates withdrew and left <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/01/sports/olympics/beijing-selected-as-host-of-2022-winter-olympics.html">Beijing and Almaty in Kazakhstan as the only candidates</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181331/original/file-20170808-22975-1eyyj6j.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181331/original/file-20170808-22975-1eyyj6j.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181331/original/file-20170808-22975-1eyyj6j.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=258&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181331/original/file-20170808-22975-1eyyj6j.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=258&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181331/original/file-20170808-22975-1eyyj6j.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=258&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181331/original/file-20170808-22975-1eyyj6j.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=324&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181331/original/file-20170808-22975-1eyyj6j.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=324&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181331/original/file-20170808-22975-1eyyj6j.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=324&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The number of applicant bids for the Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup (1968-2028).</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>All four World Cups from 2010-2022 will be hosted by a developing nation. However, the next three summer Olympics will take place in major cities in developed economies – Tokyo, Paris and Los Angeles. So what has happened there? One explanation is that the <a href="https://www.olympic.org/the-ioc">International Olympic Committee</a> (IOC) has been handing out concessions. Most importantly, the IOC changed its competitive process. It <a href="https://www.olympic.org/news/ioc-makes-historic-decision-in-agreeing-to-award-2024-and-2028-olympic-games-at-the-same-time">named the hosts for two consecutive Olympics</a> to give bidders more preparation time. It also allowed both Paris and Los Angeles to decide the exact timing, and offered US$1.8 billion <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2017/07/31/los-angeles-strikes-deal-to-host-2028-summer-olympics-report.html">to the LA organising committee</a>. </p>
<p>The IOC understood the declining appeal of hosting as it cajoled those two bidders into place. That’s why it delivered the <a href="https://www.olympic.org/olympic-agenda-2020">Olympics Agenda 2020</a>, a plan intended to provide cost-saving measures and reduce the complexity of the bidding process. </p>
<p>So, is it worthwhile hosting such major sporting events? Looking at the Olympic Games, a study conducted by the <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> found that in real terms the average cost overrun for all Olympic Games <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2804554">is 156%</a>. It shouldn’t be a huge surprise. Not many major projects have an absolute, unchangeable deadline for completion. That can ramp up costs as the opening ceremony approaches and money gets thrown at any remaining problems.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181088/original/file-20170805-19106-1ypjcjz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181088/original/file-20170805-19106-1ypjcjz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=204&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181088/original/file-20170805-19106-1ypjcjz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=204&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181088/original/file-20170805-19106-1ypjcjz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=204&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181088/original/file-20170805-19106-1ypjcjz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181088/original/file-20170805-19106-1ypjcjz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181088/original/file-20170805-19106-1ypjcjz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Olympics cost overrun compared to other types of large-scale projects.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flyvbjerg et. al. (2002); Ansar et. al. (2017); Budzier and Flyvbjerg (2011)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The same study established that the <a href="https://www.olympic.org/london-2012">2012 London Summer Olympics</a> was the most costly Olympics <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2804554">at US$15 billion</a>. The <a href="https://www.olympic.org/montreal-1976">1976 Montreal Summer Games</a> showed the highest cost overrun <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2804554">at 720%</a>. The table below demonstrates that the Olympic Games from 1968 to 2016 (summer and winter) have all encountered significant cost overruns.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181087/original/file-20170805-23233-1b8l7wy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181087/original/file-20170805-23233-1b8l7wy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181087/original/file-20170805-23233-1b8l7wy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181087/original/file-20170805-23233-1b8l7wy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=604&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181087/original/file-20170805-23233-1b8l7wy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=759&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181087/original/file-20170805-23233-1b8l7wy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=759&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181087/original/file-20170805-23233-1b8l7wy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=759&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The cost overruns for the Olympics in real terms and calculated in local currencies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flyvbjerg, Stewart and Budzier (2016); * Projected final costs</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Emerging powers</h2>
<p>The decline in enthusiasm for hosting mega-events has several driving factors. Crucial among them is the fragility of economies after the global financial crisis, and the growing inequality in the distribution of wealth and income. That brings increased cynicism around major sporting projects which need vast funding, and this is particularly true when there is no genuine guarantee of substantial, discernible benefits for taxpayers. </p>
<p>It used to be that everyone was playing the same game; countries would compete for the bragging rights and pay little attention to economic rationality or <a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/other-sports/athletics/olympic-stadiums-ruins-how-former-8567479">infrastructure legacy</a>. But now, the countries that can most easily justify the risk are those with the most to gain on the world stage, rather than those with the deepest pockets. Russia and Qatar do not need to turn a profit, but they do want a stronger voice in global affairs. </p>
<p>For developing economies, mega-event hosting is motivated by globalisation and soft power. China and South Africa recently showed that it can be an exceptional opportunity to devise a new brand identity to both their local citizenry and global audience. The updating of your global image, however, can hit some obstacles. Both Russia and Qatar are hoping they will end up projecting an image of modern and advancing nation-states, but for now they are still saddled with the negative impression created by <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/2017/jun/27/fifa-secret-report-world-cup-2022-leaked">corruption and bribery accusations</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80691/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Varano does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When financial times are tight, only those with soft power ambitions can see the economic sense in World Cups or Olympic Games.John Varano, Researcher, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/762562017-04-27T10:11:10Z2017-04-27T10:11:10ZThe unbearable whiteness of cycling<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166681/original/file-20170425-13411-1bbrx53.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Oh so white.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels.</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every summer cycling enthusiasts anticipate the start of the <a href="http://www.letour.com/us/">Tour de France</a>, and in more recent times, in the north of the UK, the <a href="http://letour.yorkshire.com/">Tour de Yorkshire</a>. For the latter, yellow and blue bunting lines the streets of Yorkshire towns for one of the biggest cycle races in the country – with some of the top international teams taking part.</p>
<p>Events like the Tour de Yorkshire have put cycling on the map in Britain, and have had a major economic impact – with research showing that the 2016 Tour de Yorkshire <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-36639119">boosted the region’s economy by nearly £60m</a>.</p>
<p>The health benefits of cycling have also been well documented – with <a href="https://theconversation.com/cycling-to-work-major-new-study-suggests-health-benefits-are-staggering-76292">recent research</a> indicating that cycling to work could help you to live longer.</p>
<p>This has led to calls to get Britain biking, with <a href="http://www.bikebiz.com/index.php/news/read/cycling-uk-and-halfords-partner-for-cycling-advocacy/021145">campaigns</a> aiming to get more people “on your bike” to reap the health benefits that can come from commuting on two wheels.</p>
<h2>The white sport</h2>
<p>And yet <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21396761">research shows</a> that ethnicity, gender and income still strongly affect participation and preferences. Olympic Team GB cycling coach <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ethicallivingblog/2009/aug/10/cycling-white-sport">David Brailsford has described</a> how:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Breaking down the barriers to wider participation from black and ethnic minority groups remains the great unconquered goal for British cycling.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In London, a city where a third of the population identifies as black, Asian and minority ethnic, <a href="http://www.thehuntingdynasty.com/uploads/PleaseCycle_Cognitive-Behavioural%20Quirks_CS_14-12-11.pdf">86% of male cyclists and 94% of female cyclists</a> are white – and two thirds of all cyclists are male. </p>
