tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/virgin-galactic-13295/articlesVirgin Galactic – The Conversation2024-03-18T13:44:27Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256932024-03-18T13:44:27Z2024-03-18T13:44:27ZSpace tourists and crew suffer high radiation risks – regulation is needed to protect them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581725/original/file-20240313-18-7nh0go.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=70%2C44%2C4210%2C2798&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Richard Branson, next to White Knight Spaceship 2.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/spaceport-america-new-mexico-october-17th-2008061687">Jared Ortega/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a decade or two, journeys into space could become as normal as transatlantic flights. In particular, the number of humans travelling into space with the help of commercial companies, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/virgin-galactic-space-tourism-takes-off-with-bransons-inaugural-flight-164142">Virgin Galactic</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/virgin-galactic-and-blue-origin-can-they-be-more-than-space-joyrides-for-millionaires-164513">Blue Origin</a>, will increase significantly. </p>
<p>But such travel comes with huge radiation risks. Sudden changes in space weather, such as solar flares, for example, could have significant health implications for crew and passengers. Now <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0265964624000043">our recent paper</a>, from the University of Surrey, Foot Anstey LLP Space and Satellite Team, has found that current legislation and regulation don’t do enough to protect space tourists and crew.</p>
<p>Changes in space weather could expose space tourists to radiation doses in excess <a href="https://www.icrp.org/publication.asp?id=ICRP%20Publication%20103">of the recommended maximum</a> 1 millisievert (mSv) yearly uptake for a member of the public and 20mSv yearly for those working with radiation. Research at the University of Surrey shows that during an extreme space weather event, flight participants could receive doses in excess of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468896723000289">100mSv</a>.</p>
<p>Current <a href="https://www.caa.co.uk/uk-regulations/aviation-safety/civil-aviation-act-1982-the-ano-2016-the-rules-of-the-air-2015-and-the-dg-regulations-2002/the-civil-aviation-air-navigation-order-2016/">legislation and regulation</a> focusing on potential radiation exposure for space tourists is limited and largely untested. There is a heavy focus on conventional non-radiation risk and wider safety, with guidance stemming from regulation of normal commercial flights. However, these are significantly different to space tourism enterprises. </p>
<p>Similarly, the law around space flights and their associated risk liability <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-space-tourism-travelling-faster-than-space-law-43586">is complex</a>. Space law incorporates a mix of international law (such as international agreements, treaties and conventions), domestic legislation and guidance. </p>
<h2>Cancer risk</h2>
<p>Exposure to low levels of background natural radiation is part of everyday life. Most people are not aware of this exposure and the potential risks to our health. For example, an 0.08mSv effective dose from a commercial flight from the UK to the US.</p>
<p>However, exposure to elevated levels of ionising radiation, such as those possible during space weather events, can potentially cause damage to DNA. The risk of space travel therefore ranges from a minor increase in health defects to serious health implications such as cancers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Diagram illustrating the comparison of radiation doses." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581729/original/file-20240313-26-4razll.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581729/original/file-20240313-26-4razll.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=678&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581729/original/file-20240313-26-4razll.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=678&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581729/original/file-20240313-26-4razll.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=678&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581729/original/file-20240313-26-4razll.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=852&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581729/original/file-20240313-26-4razll.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=852&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581729/original/file-20240313-26-4razll.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=852&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Comparison of radiation doses.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>There has been significant risk assessment of radiation exposure on Earth; for example in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2004.08.022">nuclear industry</a>. This is unlike the space tourism industry, which is still in its infancy. </p>
<p>Previous <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.08.035">research</a> has focused on the potential risk assessment for astronauts from radiation exposure and long duration missions outside low-Earth orbit. But this does not consider risks for those on short trips to space as tourists. Thus, there is still significant work to be done to assess the unique risk for space tourist flights and the supporting guidance and regulation.</p>
<p>Any existing regulation, such as the <a href="https://www.caa.co.uk/uk-regulations/aviation-safety/civil-aviation-act-1982-the-ano-2016-the-rules-of-the-air-2015-and-the-dg-regulations-2002/the-civil-aviation-air-navigation-order-2016/">UK Air Navigation Order</a> and <a href="https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/chapter-III/subchapter-C/part-460">Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) space flight regulations</a>, that is applicable to potential space flights focuses on crew, rather than paying passengers.</p>
<p>The space tourism industry is currently not fully aware of the radiation risks, we discovered. It is instead relying on incomplete “informed consent” for non-crew participants. The current regulation for the industry therefore places the risk burden firmly on the space tourist. We argue more legislation and regulation are needed.</p>
<h2>Our recommendations</h2>
<p>We made a series of recommendations in our report. But they are advisory. They are intended for the industry and regulators to consider as the space tourism sector continues to develop, particularly the FAA and the UK Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). </p>
<p>We suggest these bodies collaborate with industry, including space tourism companies, spacecraft manufacturers and space research organisations, to understand the technical challenges and risks associated with new spaceflight activities.
Such collaboration would help ensure that regulations are practical, effective and reflective of the latest technological advances.</p>
<p>We also advise considering international standards. As the commercial space industry becomes more global, it will be important for the CAA and FAA to collaborate with international regulatory bodies elsewhere, such as the <a href="https://www.icao.int/Pages/default.aspx">International Civil Aviation Organization</a> (ICAO) and <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html">the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (Uncopuos)</a>, to develop consistent regulations that apply across multiple jurisdictions.</p>
<p>Safety should be a critical consideration for any new regulations related to spaceflight. The CAA and FAA will need to ensure that new regulations adequately address risks associated with spaceflight. This is particularly exposure to radiation, but also the potential for accidents or system failures.</p>
<p>Finally, we encourage innovation. The commercial space industry is characterised by rapid innovation and technological advancement. Any new regulations must not stifle this innovation. The CAA and FAA will need to develop regulations that strike a balance between promoting safety, encouraging the development of new technologies and approaches, and enabling growth of the industry.</p>
<p>Ultimately, the CAA and the FAA will need to be flexible and adaptive. As the industry continues to evolve, they should review and update regulations to ensure they remain relevant and effective.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225693/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Rees does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sudden changes in space weather, such as solar flares, for example, could have significant health implications for crew and passengers.Chris Rees, Postgraduate Researcher of Space Risk Engineering, University of SurreyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2138182023-09-22T13:11:26Z2023-09-22T13:11:26ZSouth African hominin fossils were sent into space and scientists are enraged<p><em>When a Virgin Galactic commercial flight soared into space on 8 September 2023, there were two Virgin Galactic pilots, an instructor and three passengers on board – as well as two fossils of ancient prehuman relatives from South Africa. Timothy Nash, a businessman, carried a clavicle belonging to Australopithecus sediba and the thumb bone of a Homo naledi specimen. The fossils’ brief journey – the VSS Unity’s flight lasted just an hour – was organised by palaeontologist Lee Berger, who led the team that discovered and described Homo naledi in 2015. Berger was granted an export permit in July by the South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA) to take the fossils from the country to the US launch site for VSS Unity. <a href="https://www.sahra.org.za/about/">SAHRA is a</a> “national administrative body responsible for the protection of South Africa’s cultural heritage”.</em></p>
<p><em>The event has <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02882-1">drawn the ire</a> of scores of human evolution researchers from South Africa and beyond. Some have <a href="https://www.researchprofessionalnews.com/rr-news-africa-south-2023-9-scientists-slam-pr-stunt-that-sent-hominin-fossils-into-space/">labelled it</a> “unethical” and a “publicity stunt”. Berger issued <a href="https://twitter.com/LeeRberger/status/1706277191762231582">a brief statement</a> on X (formerly Twitter) on 25 September addressing the situation. And SAHRA, in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02882-1">a statement</a> quoted by Nature, said it was “satisfied that the promotional benefit derived was appropriately weighted against the inherent risk of travel of this nature”.</em></p>
<p><em>The Conversation Africa asked Dipuo Winnie Kgotleng, <a href="https://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/humanities/research/research-centres/palaeo-research-institute/">director of the Palaeo-Research Institute</a> at the University of Johannesburg, and Robyn Pickering, co-director of the <a href="https://www.heriuct.co.za/">Human Evolution Research Institute</a> at the University of Cape Town, why the space flight created such unhappiness.</em></p>
<h2>Why are scientists so angry about the fossils being sent to space?</h2>
<p>There are a number of reasons. </p>
<p>One is the threat to South African heritage. According to the <a href="https://sahris.sahra.org.za/sites/default/files/website/articledocs/Archaeology%20Permit%20Policy_April2016_Approved.pdf">SAHRA permitting policy</a>, fossils of this nature are only allowed to travel for scientific purposes and should be securely packed to prevent damage. The fossils travelled in space in a sealed tube – and were then kept in an individual’s pocket as he floated freely.</p>
<p>There is no scientific reason for allowing these fossils to travel to space. No new knowledge has been generated and no community, either local or international, has been engaged on this science. </p>
<p>Also, doses of radiation which these specimens were exposed to during this trip could have potentially permanently altered the fossil microstructure, affecting any data which might be required in the future. </p>
<p>A second issue is that the <em>A. sediba</em> clavicle is a type specimen: it is the original physical example of the species and, if such a specimen is lost or destroyed, it is gone forever.</p>
<p>Finally, this event demonstrated the unequal power relations at play in accessing this invaluable heritage. Some local communities – like the people of Taung, where a 2.8 million year old child’s skull <a href="https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/fossils/taung-child">nicknamed the Taung Child</a> was discovered in 1924 – have <a href="https://sundayworld.co.za/news/locals-want-taung-skull-returned-home/">requested access</a> to fossil specimens that originated from their areas. In the case of the Taung Child, there have <a href="https://sundayworld.co.za/news/locals-want-taung-skull-returned-home/">reportedly been discussions</a> “over a long time” to have the skull returned by the university where it is stored.</p>
<p>So, is it only wealthy, famous rich white men who can have access to fossils? Poor communities do not have access to the same privileges?</p>
<h2>Professor Berger’s SAHRA application <a href="https://sahris.sahra.org.za/node/620113">called</a> the fossils’ space flight a ‘once in a lifetime opportunity to bring awareness to science, exploration, human origins and South Africa and its role in understanding Humankind’s shared African ancestry’.</h2>
<p>We completely disagree. Which community has been engaged in science awareness? Surely no South African or any African community has been engaged through this act?</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/science-and-race-in-south-africa-lessons-from-old-bones-in-boxes-179774">Science and race in South Africa: lessons from 'old bones in boxes'</a>
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<h2>Some have argued that the space flight echoes colonial attitudes to human remains. How so?</h2>
<p>This is an example of what we <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-01010-4">call</a> <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1022374703178">neo-colonialism</a>. The <a href="https://jacana.co.za/product/darwins-hunch-science-race-and-the-search-for-human-origins/">science of human evolution has a long</a>, dark past of exploitation and extraction. The main perpetrators of this past were privileged white men, so this latest event feels familiar but is really not OK in 2023. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/archaeology-is-changing-slowly-but-its-still-too-tied-up-in-colonial-practices-133243">Archaeology is changing, slowly. But it's still too tied up in colonial practices</a>
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<p>Our field is just beginning to grapple with its past, and we’ve made <a href="https://www.heriuct.co.za/news-content/celebrating-5-years-of-advancing-womxn">some progress</a> in the last decade. Something like this puts us right back into the olden days.</p>
<h2>So what happens next?</h2>
<p>Several professional bodies in various African regions have <a href="https://eaappinfo.wordpress.com/">issued statements</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/SASQUA1/status/1702245012472205761/photo/1">expressing</a> their unhappiness about the treatment of the fossils. </p>
<p>Various arms of the palaeoscience community, such as the <a href="https://www.facebook.com/photo?fbid=301773955808321&set=a.159433826709002">Association of Southern African Professional Archaeologists</a>, have directly asked SAHRA and the Cradle of Humankind Management Authority (which is responsible for preserving the world heritage site where the fossils were found) and the government to address us and the South African public more broadly. </p>
<p>We are also pushing for these organisations to reflect on this issue and to discuss changes to their permitting policy. We’re confident that the outrage we’ve demonstrated will guard against something like this happening again in the future.</p>
<p>September is Heritage Month in South Africa, a time when we are asked to come together as a country, to celebrate, learn about and explore our heritage as a way to build unity in a diverse society. Our common heritage, represented by the fossils, is a great tool for bringing us together as a country. Treating the same fossils in this way goes against this noble aim.</p>
<p><em>This article was updated on 27 September to add Professor Lee Berger’s <a href="https://twitter.com/LeeRberger/status/1706277191762231582">statement</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213818/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dipuo Winnie Kgotleng has received funding from the Wenner-Gren foundation, National Heritage Council and National Research Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robyn Pickering receives funding from The University of Cape Town, the National Research Foundation (NRF) and the DSI Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences/GENUS</span></em></p>Experts insist there is no scientific reason for allowing these fossils to travel to space.Dipuo Winnie Kgotleng, Director, University of JohannesburgRobyn Pickering, Senior lecturer, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2095812023-08-16T02:20:46Z2023-08-16T02:20:46ZNew data reveal US space economy’s output is shrinking – an economist explains in 3 charts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538756/original/file-20230721-33684-6lsvxx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4268%2C2400&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The 'space economy' isn't just rockets and space suits – satellite data, radio and TV are all part of a broadly-defined space economy.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/NewPlanets/55662296e5fe4edca873ea21a256a66a/photo?Query=space&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=291&currentItemNo=3&vs=true">NASA/JPL-Caltech via AP</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The space industry has changed dramatically since the <a href="https://www.si.edu/newsdesk/factsheets/brief-history-apollo-program">Apollo program put men on the moon</a> in the late 1960s.</p>
<p>Today, over 50 years later, private companies are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/jun/29/virgin-galactic-rocket-plane-commercial-space-flight">sending tourists to the edge of space</a> and building <a href="https://www.astrobotic.com/">lunar landers</a>. NASA is <a href="https://www.state.gov/artemis-accords/">bringing together 27 countries</a> to peacefully explore the Moon and beyond, and it is using the <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/">James Webb Space Telescope</a> to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-most-powerful-space-telescope-ever-built-will-look-back-in-time-to-the-dark-ages-of-the-universe-169603">peer back in time</a>. Private companies are playing a much larger role in space than they ever have before, though NASA and other government interests continue to drive scientific advances. </p>
<p>I’m a <a href="http://businessmacroeconomics.com/">macroeconomist</a> <a href="https://www.bu.edu/questrom/profile/jay-zagorsky/">who’s interested in</a> understanding how these space-related innovations and the growing role of private industry have affected the economy. Recently, the U.S. <a href="https://www.bea.gov/data/special-topics/space-economy">government started tracking the space economy’s size</a>. These data can tell us the size of the space-related industry, whether its outputs come mainly from government or private enterprise, and how they have been growing relative to the economy at large. </p>
<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.spacex.com/">SpaceX</a>, <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/">Blue Origin</a> and <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com/">Virgin Galactic</a> <a href="https://apps.bea.gov/scb/issues/2023/06-june/0623-space-economy.htm">made up over 80%</a> of the U.S. space economy in 2021. The government held a <a href="https://apps.bea.gov/scb/issues/2023/06-june/0623-space-economy.htm">19% share of space spending</a>, up from 16% in 2012 – mostly thanks to an increase in military spending. </p>
<h2>Ways to measure the space economy</h2>
<p>There are many ways to measure economic success in space. </p>
<p>One way is the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-economic-benefit-reaches-all-50-states">economic impact</a>. The U.S. <a href="https://www.bea.gov/">Bureau of Economic Analysis</a>, which tracks the nation’s gross domestic product and other indicators, <a href="https://www.bea.gov/data/special-topics/space-economy">recently began to monitor the space economy</a> and published figures from 2012 to 2021. The Bureau of Economic Analysis calculated the impact of space using both broad and narrow definitions.</p>
<p>The broad definition <a href="https://www.oecd.org/publications/oecd-handbook-on-measuring-the-space-economy-2nd-edition-8bfef437-en.htm">comprises four parts</a>: things used in space, like rocket ships; items supporting space travel, like launch pads; things getting direct input from space, like cell phone GPS chips; and space education, like planetariums and college astrophysics departments. </p>
<p>In 2021, the broad definition showed that total space-related sales, or what the government calls <a href="https://www.bea.gov/help/faq/1197">gross output</a>, was over US$210 billion, before adjusting for inflation. That number represents about 0.5% of the whole U.S. economy’s total gross output.</p>
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<p>The Bureau of Economic Analysis also has a narrow definition that excludes satellite television, satellite radio and space education. The difference in definitions is important because back in 2012 these three categories represented one-quarter of all space spending. However, by 2021, they only represented one-eighth of spending because many people had <a href="https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/dish-pay-tv-subscriber-loss-first-quarter-1235481988/">switched from watching satellite TV to streaming movies</a> and shows over the internet.</p>
<h2>Space’s share of the economy</h2>
<p>A closer look at the data shows that space’s <a href="https://www.bea.gov/data/special-topics/space-economy">share of the U.S. economy is shrinking</a>. </p>
<p>Using the broad definition and adjusting for inflation, the relative size of the space economy fell by about one-fifth from 2012 to 2021. This is because sales of space-related items – everything from rockets to satellite TV – have barely changed since 2015.</p>
<p>Using the narrow definition also shows the space economy is getting relatively smaller. From 2012 to 2021, the space sector’s inflation-adjusted gross output grew on average 3% a year, compared with 5% for the overall economy. This suggests space is not growing as fast as other economic sectors. </p>
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<h2>Space jobs</h2>
<p>The number of jobs created by the space economy has also declined. In 2021, 360,000 people worked full- or part-time space-related jobs in the private sector, down from 372,000 about a decade earlier, according to the <a href="https://www.bea.gov/data/special-topics/space-economy">Bureau of Economic Analysis</a>.</p>
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<p>The Bureau of Economic Analysis could not track all space-related government jobs since spy agencies and parts of the military don’t provide much information. Nevertheless, it has <a href="https://apps.bea.gov/scb/issues/2023/06-june/0623-space-economy.htm">tracked some since 2018</a>. The military’s Space Force, which is the smallest branch, <a href="https://aerospace.csis.org/us-space-force-primer/">adds about 9,000 workers</a>. NASA has about <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/about/index.html">18,000 employees</a>, which is half of <a href="https://history.nasa.gov/pocketstats">its 1960s peak</a>.</p>
<p>Combining these government workers plus all private workers results in just under 400,000 people. To give some perspective, <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/amazon-employees-number-1-of-153-us-workers-head-count-2021-7">Amazon’s U.S. workforce</a> is over twice as big and <a href="https://corporate.walmart.com/askwalmart/how-many-people-work-at-walmart">Walmart’s</a> is four times bigger than reported U.S. space-related employment.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">On July 14, 2023, India launched a rocket as part of its Chandrayaan-3 mission to put a lander and rover on the south pole of the Moon.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Growing competition in space</h2>
<p>The U.S. has long dominated the space economy, especially in terms of government spending. </p>
<p>The U.S. government spent <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/c5996201-en/1/2/1/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/c5996201-en&_csp_=ffe5a6bbc1382ae4f0ead9dd2da73ff4&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=book">a little more than $40 billion</a> in 2017, compared with about $3.5 billion spent by Japan and less than $2 billion by Russia. </p>
<p>Moreover, <a href="https://history-computer.com/10-largest-space-and-exploration-companies/">most of the top private space companies</a> are based in the U.S., led by Boeing, SpaceX and Raytheon, which gives the U.S. a leg up in continuing to play a leading role with the rockets, satellites and other stuff needed to operate in space.</p>
<p>The U.S. also published more than <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/c5996201-en/1/2/1/index.html?itemId=/content/publication/c5996201-en&_csp_=ffe5a6bbc1382ae4f0ead9dd2da73ff4&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=book#fig-1.11">twice the amount of space research</a> in 2017 as its next nearest rival – China. </p>
<p>But China is catching up and has narrowed the gap in recent years as top Chinese officials decided success in space <a href="https://www.diu.mil/latest/state-of-the-space-industrial-base-2022">is a national priority</a>. Their goal is reportedly to surpass the U.S. as the <a href="https://www.diu.mil/latest/state-of-the-space-industrial-base-2022">dominant space power by 2045</a>. China recently put a <a href="https://theconversation.com/chinas-new-space-station-opens-for-business-in-an-increasingly-competitive-era-of-space-activity-195882">large space station called the Tiangong</a> into orbit and aims to put <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/07/13/china/china-crewed-moon-landing-2030-intl-hnk-scn/index.html">people on the Moon</a>.</p>
<p>China’s not the only one joining the 21st century space race. India is expanding its <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/04/business/india-space-startups.html">space economy rapidly, with 140 space-tech startups</a>. India launched <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/with-more-fuel-fail-safe-measures-chandrayaan-3-to-leap-towards-moon-on-july-14/article67064600.ece">a rocket on July 14, 2023, designed to put a lander and rover on the Moon</a>. And the European Space Agency’s Euclid spacecraft plans to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-euclid-spacecraft-will-transform-how-we-view-the-dark-universe-204245">map parts of the universe</a> to study dark matter. The ESA released the craft’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Euclid/Euclid_test_images_tease_of_riches_to_come">first test images</a> at the end of July 2023.</p>
<p>The U.S. has a strong foothold in space. But whether it can maintain its lead – as the space race moves into a new frontier of <a href="https://www.space.com/space-mining-grinding-into-reality">space mining</a> and missions to Mars – remains to be seen.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209581/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jay L. Zagorsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With commercial space tourism on the rise and NASA planning to return to the Moon, you might think the US space economy is booming – but the data paint a more complex picture.Jay L. Zagorsky, Clinical Associate Professor of Markets, Public Policy and Law, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2068682023-06-13T04:07:21Z2023-06-13T04:07:21ZVirgin Galactic’s use of the ‘Overview Effect’ to promote space tourism is a terrible irony<p>Virgin Galactic, the space tourism company founded in 2004 by Richard Branson, <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com/">promotes its flights</a> as offering: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>A Brand New Perspective: Deepen your connection to Earth and to humanity with the transformational experience known as the Overview Effect.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>First discussed in 1987 by space philosopher Frank White, the Overview Effect is a result of viewing Earth from space. </p>
<p>Expressions of the effect range broadly. Astronauts might experience profound awe and wonder at the perception of Earth as a fragile living being. Some suffer crushing grief when considering the harm humans inflict on nature. </p>