<p>Despite the former Mayor of London, Boris Johnson’s strategy to improve the demographics of cycling, it still maintains a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ethicallivingblog/2009/aug/10/cycling-white-sport">very much white</a>, male, middle class constituency. </p>
<h2>My own experiences</h2>
<p>As a regular cyclist of African-Caribbean descent, I have considered how the quality of my rides differs depending on where I go and who I’m with. </p>
<p>In one cycling group, I ride with white friends, and have generally found my ethnicity is never an issue. The odd second look I sometimes receive has not (yet) been followed by a negative racial remark, though uneasy gazes could be interpreted as unwelcoming micro-aggressions. </p>
<p>In my other cycling group, all the riders are black – something of a rarity in cycling circles. And it is when I am in this group that passersby have taken time to wind their windows down to throw racial slurs in our direction. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166682/original/file-20170425-13408-1ocwr9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166682/original/file-20170425-13408-1ocwr9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166682/original/file-20170425-13408-1ocwr9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166682/original/file-20170425-13408-1ocwr9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166682/original/file-20170425-13408-1ocwr9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166682/original/file-20170425-13408-1ocwr9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166682/original/file-20170425-13408-1ocwr9b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The traditional British cyclist.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At loftier levels, the treatment of some world class black cyclists has been equally disturbing. In 2015, the MTN-Qhubeka Tour de France team complained of racism after <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/cycling/tour-de-france/11730282/Tour-de-France-2015-Racism-row-ruins-African-teams-landmark-success.html">members of the team were racially abused</a>. In what was described as a “heat of the battle” exchange, an offended MTN-Qhubeka rider was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/jul/09/mtn-qhubeka-racism-tour-austria-natnael-berhane">issued with an apology</a> and the offending cyclist was expelled from the race.</p>
<p>Racism in competitive cycling is <a href="https://www.tesfanews.net/african-rider-natnael-berhane-racially-abused-at-tour-of-austria/">nothing new</a> but the emergence of more high level black riders has unmasked some particularly ugly racism that the sport has yet to tackle full-on.</p>
<h2>Biking while black</h2>
<p>Over in the US, the issue of race and cycling has led to claims of institutional police racism. In Chicago in particular, it seems <a href="http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/breaking/ct-chicago-bike-tickets-minorities-0319-20170317-story.html">black cyclists have been targeted by the police</a> for unfair treatment. </p>
<p>The Chigago Tribune newspaper reviewed police statistics on the number of biking tickets issued by the police in the city. And the review showed that more than twice as many tickets are being written in African-American communities than in white or Latino areas. These tickets are often given out for minor offences, such as cycling on the pavements, but in some cases cyclists have ended up being arrested.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166813/original/file-20170426-2857-42ww2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/166813/original/file-20170426-2857-42ww2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166813/original/file-20170426-2857-42ww2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166813/original/file-20170426-2857-42ww2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166813/original/file-20170426-2857-42ww2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166813/original/file-20170426-2857-42ww2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/166813/original/file-20170426-2857-42ww2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A cyclist from the Rockhampton Cycling Club.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/rexboggs5/6777972313/">Rex Boggs/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Chicago is a city where the bulk of cycling infrastructure is within white neighbourhoods. So for white people, <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-it-means-to-be-black-in-the-american-educational-system-63576">white privilege</a> means there is less chance of a fine.</p>
<p>The police statistics also show that despite high levels of cycling in predominantly white areas, over an eight-year period (2008-2016) the top ten ticketed areas included seven that are African American and three that are Latino. </p>
<p>And many in the city now believe that the <a href="http://chi.streetsblog.org/2017/03/21/why-the-cpds-biking-while-black-enforcement-practices-have-got-to-stop/">bike stops</a> are just another pretext for racially motivated searches – described as the new “stop and frisk”. </p>
<h2>Beyond the white male image</h2>
<p>Cycling and biking should be a sport or leisure activity anyone can get involved in, regardless of age, skin colour or gender. But until the dynamics of “race”, racism and whiteness in cycling are more fully understood, the sport will continue to be dominated by white, middle-aged men.</p>
<p>The significance of “race” and white privilege is not only an issue for <a href="https://www.britishcycling.org.uk/">British cycling</a> and its mass participation goals, but also for the international governing body for cycling – <a href="http://www.uci.ch/cyclingforall/">the UCI</a> – whose <a href="http://www.uci.ch/mm/Document/News/News/18/21/45/2017-Cycling-for-all-Manifesto_ENG_English.PDF">Cycling for All Manifesto</a> has not yet considered these subtle differences in how black riders experience cycling.</p>
<p>Until then, those barriers to wider participation from black, Asian and minority ethnic groups will sadly continue to be in place – for recreational cyclists, professional competitors and everyday cyclists both in the UK and beyond.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76256/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin Hylton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why is cycling such a white sport?Kevin Hylton, Professor of Equality and Diversity in Sport, Leisure and Education, Head of Research Centre for Diversity, Equity and Inclusion, Leeds Beckett UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/691352017-01-04T18:45:05Z2017-01-04T18:45:05ZThe lure of cycling: tips from a middle-aged man in Lycra<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150408/original/image-20161216-26062-19lulev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cycling is a great form of exercise, but how much should you spend on equipment and active wear? </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/bramptoncyclist/2562219247/in/photolist-4Uq3vV-nRqpkv-nx9RYN-nx8DYK-nx96B1-nPsYyS-nRpUxa-7KEhL5-nx7ZnE-nx9GfM-nMApA7-nx8Q6S-nPjhAk-nx7Xb4-nPtGf7-nMA9EW-nx9mAN-nPjeot-7KAuBv-nRqtfe-nPD54x-nx8Ebj-nx8f54-nx9HXs-nPk1UP-9qPjSX-9uRvnQ-nxa5Gv-nPkAWB-nRpYRv-nx8aek-nMz8FJ-nxamMr-nx9kcV-nx7QTW-nRoZqt-nPt17m-nMALjb-nPBZj4-nPsPZN-9cRiL8-nMzawh-49jJs9-nx9mDq-neNw5k-nx8jJn-nPCv6Z-nMzQyA-nx825h-c8iB5C">bramptoncyclist//flickr </a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I confess, I’m a MAMIL (Middle-Aged Male in Lycra). In fact, at my stage of life, I’m a SMILEY (Senior Male in Lycra/Elastane, Yo). </p>
<p>Like most forms of physical activity, cycling is good for you. Just two hours of easy cycling each week – or one hour flat out – will <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25344355">reduce your odds of dying by 10%</a>. </p>
<p>These stats may not be as good as <a href="https://theconversation.com/which-sports-are-best-for-health-and-long-life-67636">some other sports</a> such as tennis, but let’s face it, tennis clothes are really dorky. Lycra is cool, but more on that later.</p>
<p>Alert readers will object that road cycling must be dangerous. And they would be a little bit right. In the US, there are <a href="http://cyclingincities.spph.ubc.ca/injuries/">21 cycling deaths per 100,000,000 trips</a>. So you’re likely to be killed once in every five million rides you take. That’s two times higher than if you were driving a car, and 50 times higher than taking a bus. On the other hand, you’re 25 times more likely to be killed riding a motor bike.</p>
<p>Cycling has some other drawbacks. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3043154/">One study</a> looking at IVF donors found men who cycled more than five hours a week had almost twice the odds of having a low sperm count. </p>
<p>While two famous Tour De France cyclists — Lance Armstrong and Ivan Basso — have both been diagnosed with testicular cancer, there is little evidence cycling itself causes it. After all, Armstrong and Basso shared something else — they were both banned for doping. An association between <a href="http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/pdf/10.1089/jomh.2014.0012">increased risk of prostate cancer</a> and cycling warrants further research. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22390173">Women who cycle</a> may experience lower genital sensation than runners, and the pressure of the perineum on the saddle can cause sustained loss of feeling. </p>
<p>But what’s the risk of ill health compared to the joy and glory of cycling? Nothing! </p>
<h2>I want to get fit and ride up a mountain</h2>
<p>Community cycling events pop up in our calenders during the Australian summer and autumn, and can be a great motivator to start a training program. So how should you prepare? </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150414/original/image-20161216-26074-1igs3qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150414/original/image-20161216-26074-1igs3qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150414/original/image-20161216-26074-1igs3qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150414/original/image-20161216-26074-1igs3qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150414/original/image-20161216-26074-1igs3qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150414/original/image-20161216-26074-1igs3qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150414/original/image-20161216-26074-1igs3qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For community cycling events, build your training program slowly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/taimages/15905307224/in/photolist-qeuRGU-7ztUxx-c4grCy-rbwfZp-oTXfPo-nxpajT-dfnWQR-npxe6S-j5qQmi-cCmQx7-hcMxEU-r9cZqY-j5snPe-j5sC3V-j5vsbN-j5r99c-j5raWF-j5qRDt-j5vcEo-j5vovm-j5r78Z-j5rbTF-cHTN6s-679uSE-j5r5zZ-CZuaD2-DvBjvd-D6QaVE-CAsqKG-CZsiip-CAqwpw-CAqZLW-DopeJG-DxY9BR-j5sqfB-j5tgo7-j5tegw-j5qXeX-j5t81L-j5sFJx-j5ss8z-j5viu9-j5qWf2-j5syjc-j5vjx1-Dyf3Ei-D1y1cH-CBBGDk-D7TLmS-Dp2sby">taimages/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A quick piece of advice first up: don’t start by riding up <a href="http://www.letour.com/le-tour/2016/us/stage-12.html">Mont Ventoux</a> – it’s been the end of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Simpson#Death">cyclists</a> way fitter than you. </p>
<p>Try this <a href="https://www.essa.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Screen-tool-version-v1.1.pdf">pre-exercise screening tool</a> to determine if you need to see a doctor before starting training.</p>
<p>Next, give it plenty of time. Start training at least a couple of months before the big event. Start with a fairly gentle 20km ride, and gradually build up the distance to 50km. If you can ride 50km, you can ride 100km. If you can ride 100km, you can ride anything. Mix up the longer rides with shorter, faster rides and lots of hill work. </p>
<p>Cycling clubs have training rides suitable for all levels, and you can pick up a lot of good tips. And some bad ones, of course. </p>
<p>What should you eat? The short answer is: a hell of a lot. A Tour de France rider consumes about 25,000 to 30,000 kilojoules a day — three times as much as the average person. <a href="https://theconversation.com/eat-me-drink-me-fuelling-riders-in-the-tour-de-france-14856">Frequent, high-carbohydrate meals and electrolyte drinks</a> are recommended. </p>
<p>But as with your training, don’t overdo it. Norwegian reporter Nicolay Ramm attempted to eat the amount a Tour de France rider might get through in a day - in one sitting. The <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/racing/tour-de-france/this-is-what-happens-if-you-try-to-eat-a-tour-de-france-riders-diet-in-one-sitting-181290">results</a> were not pleasant. </p>
<p>But if you’re wracked with with calorie guilt from Christmas festivities and a year of poor eating overall, cycling could be a good option for you. </p>
<h2>Frame, wheels, bars: the gear</h2>
<p>What will give you the most bang for your buck when you buy equipment? </p>
<p>A <a href="http://www.owascoveloclub.com/Education_files/12%20Aerodynamics%20and%20Cycling.pdf">useful simulation</a> by Jim Martin – one of the world’s leading aerodynamicists – allows us to make some quick estimates. These numbers are based on a recreational cyclist riding 40 kilometres in 76 minutes at baseline over a flat course. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150413/original/image-20161216-26059-1t7dj0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150413/original/image-20161216-26059-1t7dj0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150413/original/image-20161216-26059-1t7dj0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150413/original/image-20161216-26059-1t7dj0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150413/original/image-20161216-26059-1t7dj0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150413/original/image-20161216-26059-1t7dj0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/150413/original/image-20161216-26059-1t7dj0q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hours spent perched on a bike will improve your fitness, but may create a few saddle-related problems.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/54817657@N00/14809407254/in/photolist-wC1v9m-wDBT4y-wnJwtf-wEQfNp-8khjTa-56U1ZU-uEEpSA-vznbUE-6DDvTp-vC3AHr-pvpMg3-uEEqrm-ogPyA1-ogPY27-omAJNy-wJD3Pd-vNpGW8-oyRSB7-ozjVZX-owiRUq-og5EHM-vNhdxj-vNkzFA-owDGBs-anRTfa-oyRePE-56U1BG-vi93hz-oyE5PQ-29u8SD-ox62D4-vi238u-ogQKq5-omAHNY-vBEQ5e-vzneHA-8khjZF-ofAnag-wnGAtb-oyRwdF-wnFmUS-vHsXkH-ohp45t-wEj3PZ-dh7cXy-vHsMD8-6JdJYJ-vHghHA-wnGp4E-ov4yR1">54817657@N00/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Adopting an aerodynamic position will slice more than six minutes off that time. Aero bars cost A$100, so that’s just A$0.28 per second saved. If you then use aero wheels (about A$600 each on eBay), you will save another 2 minutes (at a cost of A$10 per second). Add an aero frame (A$1000) and you will cut more than a minute (A$15 per second saved). </p>
<p>If you choose a lightweight carbon-fibre frame (an extra A$1000), you gain a little less than a minute (A$18 per second). But beware: there’s a famous rule in cycling that says that all bikes weigh 15 kilograms: if you have a 5kg bike you need a 10kg chain; if you have a 10kg bike you need a 5kg chain; and if you have a 15kg bike, you don’t need a chain at all. </p>
<p>Finally, if you add aero clothing (A$250), you can arrive <a href="http://road.cc/content/news/120790-video-how-much-aero-difference-does-cycle-clothing-make">another 40 seconds earlier</a> (A$7 per second). </p>
<p>All up, you could reduce your 76 minute ride to less than 64 minutes – at a cost of around A$3,000. Incredibly good value from my perspective! </p>
<p>Alternatively, you could get out and ride slightly more and get the same gains for free. </p>
<h2>Doing some cycling in my active wear</h2>
<p>Let’s talk Lycra.</p>
<p>Lycra has been touted as a miracle fabric capable of converting the average middle-aged weekend warrior into <a href="http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/bradley-wiggins-blasted-by-kittel-and-greipel-over-tue/">Brad Wiggins with a Therapeutic Use Exemption</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/lance-armstrong-doping-and-the-illusion-of-control-11680">Lance Armstrong</a> on a cocktail of every known ergogenic aid. </p>
<p>Lycra compression garments are claimed to increase blood flow by stopping blood pooling in the veins – more blood means more oxygen, more oxygen means faster cycling. Lycra apparently can stop muscle wobbling, making your legs work more efficiently. Then there’s the one about Lycra being a wicking fabric, drawing sweat to the surface and facilitating cooling of the body. Of course Lycra may also enhance warm-ups by increasing skin temperature. </p>
<p>But the evidence for these claims is <a href="https://www.clearinghouseforsport.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/293012/28407Wallace.pdf">mixed</a> — which in scientific jargon means <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/11591420-000000000-00000">the jury is still out</a>. Lycra compression garments may improve repetitive jumping power, and enhance recovery after strenuous exercise, but there is little evidence they will improve your physiological performance in other ways. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, Lycra can look very cool. Of course, beauty is in the eye of the beholder. </p>
<p>I may see you out there in your Lycra. But only if I’m looking back.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/69135/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Olds has received funding from The Australian Sports Commission, The Australian Institute of Sport, the Australian Research Council, and the NHMRC.</span></em></p>Cycling is a great form of exercise, and what better time to get started than the new year. But before you launch yourself up a mountain, review these tips from an experienced MAMIL.Tim Olds, Professor of Health Sciences, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/703652016-12-16T16:55:52Z2016-12-16T16:55:52ZFive questions for cycling chief Dave Brailsford<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/150317/original/image-20161215-26027-15vbt5v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=73%2C202%2C1664%2C1045&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cfeatherstone/8640434092/in/photolist-eawu2A-bxCkGb-AYRkj6-A1YKpK-AjUtud-AXSiCP-AjUb6K-AVz7DG-A1QDfY-8vAsxM-ffj5zP-ffj5yT-iFQYiv-iFSHDA-aqLt3U-8PVXWa-8PZ9yJ-8PZ5xf-bxCohf-bLwYxv-bLwXQH-bxCnbh-bxChEJ-bxCmL9-bLwZsX-bLx69Z-bxCkVE-bLwYiF-bxCnpb-bLx4ui-bxChrs-bxCjEw-bLx1en-bLwXbR-bxCg5U-bLx6nk-bxCmjA-bxCnNU-bxCkhY-bLwZV4-bLx32r-bxCi7N-bLwYMp-bxCitd-bLx5ac-bxCjr7-bxCjS9-bxCk3S-bLx3FZ-ADzbkT">@ruby_roubaix/Flickr</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In his role as boss of professional cycling team Team Sky and former performance director for British Cycling, Dave Brailsford has enjoyed extraordinary success. His oversight started the ball rolling on an impressive haul of Olympic medals for Team GB over three tournaments, while Chris Froome and Bradley Wiggins <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cycling/36879128">have delivered four victories since 2012</a> in the pro-sport’s prestige event, the Tour de France.</p>
<p>Brailsford, who was knighted in 2013, <a href="http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/culture-media-and-sport-committee/">will give evidence</a> on Dec 19 before a British parliamentary select committee looking at doping in sport. His appearance involves no accusation that he ever allowed doping in his teams. However, he will face scrutiny over the fact that some highly successful riders have used medical products that could enhance their performance under the Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) system. </p>