<p>While Virgin Galactic promotes access to the Overview Effect as a major drawcard, it is a terrible irony that space tourism is <a href="https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4527/1">enormously damaging</a> for the environment. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">On May 25, Virgin Galactic completed a final test flight before it starts taking paying customers.</span></figcaption>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/seeing-earth-from-space-changes-you-and-you-dont-even-have-to-leave-the-planet-52825">Seeing Earth from space changes you – and you don't even have to leave the planet</a>
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<h2>The Overview Effect</h2>
<p>The Overview Effect is not limited to astronauts from the West. Their Chinese and Russian counterparts have described the same profound connection to Earth when witnessing the planet from space. </p>
<p>As Soviet Russian cosmonaut Yuri Artyushkin <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fcns0000086">reported</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>The feeling of unity is not simply an observation. With it comes a strong sense of compassion and concern for the state of our planet and the effect humans are having on it. It isn’t important in which sea or lake you observe a slick of pollution, or in the forests of which country a fire breaks out, or on which continent a hurricane arises. You are standing guard over the whole of our Earth. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Until recently, researching the Overview Effect has required interviews with professional astronauts. Today, commercial space tourism is increasing awareness of the phenomenon, particularly when experienced by celebrities with large platforms. </p>
<p>In 2021, Star Trek actor William Shatner completed a suborbital flight with Jeff Bezos’ space tourism company <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/">Blue Origin</a>. Shatner had anticipated emotions of celebration and joy when viewing “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/13/science/bezos-shatner-star-trek.html">mother and Earth and comfort</a>” from space. Instead, he <a href="https://variety.com/2022/tv/news/william-shatner-space-boldly-go-excerpt-1235395113/">later wrote</a>, he struggled with “the strongest feelings of grief I have ever encountered”. </p>
<p>Shatner attributed his experience to the Overview Effect.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-wonders-and-terrors-of-modern-technology-evoke-the-ancient-concept-of-the-sublime-and-present-us-with-a-choice-186909">The wonders and terrors of modern technology evoke the ancient concept of the sublime, and present us with a choice</a>
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<h2>Space flight has a huge environmental impact</h2>
<p>Virgin Galactic promotes the Overview Effect on its <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com/">homepage</a> as an experience exclusive to space flight. </p>
<p>However, access is extremely costly. While an eager space tourist consents to parting with US$450,000 to experience a profound connection with Earth, the planet itself has no say in receiving the massive pollution a single trip produces.</p>
<p>Rocket emissions impact Earth’s atmosphere, temperatures and the ozone layer at an unprecedented level. A <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021EF002612">2022 study</a> found space tourism produces black carbon particles that are almost 500 times more efficient at warming the atmosphere than all surface and airline sources of soot combined.</p>
<p>After being released into the upper atmosphere, the black carbon particles circulate for <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/27/how-blue-origin-spacex-virgin-galactic-space-race-could-impact-the-atmosphere.html#:%7E:text=Experiencing%20a%20few%20minutes%20of,plane%20continuously%20for%20about%20three">four to five years</a> in a fine layer. This acts as a thin black umbrella <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/27/how-blue-origin-spacex-virgin-galactic-space-race-could-impact-the-atmosphere.html#:%7E:text=Experiencing%20a%20few%20minutes%20of,plane%20continuously%20for%20about%20three">absorbing solar radiation while blocking it from reaching Earth’s surface</a>.</p>
<p>A 1.5-hour Virgin Galactic flight generates emissions <a href="https://www.nsr.com/space-com-the-rise-of-space-tourism-could-affect-earths-climate-in-unforeseen-ways-scientists-worry/">equivalent to a ten-hour trans-Atlantic commercial air flight</a>. However, the latter carries hundreds of passengers. With a passenger limit of six, a Virgin Galactic launch <a href="https://theconversation.com/tourisme-spatial-quand-les-plaisirs-de-quelques-uns-polluent-la-planete-de-tous-146552">emits 4.5 tonnes of carbon <em>per person</em></a>. That’s more than twice the Paris Agreement’s recommended annual individual carbon budget. </p>
<p>Space tourism rocket launches don’t currently compare to commercial airline flights in number. But the suborbital transportation and space tourism market is expected to be worth <a href="https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/outlook-on-the-sub-orbital-transportation-and-space-tourism-global-market-to-2031---featuring-blue-origin-spacex-and-virgin-galactic-among-others-301333701.html">US$2.58 billion by 2031</a>. It’s growing at an annual rate of 17.15%. </p>
<p>Virgin Galactic is aiming to launch <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2020/11/06/virgin-galactic-each-spaceport-is-1-billion-annual-revenue-opportunity.html">400 space tourism flights every year</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/space-tourism-rockets-emit-100-times-more-co-per-passenger-than-flights-imagine-a-whole-industry-164601">Space tourism: rockets emit 100 times more CO₂ per passenger than flights – imagine a whole industry</a>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/1SJ1ENmfgmE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In this video on its website, Virgin Galactic uses the Overview Effect to promote its space tourism business.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Caring for Earth doesn’t depend on space flight</h2>
<p>The desirability of the Overview Effect is not the overwhelming emotions experienced when witnessing Earth from space. As was evident in Shatner’s feelings of immense grief, these emotions are not always pleasant. </p>
<p>Instead, researchers, astronauts and space philosophers are interested in the spontaneous and powerful awareness that occurs. Astronauts’ accounts of the moment vary, but a consistent theme emerges: a connection to planet Earth that inspires environmental care.</p>
<p>Importantly, such clarity can be achieved without a suborbital space flight. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_Overview_Effect/3a2rz-s3JJsC?hl=en">Frank White argues</a> that, while viewing Earth from space produces the “ultimate” Overview Effect, it might also be had while looking at landscapes from a great height – such as a mountain range. Commercial pilots flying at high altitudes have experienced similar phenomena. </p>
<p>And for those considering a Virgin Galactic flight, there are no guarantees. Many astronauts with long careers <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fcns0000086">report</a> never experiencing the Overview Effect. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="View of whole Earth photographed by the orbiting Apollo 17 mission and dubbed 'Blue Marble'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530799/original/file-20230608-27-brv39q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530799/original/file-20230608-27-brv39q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530799/original/file-20230608-27-brv39q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530799/original/file-20230608-27-brv39q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530799/original/file-20230608-27-brv39q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530799/original/file-20230608-27-brv39q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530799/original/file-20230608-27-brv39q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=755&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Being able to see the whole Earth from space was regarded as a transformative moment, but people can have environmental epiphanies without flying into space.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/blue-marble-image-of-the-earth-from-apollo-17">NASA/Apollo 17</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/keen-to-sign-up-for-space-tourism-here-are-6-things-to-consider-besides-the-price-tag-164940">Keen to sign up for space tourism? Here are 6 things to consider (besides the price tag)</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Environmental epiphanies happen on Earth</h2>
<p>Spontaneous clarity about the importance of nature can occur while standing on solid ground. “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26506666#:%7E:text=The%20working%20definition%20of%20Environmental,shifts%20in%20a%20meaningful%20manner.">Environmental epiphanies</a>” are well documented and have no connection to specific religious or cultural beliefs. </p>
<p>Involving profound emotions and sudden awareness similar to the Overview Effect, environmental epiphanies can be accessed for free in mundane locations – such as reading a book at home. </p>
<p>And, like the Overview Effect, environmental epiphanies can lead to lasting change.</p>
<p>As space tourism continues to “take off”, misaligned marketing tactics like Virgin Galactic’s promotion of the Overview Effect must be scrutinised. </p>
<p>Being launched into space – and the massive pollution the process creates – isn’t necessary for us to want to sustain our Earth.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206868/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ariane Moore does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Overview Effect describes the transformative impact of seeing Earth from space and feeling profoundly connected to our planet and concerned for it. That’s at odds with the impact of space tourism.Ariane Moore, PhD Candidate in Philosophy, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1676112021-09-10T12:26:08Z2021-09-10T12:26:08ZSpaceX Inspiration4 mission sent 4 people with minimal training into orbit – and brought space tourism closer to reality<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420346/original/file-20210909-17-15tww6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C210%2C4058%2C2612&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Four people – none of them trained astronauts – launched into orbit aboard a SpaceX Dragon capsule on Sept. 15, 2021.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore/8530582531/in/photolist-dZVaGL-dZVaEJ-dZPsZa-2j34sP1-2k5dwqg-2ih9wyp-2k5dwrd-2jsKxeR-2k7E9ZN-WHwz7z-2k5VEYS-2kVWxe5-2kVWsvN-2k7yNbd-2k7DYVJ-2k7vqNA-2dGyCqB-2j8rivC-2k7YwjW-2k7zrHo-2dGyCpe-2f1MeNC-2f1MeNY-2j6kLfz-2k7YAXy-2k7UeMw-2k7ySXh-2k7yXom-2k7urC3-6EK8CM-2kc9oZc-2dGyCsa-2jsJfFm-2k7Echy-2k7DQWD-2k7uKC6-2k7uNCz-2j8sAnT-b86SYZ-2kVSpM1-2f1MePj-2k7uGoL-2k7zwgX-2k7uDjQ-2k7zeLr-2jsJfQj-2gTsp44-2j6jfPB-2k7EdsE-2k7uUGJ/">NASA Johnson/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Just after 8 p.m. EST on Sept. 15, 2021, the next batch of space tourists lifted off aboard a SpaceX rocket. Organized and funded by entrepreneur <a href="https://www.forbes.com/profile/jared-isaacman/?sh=c09ad2548698">Jared Isaacman</a>, the <a href="https://inspiration4.com/">Inspiration4 mission</a> touts itself as “the first all-civilian mission to orbit” and represents a new type of space tourism.</p>
<p>The four crew members are not the first space tourists this year. In the past few months, the world witnessed billionaires Richard Branson and Jeff Bezos launching themselves and a lucky few others into space on brief <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-a-suborbital-flight-an-aerospace-engineer-explains-164279">suborbital trips</a>.</p>
<p>While there are similarities between those launches and Inspiration4 – the mission is being paid for by one billionaire and is using a rocket built by another, Elon Musk – the differences are noteworthy. From my perspective as a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PxIOz7cAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">space policy expert</a>, the mission’s <a href="https://www.inverse.com/innovation/inspiration4-spacex-netflix">emphasis on public involvement</a> and the fact that Inspiration4 put regular people into orbit where they will stay for three days make it a milestone in space tourism.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420348/original/file-20210909-13-1n1m13x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four people standing in front of a rocket." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420348/original/file-20210909-13-1n1m13x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420348/original/file-20210909-13-1n1m13x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420348/original/file-20210909-13-1n1m13x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420348/original/file-20210909-13-1n1m13x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420348/original/file-20210909-13-1n1m13x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420348/original/file-20210909-13-1n1m13x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420348/original/file-20210909-13-1n1m13x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The four crew members of the Inspiration4 mission are a physician assistant, a data engineer, a geoscientist and billionaire Jared Isaacman, left.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/inspiration4photos/51258513164/">Inspiration4/John Kraus via Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why Inspiration4 is different</h2>
<p>The biggest difference between Inspiration4 and the flights performed earlier this year is the destination. </p>
<p>Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic took – and in the future, will take – their passengers on <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-a-suborbital-flight-an-aerospace-engineer-explains-164279">suborbital launches</a>. Their vehicles go only high enough to reach the beginning of space before returning to the ground a few minutes later. SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket and crew Dragon vehicle, however, are much more powerful and have taken the Inspiration4 crew all the way into orbit, where they will circle the Earth for three days.</p>
<p>The four-person crew is also quite different from those on the other launches. Led by Isaacman, the mission features a somewhat diverse group of people. One crew member, <a href="https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/arizona-science/2021/03/30/arizona-educator-sian-proctor-set-join-1st-spacex-private-flight/4804984001/">Sian Proctor</a>, won a contest among people who use Isaacman’s online payment company. Another unique aspect of the mission is that one of its goals is to raise awareness of and funds for St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital. As such, Isaacman selected <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/22/science/spacex-hayley-arceneaux.html">Hayley Arceneaux</a>, a physician assistant at St. Jude and childhood cancer survivor, to participate in the launch. The final member, <a href="https://www.geekwire.com/2021/everett-engineer-arizona-prof-join-billionaires-crew-charity-space-trip/">Christopher Sembroski</a>, won his seat when his friend was chosen in a charity raffle for St. Jude and offered his seat to Sembroski.</p>
<p>Because none of the four participants had any prior formal astronaut training, the flight has been called the first all-civilian space mission. While the rocket and crew capsule are both fully automated – no one on board needed to control any part of the launch or landing – the four members still needed to go through much more training than the people on the suborbital flights. In less than six months, <a href="https://www.axios.com/spacex-astronaut-training-inspiration4-b3378a9a-88f9-4fb3-94a4-0e402453488c.html">crew members have undergone</a> hours of simulator training and lessons in flying a jet aircraft and spent time in a centrifuge to prepare them for the G-forces of launch.</p>
<p>Social outreach has also been an important aspect of the mission. While Bezos’ and Branson’s flights brought on <a href="https://theconversation.com/billionaire-space-race-the-ultimate-symbol-of-capitalisms-flawed-obsession-with-growth-164511">criticism of billionaire playboys in space</a>, Inspiration4 has tried – <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/09/08/1035219/netflix-spacex-docuseries-inspiration4-countdown/">with mixed results</a> – to make space tourism more relatable. The crew recently appeared on the <a href="https://time.com/6083977/jared-isaacman-inspiration4-profile/">cover of Time magazine</a> and is the subject of an ongoing <a href="https://www.netflix.com/title/81441273">Netflix documentary</a>.</p>
<p>There have also been other fundraising events for St. Jude, including a <a href="https://inspiration4miler.com/">4-mile virtual run</a> and the planned <a href="https://www.space.com/inspiration4-space-beer-hops-auction">auction of beer hops</a> that will be flown on the mission. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420350/original/file-20210909-13-v16k6u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Colorful green and pink hues in the atmosphere of Earth with the blackness of space in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420350/original/file-20210909-13-v16k6u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420350/original/file-20210909-13-v16k6u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420350/original/file-20210909-13-v16k6u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420350/original/file-20210909-13-v16k6u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420350/original/file-20210909-13-v16k6u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420350/original/file-20210909-13-v16k6u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420350/original/file-20210909-13-v16k6u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Inspiration4 mission is a step toward giving more people access to views like this – the aurora borealis seen from the International Space Station.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/aurora-australis-lights-up-the-sky">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The future of space tourism?</h2>
<p>Sending a crew of amateur astronauts into orbit is a significant step in the development of space tourism. However, despite the more inclusive feel of the mission, there are still serious barriers to overcome before average people can go to space.</p>
<p>For one, the cost remains quite high. Though three of the four are not rich, Isaacman is a billionaire and <a href="https://time.com/6083977/jared-isaacman-inspiration4-profile/">paid an estimated $200 million</a> to fund the trip. The need to train for a mission like this also means that prospective passengers must be able to devote significant amounts of time to prepare – time that many ordinary people don’t have.</p>
<p>Finally, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/hrp/5-hazards-of-human-spaceflight">space remains a dangerous place</a>, and there will never be a way to fully remove the danger of launching people – whether untrained civilians or seasoned professional astronauts – into space.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 110,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletter to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=100Ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>Despite these limitations, orbital space tourism is coming. For SpaceX, Inspiration4 is an important proof of concept that demonstrated the safety and reliability of their autonomous rocket and capsule systems. Indeed, SpaceX has <a href="https://www.cnet.com/news/spacex-signs-blockbuster-deal-to-send-space-tourists-to-the-iss/">several tourist missions planned in the next few months</a>, even though the company isn’t focused on space tourism. Some will even includes stops at the International Space Station.</p>
<p>Even as space remains out of reach for most on Earth, Inspiration4 is an example of how billionaire space barons’ efforts to include more people on their journeys can give an otherwise exclusive activity a wider public appeal.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an article originally published on Sept. 10, 2021.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167611/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wendy Whitman Cobb is affiliated with the US Air Force School of Advanced Air and Space Studies. Her views are her own and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of Defense or any of its components.</span></em></p>The Inspiration4 mission sent four civilians to space for three days. Though still funded by a billionaire, the mission is a step forward in the nascent space tourism industry.Wendy Whitman Cobb, Professor of Strategy and Security Studies, Air UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1653092021-08-06T12:40:55Z2021-08-06T12:40:55ZSpace travel for billionaires is the surprise topic with bipartisan American support – but not from Gen Z<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414651/original/file-20210804-25-1ak8kje.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=353%2C114%2C2714%2C1965&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Both Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson successfully rode to space on rockets made by their private companies Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic, respectively.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/BlueOriginBezos/9d3a2973c2dc4a34be0103ebd1a08112/photo?Query=blue%20AND%20origin&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=254&currentItemNo=33">AP Photo/Tony Gutierrez</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson both <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/11/science/richard-branson-virgin-galactic-space.html">flying to space</a> in craft made by their own private companies, July 2021 was perhaps the highest-profile month for space in years. But these events have been met with a <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/07/21/tech/jeff-bezos-richard-branson-space-what-next-scn/index.html">mix</a> of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/21/technology/the-amazonification-of-space.html">opinion</a>.</p>
<p>I am an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=j4_2N9kAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">associate professor of public relations</a> and study how opinions on topics like politics, entertainment and even space launches vary between different groups of people. I worked with colleagues at The Harris Poll to find out <a href="https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/10X5EeVafO7u7TOyC5UKeqvbyqsUdUiFzBzV2XOT_als/edit?usp=sharing">what U.S. residents think</a> of these launches and the broader topic of private spaceflight.</p>
<p>The poll found that most U.S. residents are interested in and have a positive attitude toward the private space industry. One outlier was younger people, who are less hopeful about the benefits of galactic journeys. Overall though – and rather interestingly – these positive feelings are widely held across political and demographic lines. It’s rare to see such agreement on <a href="https://news.gallup.com/opinion/polling-matters/215210/partisan-differences-growing-number-issues.aspx">any issue</a> these days, so the results suggest space may be a unifying topic in future years. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414657/original/file-20210804-21-1kzi7fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Richard Branson in a blue jumpsuit celebrated his successful sub-orbital flight to space by spraying champagne on a stage." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414657/original/file-20210804-21-1kzi7fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414657/original/file-20210804-21-1kzi7fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414657/original/file-20210804-21-1kzi7fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414657/original/file-20210804-21-1kzi7fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414657/original/file-20210804-21-1kzi7fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414657/original/file-20210804-21-1kzi7fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414657/original/file-20210804-21-1kzi7fl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=477&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A majority of people think that space endeavors are good for humanity in the long term but for now will mostly benefit the incredibly rich, like Richard Branson, seen here celebrating after his successful flight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirginGalacticBranson/747a707dd5e340e2816615f81c8e3484/photo?Query=virgin%20AND%20galactic&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=423&currentItemNo=28">AP Photo/Andres Leighton</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Good for everyone but best for the rich</h2>
<p>A total of 2,011 U.S. residents responded to the <a href="https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/10X5EeVafO7u7TOyC5UKeqvbyqsUdUiFzBzV2XOT_als/edit?usp=sharing">survey questions</a> between July 23 and July 25, 2021, just a couple weeks after <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/blue-origin-bezos-launch-richard-branson-space-flight-differences/">Branson and Bezos went to space</a>. The survey asked people to agree or disagree with a number of statements about the potential value of these launches, the motivation behind the launches and who will have access to space. In response to every question, people were supportive of space travel and the technological developments that come from it. Yet, respondents also viewed these events as ego trips generally limited to rich people. </p>
<p>To understand whether people think these endeavors are important, one statement was: “Space travel and research are important for the future development of humanity.” Seventy-four percent of respondents agreed, with similar results across all political parties. Similarly, over two–thirds of people agreed with the idea “The recent space launches by Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic are important for the future development of space travel and technology.”</p>
<p>Despite this support, results also reflected recent chatter about space being <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2021/07/space-billionaires-jeff-bezos-richard-branson/619383/">the playground of the super-rich</a>. In response to the statement “The launches make me believe that one day soon ordinary people will be able to go to space,” 58% of people agreed. Yet about 80% felt “The launches make me believe that only rich people will be able to go to space anytime soon,” as well as agreed with the statement “The recent space launches by Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic were billionaire ego trips.” </p>
<p>Finally, about 3 in 4 felt “Money spent on space could better be spent addressing today’s issues on Earth,” though partisan divides were a bit higher here. </p>
<p>According to Rob Jekielek, managing director at The Harris Poll, “Space travel has captured our imagination about the future of humanity,” but people are concerned about “taking resources away from addressing today’s pressing challenges.” This feeling was mirrored across most demographics and political parties – a rare thing in an age when <a href="https://news.gallup.com/opinion/polling-matters/215210/partisan-differences-growing-number-issues.aspx">partisanship on most issues</a> is quite high. </p>
<p><iframe id="VvEAW" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/VvEAW/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Generational differences and scientific beliefs</h2>
<p>While the survey found a lot of agreement across partisan lines, there were higher levels of disagreement between age groups – young people in particular stood out. </p>
<p>Respondents 18 to 24 years old were less supportive when it came to believing that spending money on space – or on Earth – would have as much of a positive effect. </p>
<p>Of the youngest group, 59% said space travel is important for humanity, and only 63% thought the money could be better spent on Earth. Meanwhile, 78% of people aged 41 to 56 thought space travel is important for humanity, and 80% think money spent on space travel could be better spent on Earth. Young people’s lower trust in the ability of money to solve problems compared to older groups is not new, though. Younger Americans tend to have <a href="https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/why-younger-americans-dont-vote-more-often-no-its-not-apathy/">less faith</a> in political systems in general. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1418670858806210565"}"></div></p>
<p>Another demographic difference of note was between those willing to get a COVID-19 vaccine versus those who were not. Of people interested in vaccines, 79% think space travel is important versus 60% of those opposed to vaccines. While both groups still agree that space travel is important, the gap was one of the largest in the sample. I believe this could reflect differing views on science in general. </p>