<p>This issue of TUEs was brought to the fore after athletes’ private medical records, kept by anti-doping agencies, were <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/sep/21/fancy-bears-leaks-athletes-doping-russia-cyber-hackers">hacked by a group called the Fancy Bears and publicised</a>, a move that prompted some athletes to justify their <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/2016/09/13/us-superstars-serena-and-venus-williams-and-simone-biles-given-d/">use of medical products</a> as well as raising questions about the <a href="http://www.sportsintegrityinitiative.com/fancy-bears-target-nados/">motivation behind the hack</a>. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.damiancollins.com/">Damian Collins</a>, chair of the Culture Media and Sport Select Committee, said <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/cycling/2016/10/27/mps-want-answers-about-sir-bradley-wigginss-mystery-medical-parc/">MPs would focus attention</a> on “the ethics of the use of TUEs and the way this is policed by British Cycling”.</p>
<h2>Grey area</h2>
<p>Obtaining a TUE is far from unusual. Many elite athletes require medications that are banned under the <a href="https://www.wada-ama.org/en/what-we-do/the-code">World Anti-Doping Code</a>. If a doctor prescribes the drug for an identifiable condition, then it is perfectly acceptable. In that sense, there is no accusation that elite British riders and their doctors broke any rules, as confirmed by the <a href="http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/no-rules-broken-and-no-action-to-follow-in-wiggins-tue-case-says-cookson/">head of the sport’s governing body, Brian Cookson</a>.</p>
<p>However, the TUE application process could be <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/37382825">open to abuse</a> if an unscrupulous doctor and coach decide, for example, that an athlete might benefit from “inventing” an illness to obtain medical drugs. These might include painkillers designed to alleviate the stress on the body during competition, stimulants that give a short-term boost to the central nervous system, and asthma inhalers that improve air flow. There is no suggestion that this has happened at British Cycling or at Team Sky, but it is clearly a grey area for anti-doping. </p>
<p>Brailsford has been a high-profile campaigner against doping – he instituted a policy that no-one with a doping record be allowed in his organisations. However, he <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/sportsnews/article-3841622/Sir-Dave-Brailsford-admits-errors-Team-Sky-package-questions-denies-allegations-wrongdoing.html">drew criticism</a> for his less than forthcoming response to controversy surrounding a mystery package allegedly delivered to Team Sky in June 2011, which is currently the subject of a UK Anti-Doping investigation.</p>
<h2>Key questions</h2>
<p>Ahead of Brailsford’s select committee appearance, I propose five key questions that MPs should put to him:</p>
<p><strong>1.</strong> A great deal of attention has been focused on Wiggins’ use of drugs for allergies and asthma under a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE). There is nothing illegal in this. But banned drug triamcinolone (Kenalog), a synthetic corticosteroid used to treat allergies, was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2016/sep/30/bradley-wiggins-full-story-asthma-allergies-tues">used by Wiggins</a> under a TUE prior to his Tour de France campaigns in 2011 and 2012, and his Giro d’Italia ride in 2013.</p>
<p>If there was no breaking of any rules, why wasn’t this a matter of public record much earlier? And did his use of this medicine so close to competition have an effect?</p>
<p><strong>2.</strong> Brailsford has often spoken about the philosophy of marginal gains, whether <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-34247629">those be achieved</a> through diet, technology, training methods, pre-emptive healthcare or even sleeping arrangements. Does the legal use of medicines that have a performance-enhancing effect also count towards marginal gains and would such an approach fit with WADA’s idea of the “<a href="https://www.wada-ama.org/en/media/news/2013-02/the-spirit-of-sport-and-anti-doping-policy-an-ideal-worth-fighting-for">spirit of sport</a>”?</p>
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<p><strong>3.</strong> British cycling coach Simon Cope has said that he delivered a package in June 2011 ahead of the Criterium du Dauphiné stage race, flying in to hand this over to the team doctor. The circumstances surrounding this have been the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2016/oct/12/british-cycling-coach-pacackge-team-sky">subject of some debate</a> and Brailsford has admitted he could have handled the story better. The subject is under investigation by UK Anti-Doping and Team Sky said it is “confident” <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2016/oct/08/cycling-team-sky-bradley-wiggins">there was no wrongdoing</a>. Can Brailsford reveal what was in the package and why the contents have not already been explained?</p>
<p><strong>4.</strong> <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cycling/37589241">Claims were made</a> in October that at the 2012 road world championships, Team GB riders used the legal but controversial painkiller tramadol. The cyclist Jonathan Tiernan-Locke alleged that the drug was “<a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/cycling/2016/10/10/sir-bradley-wiggins-tues-ethically-wrong-according-to-team-sky-t/">freely offered</a>”. Tramadol is not banned in sport but it can cause <a href="http://drugabuse.com/library/the-effects-of-tramadol-use/">nausea, dizziness and drowsiness</a> – and it has been suggested that the latter might be a factor in crashes. </p>
<p>While tramadol is legal, it is a highly powerful drug and is the subject of an an investigation by the <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/cycling/2016/10/19/olympic-chiefs-to-examine-painkiller-in-team-sky-controversy/">International Olympic Committee</a>. Does Tiernan-Locke’s claim have any substance? </p>
<p><strong>5.</strong> Brailsford has a reputation for promoting an anti-doping culture. However, Team Sky has refused to join the pro-active <a href="https://www.mpcc.fr/index.php/en/mpcc-uk">Movement for Credible Cycling (MPCC)</a> whose requirements are more rigorous than WADA’s and which has campaigned to have tramadol banned. Can he explain why they took this position towards an organisation which, on the face of it, is aligned with a strong anti-doping stance?</p>
<p>These questions can be answered. It could well be said that no rules have been broken, however, trust is gained through transparency and honesty – and it is far from clear why important aspects of this business have not been publicly resolved. The select committee has an opportunity to seek that transparency; to find out all the drugs that team doctors have ordered, match them to TUEs, and match them to specific races. The outcomes of this research might bring a more definitive outcome to a sorry saga.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70365/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Dimeo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Team Sky boss is due to give evidence to MP’s at parliament. Here’s what they should ask him.Paul Dimeo, Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of StirlingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/618682016-07-14T16:47:27Z2016-07-14T16:47:27ZSport academics tell all: four ways to get ahead in the Tour de France<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129447/original/image-20160705-795-14ffc1i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The peloton climbing the road to Col de Pailheres, Pyrenees.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-145244464/stock-photo-port-de-pailleres-france-jul-the-peloton-climbing-the-road-to-col-de-pailheres-in-pyrenees.html?src=cWpLZbbl97Kofj-OVMov2g-1-0">www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cycling is currently experiencing a boom, with <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-global-bike-sharing-boom-why-cities-love-a-cycling-scheme-53895">global bike-sharing schemes</a> in major cities around the world, and more and more people getting on their bikes for regular exercise and enjoyment. </p>
<p>Oh, and it’s also the Tour de France.</p>
<p>From July 2-24, cyclists pass through 21 stages, up Mont Ventoux and through time trials, at incredibly high performance levels that approach the limits of human tolerance. To do this they’ll <a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-hear-it-for-carbs-tour-de-france-cyclists-couldnt-do-it-without-them-44923">need to consume a staggering mass of carbohydrates</a>. Chris Froome is attempting to defend his 2015 title, when he became the <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/tag/chris-froome">first British rider to win two editions of the Tour</a>. He maintains his lead in the 2016 Tour despite having had to climb a section of the mountain on foot:</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"753604926757040128"}"></div></p>
<p>We’ve put together some articles on the science and the strategy behind competing in the Tour de France. Written by academics who are experts in their fields, they show how riding in the race demands a combination of intense focus, endurance and strategy unlike any other competitive endeavour.</p>
<h2>1) How Tour de France riders <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-does-a-tour-de-france-favourite-win-on-the-scorching-mountain-slopes-61316">reach their peak performance</a> on the slopes</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/130604/original/image-20160714-23358-c8vsyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/130604/original/image-20160714-23358-c8vsyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130604/original/image-20160714-23358-c8vsyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130604/original/image-20160714-23358-c8vsyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130604/original/image-20160714-23358-c8vsyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130604/original/image-20160714-23358-c8vsyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130604/original/image-20160714-23358-c8vsyc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bauke Mollema crosses the finish line after cycling 178km between Montpellier and Mont Ventoux, 2016.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.epa.eu/sports-photos/cycling-photos/tour-de-france-2016-12th-stage-photos-52887618">KIM LUDBROOK/EPA</a></span>
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<p>Reaching altitudes of more than 2,000 metres above sea level, and temperatures of 40°C, the extreme physiological effects of the race environment have been factored into athletes’ training. Athletes are repeatedly exposed to warm conditions in order to acclimatise to the heat and perform better when bombing around the French countryside in the baking heat.</p>
<p>The reduction of oxygen in the atmosphere at high altitudes can lead to oxygen-starved muscles and much less power output – so that the cyclists’ performance on the day essentially depends on how well they’ve factored these setbacks into their preparation.</p>
<h2>2) <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-do-cyclists-reach-super-fast-speeds-24236">How cyclists reach super fast speeds</a></h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129450/original/image-20160705-804-1itmi0n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129450/original/image-20160705-804-1itmi0n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129450/original/image-20160705-804-1itmi0n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129450/original/image-20160705-804-1itmi0n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129450/original/image-20160705-804-1itmi0n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129450/original/image-20160705-804-1itmi0n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129450/original/image-20160705-804-1itmi0n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The fourth stage of the Tour, 2016.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.epa.eu/sports-photos/cycling-photos/tour-de-france-2016-4th-stage-photos-52871314">Marcel Kittel/EPA</a></span>
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<p>Being able to reach speeds of up to 55km per hour on a bike requires a combination of physics and imaginative training, where every little increment of added speed helps. An expert academic in product design explains how the forces acting on the cyclist and their bicycle are to be reckoned with to get to their maximum speed. </p>
<p>Teams’ kits are painstakingly designed for maximum aerodynamics and lightness, to the smallest detail. Frames can weigh as little as 800g but are built to withstand five hours’ riding or more every day.</p>
<h2>3) The <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-science-behind-tour-de-frances-hide-and-seek-tactics-29008">hide-and-seek tactics of each stage</a></h2>
<p>Pacing, sprinting, and following the leader – the tactics of a Tour stage are a puzzle that winning teams have to get their heads around. </p>
<p>While a flat time trial demands an even pace, strategies need to be developed for each stage and its particular hills and exposure to wind. </p>
<p>Following another rider can allow you to drop your power output significantly without any loss in speed. But the team must also work together towards a strategy that enables their maximum efficiency as a group.</p>
<h2>4) <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-to-win-a-tour-de-france-sprint-29436">How to win a Tour de France sprint</a></h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/130053/original/image-20160711-9289-pwg63p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/130053/original/image-20160711-9289-pwg63p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130053/original/image-20160711-9289-pwg63p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130053/original/image-20160711-9289-pwg63p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130053/original/image-20160711-9289-pwg63p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130053/original/image-20160711-9289-pwg63p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130053/original/image-20160711-9289-pwg63p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mark Cavendish and Mark Renshaw execute the perfect lead out and sprint on the Champs Elysee in 2009.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Guillaume Horcajuelo/EPA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even the perfect sprint is often a result of seamless teamwork worked out well ahead. First, riders need to push ahead from the peloton in a breakaway. The leadout train then allows the team’s main sprinter to maintain high speeds without tiring, as he follows in his teammates’ slipstream while they alternate as leaders of the train. The sprinter speeds ahead at the last moment, metres from the finish line.</p>
<p>Sprinting is where the sport becomes cruel – this is when <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pya6ZVW-oKg">crashes can happen</a> or a <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/cycling/2016/07/07/tour-de-france-2016-stage-six---live1/">“terrifying”</a> sprint can lead to victory – and a rider who’s been in the breakaway all day can be easily overtaken by sprinters in the last 20 seconds. </p>
<p>After all that exertion, try to avoid articles about <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-exercise-does-to-your-bones-57524">what exercise does to your bones</a> and instead read about how an <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-ok-to-have-a-beer-after-exercise-61695">ice cold beer at the end</a> of a tough Tour de France could be just about as effective as an energy drink – but much more satisfying.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61868/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Everything you need to know about how elite cyclists tackle the slopes of the Tour.Khalil A. Cassimally, Head of Audience Insights, The Conversation InternationalHolly Farler, Section and Multimedia AssistantLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/613162016-07-07T10:42:55Z2016-07-07T10:42:55ZHow does a Tour de France favourite win on the scorching mountain slopes?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129234/original/image-20160704-19091-olrq5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=260%2C344%2C1700%2C1122&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Peak performance? How riders prepare decides their fate.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/willj/7558625860/in/photolist-cvVW8w-fi3bdP-hBaCJG-6mKNGU-nWE8Ra-afYAbt-57d1VZ-edVqy1-3o8nt-e17hBy-5x4da-4be1RR-jWRWbd-6mKMm7-fiemFb-8oSmZi-8mmVY1-8mn4aA-a5SbKJ-ag2phq-nWRMGS-a7d1zg-fhWr8B-fie2GG-8Awzh-5YqtgA-dh7bii-2gT6Tp-2napqV-agFg2C-afYAR2-afYAiF-fhdnkY-ag2m3w-aCzAX-aCzEV-57d6fR-4be2ir-8rYx5k-8rMn8f-3o8rb-4be2Ec-fhdcRo-fifHkG-a7fTLj-3o8ni-hk73Z-71bfJR-9PGE4P-71bcYg">will_cyclist/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Tour de France is winding its way from the flat, windswept coast of northern France down through the Loire valley and <a href="http://www.letour.com/le-tour/2016/us/overall-route.html">the lumpy terrain</a> of the Massif Central. So far, it has been a time for the bulky sprinters and the <a href="https://velovoices.com/peloton-primer/peloton-primer-types-of-rider/">puncheurs</a> who specialise in short, maximum efforts. But as with every Tour, the race will be won on the long, winding slopes of the mountain stages when the summer heat and relentless gradient can sap both strength and morale. </p>
<p>This year’s edition <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/racing/tour-de-france/seven-key-climbs-of-the-2016-tour-de-france-196139">will take the riders up passes</a> in the Alps and Pyrenees as well as up the Provencal monster of Mont Ventoux. The race will reach altitudes of more than 2,000m above sea level, while temperatures are likely to nudge 40˚C. </p>
<p>That combination of heat and altitude is a huge challenge for general classification contenders such as Britain’s Chris Froome, Colombia’s Nairo Quintana and Spain’s Alberto Contador. Understanding the physiological effects such extremes can cause will help define who is wearing the yellow jersey in Paris.</p>
<h2>Peaks and troughs</h2>
<p>One of this year’s most compelling tests will fall during stage 12, when the riders face a 184km slog to the summit of Mont Ventoux. It peaks at 1,912m after a 15.7km climb with an average gradient of almost 9%. The mountain <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2012/jul/14/archive-1967-simpson-death-tour-de-france">has a tragic history</a> and a daunting reputation thanks to its exposed, volcanic slopes which provide the bunch with little respite from the glaring sun. </p>
<p>The effects of a combination of heat and altitude, as often experienced on Ventoux, are not well understood. There is some <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24748530">recent evidence</a> to suggest an additive effect of heat and altitude, which can reduce exercise performance by as much as half compared to about a 35% reduction due to either heat or altitude in isolation. The paucity of research on the combined effects means athletes and coaches still tend to focus their efforts on each factor in isolation.</p>
<p>So what can you do to prepare for the brutality of racing up a mountain in the burning heat of the day – the riders are scheduled to start climbing Ventoux at about 4pm on Bastille Day (July 14)? </p>
<h2>Climate control</h2>
<p>The good news is that acclimatisation works. It has repeatedly been shown that <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9309637">cycling performance is impaired in the heat</a>, but that this can be overcome by a period of <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20724560">heat acclimatisation</a>. The athlete is repeatedly exposed to exercise in warm conditions in order to elevate their core body temperature and stress their cardiovascular system. In many <a href="http://www.gssiweb.org/en/Article/sse-153-heat-acclimatization-to-improve-athletic-performance-in-warm-hot-environments">scientific studies</a> in this field, acclimatisation to the heat is often achieved using environmental chambers to artificially replicate a warm environment. However, for obvious reasons, many cycling teams choose to take their key climbers to warm weather training camps. </p>
<p>It can can reduce core temperature and heart rate, both at rest and during exercise. These measures are often used to determine whether an athlete has become heat acclimatised – but how does it happen? </p>