<p>Despite the mix of headlines and tweets alternatively bashing or praising Bezos, Branson and Elon Musk, this survey shows that, for now, U.S. residents are generally in agreement that space is still an exciting frontier. The future of space includes <a href="https://www.pcmag.com/news/starlink-moves-closer-to-matching-or-even-beating-fixed-broadband-speeds">satellite internet</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/bringing-mars-rocks-back-to-earth-on-feb-18-perseverance-rover-landed-safely-on-mars-a-lead-scientist-explains-the-tech-and-goals-153851">missions to Mars</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/space-tourism-is-here-20-years-after-the-first-stellar-tourist-jeff-bezos-blue-origin-plans-to-send-civilians-to-space-160510">space tourism</a>, but it also involves <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/11/science/cost-to-fly-virgin-galactic-space.html">high costs</a>, the problems of <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-a-satellite-falls-on-your-house-space-law-protects-you-but-there-are-no-legal-penalties-for-leaving-junk-in-orbit-160757">space junk</a> and <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/how-bad-is-space-tourism-for-the-environment-and-other-space-travel-questions-answered/ar-AAMxyEw">climate concerns</a>. </p>
<p>It will be interesting to see if this broad support continues or if partisanship and the less optimistic views of the younger generations take hold.</p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165309/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joseph Cabosky is affiliated with the Measurement Commission at the Institute of Public Relations, one of whose members works for Harris Interactive, which conducted this survey. </span></em></p>According to a new poll, people across political and demographic lines think the private space race is good for the future but still just an ego trip for the billionaires involved.Joseph Cabosky, Associate Professor of Public Relations, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1649402021-07-23T05:22:15Z2021-07-23T05:22:15ZKeen to sign up for space tourism? Here are 6 things to consider (besides the price tag)<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412834/original/file-20210723-23-10ujqv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C5%2C2000%2C1104&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Blue Origin/AP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s been a momentous month for space-faring billionaires. On July 11, British entrepreneur Sir Richard Branson’s Unity “rocket-plane” <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-57797297">flew him and five fellow passengers</a> about 85 kilometres above Earth. And this week, Amazon founder Jeff Bezos’ New Shepard capsule <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-20/jeff-bezos-soars-into-space-on-blue-origins-new-shepard-rocket/100304412">reached an altitude of 106km</a>, carrying Bezos, his brother, and the <a href="https://www.universetoday.com/151900/blue-origin-successfully-launches-the-oldest-and-youngest-person-to-ever-go-to-space-oh-and-jeff-bezos-too/">oldest and youngest people</a> ever to reach such a height. Passengers on both flights experienced several minutes of weightlessness and took in breathtaking views of our beautiful and fragile Earth. </p>
<p>Both flights created an avalanche of media coverage and brand recognition for Branson’s Virgin Galactic and Bezos’s Blue Origin. There is renewed anticipation of a lucrative commercial space tourism industry that could eventually see thousands of paying passengers journey into space (or not quite into space, depending on your preferred level of pedantry).</p>
<p>This year marks 60 years since Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space. Since then, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_space_travelers_by_nationality">almost 600 trained astronauts</a> have gone into outer space, but very few people have become space tourists. </p>
<p>The first, US engineer Dennis Tito, paid a reported US$20 million to spend six days orbiting Earth in the Russian section of the International Space Station in April 2001, after three months’ training at Russia’s Star City complex. He was followed by a handful of other very wealthy “orbital tourists”, most recently Cirque de Soleil founder Guy Laliberté in 2009, whose ticket reportedly cost US$35 million.</p>
<p>Unlike their predecessors, Branson’s and Bezos’ flights were suborbital – they didn’t reach the velocity needed to orbit Earth. Bezos’s entire flight lasted just over 10 minutes. Suborbital flights are much less technically complex, and in theory cheaper (although one seat on the New Shepard flight was <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/15/blue-origin-reveals-oliver-daemen-flying-to-space-with-jeff-bezos.html">auctioned for US$28 million</a>).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Interior of Blue Origin capsule" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412835/original/file-20210723-19-12y56wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412835/original/file-20210723-19-12y56wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412835/original/file-20210723-19-12y56wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412835/original/file-20210723-19-12y56wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412835/original/file-20210723-19-12y56wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412835/original/file-20210723-19-12y56wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412835/original/file-20210723-19-12y56wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You expect a luxurious interior when you pay this much.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Craft/Blue Origin/AP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While they might quibble over billionaire bragging rights, there’s no denying that suborbital “space” flights have the potential to be less eye-wateringly expensive than going into orbital outer space and beyond.</p>
<p>But before you sign up – assuming you’re lucky enough to afford it – here are a few things to consider. </p>
<h2>Where does space start, anyway?</h2>
<p>Despite <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/09/where-space-begins-bezos-blue-origin-vs-bransons-virgin-galactic.html">assertions to the contrary</a>, there is no legal definition of “outer space”, and thus no official boundary where airspace ends and outer space begins. In the past, the International Aeronautical Federation has looked to the <a href="https://www.fai.org/page/icare-boundary">von Karman line</a>, but this does not coincide with the boundary of any of the atmosphere’s scientifically defined layers, and the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html">UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space</a>, which deals with such issues, has not yet resolved the question. </p>
<p>Conveniently for Branson, 80km has been <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1807.07894">proposed</a> by some experts as an appropriate boundary. </p>
<p>Outer space is undeniably influenced by Earthly geopolitics. Essentially, the larger space-faring countries see no need to legally define a boundary that would clearly demarcate the upper limits of their sovereignty.</p>
<h2>Will you be an ‘astronaut’?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html">1967 UN Outer Space Treaty</a> designates astronauts as “envoys of (hu)mankind in outer space”. Certainly, that seemed to be the case as the world watched the historic Apollo 11 Moon landing and prayed for a safe return of the stricken Apollo 13 capsule. However, the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_22_2345E.pdf">1968 UN Rescue Agreement</a> refers to “personnel of a spacecraft”, which may imply not everyone on board should be considered a fully fledged astronaut.</p>
<p>Of course, these legal niceties won’t deter space tourism companies from awarding “astronaut wings” to their passengers.</p>
<h2>What laws apply when things go wrong?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.space.com/31760-space-shuttle-challenger-disaster-30-years.html">1986 Challenger</a> and <a href="https://www.space.com/19436-columbia-disaster.html">2003 Columbia</a> shuttle disasters are stark reminders of the dangers of space travel. Human space travel has always involved determining acceptable levels of risk for trained astronauts. But commercial space tourism is different to state-sponsored space programs, and will need the highest possible safety standards. </p>
<p>Commercial space travel will also require a system of responsibility and liability, for cases in which a space tourist suffers injury, loss or damage. </p>
<p>Space tourists (or their families) can’t claim for compensation under the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_26_2777E.pdf">1972 UN Liability Convention</a> which, in terms of space, applies only to collisions between space objects such as satellites and space debris. While there may be scope to take legal action under national laws, it is likely space tourists will be asked to sign carefully worded waivers of liability.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-become-a-space-tourist-you-finally-can-if-you-have-250-000-and-a-will-to-sign-your-life-away-160543">Want to become a space tourist? You finally can — if you have $250,000 and a will to sign your life away</a>
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<p>The same is probably true of <a href="https://www.iata.org/contentassets/fb1137ff561a4819a2d38f3db7308758/mc99-full-text.pdf">international air law</a>, which applies to “aircraft” — a designation space tourism operators will understandably be keen to avoid. </p>
<p>Ultimately, we may need to develop a system of “aerospace law” to govern these suborbital flights as well as “transorbital” transport such as the <a href="https://www.news.com.au/travel/travel-advice/flights/uk-to-australia-in-just-four-hours-with-6437kph-passenger-jet-set-to-launch-by-2030/news-story/021b1a480d63958711e50b60ededfaa8">keenly envisaged</a> flights that might one day take passengers from Sydney to London in just a few hours.</p>
<h2>What activities should be allowed in space?</h2>
<p>The advent of space tourism will give rise to some interesting ethical questions. Should there be advertising billboards in space? What about casinos, or brothels? On what legal basis should these things be restricted?</p>
<p>How does tourism fit with the underlying philosophy of space law: that the exploration and use of outer space “shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries”?</p>
<h2>Will space tourism harm the environment?</h2>
<p>Space tourism will inevitably put pressure on Earth’s environment – there are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jul/19/billionaires-space-tourism-environment-emissions">claims</a> that space vehicles may one day become the world’s biggest source of carbon dioxide emissions. We will need to manage space traffic carefully to avoid disastrous collisions and steer clear of <a href="http://ilareporter.org.au/2021/07/space-debris-a-major-challenge-for-the-future-of-humanity-steven-freeland/">space debris</a>. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-how-big-your-laser-is-its-how-you-use-it-space-law-is-an-important-part-of-the-fight-against-space-debris-158790">It's not how big your laser is, it's how you use it: space law is an important part of the fight against space debris</a>
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</p>
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<p>If tourists go to the Moon, they may cause pollution or damage the heritage of earlier exploration, such as <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/11/science/moon-apollo-11-archaeology-preservation.html">Neil Armstrong’s footprints</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Neil Armstrong's lunar footprint" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412826/original/file-20210723-17-1txet4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412826/original/file-20210723-17-1txet4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412826/original/file-20210723-17-1txet4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412826/original/file-20210723-17-1txet4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412826/original/file-20210723-17-1txet4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412826/original/file-20210723-17-1txet4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412826/original/file-20210723-17-1txet4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Do not disturb.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Will tourism workers have to live in space?</h2>
<p>If space tourism does become truly widespread, it will need infrastructure and perhaps even staff. People may end up living permanently in space settlements, perhaps having children who will be born as “space citizens”. What legal rights would someone have if they were born at a Moon base? Would they be subject to terrestrial laws, or some version of current international legal rules for outer space?</p>
<p>These are obviously questions for the future. But given the excitement generated by the brief journeys of a couple of wealthy entrepreneurs, we should start contemplating them now. Outer space is the new frontier, but it is not — and must not — be a lawless one.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164940/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven Freeland is a Director of the International Institute of Space Law</span></em></p>Sure, they’re billionaires, but the exploits of Richard Branson and Jeff Bezos have undeniably brought space tourism a step closer. That raises tricky legal, ethical and environmental questions.Steven Freeland, Professorial Fellow, Bond University / Emeritus Professor of International Law, Western Sydney University, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1646012021-07-19T13:45:14Z2021-07-19T13:45:14ZSpace tourism: rockets emit 100 times more CO₂ per passenger than flights – imagine a whole industry<p>The commercial race to get tourists to space is heating up between Virgin Group founder Sir Richard Branson and former Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos. On Sunday 11 July, Branson ascended 80 km to reach the edge of space in his piloted <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-57797297">Virgin Galactic VSS Unity</a> spaceplane. Bezos’ autonomous Blue Origin rocket <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/06/07/jeff-bezos-to-fly-on-blue-origin-first-passenger-flight-in-july.html">is due to launch on July 20</a>, coinciding with the anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon landing. </p>
<p>Though Bezos loses to Branson in time, he is set to reach higher altitudes (<a href="https://www.ft.com/content/621ddc59-11fe-4101-8abf-701a53b2475f">about 120 km</a>). The launch will demonstrate his offering to very wealthy tourists: the opportunity to truly reach outer space. Both tour packages will provide passengers with a brief ten-minute frolic in zero gravity and glimpses of Earth from space. Not to be outdone, Elon Musk’s SpaceX will provide four to five days of <a href="https://www.space.com/spacex-crew-dragon-will-fly-space-tourists.html">orbital travel</a> with its Crew Dragon capsule later in 2021.</p>
<p>What are the environmental consequences of a space tourism industry likely to be? Bezos boasts his Blue Origin rockets are <a href="https://twitter.com/blueorigin/status/1413521631717122059?s=20">greener</a> than Branson’s VSS Unity. The Blue Engine 3 (BE-3) will <a href="https://www.space.com/blue-origin-jeff-bezos-new-shepard-first-crewed-launch-explained">launch</a> Bezos, his brother and two guests into space using liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen propellants. VSS Unity used <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-57798167">a hybrid propellant</a> comprised of a solid carbon-based fuel, hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), and a liquid oxidant, nitrous oxide (laughing gas). The SpaceX Falcon series of reusable rockets will propel the Crew Dragon into orbit using liquid kerosene and liquid oxygen. </p>
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<p>Burning these propellants provides the energy needed to launch rockets into space while also generating greenhouse gases and air pollutants. Large quantities of water vapour are produced by burning the BE-3 propellant, while combustion of both the VSS Unity and Falcon fuels produces CO₂, soot and some water vapour. The nitrogen-based oxidant used by VSS Unity also generates nitrogen oxides, compounds that contribute to air pollution closer to Earth.</p>
<p>Roughly <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016EF000399">two-thirds</a> of the propellant exhaust is released into the stratosphere (12 km-50 km) and mesosphere (50 km-85 km), where it can persist for at least two to three years. The very high temperatures during launch and re-entry (when the protective heat shields of the returning crafts burn up) also convert stable nitrogen in the air into reactive nitrogen oxides.</p>
<p>These gases and particles have many negative effects on the atmosphere. In the stratosphere, nitrogen oxides and chemicals formed from the breakdown of water vapour convert ozone into oxygen, depleting the ozone layer which guards life on Earth against harmful UV radiation. Water vapour also produces stratospheric clouds that provide a surface for this reaction to occur at a faster pace than it otherwise would. </p>
<h2>Space tourism and climate change</h2>
<p>Exhaust emissions of CO₂ and soot trap heat in the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Cooling of the atmosphere can also occur, as clouds formed from the emitted water vapour reflect incoming sunlight back to space. A depleted ozone layer would also absorb less incoming sunlight, and so heat the stratosphere less. </p>
<p>Figuring out the overall effect of rocket launches on the atmosphere will require detailed modelling, in order to account for these complex processes and the persistence of these pollutants in the upper atmosphere. Equally important is a clear understanding of how the space tourism industry will develop. </p>
<p>Virgin Galactic anticipates it will offer <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/0d9c9174-9374-4c48-a25b-3ae7dd6764b3">400 spaceflights each year</a> to the privileged few who can afford them. Blue Origin and SpaceX have yet to announce their plans. But globally, rocket launches wouldn’t need to increase by much from the current <a href="https://www.spacelaunchreport.com/logyear.html">100 or so performed each year</a> to induce harmful effects that are <a href="https://everydayastronaut.com/rocket-pollution/">competitive with other sources</a>, like ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and CO₂ from aircraft. </p>
<p>During launch, rockets can emit between four and ten times more nitrogen oxides than <a href="https://naei.beis.gov.uk/data/map-large-source">Drax</a>, the largest thermal power plant in the UK, over the same period. CO₂ emissions for the four or so tourists on a space flight will be between 50 and 100 times more than the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2019/jul/19/carbon-calculator-how-taking-one-flight-emits-as-much-as-many-people-do-in-a-year">one to three tonnes</a> per passenger on a long-haul flight.</p>
<p>In order for international regulators to keep up with this nascent industry and control its pollution properly, scientists need a better understanding of the effect these billionaire astronauts will have on our planet’s atmosphere.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164601/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eloise Marais receives funding from UKRI, the European Commission and DEFRA. </span></em></p>Here’s what a space tourism industry led by Bezos, Branson and Musk might mean for the planet.Eloise Marais, Associate Professor in Physical Geography, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1641422021-07-11T16:56:07Z2021-07-11T16:56:07ZVirgin Galactic: space tourism takes off with Branson’s inaugural flight<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410698/original/file-20210711-70680-1xjfnre.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=153%2C187%2C2089%2C1153&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Virgin Galactic takes off.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.virgingalactic.com/">Virgin Galactic</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With British billionaire Sir Richard Branson’s <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-57797297">successful flight</a> to the edge of space, he and his company Virgin Galactic have firmly established themselves in the history books as space tourism pioneers. </p>
<p>While not the <a href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/spacex-blue-origin-space-tourism">first tourist to enter space</a>, 70-year-old Branson is the first to make his journey with a commercial spaceflight company, marking a giant leap for the space tourism industry being championed by some of the world’s most famous billionaires.</p>
<p>Unlike its rivals, Virgin Galactic launched its spacecraft from a carrier craft – not from the ground. Branson and three Virgin Galactic mission specialists travelled along with two pilots in the company’s SpaceShipTwo craft “VSS Unity”, which was carried by a WhiteKnightTwo aircraft to an altitude of 50,000 feet before being launched from the carrier craft. The mothership aircraft, named VMS EVE (after Branson’s late mother), launched the afternoon of July 11, after a short weather-related delay. </p>
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<p>VSS Unity then ignited its own rocket, taking it to a height of over 50 miles above Earth. The four passengers experienced weightlessness and observed the curvature of the planet’s surface before reentering the earth’s atmosphere and landing at the company’s spaceport America base in New Mexico. </p>
<p>While SpaceShipTwo did not reach the Kármán line – 62 miles altitude above Earth and often regarded of as the edge of outer space – the Federal Aviation Administration puts the dividing line lower, at 50 miles. </p>
<p>Virgin Galactic’s success has not been an overnight one. Founded in 2004 to provide paying customers a trip into suborbital space, the company has experienced many false dawns over the years with projected dates of flights <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/news/will-virgin-galactic-ever-make-it-to-space-Richard-Branson">proving overly optimistic</a> and a major setback involving a <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-next-for-space-tourism-after-spaceshiptwo-33801">fatal accident in 2014</a>.</p>
<p>The company has made substantial progress in recent years, achieving its <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/dec/13/virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-launch-california-edge-of-space">first suborbital flight</a> in December 2018. Virgin Galactic became the first commercial spaceflight company to list on the stock market in October 2019. While the stock has been volatile in the meantime, it has rallied by around 50% since securing approval from the US Federal Aviation Authority last month to proceed with passenger flights. </p>
<p>With an eye on the history books, Virgin Galactic immediately announced plans to advance Branson’s spaceflight aboard SpaceShipTwo to July 11, upstaging by nine days his rival billionaire Jeff Bezos’ <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/61c46b8e-002f-4bae-b64f-0bb3632964cb">planned trip into space</a>. </p>
<p>Virgin Galactic plans to start commercial space tourism flights early next year. This is welcome news for the 600 aspiring space tourists who have waited years since making their reservations at a reported price of $250,000 in the late noughties. The company has plans to <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/621ddc59-11fe-4101-8abf-701a53b2475f">produce dozens of spacecraft</a> in anticipation of increased passenger demand. </p>
<h2>Billionaires blast off</h2>
<p>In winning the first round of the space tourism race, Branson has – for now – eclipsed his fellow billionaires, Amazon founder Jeff Bezos and SpaceX and Tesla’s Elon Musk, and has scored a major marketing coup. However, both Bezos and Musk have ambitious plans for space tourism, extending in the case of the latter to the moon and even Mars.</p>
<p>Bezos himself is due to launch into space on July 20 – 52 years since the first moon landing – aboard his company Blue Origin’s New Shepard rocket. Bezos will be accompanied by his brother Mark Bezos, American aviator Wally Funk who was part of jettisoned programme to send women into space in the 1960s, and a fourth passenger who won the auction for the remaining seat with a <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/06/12/1005908618/jeff-bezos-blue-origin-space-auction-winner-28-million">winning bid of US$28 million</a> (£20.1 million).</p>
<p>Beyond these initial flights with their billionaire founders aboard, Virgin Galactic and Blue Origin will be competing to take paying customers on suborbital flights. </p>
<p>The two companies will also derive revenue from taking science experiments and researchers into space. This will be far less expensive than the more elaborate task of sending experiments and people to the International Space Station. Later this year, Musk’s SpaceX plans to send four passengers on a three-day orbit around the earth, circling it in a Crew Dragon capsule at an altitude of 335 miles. </p>
<p>With the takeoff of space tourism and more generally the business of space, Bezos, Branson and Musk can no longer be dismissed as wealthy boys with toys. They have brought a renewed pioneering spirit and entrepreneurial zeal and intensity to the space sector. In doing so, they have made substantial progress in advancing the frontier of space and space tourism.</p>
<p>They have created cost economies through, for example, their innovative implementation of circular economy principles. For example, SpaceX’s embrace of <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/spacex-launches-first-astronauts-on-a-reused-rocket">reusable rockets</a> has drastically reduced costs.</p>
<p>Critically, these flights have been an inspiration to others. Private capital is now flowing into the space sector with its size forecast to increase almost threefold by 2040 to <a href="https://www.morganstanley.com/Themes/global-space-economy">become a US$1 trillion industry</a> (£719 billion).</p>
<p>While the first round of the new space race may have a winner, there are many more rounds to be completed. Given the high risk nature of space travel and space more generally, there will be setbacks as well as successes. Still, while the stakes may be high, the potential rewards are great. Branson’s successful journey marks an important moment in the commercialisation of space.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164142/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louis Brennan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sir Richard Branson’s successful spaceflight marks the beginning of a new chapter for space tourism.Louis Brennan, Professor of Business Studies, Trinity College DublinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1642792021-07-09T17:34:26Z2021-07-09T17:34:26ZWhat’s a suborbital flight? An aerospace engineer explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410639/original/file-20210709-27-tad0gm.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1599%2C797&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Virgin Galactic's Unity VSS spacecraft went on a suborbital test flight in May 2021.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pressftp.virgingalactic.com/virgingalactic/press">VIrgin Galactic</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Suborbital” is a term you’ll be hearing a lot as Sir Richard Branson <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/07/09/richard-branson-virgin-galactic-space-dare-devil/">flies aboard Virgin Galactic’s VSS Unity winged spaceship</a> and Jeff Bezos flies aboard <a href="https://phys.org/news/2021-07-virgin-galactic-blue-space-tourism.html">Blue Origin’s New Shepard vehicle</a> to touch the boundary of space and experience a few minutes of weightlessness. </p>
<p>But what exactly is “suborbital”? Simply put, it means that while these vehicles will cross the <a href="https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/content/where-space">ill-defined boundary of space</a>, they will not be going fast enough to stay in space once they get there.</p>
<p>If a spacecraft – or anything else, for that matter – reaches a <a href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/rocket/rktrflght.html">speed of 17,500 mph (28,000 km/h) or more</a>, instead of falling back to the ground, it will continuously fall around the Earth. That continuous falling is what it means to be in orbit and is how satellites and the Moon stay above Earth.</p>
<p>Anything that launches to space but does not have sufficient horizontal velocity to stay in space – like these rockets – comes back to Earth and therefore flies a suborbital trajectory.</p>
<h2>Why these suborbital flights matter</h2>