<p>Reductions in heart rate, both at rest and during exercise, occur in response to an expansion in plasma volume. An expansion of plasma volume allows the cardiovascular system to meet the demands of increasing peripheral blood flow to the skin, while preserving skeletal muscle blood flow and that to the core. Increases in skin blood flow are important as it represents a key avenue by which heat generated via exercise (made worse during exercise in the heat) is transferred from the body core to the skin and helps defend against <a href="http://www.webmd.com/first-aid/hyperthermia">hyperthermia</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129236/original/image-20160704-19110-1rq9k6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Heat can hamper riders’ ability.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/evilnick/191172022/in/photolist-hTNMm-2pWdV-2pDQ6w-g9DSC-cKZ21o-8cDuaD-iwh8B-6aZWUa-2ShPr-ihVQK-ebHgiB-39p6P-4Un7TT-6Hn84y-jc76Gy-5pcixw-5kMM1V-9ejYU3-6sb6e-bX53B4-cvtAxY-5FYsdK-bX54i6-au2Byw-dNRBv7-bX53tZ-cerpnu-sojdB-8xJETJ">evil nick/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Preventing large increases in core and skin temperature are important in determining performance. It <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25943669">is thought</a> that feedback <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21197543">from these regions</a> helps to determine an athlete’s pacing – in other words, the hotter you get, the less you think you can push it. </p>
<p>It is not uncommon that during the Tour, temperatures on Ventoux and in the Alps and Pyrenees will exceed 30˚C. That means that whichever of the Tour favourites is better acclimatised will have lower core and skin temperatures at crucial moments and will be able to go harder than their rivals.</p>
<h2>Height restriction</h2>
<p>The effects of altitude alone on cycling power output and endurance capacity <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26629912">are well known</a>, largely occurring as a result of the reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere. This effectively means that for each breath a cyclist takes at altitude they are getting less oxygen to the muscles, which elevates the physiological strain. The heart rate goes up, and the power output goes down.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129241/original/image-20160704-19127-1sn1nfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More oxygen equals better performance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com">Anna Kireieva/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Altitude training can prepare riders for these extremes, too. Long periods of altitude work can drive an increase in haemoglobin and red blood cells via erythropoiesis – the same effect as can be artificially and illegally achieved with the <a href="http://www.runnersworld.com/sweat-science/how-does-epo-work">use of the infamous drug, EPO</a>.</p>
<p>This is an important adaptation because an increase in red blood cells and haemoglobin improves the blood’s ability to move oxygen around your body. This means that more oxygenated blood reaches the muscles, helping to meet the metabolic demand of cycling at a given intensity more easily. Riders can therefore sustain a higher power output on the mountain slopes for a longer period of time compared to an individual who has not undergone altitude training (or taken EPO).</p>
<p>So let’s say that we arrive at Mont Ventoux on July 14 with the sun blazing and the racing hard. We will essentially be faced with a test of the favourites’ preparation. Has Froome done the altitude work to get enough oxygen to his legs when Quintana attacks? And when these two hot favourites start trading blows, will Contador or Italy’s Fabio Aru have done enough warm weather training to stay cool? It will look like an old-fashioned fight between the lean and lycra-clad, but beneath it all, the scientific foundations that will define the result have already been decided.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61316/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When the road heads higher and the mercury is rising, the world’s top cyclists get to test the quality of their preparation.Steve Faulkner, Research associate, Loughborough UniversityKaty Griggs, Research Assistant and PhD student, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/583662016-04-28T14:04:47Z2016-04-28T14:04:47ZCharge of the lycra brigade: will the Tour de Yorkshire attract more people to cycling?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120501/original/image-20160428-28064-1aajo5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Competitors in the <a href="http://letour.yorkshire.com">second Tour de Yorkshire</a> cycling event have begun their three-day route through many of the region’s towns and cities, racing toward the finish line in Scarborough. This event has largely been developed off the back of the success of Le Grand Départ – the opening stages of the Tour de France – which was hosted by Yorkshire in 2014. </p>
<p>Yorkshire’s leg of Le Grand Départ was viewed as a great triumph, <a href="http://www.leeds.gov.uk/news/pages/-Evaluation-report-reveals-%C2%A3130million-Le-Tour-boost.aspx">generating £128m</a> for the local economy and attracting an estimated 3.6m visitors to the region. It was said that the event would boost the popularity of cycling – and indeed, the sport is undergoing <a href="http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/public/cyclesafety/article3706006.ece">something of a renaissance</a> in the UK. </p>
<p>But up until now, there has been no detailed research on who attended Le Grand Départ – so there was no telling whether the event did reach out to a new audience. Now, we have used a unique <a href="http://leedsdatamill.org/dataset/tour-de-france-grand-depart-survey/resource/ec906ae8-c166-44fe-b7de-7f4774688e2c">dataset</a> to investigate whether Le Grand Départ was attended by all sections of society – or just “the Mamils” (middle-aged men in lycra). </p>
<h2>March of the Mamils</h2>
<p>Yorkshire has a relatively diverse population, in terms of ethnicity, <a href="http://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/ethnicityandnationalidentityinenglandandwales/2012-12-11">7.3% are Asian, 1.5% are black</a>, and in terms of economic profile, pockets of deprivation sit alongside some of the <a href="http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/wealth-divide-still-growing-in-yorkshire-of-two-halves-1-6529698">wealthiest areas in the country</a>. If the event was truly inclusive, we might expect these populations to figure more prominently at Le Grand Départ.</p>
<p>Over 4,000 questionnaires were taken over the course of the three opening days of Le Grand Départ in 2014. We analysed these to pull out the basic demographic information of those who attended. Our analysis revealed that the demographic profile of the spectators as a group is skewed: it is more white, male and middle-aged than the national profile. </p>
<p>Over 97% of those who came to the event were white (compared to 86% of the population who reported as white in the <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/census/2011census">2011 Census</a>), with the proportion of male spectators slightly over the national average (51% compared with 49%). There was also a clear over-representation of spectators aged 35 to 44 (23% of all spectators compared with 17% of the national population), 45 to 54 (25% compared with 17%) and 55 to 64 (17% compared with 14%). These traits match up with the group popularly known as Mamils. </p>
<p>Even so, we were surprised to find that there was a relatively equal gender split at most locations (bar the “King of the Mountains” sites). According to the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/457752/nts2014-01.pdf">National Travel Survey</a>, men cycle more than women: in 2014, men made over three times as many trips by bike as women, with those aged 30 to 49 covering more miles than any other age group. The equal attendance at Le Grand Départ is encouraging, because it shows that events like this may have a role to play in reducing the gender imbalance in the sport.</p>
<h2>Access denied</h2>
<p>However, the same cannot be said for other demographics: for instance, the spectator group was less disabled (4%) than the national average (12%). And while this is likely due to a smaller proportion of spectators being over 65-years-old, it could also be attributed to the difficulty of access at many stages of the route. Generally, where the route is least accessible the demography of the spectators is more skewed away from the national average. </p>
<p>This is most prominently seen in the least accessible (and arguably most exciting) “King of the Mountains” sections of the race, usually staged in the most rural areas. Here, the proportion of male spectators jumps to 56%, while the proportion of spectators with disabilities drops to 2%. This does suggest that there may be barriers to access for certain groups in the least accessible places.</p>
<p>This data was combined with a <a href="http://acorn.caci.co.uk/downloads/Acorn-User-guide.pdf">socio-economic classification</a> to draw a clearer picture of the type of person who came to spectate. Again, we found that the composition of spectators for each of the three opening stage of the 2014 Tour de France in Yorkshire is unlike the national average. </p>
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<p>Between 79% (stage two) and 83% (stages one and three) of spectators fall within one of the three most affluent categories, while those classified as the most financially comfortable (“affluent achievers”) represent more than twice the national average at stages one and three. There is variation at different sections of the route: the relatively inaccessible “King of the Mountains” sections were primarily attended by “affluent achievers” (39%) and “comfortable communities” (37%), while the least affluent “urban adversity” group only accounted for 1% of the total crowd at these locations.</p>
<p>The positive benefits of hosting large scale events like Le Grand Départ and the Tour de Yorkshire are compelling. Beyond short-term economic benefits and positive publicity for the region, the social capital delivered by these events should not be underestimated – there’s no doubt that they bring communities together in celebration. </p>