<p>Although the two spacecraft launched in July 2021 will not reach orbit, the accomplishment of reaching space in private spacecraft is a major milestone in the history of humanity. Those aboard these and all future private-sector, suborbital flights will for a few minutes be in space, experience a few minutes of <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-zero-gravity-that-people-experience-in-the-vomit-comet-or-space-flight-133144">exhilarating weightlessness</a> and absolutely earn their astronaut wings.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410641/original/file-20210709-19-1fdb8il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram showing paths around the Earth." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410641/original/file-20210709-19-1fdb8il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410641/original/file-20210709-19-1fdb8il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410641/original/file-20210709-19-1fdb8il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410641/original/file-20210709-19-1fdb8il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410641/original/file-20210709-19-1fdb8il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410641/original/file-20210709-19-1fdb8il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410641/original/file-20210709-19-1fdb8il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Suborbital flights (paths A and B) reach space, but because they aren’t moving fast enough over the Earth, gravity will pull the object back to the surface.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Newton_Cannon.svg#/media/File:Newton_Cannon.svg">Brian Brondel</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A well-thrown baseball</h2>
<p>Conceptually, the flights that Branson and Bezos will be on are not terribly different from a baseball thrown into the air.</p>
<p>The faster you can throw the baseball upward, the higher it will go and the longer it will stay in the air. If you throw the ball with a bit of sideways velocity as well, it will go farther down-range. </p>
<p>Imagine throwing your baseball in an open field. As the ball rises, it slows down, as the kinetic energy inherent in its velocity is exchanged for potential energy in the form of increased altitude. Eventually the ball will reach its maximum height and then fall back to the ground. </p>
<p>Now imagine that you could throw the baseball fast enough to reach a height of perhaps 60 miles (97 km). Presto! The baseball has reached space. But when the ball reaches its maximum height, it will have zero vertical velocity and start to fall back to Earth.</p>
<p>The flight may take several minutes, and during most of that time the ball <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-zero-gravity-that-people-experience-in-the-vomit-comet-or-space-flight-133144">would experience near weightlessness</a> – as will the newly minted astronauts aboard these spacecraft. Just like the hypothetical baseball, the astronauts will reach space but won’t enter orbit, so their flights will be suborbital.</p>
<p>[<em>The Conversation’s science, health and technology editors pick their favorite stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-favorite">Weekly on Wednesdays</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164279/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John M. Horack does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Both Virgin Galactic and Blue Origin are sending spacecrafts – and their billionaire founders – into suborbital flight. But what differentiates a suborbital flight from a trip around Earth?John M. Horack, Neil Armstrong Chair and Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, The Ohio State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1638982021-07-08T20:12:27Z2021-07-08T20:12:27ZBranson vs Bezos: as the billionaires get ready to blast into space, who’s got the better plan?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409882/original/file-20210706-17-1186z1u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C17%2C2973%2C1976&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.blueorigin.com/news-updates/gallery">Blue Origin</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the next fortnight, Blue Origin founder Jeff Bezos and Virgin Galactic founder Richard Branson will take off into space, because <a href="https://www.latimes.com/business/story/2021-07-06/jeff-bezos-richard-branson-elon-musk-space-race">they can</a>, on spaceships designed by their respective companies.</p>
<p>It’s a big moment for the private space industry. But the question comes to mind: who has the smarter plan? </p>
<h2>A billionaire’s space race</h2>
<p>On May 5 Blue Origin, owned by former Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos, announced it would fly its first crew of astronauts into space on <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/news/bid-for-the-very-first-seat-on-new-shepard">July 20</a> — the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo11.html">Apollo 11 Moon landing’s</a> 52nd anniversary. </p>
<p>After 15 successful test flights, this will be the first crewed flight for Blue Origin’s New Shepard spaceship. One seat will be occupied by an undisclosed winner of a charity auction, who reportedly paid <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/news/the-very-first-seat-on-new-shepard-sells-for-28-million">US$28 million</a> for the privilege. Two more seats will be taken up by Bezos and his brother Mark. </p>
<p>A fourth seat will go to Wally Funk. The 82-year-old pilot was a promising candidate in the 1960s Mercury 13 women’s astronaut training programme, but wasn’t able to go to space because of her gender.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409924/original/file-20210706-15-17q89cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409924/original/file-20210706-15-17q89cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409924/original/file-20210706-15-17q89cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409924/original/file-20210706-15-17q89cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409924/original/file-20210706-15-17q89cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409924/original/file-20210706-15-17q89cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409924/original/file-20210706-15-17q89cw.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Blue Origin’s New Shepard capsule.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Blue Origin</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It wasn’t long after Bezos announced his plans that Sir Richard Branson also joined in, setting a launch date of July 11 — nine days before Bezos’s departure. </p>
<p>Branson will travel as part of a six person crew on Virgin Galactic spaceplane VSS Unity. It will be the fourth time the VSS Unity, the specific SpaceShipTwo spacecraft, has been <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com/articles/virgin-galactic-completes-first-human-spaceflight-from-spaceport-america-new-mexico/">flown to space</a>, but the first with a full crew.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-become-a-space-tourist-you-finally-can-if-you-have-250-000-and-a-will-to-sign-your-life-away-160543">Want to become a space tourist? You finally can — if you have $250,000 and a will to sign your life away</a>
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<h2>Tailored plans</h2>
<p>Both flights will be short, and based on different definitions of where “space” begins.</p>
<p>Bezos’s Blue Origin has chosen to define this as the internationally recognised <a href="https://www.fai.org/news/statement-about-karman-line">Kármán line at 100 kilometres altitude</a>. The peak of the New Shepard’s trajectory will be just past this limit.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, Virgin Galactic has chosen the US Air Force’s definition of space at about <a href="https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/content/where-space">80km</a> altitude. Their SpaceShipTwo generally reaches a peak altitude of around 90km during flight. </p>
<p><strong>Blue Origin’s New Shepard</strong></p>
<p>Blue Origin’s New Shepard is a fully autonomous rocket (with no pilots) which takes off almost fully vertically from its <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/news/ns-15-mission-to-conduct-astronaut-rehearsal">launch site in remote West Texas</a>. </p>
<p>It is powered by a <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/engines/be-3">BE-3 liquid-fuelled rocket motor</a>, which burns for around two and a half minutes until the spacecraft reaches 55km of altitude, at a speed of 900 metres per second. With its almost vertical trajectory, this is enough altitude and momentum to reach space.</p>
<p>Once the rocket motor stops burning, the booster holding the rocket motor and fuel separates from the crew capsule and returns to Earth.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410076/original/file-20210707-27-6tyznt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410076/original/file-20210707-27-6tyznt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410076/original/file-20210707-27-6tyznt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410076/original/file-20210707-27-6tyznt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410076/original/file-20210707-27-6tyznt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410076/original/file-20210707-27-6tyznt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410076/original/file-20210707-27-6tyznt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">New Shepard Booster landing after an uncrewed test flight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Blue Origin</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The whole flight will only last ten minutes, with astronauts experiencing weightlessness near the peak altitude, before their capsule re-enters the atmosphere and drifts back down to Earth. Parachutes will help with deceleration.</p>
<p><strong>Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo</strong></p>
<p>Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo spaceplane will be carried up to 15km altitude by a carrier aircraft, the WhiteKnightTwo. At this point it will launch itself into space, starting above the thick lower atmosphere.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409934/original/file-20210706-25-1cm3xw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409934/original/file-20210706-25-1cm3xw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409934/original/file-20210706-25-1cm3xw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409934/original/file-20210706-25-1cm3xw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409934/original/file-20210706-25-1cm3xw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409934/original/file-20210706-25-1cm3xw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409934/original/file-20210706-25-1cm3xw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo shown attached to its carrier aircraft, WhiteKnightTwo, outside Spaceport America in New Mexico, the world’s first commercial spaceport.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Virgin Galactic</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>SpaceShipTwo will detach from WhiteKnightTwo and start its hybrid rocket motor engine which burns for a minute, giving the spaceplane enough momentum to reach its 90km peak altitude.</p>
<p>Similar to the New Shepard, passengers will experience several minutes of weightlessness before re-entering the atmosphere. </p>
<p>Due to its low speed upon re-entry, SpaceShipTwo will perform a “feathered re-entry”, where it will rotate its wings up and use them to keep stable, like a shuttlecock, as it falls down to 15km altitude.</p>
<p>It will then once again become a spaceplane and glide back to the ground under the control of pilots, ready for re-use.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409938/original/file-20210706-19-19g3lz6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409938/original/file-20210706-19-19g3lz6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409938/original/file-20210706-19-19g3lz6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409938/original/file-20210706-19-19g3lz6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=311&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409938/original/file-20210706-19-19g3lz6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409938/original/file-20210706-19-19g3lz6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409938/original/file-20210706-19-19g3lz6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Virgin Galactic’s planned flight path based on earlier test flights.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Virgin Galactic</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A rocket versus a spaceplane</h2>
<p>There are several differences and similarities in the companies’ approaches. </p>
<p>Both will have short flights, allowing them to make use of suborbital launch trajectories. This means they will achieve the right altitude to reach space, but won’t go into orbit. This approach requires much less fuel than an orbital flight.</p>
<p>Suborbital trajectories also make re-entry significantly slower, so the heavy heat shielding that would be required when returning from orbit won’t be needed. Also, both aim to re-use their spaceships to lower the costs of operation over time.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410075/original/file-20210707-17-nf71nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410075/original/file-20210707-17-nf71nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410075/original/file-20210707-17-nf71nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410075/original/file-20210707-17-nf71nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410075/original/file-20210707-17-nf71nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410075/original/file-20210707-17-nf71nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410075/original/file-20210707-17-nf71nj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">View from space during one of Blue Origin’s uncrewed New Shepard test flights.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Blue Origin</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Beyond that, however, their approaches are quite different.</p>
<p>Blue Origin’s New Shepard is essentially a large “<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/research/f_sounding.html">sounding rocket</a>” These are small research rockets which perform suborbital hops so science experiments can be performed during brief trips to space. </p>
<p>It also uses a liquid rocket motor which, while harder to design, is generally safer since it can be throttled during operation (and even shut off if required).</p>
<p>New Shepard, which has performed 15 successful uncrewed test flights, is overall a simple spacecraft. This will likely make it cheaper and safer in the long run.</p>
<p>In contrast, Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo is much more advanced. It is launched mid-air and is rocket-powered — an approach that hasn’t been properly explored since NASA and the US Air Force’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/60th/x-15/">X-15 program</a> in the 1960s. </p>
<p>For a successful flight, SpaceShipTwo must be launched while being carried by a carrier aircraft, must ignite its rocket motor in the air, stow its wings for re-entry and then un-stow them again to glide home. This complicated procedure has already come unstuck multiple times. </p>
<p>A recent SpaceShipTwo flight was aborted due to a computer malfunction after its rocket motor ignited. It landed safely but <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com/articles/virgin-galactic-update-on-test-flight-program/">didn’t reach space</a>.</p>
<p>And in 2014, the accidental activation of the feathered re-entry system during ascent to space led to destruction of the first SpaceShipTwo model, the VSS Enterprise, tragically killing <a href="https://www.space.com/30073-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-crash-pilot-error.html">the co-pilot</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410077/original/file-20210707-15-1wq74kj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410077/original/file-20210707-15-1wq74kj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410077/original/file-20210707-15-1wq74kj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410077/original/file-20210707-15-1wq74kj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410077/original/file-20210707-15-1wq74kj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410077/original/file-20210707-15-1wq74kj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410077/original/file-20210707-15-1wq74kj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">VSS Unity in space during a test flight, with its wings stowed away in preparation for feathered re-entry. This specific model has completed 21 successful test flights, with three reaching space.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Diversity versus simplicity</h2>
<p>While the costs of a seat on both spaceships will be eye watering, only Virgin Atlantic have announced an official price tag: US$250,000 per seat on a SpaceShipTwo flight. It’s expected Blue Origin’s New Shepard will be <a href="https://www.geekwire.com/2019/blue-origins-ceo-says-first-space-trips-new-shepard-will-cost-hundreds-thousands-dollars/">priced similarly</a>.</p>
<p>The simplicity of Blue Origin’s system means it will probably be better equipped to reduce costs over time. But simplicity may also be its downfall. Meanwhile, SpaceShipTwo is a more complex spacecraft with pilots. This could prove more attractive to customers.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/1TVs2lWk_GI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The rocket-powered ascent to the edge of space during Virgin Galactic’s first SpaceShipTwo test flight.</span></figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163898/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris James does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It wasn’t long after Jeff Bezos announced his plans to go to space that Sir Richard Branson joined in, setting a launch date to beat Bezos by nine days.Chris James, ARC DECRA Fellow, Centre for Hypersonics, School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1605102021-05-07T12:44:42Z2021-05-07T12:44:42ZSpace tourism is here – 20 years after the first stellar tourist, Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin plans to send civilians to space<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399324/original/file-20210506-17-zm3v4c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4114%2C2792&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Astronaut Tracy Caldwell Dyson on the International Space Station with a view many more are likely to see soon. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tracy_Caldwell_Dyson_in_Cupola_ISS.jpg#/media/File:Tracy_Caldwell_Dyson_in_Cupola_ISS.jpg">NASA/Tracy Caldwell Dyson/WIkimediaCommons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For most people, getting to the stars is nothing more than a dream. But on May 5, 2021, the 60th anniversary of the first suborbital flight, that dream became a little bit more achievable. </p>
<p>The space company Blue Origin announced that it would <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/jeff-bezos-blue-origin-auction-seat-space-tourism-flight-rcna828">start selling tickets for suborbital flights to the edge of space</a>. The first flight is scheduled for July 20, and Jeff Bezos’ company is <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/05/science/blue-origin-space-jeff-bezos.html">auctioning off one single ticket to the highest bidder</a>. </p>
<p>But whoever places the winning bid won’t be the first tourist in space.</p>
<p>On April 28, 2001, Dennis Tito, a wealthy businessman, <a href="https://www.space.com/11492-space-tourism-pioneer-dennis-tito.html">paid US$20 million for a seat on a Russian Soyuz</a> spacecraft to be the first tourist to visit the International Space Station. Only <a href="https://spaceadventures.com/experiences/space-station/">seven civilians have followed suit</a> in the 20 years since, but that number is poised to double in the next 12 months alone.</p>
<p>NASA has long been <a href="http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=304">hesitant to play host to space tourists</a>, so Russia – looking for sources of money post-Cold War in the 1990s and 2000s – has been the only option available to those looking for this kind of extreme adventure. However, it seems the rise of private space companies is going to make it easier for regular people to experience space.</p>
<p>From my perspective as <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PxIOz7cAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">a space policy analyst</a>, recent announcements from companies like Blue Origin and SpaceX are the opening of an era in which more people can experience space. Hoping to build a future for humanity in space, these companies are seeking to use space tourism as a way to demonstrate both the safety and reliability of space travel to the general public.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Three men floating in the International Space Station" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dennis Tito, on the left beside two Russian astronauts, was the first private citizen to ever go to space – and he spent more than a week on the International Space Station.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ISS-02_Soyuz_TM-32_Taxi_crewmembers.jpg#/media/File:ISS-02_Soyuz_TM-32_Taxi_crewmembers.jpg">NASA/WikimediaCommons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The development of space tourism</h2>
<p>Flights to space like Dennis Tito’s are expensive for a reason. A rocket must burn a lot of costly fuel to travel high and fast enough to enter Earth’s orbit.</p>
<p>Another cheaper possibility is a suborbital launch, with the rocket going high enough to reach the edge of space and coming right back down. This is the kind of flight that Blue Origin is now offering. While passengers on a suborbital trip experience weightlessness and incredible views, these launches are more accessible.</p>
<p>The difficulty and expense of either option has meant that, traditionally, only nation-states have been able to explore space. This began to change in the 1990s as a series of entrepreneurs entered the space arena. Three companies led by billionaire CEOs have emerged as the major players: Blue Origin, SpaceX and Virgin Galactic. Though none have taken paying, private customers to space, all anticipate doing so in the very near future.</p>
<p>British billionaire Richard Branson has built his brand on not just business but also his love of adventure. In pursuing space tourism, Branson has brought both of those to bear. He established <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com/">Virgin Galactic</a> after buying <a href="https://www.space.com/16769-spaceshipone-first-private-spacecraft.html">SpaceShipOne</a> – a company that won the <a href="https://www.xprize.org/prizes/ansari">Ansari X-Prize</a> by building the first reusable spaceship. Since then, Virgin Galactic has sought to design, build and fly a larger <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com/learn/">SpaceShipTwo</a> that can carry up to six passengers in a suborbital flight.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A silvery ship that looks like a fighter plane with elongated tail fins." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The VSS Unity spacecraft is one of the ships that Virgin Galactic plans to use for space tours.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirginGalactic/c699fbc80ae44738a66a899dffd37b6a/photo?Query=virgin%20AND%20galactic&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=375&currentItemNo=13">AP Photo/Matt Hartman</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The going has been harder than anticipated. While Branson <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7529978.stm">predicted opening the business</a> to tourists in 2009, Virgin Galactic has encountered some significant hurdles – including the death of a pilot in <a href="https://www.space.com/30073-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-crash-pilot-error.html">a crash in 2014</a>. After the crash, engineers found significant problems with the design of the vehicle, which required modifications.</p>
<p>Elon Musk and Jeff Bezos, respective leaders of SpaceX and Blue Origin, began their own ventures in the early 2000s.</p>
<p>Musk, <a href="https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-first-mars-trip-2024">fearing that a catastrophe</a> of some sort could leave Earth uninhabitable, was frustrated at the lack of progress in making humanity a multiplanetary species. He founded SpaceX in 2002 with the goal of first developing reusable launch technology to decrease the cost of getting to space. Since then, SpaceX has found success with its <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/falcon-9/">Falcon 9</a> rocket and <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/dragon/">Dragon spacecraft</a>. SpaceX’s ultimate goal is human settlement of Mars; sending paying customers to space is an intermediate step. Musk says he hopes to show that space travel can be done easily and that tourism might provide a revenue stream to support development of the larger, Mars-focused Starship system.</p>
<p>Bezos, <a href="https://medium.com/@lynwerkledges/the-oneill-cylinder-jeff-bezos-vision-for-an-incredible-civilisation-in-space-fef75b499710">inspired by the vision of physicist Gerard O’Neill</a>, wants to expand humanity and industry not to Mars but to space itself. <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/">Blue Origin</a>, established in 2004, has proceeded slowly and quietly in also developing reusable rockets. Its <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/new-shepard/">New Shepard</a> rocket, first successfully flown in 2015, will be the spaceship taking tourists on suborbital trips to the edge of space <a href="https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/blue-origin-begin-space-tourism-ticket-sales-wednesday-2021-05-05/">this July</a>. For Bezos, <a href="https://www.publicaffairsbooks.com/titles/christian-davenport/the-space-barons/9781610398305/">these launches represent</a> an effort at making space travel routine, reliable and accessible as a first step to enabling further space exploration.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A large silvery rocket standing upright on a launchpad." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">SpaceX has already started selling tickets to the public and has future plans to use its Starship rocket, a prototype of which is seen here, to send people to Mars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Starship_SN9_Evening_Rays.jpg#/media/File:Starship_SN9_Evening_Rays.jpg">Jared Krahn/WikimediaCommons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Outlook for the future</h2>
<p>Blue Origin is not the only company offering passengers the opportunity to go into space and orbit the Earth. </p>
<p>SpaceX currently has two tourist launches planned. The first is <a href="https://spacenews.com/inspiration4-announces-crew-for-private-spacex-crew-dragon-mission/">scheduled for as early as September 2021</a>, funded by billionaire businessman Jared Isaacman. The other trip, planned for 2022, is <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/26/axiom-space-unveils-ax-1-crew-for-fully-private-spacex-mission-to-iss.html">being organized by Axiom Space</a>. These trips <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/05/science/axiom-space-station.html">will be costly</a> for wannabe space travelers, at $55 million for the flight and a stay on the International Space Station. The high cost has led some to warn that <a href="https://spacenews.com/foust-forward-space-tourisms-image-problem/">space tourism</a> – and private access to space more broadly – might reinforce inequality between rich and poor.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399319/original/file-20210506-17-1dd96mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A white domed capsule with windows in the Texas desert." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399319/original/file-20210506-17-1dd96mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/399319/original/file-20210506-17-1dd96mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399319/original/file-20210506-17-1dd96mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399319/original/file-20210506-17-1dd96mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399319/original/file-20210506-17-1dd96mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399319/original/file-20210506-17-1dd96mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/399319/original/file-20210506-17-1dd96mg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The first tourist to fly on a privately owned spaceship will ride in Blue Origin’s New Shepard Crew Capsule, seen here after a test flight in Texas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_Origin_M7.jpg">NASA Flight Opportunities/WikimediaCommons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While Blue Origin is already accepting bids for a seat on the first launch, it has not yet announced the cost of a ticket for future trips. Passengers will also need to meet several physical qualifications, including weighing 110 to 223 pounds (50 to 101 kg) and measuring between 5 feet and 6 feet, 4 inches (1.5 to 1.9 meters) in height. Virgin Galactic, which continues to test SpaceShipTwo, has no specific timetable, but its tickets are expected to be <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/26/space-tourism-how-spacex-virgin-galactic-blue-origin-axiom-compete.html">priced from $200,000 to $250,000</a>.</p>
<p>Though these prices are high, it is worth considering that Dennis Tito’s $20 million ticket in 2001 could potentially pay for 100 flights on Blue Origin soon. The experience of viewing the Earth from space, though, may prove to be priceless for a whole new generation of space explorers.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of an <a href="https://theconversation.com/space-tourism-20-years-in-the-making-is-finally-ready-for-launch-159606">article originally published</a> on April 28, 2021. It has been updated to include the announcement by Blue Origin.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160510/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wendy Whitman Cobb is affiliated with the US Air Force School of Advanced Air and Space Studies. Her views are her own and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Defense Department or any of its affiliates. </span></em></p>The first space tourist left Earth 20 years ago aboard a Russian rocket. Now, private companies like Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin are offering trips to the stars for those who can pay.Wendy Whitman Cobb, Professor of Strategy and Security Studies, Air UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1596062021-04-28T12:15:09Z2021-04-28T12:15:09ZSpace tourism – 20 years in the making – is finally ready for launch<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397411/original/file-20210427-21-1cpclid.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=414%2C176%2C6979%2C5759&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Space tourism has been slow to get off the ground. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/space-tourism-concept-a-young-male-asian-royalty-free-illustration/1300171457?adppopup=true">Nadia Bormotova/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For most people, getting to the stars is nothing more than a dream. On April 28, 2001, Dennis Tito achieved that lifelong goal – but he wasn’t a typical astronaut. Tito, a wealthy businessman, <a href="https://www.space.com/11492-space-tourism-pioneer-dennis-tito.html">paid US$20 million for a seat on a Russian Soyuz</a> spacecraft to be the first tourist to visit the International Space Station. Only <a href="https://spaceadventures.com/experiences/space-station/">seven people have followed suit</a> in the 20 years since, but that number is poised to double in the next 12 months alone.</p>
<p>NASA has long been <a href="http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=304">hesitant to play host to space tourists</a>, so Russia – looking for sources of money post-Cold War in the 1990s and 2000s – has been the only option available for those looking for this kind of extreme adventure. However, it seems the rise of private space companies is going to make it easier for regular people to experience space.</p>
<p>From my perspective as <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PxIOz7cAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">a space policy analyst</a>, I see the beginning of an era in which more people can experience space. With companies like SpaceX and Blue Origin hoping to build a future for humanity in space, space tourism is a way to demonstrate both the safety and reliability of space travel to the general public.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Three men floating in the International Space Station" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397415/original/file-20210427-21-1lvsrl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dennis Tito, on the left beside two Russian astronauts, was the first private citizen to ever go to space – and he spent more than a week on the International Space Station.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ISS-02_Soyuz_TM-32_Taxi_crewmembers.jpg#/media/File:ISS-02_Soyuz_TM-32_Taxi_crewmembers.jpg">NASA/WikimediaCommons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The development of space tourism</h2>
<p>Flights to space like Dennis Tito’s are expensive for a reason. A rocket must burn a lot of costly fuel to travel high and fast enough to enter Earth’s orbit. </p>
<p>Another cheaper possibility is a suborbital launch, with the rocket going high enough to reach the edge of space and coming right back down. While passengers on a suborbital trip experience weightlessness and incredible views, these launches are more accessible.</p>
<p>The difficulty and expense of either option has meant that, traditionally, only nation-states have been able to explore space. This began to change in the 1990s as a series of entrepreneurs entered the space arena. Three companies led by billionaire CEOs have emerged as the major players: Virgin Galactic, Blue Origin and SpaceX. Though none have taken paying, private customers to space, all anticipate doing so in the very near future.</p>
<p>British billionaire Richard Branson has built his brand on not just business but also his love of adventure. In pursuing space tourism, Branson has brought both of those to bear. He established <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com/">Virgin Galactic</a> after buying <a href="https://www.space.com/16769-spaceshipone-first-private-spacecraft.html">SpaceShipOne</a> - a company that won the <a href="https://www.xprize.org/prizes/ansari">Ansari X-Prize</a> by building the first reusable spaceship. Since then, Virgin Galactic has sought to design, build and fly a larger <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com/learn/">SpaceShipTwo</a> that can carry up to six passengers in a suborbital flight. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A silvery ship that looks like a fighter plane with elongated tail fins." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397419/original/file-20210427-13-1cw14qm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The VSS Unity spacecraft is one of the ships that Virgin Galactic plans to use for space tours.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirginGalactic/c699fbc80ae44738a66a899dffd37b6a/photo?Query=virgin%20AND%20galactic&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=375&currentItemNo=13">AP Photo/Matt Hartman</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The going has been harder than anticipated. While Branson <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7529978.stm">predicted opening the business</a> to tourists in 2009, Virgin Galactic has encountered some significant hurdles – including the death of a pilot in <a href="https://www.space.com/30073-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-crash-pilot-error.html">a crash in 2014</a>. After the crash, engineers found significant problems with the design of the vehicle, which required modifications.</p>
<p>Elon Musk and Jeff Bezos, respective leaders of SpaceX and Blue Origin, began their own ventures in the early 2000s.</p>
<p>Musk, <a href="https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-first-mars-trip-2024">fearing that a catastrophe</a> of some sort could leave Earth uninhabitable, was frustrated at the lack of progress in making humanity a multiplanetary species. He founded SpaceX in 2002 with the goal of first developing reusable launch technology to decrease the cost of getting to space. Since then, SpaceX has found success with its <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/falcon-9/">Falcon 9</a> rocket and <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/dragon/">Dragon</a> spacecraft. SpaceX’s ultimate goal is human settlement of Mars – sending paying customers to space is an intermediate step. Musk says he hopes to show that space travel can be done easily and that tourism might provide a revenue stream to support development of the larger, Mars-focused Starship system. </p>
<p>Bezos, <a href="https://medium.com/@lynwerkledges/the-oneill-cylinder-jeff-bezos-vision-for-an-incredible-civilisation-in-space-fef75b499710">inspired by the vision of physicist Gerard O’Neill</a>, wants to expand humanity and industry not to Mars, but to space itself. <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/">Blue Origin</a>, established in 2004, has proceeded slowly and quietly in also developing reusable rockets. Its <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/new-shepard/">New Shepard</a> rocket, first successfully flown in 2015, will eventually offer tourists a suborbital trip to the edge of space, similar to Virgin Galactic’s. For Bezos, <a href="https://www.publicaffairsbooks.com/titles/christian-davenport/the-space-barons/9781610398305/">these launches represent</a> an effort at making space travel routine, reliable and accessible to people as a first step to enabling further space exploration.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A large silvery rocket standing upright on a launchpad." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397422/original/file-20210427-21-1c0u725.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">SpaceX has already started selling tickets to the public and has future plans to use its Starship rocket, a prototype of which is seen here, to send people to Mars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Starship_SN9_Evening_Rays.jpg#/media/File:Starship_SN9_Evening_Rays.jpg">Jared Krahn/WikimediaCommons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Outlook for the future</h2>
<p>Now, SpaceX is the only option for someone looking to go into space and orbit the Earth. It currently has two tourist launches planned. The first is <a href="https://spacenews.com/inspiration4-announces-crew-for-private-spacex-crew-dragon-mission/">scheduled for as early as September 2021</a>, funded by billionaire businessman Jared Isaacman. The other trip, planned for 2022, is <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/26/axiom-space-unveils-ax-1-crew-for-fully-private-spacex-mission-to-iss.html">being organized by Axiom Space</a>. These trips <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/05/science/axiom-space-station.html">will be costly</a>, at $55 million for the flight and a stay on the International Space Station. The high cost has led some to warn that <a href="https://spacenews.com/foust-forward-space-tourisms-image-problem/">space tourism</a> – and private access to space more broadly – might reinforce inequality between rich and poor.</p>
<p>Blue Origin’s and Virgin Galactic’s suborbital trips are far more reasonable in cost, with both <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/26/space-tourism-how-spacex-virgin-galactic-blue-origin-axiom-compete.html">priced between $200,000 and $250,000</a>. Blue Origin appears to be the nearest to allowing paying customers on board, <a href="https://spacenews.com/blue-origin-aces-dress-rehearsal-for-new-shepard-crewed-flights/">saying after a recent launch</a> that crewed missions would be happening “soon.” Virgin Galactic continues to test SpaceShipTwo, but no specific timetable has been announced for tourist flights.</p>
<p>Though these prices are high, it is worth considering that Dennis Tito’s $20 million ticket in 2001 could pay for 100 flights on Blue Origin soon. The experience of viewing the Earth from space, though, may prove to be priceless for a whole new generation of space explorers.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 104,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletter to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=100Ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p><em>An updated version of this article was published on May 7, 2021. <a href="https://theconversation.com/space-tourism-is-here-20-years-after-the-first-stellar-tourist-jeff-bezos-blue-origin-plans-to-send-civilians-to-space-160510">Read it here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/159606/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wendy Whitman Cobb is affiliated with the US Air Force School of Advanced Air and Space Studies. Her views are her own and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of Defense or any of its affiliates.</span></em></p>The first space tourist left Earth 20 years ago aboard a Russian rocket. Now, private companies are on the cusp of offering trips off Earth for those who can pay.Wendy Whitman Cobb, Professor of Strategy and Security Studies, Air UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1387652020-05-22T12:21:23Z2020-05-22T12:21:23ZSpaceX reaches for milestone in spaceflight – a private company launches astronauts into orbit<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336822/original/file-20200521-102637-1cyg1v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C27%2C1964%2C2016&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket with the company’s Crew Dragon spacecraft onboard is raised into a vertical position on the launch pad at Launch Complex 39A. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/wp-content/uploads/sites/230/2020/05/NHQ202005210007.jpg"> NASA/Bill Ingalls</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On May 27, two American astronauts, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/robert-l-behnken/biography">Robert L. Behnken</a> and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/astronauts/biographies/douglas-g-hurley">Douglas G. Hurley</a>, are planning to launch from the Kennedy Space Center on a mission to the International Space Station. If successful, this will mark the first time in nine years that American astronauts will launch into space from American soil. What’s even more remarkable is they will not be launched by NASA but by a private company, SpaceX.</p>
<p>Human spaceflight is incredibly difficult and expensive; the rockets must be reliable and the vehicle must be built with expensive life support systems and a certain level of redundancy. To date, only three countries – Russia, the United States and China – have achieved this feat.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&view_op=list_works&gmla=AJsN-F4V7EkQ7lmG9AIVxq7tkq1SjY1VeEh4bCQxvtOBJhDKGQqSmfCwSFFXtxMhfXOJWUg6pn4pqWcsfGttVtqhBn6b2AaaNA&user=PxIOz7cAAAAJ">a space policy expert</a>, I find it hard to overstate the significance for both SpaceX and spaceflight in general. For SpaceX, it’s another step on their road to Mars, but more generally, it demonstrates that spaceflight need not be reserved for only the most powerful of states.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336825/original/file-20200521-102671-ptevan.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336825/original/file-20200521-102671-ptevan.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336825/original/file-20200521-102671-ptevan.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336825/original/file-20200521-102671-ptevan.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336825/original/file-20200521-102671-ptevan.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336825/original/file-20200521-102671-ptevan.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336825/original/file-20200521-102671-ptevan.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336825/original/file-20200521-102671-ptevan.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Astronauts Douglas Hurley (left) and Robert Behnken before boarding the Gulfstream jet that will carry them to Kennedy Space Center in Florida.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/wp-content/uploads/sites/230/2020/05/jsc2020e023069_crop.jpg">NASA/James Blair</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A dream and an opening</h2>
<p>In many ways, SpaceX’s achievement is due not only to technological advances, but opportunity brought about by disaster. The breakup of the space shuttle Columbia in 2003 led <a href="https://history.nasa.gov/Bush%20SEP.htm">the Bush administration to decide</a> to end the shuttle program by 2010. They directed NASA to develop a replacement, <a href="https://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/vse.htm">Project Constellation</a>, but due to budget cuts and other problems, NASA failed to make significant progress. As a result, in 2010, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0265964610001189?via%3Dihub">the Obama administration directed NASA</a> to refocus its efforts on deep space missions and rely on private companies to provide access to the ISS and low Earth orbit.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336827/original/file-20200521-102628-1bv3jpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336827/original/file-20200521-102628-1bv3jpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336827/original/file-20200521-102628-1bv3jpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336827/original/file-20200521-102628-1bv3jpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336827/original/file-20200521-102628-1bv3jpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336827/original/file-20200521-102628-1bv3jpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=951&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336827/original/file-20200521-102628-1bv3jpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=951&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336827/original/file-20200521-102628-1bv3jpo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=951&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft is designed to carry up to seven passengers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/category/spacex/">NASA/Kim Shiflett</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Enter SpaceX. Dreaming of colonization of Mars but frustrated with the slow pace at which it was coming, Elon Musk founded SpaceX in 2002. To get to Mars, he decided that spaceflight would first need to be made cheaper. His philosophy was to devise a rocket system that could be used again and again with minimal refurbishment between flights. Over the next decade, SpaceX designed, built and tested its Falcon series of rockets. It signed <a href="https://www.spacex.com/press/2012/12/19/spacex-wins-nasa-cots-contract-demonstrate-cargo-delivery-space-station">contracts with NASA</a> to provide cargo services to the ISS and with other companies and the U.S. military to provide general launch services. Perhaps most importantly, SpaceX has demonstrated that its rockets can be reused, with the core stages flying their way back to Earth to land themselves.</p>
<p>The 2010 shift in American space policy gave SpaceX an opportunity to build on its early successes. By 2014, both <a href="https://spacenews.com/41891nasa-selects-boeing-and-spacex-for-commercial-crew-contracts/">SpaceX and Boeing were given contracts</a> from NASA to provide commercial crew launch services. And it appears, so far, that SpaceX has made good on its promise of reducing the cost of human spaceflight. Compared to an average <a href="https://www.space.com/12166-space-shuttle-program-cost-promises-209-billion.html">space shuttle mission that cost US$1.6 billion</a>, <a href="https://www.space.com/spacex-boeing-commercial-crew-seat-prices.html">NASA is paying only $55 million</a> per seat for SpaceX’s upcoming ISS flights.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336832/original/file-20200521-102637-hrrxv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336832/original/file-20200521-102637-hrrxv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/336832/original/file-20200521-102637-hrrxv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336832/original/file-20200521-102637-hrrxv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336832/original/file-20200521-102637-hrrxv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336832/original/file-20200521-102637-hrrxv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336832/original/file-20200521-102637-hrrxv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/336832/original/file-20200521-102637-hrrxv0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A picture taken June 13, 2007 in Paris shows the inside part of the mock-up of the future tourism plane-rocket, made by the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company EADS Astrium branch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/astrium-prepare-un-avion-fusee-pour-developper-le-tourisme-news-photo/74588306?adppopup=true">OLIVIER LABAN-MATTEI/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Tourists in space?</h2>
<p>This massive reduction in cost made possible through reusable rockets is contributing to several developments in spaceflight. First, it provides NASA a means of access to the ISS without relying on the Russian Soyuz. Since 2011, the <a href="https://www.space.com/spacex-boeing-commercial-crew-seat-prices.html">U.S. has been paying Russia</a> upwards of $86 million per seat for flights to the space station. </p>
<p>Second, with SpaceX and Boeing providing access to the ISS, NASA can concentrate on <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/what-is-artemis">Project Artemis</a>, which intends to return humans to the Moon by 2024. They are also leveraging new commercial capabilities from SpaceX, Blue Origin and others to further reduce costs to get there.</p>
<p>If SpaceX is successful, it could also mean the opening of space to tourism. Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic are planning to offer <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/10/28/high-space-tourism-demand-for-blue-origin-and-virgin-galactic-ceo-says.html">brief suborbital launches</a> that don’t enter Earth orbit. SpaceX, on the other hand, is already <a href="https://www.space.com/spacex-crew-dragon-will-fly-space-tourists.html">signing up passengers</a> for several-day trips to space at $35 million a seat. Even <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/joshwilson/2020/05/06/tom-cruise-nasa-and-elon-musks-spacex-prepare-to-shoot-a-movie-in-space/#6a2c8f5b673f">Tom Cruise is looking to fly</a> on SpaceX and film a movie aboard the ISS. While space companies have long predicted opportunities for space tourism, SpaceX’s Dragon brings that possibility closer to reality.</p>
<p>More broadly, adding tourists to the mix in low Earth orbit may even help make space safer. Debris in orbit is a growing problem, along with increasing tensions between the U.S., China and Russia in space. Both of those things make operating in space more difficult, dangerous and costlier. </p>
<p>For the space economy to really take off, countries will need to put in place regulations that ensure safety and reliability in several areas, including vehicle safety and debris mitigation. And, as I suggest <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Privatizing-Peace-Commerce-Reduce-Conflict-dp-0367337835/dp/0367337835/">in my new book</a>, having more humans in space might force countries to think twice before taking potentially dangerous actions in space. While orbital space tourism might still be far off for the average American, SpaceX’s crew launch brings us closer to the day when an extraordinary event is a normal occurrence.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138765/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wendy Whitman Cobb is affiliated with the US Air Force School of Advanced Air and Space Studies. Her views are her own and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of Defense or any of its components.</span></em></p>SpaceX’s launch of astronauts to the International Space Station will make it the first private company to launch humans to space. The effort has ramifications for NASA and spaceflight in general.Wendy Whitman Cobb, Professor of Strategy and Security Studies, Air UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1263702019-11-04T14:51:10Z2019-11-04T14:51:10ZVirgin Galactic goes public and leads space tourism race<p>Richard Branson rang the opening bell at the New York Stock Exchange on October 28 as Virgin Galactic became the first commercial spaceflight company to list on the stock market. It was valued at <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-50189019">more than US$1 billion</a> following its merger with publicly-listed holding firm Social Capital Hedosophia, then experienced a 20% drop in its share price after a week of trading. It is now worth <a href="https://www.marketwatch.com/investing/stock/spce">around US$800m</a>. </p>
<p>The route to success in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/moon-2069-lunar-tourism-and-deep-space-launches-a-century-on-from-apollo-121218">space tourism</a> industry is bound to be a wild ride and Branson is hoping his first mover advantage will bring healthy returns in the long run. Indeed, this high-risk venture could well pay off – it’s just a question of when.</p>
<p>Virgin Galactic was founded in 2004 to offer paying customers a trip into suborbital space. For US$250,000, anyone can take a 90-minute flight into the upper reaches of the atmosphere where they will experience a few minutes of weightlessness and see the curvature of the Earth’s surface. <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1706946/000114420419034053/tv524921_ex99-2.htm">According to Virgin</a>, 600 people from some 60 countries have already made their reservations, while a further 3,700 people have registered for the opportunity to buy flights once ticket sales are back on offer. This suggests that the combination of Branson’s marketing prowess and the allure of space for humans are a plausible value proposition for investors.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300087/original/file-20191104-88399-1trqmlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300087/original/file-20191104-88399-1trqmlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300087/original/file-20191104-88399-1trqmlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300087/original/file-20191104-88399-1trqmlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300087/original/file-20191104-88399-1trqmlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300087/original/file-20191104-88399-1trqmlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300087/original/file-20191104-88399-1trqmlj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The view from space on Virgin Galactic’s first spaceflight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Virgin Galactic</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Virgin is also offering a much cheaper route to experiencing space than its competitors. There have only been seven space tourists to date <a href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/spacex-blue-origin-space-tourism">and none since 2009</a>. All travelled on a Russian Soyuz spacecraft to the International Space Station (ISS) at a reported price tag of tens of millions of dollars. </p>
<p>NASA <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-48560874">announced</a> in June that it would offer trips to the ISS at a cost of US$35,000 per night, not including the cost of a taxi ride there from SpaceX and Boeing. The cost of these rides is likely to be at least US$60m, which is what NASA pays to take its astronauts to the ISS, and these visits are due to start in 2020. In September 2018, <a href="https://www.space.com/41856-how-spacex-bfr-moon-passenger-flight-works.html">SpaceX unveiled its 2023 lunar passenger flight</a> that would take Japanese billionaire businessman Yusaku Maezawa and six of his guests on a space flight around the moon using its Big Falcon Rocket for an undisclosed, but certainly a very substantial, price.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-the-moon-and-beyond-3-the-new-space-race-and-what-winning-it-looks-like-120372">To the moon and beyond 3: The new space race and what winning it looks like</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<h2>Substantial progress</h2>
<p>Although it has yet to fly any paying passengers and is currently loss making, Virgin Galactic aims to be profitable by 2021, based on completing 115 flights that generate US$210m in revenue. By 2023, it is <a href="https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1706946/000114420419034053/tv524921_ex99-2.htm">forecasting revenues</a> of US$590m and expects to have flown more than 3,000 passengers. Since that number is a tiny portion of the target market of high net-worth individuals with assets of at least US$10m, its projections could well be achievable. And, currently, Virgin Galactic appears to be ahead of Elon Musk’s SpaceX and Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin in fulfilling the vision of space tourism.</p>
<p>While Virgin Galactic has <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/news/will-virgin-galactic-ever-make-it-to-space-Richard-Branson/">failed to deliver on expectations in the past</a> – it missed its own targets for flights commencing and experienced <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-next-for-space-tourism-after-spaceshiptwo-33801">a catastrophic accident in 2014</a> – it has more recently made substantial progress. In December 2018 it achieved its <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/dec/13/virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-launch-california-edge-of-space">first suborbital space flight</a>. Given that achievement and subsequent progress, it seems likely that commercial flights could commence within the next 18 months.</p>
<p>It is also diversifying its offering as it gears up for launch. In collaboration with the sportswear maker Under Armour, Virgin Galactic has developed a line of high-tech clothing that its passengers will wear on their flights. At the same time, it is moving into its new facilities at Spaceport America in the desert lands of New Mexico. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300076/original/file-20191104-88394-1j7vwxh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300076/original/file-20191104-88394-1j7vwxh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300076/original/file-20191104-88394-1j7vwxh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300076/original/file-20191104-88394-1j7vwxh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300076/original/file-20191104-88394-1j7vwxh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300076/original/file-20191104-88394-1j7vwxh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/300076/original/file-20191104-88394-1j7vwxh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Spaceport America, ready for launch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mia2you / Shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Spaceport America, where Virgin’s flights will take off from and return to, has a US$220m investment by the New Mexico government. It is also here that passengers will undergo three days of training to prepare for the G-forces and weightlessness that they will experience on flights. </p>