<p>But high profile events, which require public expenditure and goodwill to go ahead, should be accessible to all. Evidence suggests that the crowd who turned out for Le Grand Départ was not particularly representative of the wider population. In the interest of fairness – and indeed longer-term justice in our society – we could, and should, do more to ensure that cycling and other major sporting events are accessible for all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/58366/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There’s clearly a growing enthusiasm for the sport but our experts crunched the numbers to see if this is just more middle-aged men in lycra (Mamils).Matthew Whittle, PhD candidate Transport Studies, University of LeedsAlison Heppenstall, Associate Professor in Geocomputation, University of LeedsNik Lomax, Lecturer in Population Geography, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/449982015-07-24T12:00:42Z2015-07-24T12:00:42ZThe performance story that is pushing Chris Froome towards Tour number two<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/89621/original/image-20150724-7608-1p4psa1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=266%2C21%2C1597%2C1204&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Performance review. Froome approaches the Champs Elysees.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/sean_hickin/14410377998/in/photolist-nXoXk5-oewjMh-ofuLXv-cHT1q9-cHSZTm-cHYqy9-egbLSX-eghwVo-tHaAmj-ocxKHo-ntj99b-egbFEK-egbFxH-nCRME4-adqRns-cFksrh-cFksZw-nZ75Ke-nX5Hpr-cHLtZ3-feNbXB-vFt49M-oepL8o-ffVNh3-fgTnpq-cJcrW1-cHJSgJ-it3Wy2-cHJRUJ-fhAxTd-ffC7UA-rmwv6N-amZjbK-cJcs11-oehDha-oepCJf-nX6UmT-ocy3kG-nYNUQ3-spy7JY-w3pT1K-fdYf53-nX6p2c-ogmxrK-nX63Ph-nX6SwR-nX5DJ1-nX5W32-ocx67W-nX5RA6">sean_hickin</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Assuming no last minute collapses in form or bone-breaking crashes, Chris Froome will ride along Champs-Élysées on Sunday as the winner of the 2015 Tour de France and the only British man in history to win the race twice. This was achieved in a Tour characterised by high speed crashes, <a href="http://news.sky.com/story/1521348/froome-spectator-threw-urine-in-my-face">the throwing of urine and abuse at Froome</a>, reports of a <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cycling/33517897">data hack into his Sky team’s files</a> to cast doubt on the legitimacy of his success, and a spectre of doping that refuses to leave the mountains. </p>
<p>Then of course, there is the small matter of 3,400km of bike racing against highly motivated rivals. Victory in this most brutal test of human endurance is within reach, but what explains why Froome chose to push his body so hard in pursuit of success? </p>
<p>Is he just that rare breed of cyclist who can excel on the flat, in the mountains, and in team and individual time trials? Or, is there something else more elusive that shapes a champion? The narratives that elite athletes construct and detail in their autobiographies are becoming an <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/14690292/16/part/P3">established source of data</a> for scholars <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/14690292/16/part/P1">who seek access</a> to the underlying identities of elite athletes to understand a champion mindset. <a href="http://road.cc/content/review/133063-climb-chris-froome">Froome’s autobiography The Climb</a> gives us useful look at how he has constructed his narrative. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/89625/original/image-20150724-7593-j91e4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Goal oriented. Paris.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/lukema/10919087774/in/photolist-hCTbo3-dQwCx8-dETREF-qDPWWW-KiZT7-8bBCzB-eMNmWu-949ZBd-4ZPGgx-96mXF2-mT123P-p6Chvu-5eBrvj-eXCZfd-nVNXt5-8F8cfJ-rHDAVC-e9QQz9-bt3Pdb-8sKWEw-baAxAx-vuBknr-cCp1rG-imjiGp-rBp7tY-bqq2mX-oPLNkY-rLSuRw-aBy3ot-qXij1C-dMBRHq-o7Xfri-rtSCKM-8YVabu-9iqpjR-mVt9HU-9xFdYh-8YRU4e-dUtzbz-sXgLWZ-cDvEbj-rJzFzy-9pgPCU-fHfnfn-a5rVxN-eej7Mn-e6sa1X-rUaMQu-azX8Up-qwQnjk">Luke Ma</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Suffering</h2>
<p>Froome depicts his passage from being a skinny kijana (youngster) racing his mentor in the Ngong Hills in Kenya to triumph in the 2013 Tour de France. His story comprises a number of intertwined narratives of which the most dominant is a performance narrative. The term, coined by <a href="http://journals.humankinetics.com/wspaj-back-issues/wspaj-volume-15-issue-2-fall/performance-discovery-and-relational-narratives-among-women-professional-tournament-golfers">Kitrina Douglas and David Carless</a>, involves a single-minded dedication to sport, and the prioritization of winning above all else that might impact on the athlete’s mental well-being, identity, and self-worth. In addition to being dominant in Froome’s memoir it can be seen as the prevailing narrative in other autobiographies, such as that of <a href="http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/5497240-no-limits">Olympic champion Michael Phelps</a>. </p>
<p>Froome’s performance narrative is framed by accounts of suffering. In fact, his repetitive use of the word reminds the reader that suffering, particularly on his bike, is what characterises his life. His Kenyan birthplace is known for its world class runners but has had little success in cycling. What it also has is mountains, and it is in these mountains that Froome developed his highly focused resilience. As onlookers we have seen his single-minded motivation, against the odds, towards becoming a multiple Tour winner. His resilience is evident in the face of pretty much <a href="http://www.cyclingnews.com/http://www.cyclingnews.com/news/tour-de-france-froome-hits-back-at-jalaberts-comments">relentless doping insinuations</a> in the French press and particularly through social media, as well as in his response to urine being thrown at him, and in the searing conditions of the Tour. </p>
<p>It is in the mountains though where we get to see Froome’s solace in suffering. And perhaps it has been no better demonstrated this year than in the mountain finish at La Pierre-Saint-Martin when Froome attacked to gain more than a minute on all of his main rivals. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/wuW7w9mC8R4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Official coverage highlights from Stage 10 of the 2015 Tour.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Quest questions</h2>
<p>We all experience adversity, and champions are no different, but perhaps it is their response to the distress and disappointment that provides the transformational processes that motivate them beyond mere coping. This is apparent in many sporting autobiographies such as in the memoirs of Olympic swimming champions, <a href="http://amandabeard.net/">Amanda Beard</a> and <a href="http://www.biography.com/people/ian-thorpe-20930179">Ian Thorpe</a>, where adversity and the positive outcomes, framed as “adversarial growth”, are central. </p>
<p>These accounts tend towards a more quest-focused narrative which involve the confrontation of adversity, seeking of meaning, an explicit drive to gain something positive from the adversity, and a rejection of the performance narrative. Froome’s story involves adversity and despite the lows he achieved ultimate success. Froome recounts harsh school conditions, <a href="http://www.decodedscience.com/chris-froomes-parasite-what-is-bilharzia-anyway/33544">illness (bilharzia)</a>, his mother’s death in 2008 while he was riding in Spain, and the frustrations of 2012 when he was assigned the <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/active/10951513/Michael-Barry-the-truth-about-cycling-domestiques.html">role of domestique</a> for Bradley Wiggins, nurturing his team leader through the stages to Paris (<a href="http://road.cc/content/news/93418-sean-yates-bradley-wiggins-nearly-quit-2012-tour-de-france-after-chris-froome">with only the odd false step</a>).</p>
<p>Adversity was also evident in the build up to this second victory; a broken wrist in the 2014 Tour meant a stage five withdrawal and no replay of his 2013 glory. Unlike Beard and Thorpe though, Froome has never rejected the performance narrative, even if in modern cycling it contains its own dangers. </p>
<p>It may be the primary device explaining Froome’s drive, motivation, and sacrifice for cycling, but there is a limit to the pervasive script of this narrative. Froome has consistently attempted to draw a definitive red line as to the limit of his performance. His team this week was <a href="http://www.skysports.com/cycling/news/15264/9919955/chris-froomes-tour-de-france-stage-10-power-data-revealed-by-team-sky">forced to reveal power data</a> which claimed to show estimates put forward by an expert were massive overestimates. In a sport damaged by the admissions of Lance Armstrong, it is a curious by-product that Froome and Team Sky are as eager to shout about both the normality and exceptionality of his performance. </p>
<p>As Froome prepares to ride the remaining mountains on his road to Paris, we will be watching to see if that performance narrative will continue to produce the effort, sacrifice, and team ethic required for this and future tour victories.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44998/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karen Howells does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s not enough to be an elite athlete these days, you have to construct your own narrative for success.Karen Howells, Lecturer in Sport and Fitness, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/446392015-07-24T09:24:26Z2015-07-24T09:24:26ZHow cycling’s rising popularity built a lucrative tribe of MAMILs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88381/original/image-20150714-21738-1p1evd1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C160%2C1564%2C917&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some MAMILs, in their natural habitat.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/camera_phone_lomo/15582695602/in/photolist-pJZovy-nYtskd-oQjkXj-fr6gda-enEzz5-n8Wodz-9KVqk3-frkyEu-fr6fPV-frkxLU-cLiVaJ-fr6h9D-n8WwMt-duiY4e-8AkuW4-pawc8p-bsFqCq-foWsUZ-rKHDCU-uV9btb-n2hp5M-dmxNb1-nY6Zq6-ou6mFi-egPJtn">camera_phone_lomo</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0088707/">American Flyers was a 1985 movie</a> depicting the strategy and tactics of road cycle racing. In addition to an early appearance by Kevin Costner, the film was notable, among other things, for its portrayal of European cycling.</p>