<p>The business of space tourism is only just beginning. Air travel similarly started small with a limited target market, but grew to become a mass market with many commercial air carriers and millions travelling every month, served by airports that over time became large commercial hubs. The trajectory for space tourism travel in the decades to come <a href="https://www.bookdepository.com/Business-Space-Louis-Brennan/9780230231733?ref=grid-view&qid=1565690592480&sr=1-1">has the potential to be similar</a>. From a highly niche market, it can become one that has much broader appeal when costs reduce. </p>
<p>At the same time, spaceports can, like airports before them, become large concentrated centres of commercial activity. Should Virgin Galactic maintain its first mover advantage in space tourism in the years ahead, there is the prospect for healthy returns to investors in this high risk venture.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126370/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louis Brennan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Although it has yet to fly any paying passengers and is currently loss making, Virgin Galactic aims to be profitable by 2021.Louis Brennan, Professor of Business Studies, Trinity College DublinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1113302019-02-08T11:33:37Z2019-02-08T11:33:37ZUS astronauts will soon fly again in American spacecraft - but not NASA’s<p>“This year, American astronauts will go back to space in American rockets.” </p>
<p>This one sentence from the 2019 <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/02/05/us/politics/trump-state-of-union-speech-transcript.html">State of the Union address</a> may have escaped your notice. It ended a paragraph in which the president paid tribute to astronaut <a href="https://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/aldrin-b.html">Buzz Aldrin</a> of the Apollo 11 mission to mark the the 50th anniversary of the first moon landing. From that point, the speech transitioned to increasing the standard of living for Americans in the 21st century. A small sentence, perhaps. Maybe perceived by some as a throwaway line. But behind these 12 words lies a revolution in how Americans will get to space in the future.</p>
<p>Americans have not flown to orbit aboard an American rocket or from an American launch pad since July 8, 2011. This gap of nearly eight years and counting is the longest in our history, eclipsing the six-year gap between Apollo-Soyuz in 1975 and the Space Shuttle program in 1981. Since the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2011, the United States has paid Russia approximately US$75 million per seat to launch U.S. astronauts to the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html">International Space Station</a> aboard Soyuz spacecraft from a launch site in Kazakhstan.</p>
<p>However, as noted in the State of the Union, things will change in 2019. American astronauts are scheduled to fly to space from U.S. soil this summer, aboard three separate launch systems, developed not by the U.S. government and its contractor workforce, but instead by commercial spaceflight companies. It is a change that heralds a new era in human space travel.</p>
<h2>A new era of American spaceflight</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.spacex.com">SpaceX</a>, <a href="http://www.boeing.com/space/">Boeing</a> and <a href="https://www.virgingalactic.com">Virgin Galactic</a> are all planning to send American astronauts into space in 2019. For SpaceX and Boeing – if the schedule holds and near-term test flights go well – their voyages will be orbital flights to the ISS launched from the <a href="https://www.kennedyspacecenter.com">Kennedy Space Center</a> in Florida. SpaceX will fly two NASA astronauts in their <a href="https://www.spacex.com/dragon">Dragon Capsule</a> on a <a href="https://www.spacex.com/falcon9">Falcon 9 rocket</a>, and Boeing will fly a crew of three in its <a href="http://www.boeing.com/space/starliner/">CST-100 Starliner</a> aboard an <a href="https://www.ulalaunch.com/rockets/atlas-v">Atlas-V booster</a>. </p>
<p>Virgin Galactic has already put Americans into space with their most recent flight in December 2018. Although this rocket did not orbit the Earth, and did just a quick “up and down” trajectory, it demonstrates amazing progress.</p>
<p>Most revolutions do not happen overnight, and our revolution in commercial human spaceflight is no exception. All of this activity can be traced back to the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/solarsystem/bush_vision.html">George W. Bush 43 administration</a>, when <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/about/highlights/griffin_bio.html">NASA Administrator Dr. Michael D. Griffin</a> put $500 million of NASA money on the table to help spur industry to develop commercial systems from which NASA could purchase delivery services, for crew and cargo, just as one buys airline tickets. </p>
<p>If I wish to fly from New York to Los Angeles, for example, I can go to a website, make a reservation, and enter my credit card number. I don’t have to build the airplane, construct the airport, own and operate the air-traffic control system, refine the fuel from crude oil, train the pilot, and so forth. I buy it as a simple commercial transaction. This mode is what NASA was after when the first commercial launch programs were established in 2006. </p>
<h2>Launches return to American soil</h2>
<p>Development has occurred on a schedule much longer than anticipated, creating the record gap in American launches. However, it has led directly to the establishment of multiple independent systems of cargo supply to space, aboard the SpaceX Falcon-9 and Orbital Science’s Antares launch vehicle. All told, this arrangement has worked extremely well, safely and in a cost-effective manner. </p>
<p>In 2019, human launch capability will be added to the ongoing portfolio of cargo flights, returning American astronauts to American launch vehicles, and eliminating the requirement to launch to the ISS on a Russian system. After almost two decades at NASA, I can say that this is, indeed, a big deal.</p>
<p>This revolution is just getting started. In the not-too-distant future, you can also expect to see <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com">Blue Origin</a>, the space company founded by Amazon’s Jeff Bezos and <a href="https://www.sncorp.com/space-systems/">Sierra Nevada Corporation</a> begin similar flights to orbit. Bezos’ team is already flying suborbital cargo and science experiment flights to space on a reusable vehicle named <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/new-shepard/">New Shepard</a> from their launch facility in Texas. Sierra Nevada will be flying their <a href="https://www.sncorp.com/what-we-do/dream-chaser-space-vehicle/">Dream Chaser</a> vehicle, which looks much like a mini-space shuttle and lands on a runway, for cargo to ISS (first) and then people (later).</p>
<p>Revolutions – even those cloaked in a simple sentence – do not happen in an instant. It has been 13 years since NASA first worked to spur commercial development of launch capabilities. Eight years have elapsed since the retirement of the Space Shuttle. A revolution is in the making, totally transforming how we send American astronauts into space. Perhaps not overnight, but it is coming soon to a launch pad near you … and, yes, this revolution will be televised.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111330/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John M. Horack does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A brief line in the State of the Union address hints at an exciting year for commercial spaceflight companies in the US. After an eight year lull, US rockets will again carry astronauts into space.John M. Horack, Neil Armstrong Chair and Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, The Ohio State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/926802018-04-08T19:56:17Z2018-04-08T19:56:17ZTake it from me: I’m not signing up to become a space tourist just yet…<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212102/original/file-20180327-188613-14cusyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kids dream about going to space – and some very wealthy adults are booking tickets. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/child-girl-astronaut-costume-playing-dreaming-1045979281?src=a2wzMR_G74hrIB-hv4qfWQ-1-6">from www.shutterstock.com </a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><strong>Take it from me</strong> is a new series in Science and Technology, where we find an expert to provide a personal but informed perspective on a topical issue.</em></p>
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<p>Elon Musk’s SpaceX reportedly has two people signed up for a trip around the Moon (although these plans have been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/feb/08/spacewatch-tourists-wait-spacex-bigger-rocket">delayed slightly</a>), and Richard Branson’s Virgin Galactic has advanced plans to launch space tourists from 2018 for a <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/this-company-is-only-months-away-from-sending-tourists-into-space-2018-1?IR=T">mere US$250,000 each</a> – hundreds of people have <a href="https://www.space.com/36654-virgin-galactic-fly-space-tourists-2018.html">already registered</a>. </p>
<p>Is there anyone reading this who didn’t want to be an astronaut when they were a child? I was especially passionate, but it was back in the days when Australian women weren’t allowed to be military or commercial pilots, and we didn’t have a space program, so that was the end of that.</p>
<p>These days, having gained post-graduate qualifications in space studies and aviation medicine, I sustain my passion through my work as a medical educator, doctor and extreme environments researcher. </p>
<p>So, am I excited that we are edging closer to space tourism being a reality, and would I like to go? Yes, of course! (Assuming it was a lot more affordable). However, the child within is tempered by a rationalist voice saying “not until it is all proven and safely bedded down”.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-tourism-to-terrorists-fast-moving-space-industries-create-new-ethical-challenges-84618">From tourism to terrorists, fast-moving space industries create new ethical challenges</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>Let’s be practical</h2>
<p>Sending tourists around the Moon still seems impossibly ambitious at present, so let’s just concentrate on what are commonly known as “sub-orbital” flights. These will take participants to the edge of space, around 100 kilometres above the Earth, so that they can experience both “weightlessness” (microgravity) and the breath-taking view of our precious blue planet below.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212096/original/file-20180327-188613-8yva0s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212096/original/file-20180327-188613-8yva0s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212096/original/file-20180327-188613-8yva0s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212096/original/file-20180327-188613-8yva0s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212096/original/file-20180327-188613-8yva0s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212096/original/file-20180327-188613-8yva0s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212096/original/file-20180327-188613-8yva0s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This view of Earth shows the turquoise of shallow seas around the Caribbean islands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/nasa-captures-epic-earth-image">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Apart from lots of spare cash, what do we need in order to be a space tourist? </p>
<p>The first essential component is a spaceship that can withstand both high G-forces (gravitational forces) and the sub-space environment, and also launch, fly and land safely. It must protect us from the environmental hazards outside – extreme high altitude and low barometric (atmospheric) pressure, extreme cold and a virtual absence of oxygen. </p>
<h2>A lot of training</h2>
<p>We will need highly trained and experienced pilots, and to be suitably trained and attired ourselves.</p>
<p>In his book <a href="http://www.scottkelly.com/"><em>Endurance</em></a>, NASA astronaut Scott Kelly mentions that he had been training since 1999 in one way or another for his 2015-16 year-long mission to the International Space Station. We would expect our space pilots also to have been through a long apprenticeship. </p>
<p>What about ourselves? Astronauts typically spend years training for a mission. Like any fledgling exploration enterprise, at present commercial imperatives are well ahead of governmental regulation, so it is likely to be left up to the operators as to what specific training is required.</p>
<p>However, we can expect this to include informed consent and emergency response training, and physiological familiarisation training. This might include time in a centrifuge to simulate high G-forces, an altitude chamber to simulate low atmospheric pressure and low oxygen levels, and potentially, “parabolic” flights to provide an experience of weightlessness (like the infamous NASA “<a href="https://www.space.com/37942-vomit-comet.html">Vomit Comet</a>” – a zero gravity plane).</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/FEWy6jyBLfM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Would you take a ride on the “Vomit Comet”?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So who’s in?</h2>
<p>This brings us to the tricky question of who should be a space tourist? </p>
<p>Only the fittest and healthiest people can become astronauts. However, the bar is likely to be set a lot lower for space tourists, and at present each commercial provider will set its own standards. Passengers may need to visit a specialist doctor for a “space medical” and an assessment of their response to training.</p>
<p>People with pre-existing medical conditions will not necessarily be excluded. That said, they will still need to demonstrate an ability to manage the psychological and extreme physiological stresses of a sub-orbital journey, such as high G-forces and relative hypoxia (low oxygen) at altitude, and to handle themselves safely in an emergency. </p>
<p>In addition to providing a pressurised cabin with supplemental oxygen, risk mitigation strategies may include passengers wearing body-hugging pressure suits for protection against the effects of sudden depressurisation and hypoxia.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/looking-up-a-century-ago-a-vision-of-the-future-of-space-exploration-89859">Looking up a century ago, a vision of the future of space exploration</a>
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</em>
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<p>Even if you get past these hurdles, there is no way of predicting who will develop space motion sickness (nausea and/or vomiting) when exposed to microgravity. This occurs due to the disorientation of the vestibular (balance) system in the inner ear when it loses all its familiar inputs. This risk should not be a deal-breaker (the same as for astronauts), but it would need to be well-managed from both sides, as it could otherwise be hazardous for everyone in the cabin.</p>
<p>With any type of human exploration, there are risks as we push boundaries, and there are inevitably mishaps and fatalities as a result. Space exploration is no exception. </p>
<p>Sadly, lives have been lost at nearly every stage of advancement, including during one of the Virgin Galactic early test flights. </p>
<p>With any type of aircraft, crashes are most common during the take-off and landing phases, and depressurisation incidents at altitude can be catastrophic. Space tourism will most likely not be immune, which for me means that I will not be rushing into booking a ticket (even if I could afford it).</p>
<p>To quote the Spanish philosopher <a href="http://www.dictionary.com/browse/those-who-cannot-remember-the-past-are-condemned-to-repeat-it">George Santayana</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p><em>Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it</em>. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Keep looking up at the stars and dreaming, and work out what level of acceptable risk is right for you.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92680/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rowena Christiansen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With any type of human exploration, there are risks as we push boundaries, and there are inevitably mishaps and fatalities as a result. Space tourism is no exception.Rowena Christiansen, Medical Education Tutor, Doctor and Researcher, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/806972017-10-03T10:53:37Z2017-10-03T10:53:37ZPrivate companies are launching a new space race – here’s what to expect<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/202134/original/file-20180116-53307-16jz11v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">evenstubble</span> </figcaption></figure><p>The space race between the USA and Russia started with a beep from the Sputnik satellite exactly 60 years ago (October 4, 1957) and ended with a <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-handshake-in-space-changed-us-russia-relations-how-long-will-it-last-44846">handshake in space</a> just 18 years later. The handshake was the start of many decades of international collaboration in space. But over the past decade there has been a huge change. </p>
<p>The space environment is no longer the sole preserve of government agencies. Private companies have entered the exploration domain and are propelling the sector forward more vigorously and swiftly than would be the case if left to governments alone. </p>
<p>It could be argued that a new space race has begun, in which private companies are competing against each other and against government organisations. But this time it is driven by a competition for customers rather than the urge to show dominance by being first to achieve a certain goal. So who are the main players and how will they change the science, technology and politics of space exploration?</p>
<p>Put the phrase “private space exploration” into a search engine and a wealth of links emerges. Several have titles such as: “<a href="https://www.space.com/8541-6-private-companies-launch-humans-space.html">Six private companies that could launch humans into space</a>”, “<a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/3026685/the-worlds-top-10-most-innovative-companies-in-space">The world’s top 10 most innovative companies in space</a>” or “10 major players in the private sector space race”. What is immediately apparent is that practically all these companies are based in the US.</p>
<p>There is a big difference between building and launching satellites into low Earth orbit for telecommunications and sending crew and cargo to the International Space Station (ISS) and beyond. Private companies in several nations have been engaged in the satellite market for many years. Their contributions to the development of non-governmental space exploration has helped to lay the trail for entrepreneurs with the vision and resources to develop their own pathways to space. </p>
<p>Today, several companies in the US are looking very specifically at human spaceflight. The three that are perhaps furthest down the road are <a href="http://www.spacex.com/about">SpaceX</a>, <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/">Blue Origin</a> and <a href="http://www.virgingalactic.com/">Virgin Galactic</a>. The main goals of all three companies is to reduce the cost of access to space – mainly through reuse of launchers and spacecraft – making space accessible to people who are not specially trained astronauts. One thing these companies have in common is the private passion of their chief executives. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184368/original/file-20170901-27276-oe72fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184368/original/file-20170901-27276-oe72fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184368/original/file-20170901-27276-oe72fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184368/original/file-20170901-27276-oe72fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184368/original/file-20170901-27276-oe72fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184368/original/file-20170901-27276-oe72fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184368/original/file-20170901-27276-oe72fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">SpaceX Crew Dragon docking with the International Space Station.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">SpaceX</span></span>
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<p>SpaceX was founded in 2002 by Elon Musk, a charismatic entrepreneur, engineer, inventor and investor. The ambition of SpaceX is “to revolutionise space technology, with the ultimate goal of enabling people to live on other planets”. To this end, the company has specialised in the design, manufacture and launch of rockets, providing direct competition to the <a href="http://www.ulalaunch.com/">United Launch Alliance</a> (between Boeing and Lockheed Martin) that had been the contract holder of choice for launch of NASA and Department of Defense rocket launches. </p>
<p>Its success has been spectacular. Having developed the <a href="http://www.spacex.com/falcon9">Falcon 9</a> launch vehicle and <a href="http://www.spacex.com/dragon">Dragon spacecraft</a>, it became the first commercial company to dock a spacecraft at the ISS in 2012. The firm now has a regular run there, carrying cargo. But so far, no astronauts. However, the Falcon Heavy is comparable to the Saturn 5 rocket that launched the Apollo astronauts, and SpaceX has designed its vehicle with a view to sending astronauts to the moon by 2018, and to Mars <a href="https://theconversation.com/elon-musk-releases-details-of-plan-to-colonise-mars-heres-what-a-planetary-expert-thinks-79733">as early as 2023</a>. </p>
<p>On September 29, Musk refined his plans, announcing the <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-41441877">BFR project</a> (which I like to pretend stands for Big F**king Rocket). This would replace the Falcon and Dragon spacecraft – and would not only transport cargo and explorers to the moon and Mars, but could also reduce travel times between cities on Earth. Musk calculates it could take as little as 29 minutes to fly from London to New York.</p>
<p>Whether the company succeeds in sending astronauts to the moon in 2018 remains to be seen. Either way, a lot could be going on then – 2018 is also the year when Blue Origin, founded in 2000 by <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2017/08/29/inside-jeff-bezos-80-billion-empire.html">Jeff Bezos</a>, the technology and retail entrepreneur behind Amazon, aims to launch people to space. But its ambition is different from that of SpaceX. Blue Origin is focusing on achieving commercially available, sub-orbital human spaceflight – targeting the space tourism industry. The company has developed a vertical launch vehicle (<a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/technology">New Shepard</a>, after the first American astronaut in space, Alan Shepard) that can reach the 100km altitude used to define where “space” begins. The rocket then descends back to Earth, with the engines firing towards the end of the descent, allowing the spacecraft to land vertically. Test flights with no passengers have made successful demonstrations of the technology. The trip to space and back will take about 10 minutes. </p>
<p>But Blue Origin has got some competition from Virgin Galactic, which describes itself as “the world’s first commercial spaceline”. Founded in 2004 by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Branson">Richard Branson</a>, also a technology and retail entrepreneur, it plans to carry six passengers at a time into sub-orbital space and give them about six minutes of weightlessness in the course of a two and a half hour flight. </p>
<p>The technology differs from that of SpaceX and Blue Origin in that the launch into space is not from the ground, but from a jet airplane. This mothership flies to an altitude of about 18km (about twice as high as regular aircraft fly) and releases a smaller, rocket-powered spacecraft (SpaceShip Two) which is propelled to an altitude of about 100km. The programme has been delayed by technical difficulties – and then by the tragic loss of pilot <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/nov/02/co-pilot-died-virgin-galactic-crash-hailed-renaissance-man">Mike Alsbury</a>, when SpaceShip Two exploded in mid-air during a test flight in 2014. No date is yet set for the first passengers to fly.</p>
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<p>There’s also the <a href="http://lunar.xprize.org/">Google Lunar XPrize competition</a>, announced in 2007, with the tagline: “Welcome to the new space race”. The aim of the prize is to launch a robotic mission to the moon, place a lander on the surface and drive 50 metres, sending back high-quality images and video. The competition is still in progress. Five privately funded teams must launch their spacecraft to the moon by the end of 2017. </p>
<h2>Powerful international ties</h2>
<p>The changes are taking place against a backdrop of tried and tested international collaboration in space, which took off in earnest at the end of the space race. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the US and Russia space programmes complemented each other beautifully – though perhaps not intentionally. Following the cessation of Apollo in 1975, the US space programme focused its efforts on robotic exploration of the solar system. </p>
<p>The Voyager probes gave us <a href="https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/">amazing images</a> of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/mars/mariner.html">Mariner</a> and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/viking/">Viking missions</a> to Mars led to Pathfinder, Spirit, Opportunity and Curiosity. Messenger orbited Mercury and Magellan orbited Venus. When New Horizons launched to Pluto in 2006, it was a mission to <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-horizons-finally-gets-up-close-with-pluto-for-15-minutes-44603">visit the last planet left unexplored</a> in the solar system. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188557/original/file-20171003-30864-1k0uyyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188557/original/file-20171003-30864-1k0uyyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188557/original/file-20171003-30864-1k0uyyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188557/original/file-20171003-30864-1k0uyyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188557/original/file-20171003-30864-1k0uyyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188557/original/file-20171003-30864-1k0uyyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188557/original/file-20171003-30864-1k0uyyy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pluto as seen by New Horizons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Russia, on the other hand, pursued the goal of human spaceflight, with its incredibly successful <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-first-space-walk-happened-50-years-ago-and-nearly-ended-in-disaster-38921">Mir orbiting space station</a> and its programme of flights to transfer cosmonauts and cargo backwards and forwards to Mir. Human spaceflight in the US revived with the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/main/index.html">Space Shuttle</a> and its mission to build and occupy the <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-key-findings-from-15-years-of-the-international-space-station-51540">International Space Station</a> (ISS). The list of nations that contribute to the ISS continues to grow. The shuttle programme finished in 2011 and, since its successor Orion (built in collaboration with European Space Agency, ESA) is not due to come into service until at least 2023, the international community has been reliant on Russia to keep the ISS fuelled and inhabited.</p>
<p>Today, as well as the US and Russia, there are strong, vibrant and successful space programmes in Europe, Japan, India and China. The European Space Agency was established just two months before the historic handshake of 1975, following many years of independent aeronautical engineering research by individual nations. Similarly, the Chinese, Japanese and Indian space agencies can trace their heritages back to the 1960s. A number of smaller countries including the United Arab Emirates also have ambitious plans.</p>
<p><audio preload="metadata" controls="controls" data-duration="634" data-image="" data-title="New players in the space race." data-size="9225888" data-source="" data-source-url="" data-license="CC BY-ND" data-license-url="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">
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New players in the space race.