<p>At the time, professional cycling had still to take hold in the United States and Lance Armstrong was only a boy, no doubt pounding the streets of Plano, Texas in anticipation of what lay ahead. Instead, the movie’s glamour boys were the European riders who were all swagger and attitude. </p>
<p>Up to that point, professional cycling had been a distinctly European phenomenon. It was dominated by heroes and icons such as <a href="http://www.cyclinghalloffame.com/riders/rider_bio.asp?rider_id=13">Fausto Coppi</a>, <a href="http://www.cyclinghalloffame.com/riders/rider_bio.asp?rider_id=25">Jacques Anquetil</a> and <a href="http://www.cyclinghalloffame.com/riders/rider_bio.asp?rider_id=1">Eddy Merckx</a>. Another rider, <a href="http://www.cyclinghalloffame.com/riders/rider_bio.asp?rider_id=37">Miguel Indurain</a>, was the quintessential type of European cyclist depicted in the movie. </p>
<p>A five-time Tour de France winner, during his career Indurain was often portrayed as having had an impoverished working-class upbringing – cycling was his route out of farming in rural Navarre, Spain. Even so, for every Indurain, there had been a hundred other French, Italian and Spanish riders of the same ilk.</p>
<h2>Corporate strategies</h2>
<p>If American Flyers portrayed cycling in the way it had always been, its prophetic message was of what cycling would become. Many of the film’s scenes were staged using the actual <a href="https://www.facebook.com/pages/Team-7-Eleven/291669047559438">7-Eleven professional team</a> as actors. In time, 7-Eleven eventually mutated into the Motorola team, which was formed by Jim Ochowicz. Ochowicz went on to become Lance Armstrong’s first professional team director when the rider competed for Motorola between 1992 and 1996.</p>
<p>Both Ochowicz and Armstrong brought a new approach to cycling that was less Spanish farm worker and more square-jawed American executive. Their strategy was more akin to industrial process and commercial enterprise, something which began to revolutionise professional cycling.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88387/original/image-20150714-21743-s1qvqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88387/original/image-20150714-21743-s1qvqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88387/original/image-20150714-21743-s1qvqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88387/original/image-20150714-21743-s1qvqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88387/original/image-20150714-21743-s1qvqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88387/original/image-20150714-21743-s1qvqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88387/original/image-20150714-21743-s1qvqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88387/original/image-20150714-21743-s1qvqe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lance Armstrong joins the MAMILs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/goatkarma/3833165315/in/photolist-6QHYva-7wncwE-63UjnF-61c8QQ-9hW61a-q8oPr-33kwj-661a8X-5p91hv-5pdhAw-5pdhcu-5yR7HV-665sBW-7TMi2Q-61t2em-4MNYU9-29bE7S-aEC2i-77RWb5-93Ym6Q-5G99wr-o2vFf-2KfRf-brccL-6QGAU-brcgE-5pdhiw-dMzcmj-3egb67-7wnZXy-77PdKx-33kvq-6R5Rpa-3o8xk-612DxC-6R5QBp-7xWLUr-95VDv3-Y17zt-5p91rD-6qr9u-5ZUmWE-5zH3sT-5zMjp9-5zH3C6-5zH2UX-5zH2CD-5zMjgs-5zMjAj-5zMjU9">Andrew Wilson</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Under the influence of Armstrong, Ochowicz and others, the corporate types being drawn into cycling were soon themselves enticed by participation in the sport. <a href="http://wheelmenthebook.com/">In their book, Wheelmen</a>, Reed Albergotti and Vanessa O’Connell of the Wall Street Journal identified how cycling was embraced by, and became the epitome of, American business culture. It was intensely competitive and combined the importance of strong strategy and tactics with the need for the good health and well-being of executives.</p>
<h2>Olympic effect</h2>
<p>Following developments in the United States, cycling’s <em>nouveau-riche</em> contingent found a new boost from an upsurge in British interest in cycling. First came some success, most notably during the 2004 Athens Olympics, which led to a sharp increase in the sale of bicycles in Britain. Then came <a href="http://www.teamsky.com/teamsky/home#WfL6MI1Dx4e3JaMG.97">the emergence of a new team, Sky</a>, which not only set about revolutionising the sport, but also provided a focus for UK sports fans and bike riders alike.</p>
<p>At the heart of this British new wave was a man who was neither European farmer nor American executive. Rather, he was all Fred Perry, Northern Soul and tattoos. Although he had been around on the professional scene for more than a decade, <a href="https://www.britishcycling.org.uk/gbcyclingteam/bio/Sir_Bradley_Wiggins_CBE">when Bradley Wiggins won the Tour de France</a> and an Olympic Gold Medal in 2012, cycling in Britain went stratospheric. </p>
<p>If Armstrong was the poster boy for corporate America, then Wiggins was more like David Beckham on wheels. With a penchant for 1960s British music, a wardrobe of sharp suits and a loving family to boot, for many British males Wiggins was and still is a 21st-century icon in the way he balances style, rebelliousness, family life and high performance at work.</p>
<p>Of this Anglo-American marriage was born a love-child, the disciples of which now populate the highways of both countries and beyond. Where once, the working-class traditions of cycling witnessed farmer’s sons on bikes, now our roads are adorned with gleaming machines ridden by accountants in synthetic fabric – the MAMILs have arrived and are populating the cycling world.</p>
<p>Middle-Aged Men in Lycra (MAMILs) have rapidly become a cultural phenomenon and a clearly defined market segment. Kitted out in garish sponsor-laden kits of professional teams, they <a href="http://www.evanscycles.com/products/bmc/timemachine-tmr01-ultegra-di2-2015-road-bike-ec053884">pedal away on £4,000 bicycles</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88392/original/image-20150714-21715-1omwij4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88392/original/image-20150714-21715-1omwij4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/88392/original/image-20150714-21715-1omwij4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88392/original/image-20150714-21715-1omwij4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88392/original/image-20150714-21715-1omwij4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88392/original/image-20150714-21715-1omwij4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88392/original/image-20150714-21715-1omwij4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/88392/original/image-20150714-21715-1omwij4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shopping time.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/acme59/6842097649/in/photolist-bqBxfR-74f7j5-4GCfjX-Ej634-7czgcn-finaC1-6Ggjau-cUeHoG-iwuzSH-9pKZMG-doaWLd-v5Tyy-sSp7vA-8t4CsG-9ASosi-bE29vZ-chpbvy-5ZRpSP-9dL4hu-n1QJQE-nv8RSm-poyiZt-qc86Rf-fNH75s-8hunav-a3Qer3-asV1th-6xtJBK-b99yHi-j7Nmj8-ebGLBa-5CY6tQ-dwKJXT-dy9tZj-8trK98-kPRZu-57KzPS-b99uZF-dHFBp5-fCBZBS-agEauC-qCmjU2-gyGjZg-5spNsT-8isD8c-eirJYd-9ndtGo-7tFF1T-9mmgWY-4nBuZL">acme08</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some cultural commentators have identified cycling as the new golf, as hordes of men flee the fairways and head for the hills. The suspect fashion and competitive edge are still there, but health, welfare and team bravado have replaced the one-upmanship of golf’s club houses. Furthermore, there’s something distinctly 21st century about pushing oneself to the physical limit with the guys on Mount Washington in New Hampshire or in the Yorkshire Dales, rather than indulging in a Sunday afternoon saunter around a pleasant golf course.</p>
<p>MAMILs have also become a marketer’s dream, spending sums of money on a bike that most people would ordinarily only spend on a small family car. The preponderance of lycra, carbon fibre helmets and on-board computers has contributed to a cycling industry that is now estimated to be <a href="https://www.britishcycling.org.uk/zuvvi/media/bc_files/corporate/The_British_Cycling_Economy_18Aug.pdf">worth £2.9 billion</a> or more to the British economy alone.</p>
<p>As Britain’s Chris Froome continues to lead the Tour de France, and with US rider Tejay van Garderen challenging strongly until <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/racing/tour-de-france/it-was-hard-to-look-at-my-teammates-after-abandoning-says-van-garderen-183999">his dramatic exit on Wednesday</a>, this year’s race has been something of a MAMIL fantasy. As such, carbon fibre rim manufacturers and energy bar producers are no doubt already salivating at the prospect of further boosts to their coffers. </p>
<p>Yet for all the cynicism among lonely women and overweight men, MAMIL mania should not be so quickly discounted. Just think of the environmental benefits every time a pushbike replaces the 1970s fuel-guzzling sports car that such men once longed to buy in middle age. At the same time, there are health benefits as well; unlike golf with its 19th-hole celebratory cigars and round of whiskies, the new way among MAMILs is to consume energy drinks and fruit purees in order to keep their bellies in check.</p>
<p>While some people will mourn the passing of cycling’s heritage and traditions, we now have a sport that is exactly what the likes of Jim Ochowicz set-out to create – and then some. Indeed, as we get deeper into the 21st century, with money in sport taking hold and the need for active lifestyles pressing, it is unlikely that we will ever see a return to the rugged, unvarnished type of cycling witnessed during the era of Coppi and Anquetil.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/44639/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Whether through US corporatism or the Wiggo effect in the UK, Middle-Aged Men in Lycra are spending big on bikes and bib-shorts.Simon Chadwick, Professor of Sport Business Strategy, Coventry UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.