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a><span class="download"><span>8.8 MB</span> <a target="_blank" href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/audio/914/space-race-segment.mp3">(download)</a></span></span>
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<p>Of course these countries also compete against each other. There has been widespread speculation that the entry of China into the field was sufficient to introduce a fresh imperative to the US space programme. China has a <a href="https://theconversation.com/crashing-space-station-shows-why-china-must-start-to-collaborate-in-orbit-66072">well-developed space programme</a> and is currently working towards having a space station in orbit around the Earth by about 2020. A prototype, Tiangong-2, has been in space for almost a year, and was occupied by two astronauts (or “taikonauts”) for a month.</p>
<p>China has also had three successful missions to the moon. And its next mission, Chang’e 5, due to launch towards the end of 2017, <a href="https://theconversation.com/chinas-plan-to-be-first-to-far-side-of-the-moon-could-unveil-inner-lunar-secrets-53253">is designed to bring samples from the moon back to Earth</a>. China also has a declared intent of landing taikonauts on the moon by 2025 – the same time frame in which the US will be testing its new Orion spacecraft in orbit around the moon. </p>
<p>But while there’s an element of competition, the success of the past few decades certainly shows that it is possible to collaborate in space even when tensions rise on the ground. Indeed, space exploration may even act as a buffer zone from international politics, which is surely something worth having. It will be interesting to see how a wider role in space exploration for private companies will affect such international collaborations, especially since so much of the effort is based in the USA. </p>
<h2>Healthy competition or dangerous game?</h2>
<p>A benefit of the entry of the private sector into space exploration has been recognition of the high-tech companies that contribute to the growth of the economy as valuable targets for investment. Indeed, <a href="http://www.goldmansachs.com/our-thinking/podcasts/episodes/05-22-2017-noah-poponak.html?mediaIndex=1&autoPlay=true&cid=sch-pd-google-poponakpodcast64-searchad-201705--&mkwid=8cazG4Ns">a recent presentation</a> at an international investment bank – under a heading of “Space; the next investment frontier” – declared that “investment interest has helped reduce launch costs and spur innovation across related industries, opening up a new chapter in the history of the space economy”. </p>
<p>One of the last engagements of Barack Obama’s presidency was to chair the Whitehouse Frontiers Conference, where space exploration was discussed as much <a href="http://www.frontiersconference.org/tracks/interplanetary">within the context of US industry</a> as within the drive to explore new worlds. Contributors to the conference included NASA – but overwhelmingly the speakers were from private technology and investment companies. </p>
<p>Perhaps it is cynical to say – but once investment starts to flow, lawyers won’t be far behind. And that is another aspect of the explosion of interest in space commerce and tourism. Laws, statutes and other regulations are necessary to govern the international nature of space exploration. At the moment, the United Nations, through its <a href="http://www.unoosa.org/">Office for Outer Space Affairs</a>, is responsible for promoting international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space. It also oversees operation of the <a href="http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html">Outer Space Treaty</a>, which provides a framework for the governance of space and activities that might take place. While the obvious lack of “space police” means that it cannot be practically enforced, it has <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-outer-space-treaty-has-been-remarkably-successful-but-is-it-fit-for-the-modern-age-71381">never actually been violated</a>. </p>
<p>The operation is designed along similar lines to the international treaties that oversee maritime activities and the exploration of Antarctica. This is the closest that there is to international legislation and, since coming into operation in 1967 with the three inaugural signatories of the United States of America, the United Kingdom and the (then) USSR, the treaty has been signed by 106 countries (including China and North Korea). It is necessary to have such controls because although the risks that surround space exploration are high, potential rewards are even higher.</p>
<p>If we look at the way more conventional businesses operate, such as supermarkets, competition drives prices down, and there is little reason to believe that competition between space companies would follow a different model. In which case, greater risks might be taken in order to increase profitability. There is no evidence for this so far – but as the field develops and additional private companies move into space exploration – there will be a higher probability of accident or emergency. </p>
<p>The treaty says that a state launching a probe or satellite is liable to pay compensation for damage when accidents occur. However, the costs of space exploration are astronomical and crippling to poorer countries, making them increasingly depend on commercial launchers. But if a private company launches an object that subsequently causes damage in space, the struggling economy will have to pick up the bill. The treaty <a href="https://theconversation.com/spacex-explosion-shows-why-we-must-slow-down-private-space-exploration-until-we-rewrite-law-65019">may therefore need to be updated</a> to make private companies more liable. There are also serious issues around the safety of astronauts, who have the legal right to a safe existence when in outer space. But even lawyers aren’t sure whether the law does – or should – extend to private astronauts.</p>
<p>Looking to the future, there will be a need for an expanded version of a Civil Aviation Authority, directing and controlling routes, launches and landings on Earth, and between and on planetary bodies. All the safety and security considerations of air and sea travel will pertain to space travel at a vastly enhanced level, because the costs and risks are so much higher. There will have to be firm and well-understood protocols in the event of a spacecraft crashing, or two spacecraft colliding. Not to mention piracy or the possibility of hijack. All this might sound a little gloomy, taking the dash and exhilaration from space exploration, but it will be a necessary development that opens up the era of space travel for citizens beyond those with deep pockets.</p>
<p>The original space race resulted from the ideas and skills of visionary theoretician engineers including: <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/about/history/dr_goddard.html">Robert H Goddard</a>,<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/history/vonbraun/bio.html"> Wernher von Braun</a>,<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/rocketry/home/konstantin-tsiolkovsky.html"> Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky</a>… Is it too far a stretch to think that the second space race is propelled by a new generation of entrepreneurs, including Bezos, Branson and Musk? If this is the situation, then I would hope that the main enabling factor in the pursuit of space endeavours is not possession of wealth, but that vision, ingenuity and a wish for the betterment of human are the main driving forces.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/80697/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Monica Grady receives funding from the STFC, the UK Space Agency and the EU Horizon 2020 Programme. She is a Fellow of the Natural History Musuem and a Trustee of Lunar Mission One.</span></em></p>Private companies are increasingly challenging national space agencies in a new space race, which comes with great opportunities but also huge risks.Monica Grady, Professor of Planetary and Space Sciences, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/798122017-06-22T10:42:24Z2017-06-22T10:42:24ZSpace tourism could help boost science and health research – here’s how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174978/original/file-20170621-28012-1tq7nbr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">White Knight Two carrying the spaceplane SpaceShipTwo.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jfoust/5106876200/">jfoust</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The announcement of the draft <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/draft-spaceflight-bill">Spaceflight Bill</a> in the Queen’s Speech will allow the development of spaceports in the UK. This could see members of the paying public launched into space as tourists, or taking <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/hypersonic-passenger-jet-london-new-york-two-hours-space-travel-transatlantic-a7471451.html">sub-orbital flights</a> from London to New York in just 45 minutes.</p>
<p>Such adventures will be made possible through futuristic spaceplanes, as are already in development by companies such as <a href="http://www.virgingalactic.com/">Virgin Galactic</a>, that will enable us mere mortals to experience weightlessness. If this sounds only of interest to those who can afford the six-figure ticket price, it also has major implications for scientific discovery. Space travel-related research has probably already had a <a href="https://theconversation.com/ten-ways-that-astronauts-are-helping-you-stay-healthy-78220">more substantial positive impact on your life than you realise</a>, and this announcement could increase this still further.</p>
<p>Space agencies such as ESA and NASA currently provide access to simulated microgravity for scientific research using <a href="http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Research/Parabolic_flights">parabolic flights</a>. These allow human physiology research to be carried out more easily than on the International Space Station, but the time spent in microgravity is very short. Spaceplanes may provide longer sessions, which could enable more comprehensive research to inform the design of experiments into the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-007-0474-z">longer-term physiological changes from spaceflight</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175015/original/file-20170621-28012-1wja6tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175015/original/file-20170621-28012-1wja6tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175015/original/file-20170621-28012-1wja6tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175015/original/file-20170621-28012-1wja6tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175015/original/file-20170621-28012-1wja6tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175015/original/file-20170621-28012-1wja6tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175015/original/file-20170621-28012-1wja6tv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">ESA astronaut Samantha Christoforetti and others on a parabolic flight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ESA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Perhaps one day we will see research teams launching groups of participants to spend a few weeks or months aboard a <a href="https://theconversation.com/living-in-a-bubble-inflatable-modules-could-be-the-future-of-space-habitats-57570">space hotel</a> in order to study medical interventions that would slow the ageing process on Earth, and to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/sep/23/is-a-moon-village-the-next-step-for-space-exploration-esas-chief-thinks-so">help the human species colonise the Moon</a> or even <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/09/elon-musk-spacex-exploring-mars-planets-space-science/">Mars</a>. </p>
<p>Research dating back to the early years of the space race has led to <a href="https://theconversation.com/ten-ways-that-astronauts-are-helping-you-stay-healthy-78220">technologies</a> that benefit us all. Many scientific discoveries have come since the arrival of inhabitable space stations that act as orbital laboratories. NASA’s first space station <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/history/skylab.html">Skylab</a> helped understand the effects on the human body of <a href="https://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/skylab/biomedical_result_of_skylab.pdf">spending months in space</a> and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/40-years-ago-skylab-paved-way-for-international-space-station">paved the way for the International Space Station</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175016/original/file-20170621-9586-6m48v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175016/original/file-20170621-9586-6m48v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175016/original/file-20170621-9586-6m48v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175016/original/file-20170621-9586-6m48v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175016/original/file-20170621-9586-6m48v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175016/original/file-20170621-9586-6m48v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175016/original/file-20170621-9586-6m48v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175016/original/file-20170621-9586-6m48v9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gerald P. Carr, Skylab 4 mission commander, jokingly demonstrates weight training in zero-gravity, balancing astronaut pilot William R. Pogue upside down on his finger.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A huge number of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments_category">research studies</a> have been completed on the ISS since the year 2000 in the areas of human physiology, biology, biotechnology, physical science and earth and space science. These studies have led to discoveries such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0248(01)02334-X">enhanced protein crystal growth</a> for drug development, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/480.html">efficient combustion of fuel droplets</a>, and an understanding of the effects of <a href="https://theconversation.com/boldly-going-into-space-for-1-000-days-presents-a-series-of-health-risks-39442">long duration exposure to microgravity</a> on the human body, revealing that spaceflight has effects similar to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19851058">ageing on Earth</a>. </p>
<p>Despite much human physiological research being carried out in space, it has one major limitation – there are simply not enough humans currently going to space to act as research participants, leading to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msksp.2016.12.007">difficulties in research design</a>. In fact, only <a href="https://www.worldspaceflight.com/bios/stats.php">550 or so humans have ever been into space</a> since Russian cosmonaut <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/space/solarsystem/astronauts/yuri_gagarin">Yuri Gagarin first orbited the Earth in 1961</a>. </p>
<p>Human physiological experiments in space tend to have very small participant numbers (for example, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/nasa-sent-a-twin-to-space-to-study-nature-versus-nurture-and-were-starting-to-get-results-72317">NASA twins study</a>) or they have to take place over many years. Could the boom in commercial human spaceflight accelerate the speed of human physiological discoveries in space? We certainly think so.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175017/original/file-20170621-30190-1fgjypa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175017/original/file-20170621-30190-1fgjypa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175017/original/file-20170621-30190-1fgjypa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175017/original/file-20170621-30190-1fgjypa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175017/original/file-20170621-30190-1fgjypa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175017/original/file-20170621-30190-1fgjypa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175017/original/file-20170621-30190-1fgjypa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The International Space Station.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Commercial spaceflight companies such as <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2017/06/03/spacex-successfully-launches-reused-dragon-spacecraft-for-iss-resupply/">SpaceX</a> and <a href="http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=51024">Orbital</a> are already launching rockets taking supplies and research equipment to the International Space Station. SpaceX is developing its habitable Dragon capsule to <a href="https://www.space.com/35850-spacex-private-moon-flight-nasa-reaction.html">take space tourists around the moon</a>, with ambitions to use its sibling, Red Dragon, to <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/09/elon-musk-spacex-exploring-mars-planets-space-science/">land astronauts on Mars</a>.</p>
<p>Others are developing sub-orbital spaceplanes, such as <a href="http://spacenews.com/virgin-galactic-nears-next-phase-of-spaceshiptwo-test-program/">Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo</a>, which will enable passengers to <a href="http://www.virgingalactic.com/human-spaceflight/your-flight-to-space/">experience microgravity</a> for a number of minutes or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2009.09.024">travel 30 times faster between cities</a> than passenger airlines. To safely send throngs of space tourists beyond the atmosphere, we need to understand the health implications of just getting these “non-professional” astronauts into space through <a href="http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Engineering_Technology/FAST20XX_Future_High-Altitude_High-Speed_Transport_20XX">new medical research</a>, and developing spaceports will provide access to exciting new platforms to expand these frontiers of science.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175018/original/file-20170621-28012-1ugs1wd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175018/original/file-20170621-28012-1ugs1wd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175018/original/file-20170621-28012-1ugs1wd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175018/original/file-20170621-28012-1ugs1wd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175018/original/file-20170621-28012-1ugs1wd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175018/original/file-20170621-28012-1ugs1wd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175018/original/file-20170621-28012-1ugs1wd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An artist’s rendering of the SpaceX Dragon capsule.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">SpaceX</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A range of <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-spacetravel-idUSKCN0JG1SO20141202">unknown health risks</a> await space tourists, who are expected to be a far more <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-6652-3_19">health-diverse</a> group than current astronauts. We will need to determine the <a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/asma/asem/2014/00000085/00000007/art00007">effects of high g-forces</a> on people with medical conditions, as well as in adolescents who might want to go on the ultimate school holiday adventure past the <a href="http://www.iop.org/resources/topic/archive/space/">Karman line</a> – traditionally taken as the boundary of space. It will be vital that risks to passenger health are reduced through <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/1025.html">remote physiological monitoring</a>, and new monitoring technologies will need to withstand the high g-forces involved in launching into space. </p>
<p>The British government’s commitment to become one of the most attractive places in the world for commercial spaceflight will allow space research to boldly go where only limited research has gone before.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79812/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Caplan consults to and receives funding from the European Space Agency. He is affiliated with the UK Space Life and Biomedical Sciences Association. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Winnard is affiliated with Northumbria University, UK Space Environments Association and UK Space Life and Biomedical Sciences Association</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kirsty Lindsay receives funding from The European Space Agency and Northumbria University. She is affiliated with The UK Space Life and Biomedical Sciences Association. </span></em></p>Spaceports will pave the way for spaceplanes, helping scientists access space for medical research.Nick Caplan, Associate Professor of Musculoskeletal Health, Northumbria University, NewcastleAndrew Winnard, Lecturer, Northumbria University, NewcastleKirsty Lindsay, PhD Candidate, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/689892016-11-17T14:03:21Z2016-11-17T14:03:21ZThe real future of supersonic flight doesn’t depend on Richard Branson – but it might depend on Trump<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146385/original/image-20161117-18145-1v6hkzq.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Boom</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sir Richard Branson wants to bring back supersonic travel. Thirteen years since Concorde ended operations, the Virgin tycoon <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/nov/15/richard-branson-supersonic-flight-virgin-boom">has revealed the prototype</a> design for a new generation of supersonic business jets developed by the Branson-backed startup company Boom, based in Denver. The firm claims its planes will allow “affordable” journeys from London to New York in just three-and-a-half hours for approximately $5,000 (£4,000) return, the same as current business class tickets.</p>
<p>But there’s still a question over whether Boom can overcome the problems that hindered Concorde. Another supersonic project in the US may already have the edge over Branson’s preferred design. And the success of both projects – and the future of supersonic flight in general – may ultimately depend on the decisions of president-elect Donald Trump.</p>
<p><a href="http://boomsupersonic.com">Boom’s XB-1</a> will be more efficient than Concorde thanks to lighter, cheaper composite materials and advances in aerodynamics and jet engines. This will be helped by carrying 40 passengers per flight as opposed to Concorde’s 100, despite its ticket price. But ultimately, Boom doesn’t appear to do enough to address one of the key reasons Concorde failed. </p>
<p>Just four years after Concorde’s first flight in 1969, the US <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/77jan/gillman.htm">effectively banned supersonic travel</a> over its mainland due to concerns of the harmful effects of the sonic boom on the public. This then restricted Concorde’s operations to going supersonic only over the sea, severely limiting the potential routes. Boom is currently not proposing a design that would go far enough to allow flights over land because it doesn’t address the noise pollution issue.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146394/original/image-20161117-18101-1o7p5v6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146394/original/image-20161117-18101-1o7p5v6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=284&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146394/original/image-20161117-18101-1o7p5v6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=284&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146394/original/image-20161117-18101-1o7p5v6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=284&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146394/original/image-20161117-18101-1o7p5v6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146394/original/image-20161117-18101-1o7p5v6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146394/original/image-20161117-18101-1o7p5v6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How NASA’s ‘quiet’ supersonic plane might look.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While Boom has gathered publicity with the help of Sir Richard Branson, their small team still needs major investment to demonstrate a working prototype. The real breakthrough, meanwhile, is more likely to come from NASA and Lockheed Martin as part of their <a href="http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/products/QueSST0.html">Quiet Supersonic Technology (QueSST) programme</a>. Their recently developed low-boom shaping technology is designed to control the shock waves that are generated as the plane crosses the speed of sound barrier. This would drastically reduce the sonic boom to a level that would permit supersonic travel over land. This would open up routes such as California to New York, as well routes across Asia.</p>
<p>Decades of <a href="ftp://lbpw-ftp.larc.nasa.gov/outgoing/aviation-2016/aiaa-2016-talk-coen-cst.pdf">fundamental work</a> at NASA has focused on both the shape of the wings and developing low-noise propulsion systems and shielding to ensure that it can be economically viable. One key difference between Boom and the proposed Lockheed Martin X plane is also its speed. Whilst Boom are proposing an aircraft that will fly faster than Concorde, NASA and Lockheed are opting for slower speeds to achieve optimum sonic boom levels and fuel efficiency.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146395/original/image-20161117-18108-7gok6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/146395/original/image-20161117-18108-7gok6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146395/original/image-20161117-18108-7gok6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146395/original/image-20161117-18108-7gok6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146395/original/image-20161117-18108-7gok6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146395/original/image-20161117-18108-7gok6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/146395/original/image-20161117-18108-7gok6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Charles Bolden announces the X-Plane series.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
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<h2>Time to fly</h2>
<p>So when might we see these aircraft in the skies? Well, NASA’s administrator Charles Bolden <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-begins-work-to-build-a-quieter-supersonic-passenger-jet">officially announced</a> a new series of X-Planes in February 2016, which included a supersonic low-boom demonstrator that is set to fly in 2020. This demonstrator, built in collaboration with Lockheed Martin, will validate simulations and conduct real-life tests to measure the sonic boom over land. If these tests are successful, then it is likely that Lockheed Martin or another major aerospace company will use this technology to develop a business jet within the next five to ten years that can fly supersonically over land. </p>
<p>But all of this – including the Boom aircraft, which will likely benefit from the X-plane data – is dependent on the funding for this whole project to be sustained. The election of Donald Trump has caused many at NASA to wonder whether such <a href="http://www.space.com/34677-president-trump-nasa-space-policy.html">programmes</a> will be deemed by the incoming president as an inefficient use of US taxpayers’ money. If the programme is cancelled it will likely kill the prospect of supersonic travel just as it is gaining momentum again.</p>
<p>One saving grace may be president-elect Trump’s taste for private jets. Perhaps a supersonic version of Air Force One would be his way of showing that America still leads the world in advanced technologies. The image of a futuristic supersonic jet landing at world summits would certainly be the modern equivalent of the building of grand mansions or castles. For the hundreds of engineers and scientists who have worked on this programme, the first few months of the Trump administration will be a tense time.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/68989/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Neil Ashton previously worked for Science & Technologies Corporation (STC) in collaboration with NASA Ames Research Centre.</span></em></p>The president-elect’s taste for private jets could be just what the aviation industry needs.Neil Ashton, Senior Researcher, Oxford eResearch Centre, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/534282016-03-11T11:12:28Z2016-03-11T11:12:28ZNever mind SpaceX’s Falcon 9, where’s my Millennium Falcon?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/114511/original/image-20160309-13737-1t4s1zb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The only way to fly the friendly skies – or dark voids of space.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/randar/15077384076/in/photolist-oYkwZS-dcY7hJ-8sgZtx-aaddRC-5q8sJL-242ND7-MYG5-k8zSxZ-h7Tq5b-242MX9-gT7yb9-NeQ97-oWJXyH-5q46d4-2g5UYM-4akH1f-oH3dJc-oNrXv9-7y9T9a-242GPS-23Xn2T-aaddm5-23XmPV-ouDNLA-96z3r5-prPwgr-4JbVsW-23Xhm8-eLQBkX-6UvbYb-6kkDbT-r9vrfV-4C7DXi-4Vs1Az-4XSKYi-oEwbUj-bStmrT-aaap8Z-7nVwd-6G2k3f-peqegv-cQKnsW-eM2ZLy-pNXq8V-oXbT8e-7ujr4Y-94aCXi-oMnHU3-7NWXu9-8CpBHg">Tom Simpson/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week, <a href="http://www.spacex.com">SpaceX</a> held another successful launch of its Falcon 9 rocket. Unfortunately, its landing <a href="http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-space-spacex-idUKKCN0W62RE">was not quite as successful</a> as the one in <a href="http://www.theverge.com/2015/12/21/10640306/spacex-elon-musk-rocket-landing-success">December</a> (it crashed into the ocean). </p>
<p>SpaceX isn’t alone in trying to develop reusable launch vehicles. Other private companies such as <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com">Blue Origin</a> and <a href="http://www.virgingalactic.com">Virgin Galactic</a> are also in the race to achieve the dream of consistently landing a rocket after hurtling it into the heavens. Each success – and failure – gets us a little closer.</p>
<p>But how significant is the creation of reusable rockets? And where will we go from here? Are we finally close to the future once promised by the Jetson’s FX-Atmos “flying car” or Han Solo’s Millennium Falcon: a world of personal, space-bound transports that can leave your garage, reach orbit and beyond, and return home in time for dinner? </p>
<p>What else stands in the way?</p>
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<h2>The final frontier</h2>
<p>The “<a href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/space/2015-04-20/democratization-space">democratization of space exploration</a>,” spurred by NASA encouraging private companies to develop and manage complete launch systems, is igniting a new age of space development and awakening a spirit of exploration and technology innovation that’s been absent from our culture for far too long.</p>
<p>This resurgence of interest is reflected in NASA’s latest call for astronaut applications: <a href="http://www.space.com/31987-nasa-astronaut-applications-smash-record.html">18,300 hopefuls applied</a> for just 14 positions.</p>
<p>And in the private sector, venture capitalists are showing the same enthusiasm by investing <a href="http://www.moneytimes.com/articles/12780/20160224/venture-capital-investment-in-space-startups-surged-in-2015.htm">US$1.8 billion in space startups</a> in 2015, compared with an average of $193 million a year over the previous 15 years. The increased demand for space access is further spurring on private companies to develop more efficient reusable rocket launch systems.</p>
<p>Today’s space companies aren’t the first to set their sights on such a rocket. This great feat of engineering was originally achieved in 1993, when McDonald Douglass tested the <a href="http://www.space.com/22391-reusable-rocket-nasa-dc-x-anniversary.html">Delta Clipper Experimental (DC-X)</a>, a prototype single-stage launch vehicle. NASA later canceled the project.</p>
<p>Now, it seems, the conditions are ripe once again to pick up where the DC-X left off. The private sector has started to take up this challenge, and the race is on to enhance all our lives with cheap space travel.</p>
<p>This future begins with the reusable rocket. </p>
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<h2>What does a reusable launch vehicle get us?</h2>
<p>Imagine what life would be like if, after each trip to Grandma’s, we had to throw away the car. Even with the benefits of mass production, the cost to an individual would be prohibitive, especially if there exist reasonable alternatives like horses or walking. Such automobiles could be employed only by governments, extremely wealthy enthusiasts or perhaps by a few skilled specialists who lived for the challenge. </p>
<p>This is pretty much the situation with current spacecraft technology. Not even the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/main/index.html">Space Shuttle program</a> achieved the lofty goal of reliable reusability, although it tried very hard. The shuttle was such a complicated system that every time it returned to Earth, intense maintenance had to be performed and systems rebuilt or overhauled, making it three times as expensive as that of an expendable rocket. For example, a shuttle launch cost <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v472/n7341/full/472038d.html">$450 million to $1.5 billion</a>, compared with <a href="http://spacenews.com/ils-may-pitch-proton-cost-saver-over-soyuz-galileo-satellites/">$110 million</a> for a Russian Proton rocket with about the same lift capacity. </p>
<p>Truly reusable launch vehicles would significantly reduce the cost of getting material and people into orbit and enable new uses of space with far-reaching socioeconomic consequences that will ultimately reduce our impact on Earth’s environment, such as <a href="http://exhttp://www.esa.int/gsp/ACT/nrg/projects/SPS.htmlample.com/">space-based energy collection</a>, <a href="http://www.wired.com/2012/04/planetary-resources-asteroid-mining/">mining</a> and <a href="http://www.space.com/27870-3d-printer-made-in-space-op-ed.html">manufacturing</a>.</p>
<p>In order to get an idea of the savings, the retail price of a Falcon 9 rocket is around <a href="http://www.spacex.com/about/capabilities">$60 million to build and launch</a> (including fuel). Given its total lift capacity of 13,150 kilograms to low-Earth orbit, this translates into a price tag of about $400,000 to ferry a 90-kilogram (198-pound) person into space. But if you had to pay only for fuel, about $300,000 a launch, the price tag drops drastically to just $2,000 for the same person. That’s not far from the <a href="http://www.hopper.com/flights/from-JFK/to-SYD/guide.html">cost of flying from New York to Sydney</a>, which makes a future family vacation to a <a href="http://bigelowaerospace.com/b330">Bigelow B330 Space Habitat</a> a viable alternative to Disney World.</p>
<p>At the pace things are going, we project that within 10 years the space industry will achieve the goal of a fully reusable launch vehicle. <a href="https://deepspaceindustries.com/silicon-valley-startups-enter-the-space-race/">Companies</a> and <a href="http://www.khou.com/story/tech/2015/06/30/approval-of-houston-spaceport-to-be-announced-tuesday/29501495/">municipalities</a>, small and big, are all starting to look into ways of taking advantage of this complete disruption in, or better yet creation of, the <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/sarwantsingh/2014/07/02/space-industry-mega-trends-seriously-congested-contested-and-an-industry-of-growth-for-the-future/#30abc5fc70dd">commercial space market</a>.</p>
<p>So our next question is this: what do we need to make the <a href="http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Millennium_Falcon">Millennium Falcon</a> – that is, a single-stage-to-orbit completely reusable spacecraft – a reality? </p>
<p>A little physics can help us see exactly what needs to happen and exactly how far we are from this goal. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/114733/original/image-20160310-26261-xgoujn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/114733/original/image-20160310-26261-xgoujn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/114733/original/image-20160310-26261-xgoujn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/114733/original/image-20160310-26261-xgoujn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/114733/original/image-20160310-26261-xgoujn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/114733/original/image-20160310-26261-xgoujn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/114733/original/image-20160310-26261-xgoujn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Shuttle came close to being reusable, but it still required expendable rockets to get into space and significant maintenance after every use.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Space Shuttle via www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Rocket Science 101</h2>
<p>Space travel is all about speed. The old adage, “What goes up must come down,” is true only to a point. If you throw something up fast enough, it won’t come back down; it will have escaped Earth’s gravity. The question is, exactly how fast is fast enough? </p>
<p>A simple application of Newtonian gravity theory tells us that if we achieve a speed of 11 kilometers per second – the equivalent of a plane flying 25,000 mph straight up – we are not going to fall back to Earth. Scientists and engineers refer to this speed, which depends on the physical properties of the Earth, as our planet’s <a href="http://www.britannica.com/science/escape-velocity">escape velocity</a>. </p>
<p>A rocket tries to achieve that speed by taking mass and throwing it out the back as fast as possible. Thanks to <a href="http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/Lesson-4/Newton-s-Third-Law">Newton’s third law</a> – which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction – this propels the rocket forward. </p>
<p>The ratio between the change in velocity needed to escape the Earth’s pull (known as delta-v) and the speed at which the rocket sends stuff out the back (exhaust velocity) is the most important number in <a href="https://spaceflightsystems.grc.nasa.gov/education/rocket/rktpow.html">rocket science</a>. It determines how much mass needs to be expelled and how much energy is necessary to get to space. The smaller we can make the ratio, the better. </p>
<p>In addition, the propellants and fuels are themselves massive, and the rocket needs to carry these things with itself, making it heaver and harder to accelerate. </p>
<p>So we need propellants and fuels with a high energy content and low mass. </p>
<p>Now we can begin to appreciate the <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-why-reusable-rockets-are-so-hard-to-make-36036">enormous feat</a> of engineering that private companies and governments have achieved by not only launching a rocket but learning to land it as well. </p>
<p>The maximum achievable exhaust velocities for the rockets we’ve been using since the dawn of space travel are much less than the Earth’s escape velocity (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion#Table_of_methods">about 4 km/s or 9,000 mph</a>), forcing us to come up with ingenious and costly multistage launch techniques to get even a modest payload into space.</p>
<p>In summary, in order to leave the surface of the Earth with the grace and apparent effortlessness of the Millennium Falcon, we need to achieve speeds in excess of the escape velocity, 11 km/s. In order to do that without carrying a fuel tank that far exceeds the size of our ship, we need to achieve exhaust speeds significantly higher than the escape velocity, something not possible with the chemical fuels we use. </p>
<h2>So where do we go from here?</h2>
<p>So in order to make the Millennium Falcon a reality, we need a new type of fuel, as chemical-based engines are severely limiting. </p>
<p>Thanks to Albert Einstein, we know that there is energy stored in mass itself. Using his famous E = mc² equation, we know that exhaust speeds up to the speed of light are achievable, and way more than necessary to escape Earth’s gravity.</p>
<p>A sustainable exhaust speed of 1,000 km/s, less than 1 percent of the speed of light, would pretty much enable our dream ship. Its fuel-to-mass ratio would be about the same as that of your typical car.</p>
<p>The next question is: how do we get access to the energy stored in the mass (fuel and propellant) sufficient to achieve those speeds? The answer lies in nuclear reactions or, better yet, <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/home/antimatter_spaceship.html">matter-antimatter</a> reactions. In short, we need to put a mass reactor, nuclear or matter-antimatter, on board our ship. Think of the Enterprise’s “warp core,” for all those Star Trek fans out there. </p>
<p>Nuclear rockets may seem farfetched, but various versions have already been proposed and prototypes have even been built. The <a href="http://www.lanl.gov/science/NSS/issue1_2011/story4full.shtml">Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application (NERVA)</a> project, a joint NASA-Atomic Energy Commission program, developed a flight-certified nuclear-based rocket engine that meets all the requirements for a manned mission to Mars. </p>
<p>What is interesting, and perhaps a little sad, is that this was done in 1968, over four decades ago! The NERVA engine achieved exhaust velocities pretty close to Earth’s escape velocity, around 10 km/s. The program was tied to NASA’s manned Mars exploration program and, since it was unable to justify the expense of going to Mars, was scrapped in 1972. </p>
<p>More recently, NASA has been developing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrically_powered_spacecraft_propulsion">electric propulsion systems</a> that can generate large effective exhaust velocities that are limited only through the strength of the electric field. Effective exhaust velocities of <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/technology/Ion_Propulsion1.html">90 km/s are already achievable</a>. But this is just the propulsion part. The solar panels, batteries or fuel cells that are currently used as power sources for these engines limit their usefulness. Electricity generated from nuclear power could solve this problem.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/114735/original/image-20160310-26271-dnzjr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/114735/original/image-20160310-26271-dnzjr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/114735/original/image-20160310-26271-dnzjr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/114735/original/image-20160310-26271-dnzjr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/114735/original/image-20160310-26271-dnzjr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/114735/original/image-20160310-26271-dnzjr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/114735/original/image-20160310-26271-dnzjr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Who needs Disney World? How about a trip to a space station?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Space station via www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Back to the future</h2>
<p>With the renewed interest in space exploration and innovation, we challenge inventors and entrepreneurs to consider looking at advanced nuclear/antimatter-powered rocket systems. This could enable us to achieve the dream of a space car in our garages in half a century. </p>
<p>The key to all the recent advances in space exploration technology has been combining older proven technologies with modern computing capabilities, materials and fabrication processes. NASA’s push to get <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-offers-licenses-of-patented-technologies-to-start-up-companies">technologies into private hands</a> will accelerate this process. </p>
<p>Back in 1972, we were at 1 percent of the needed exhaust speed. It’s not too much of a stretch to propose that, after 40 years of advances, we need only revisit the designs with fresh and entrepreneurial eyes to make it possible for a Han Solo – or, to be more contemporary, Rey Skywalker – to jump into the Falcon and speed off to somewhere far, far away.</p>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/53428/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fredrick Jenet is the creator/director of both the Center for Advanced Radio Astronomy at UT Rio Grande Valley and the STARGATE program, a public/private partnership with SpaceX. He works for UT Rio Grande Valley. He receives funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF), NASA, and the Department of Defense (DoD).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Volker Quetschke is the Chair of Technology of the Center for Advanced Radio Astronomy at UT Rio Grande Valley and the STARGATE program. He receives funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF), NASA, and the Department of Defense (DoD)</span></em></p>We’re on the cusp of being able to consistently launch and land rockets, greatly reducing the cost of space travel. But how long before there’s a Millennium Falcon in every garage?Fredrick Jenet, Associate Professor, University of Texas Rio Grande ValleyVolker Quetschke, Associate Professor, University of Texas Rio Grande ValleyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/435862015-06-23T05:18:27Z2015-06-23T05:18:27ZIs space tourism travelling faster than space law?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/85881/original/image-20150622-17760-qy1c03.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">View from the hotel balcony?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasamarshall/7599153892/in/photolist-czvDGG-bXa84H-7yjF19-bEmC1t-aNXwPg-biScG4-7FutB5-9p6XPX-8x1cP7-73Nyyw-owQrk2-7kbYmD-7vp7d1-9y17bV-8xe1uc-6iPfEo-8cgG6f-anKaYf-6YZUWw-bJzsN8-9SKhYY-9NCNYS-5Dfw2A-6RzxLm-9y3p6p-8Bm1jr-q9KQL6-9AMvZL-aZsyzH-6Pmm5H-9p29go-jjivXW-77UjxD-5vzfcJ-6NqZXc-8XfPZW-7DZbwF-8EKcjk-7JWKXg-7icRw2-ahZWV6-bmeqny-mGaNxg-8HiPTc-7jHTYB-a4QHsN-sXSxJz-cEQdcG-dkegkp-9BEmLX">NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Space tourism is fast becoming the new frontier in the transportation business. Driven by profit-making private venture capital, the push to offer customers some direct or indirect experience with space travel is no longer the stuff of comic books or science fiction. The worry is that the legal architecture for this nascent industry has barely got its foundations in order.</p>
<p>There seems to be a sound business case for the industry. <a href="http://www.futron.com/upload/wysiwyg/Resources/Reports/Space_Tourism_Market_Study_2002.pdf">Market studies</a> indicate that there are more than one thousand sub-orbital passengers per year and this is capable of generating global market figures topping $1 billion by the end of this decade. </p>
<p>Virgin Galactic has signed up more than <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/space/11156104/Space-tourists-will-change-the-world-says-Sir-Richard-Bransons-head-of-mission.html">200 prospective space tourists</a> out of a potential pool of 30,000. Spaceships such as <a href="http://www.xcor.com/">XCOR’s</a> suborbital vehicle designed specifically for space tourist flights have been built. The <a href="http://ansari.xprize.org/">Ansari X-Prize</a> continues to spur competition for new flight modes, and <a href="http://www.wired.com/2012/06/ticket-to-space/">hundreds of tickets</a> have been sold at around $100,000 apiece.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.space.com/2413-spaceports-building-space-travel-industry.html">Supporting infrastructure</a> for space tourism has already been installed in New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, Wisconsin and Florida. The United Kingdom has recently also unveiled <a href="http://rt.com/uk/172688-uk-spaceports-scotland-space-tourism/">eight potential space ports</a>. The UK has invested $90 million into development of a revolutionary, hybrid <a href="http://sen.com/news/skylon-spaceplane-s-inventor-sees-busy-spaceports-coming-soon">UK spacecraft Skylon</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/85882/original/image-20150622-17715-xoywqn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/85882/original/image-20150622-17715-xoywqn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/85882/original/image-20150622-17715-xoywqn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85882/original/image-20150622-17715-xoywqn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85882/original/image-20150622-17715-xoywqn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85882/original/image-20150622-17715-xoywqn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85882/original/image-20150622-17715-xoywqn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85882/original/image-20150622-17715-xoywqn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Virgin Galactic’s Spaceport America.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/landrovermena/14907530348/in/photolist-oHjZpj-oZpBu4-oZMvto-oHkbk6-oXaswg-58T3Xq-6yaLYm-5gPsD-oXMkk3-oXLxXQ-oHiAPH-oHizmH-oJ8xcf-oHjBbF-oHji6T-oHkae9-oZLt2b-oHbSzx-oJ7zTm-oJ7fua-oZPbge-oZEWxP-oZpt9B-oJ8qVN-oHiDCj-oHixYc-oHaVP2-oHbTCV-oHjtUZ-oZp9fp-oYziKN-oZxcAr-oZPk7R-oHk2Fc-oHiRQV-oHbbHF-oJ8gXM-p1knke-oJ7umh-8MgXvG-8MgKF1-aeync5-58NjHk-8MgUnf-8MdUke-8BZwuS-58NtQM-58N2Hr-58Sd2J-58Nvui">Land Rover MENA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Singapore have forwarded plans to establish spaceports. Nigeria, meanwhile, seeks to put <a href="http://www.punchng.com/news/nigeria-to-send-astronauts-to-space-by-2015">a person in space</a>.</p>
<h2>Brotherly love</h2>
<p>Developments are hurtling ahead with dizzying speed whereas the body of space law upon which space tourism must be based remains clunky, and is designed by and large to apply only between sovereign states. A rare spirit of international legal and scientific socialism has infused space law since its inception by statesmen, international bureaucrats and enthusiastic scientific advisors who were awe-struck by the rapid achievement and prospects of space travel.</p>
<p>Hence space law proceeds commendably under brotherly ideals such as the “province of mankind” and the “common heritage of mankind” principles found in the <a href="http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html">Outer Space Treaty (1967)</a> and <a href="http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/intromoon-agreement.html">Moon Treaty (1979)</a> respectively. Astronauts and space objects have to be returned to their respective states even when they land in hostile territory under <a href="http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introrescueagreement.html">the Astronaut Treaty (1968)</a>.</p>
<p>Space-active states on the other hand are liable for cost of repair and compensation for all accidents or damage caused by their objects according to the <a href="http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introliability-convention.html">Space Liability Convention of 1971</a>. In fact all appeared quite settled in the little known world of space lawyers until the advent of space tourism.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/85883/original/image-20150622-17715-bwv6fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/85883/original/image-20150622-17715-bwv6fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/85883/original/image-20150622-17715-bwv6fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85883/original/image-20150622-17715-bwv6fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85883/original/image-20150622-17715-bwv6fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85883/original/image-20150622-17715-bwv6fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85883/original/image-20150622-17715-bwv6fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85883/original/image-20150622-17715-bwv6fm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A simpler time. John Young on the Moon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasamarshall/16214796395/in/photolist-qGR546-8kifrY-uNddN7-8kf3Ft-bz8swj-ciabm1-nbc4UP-6GcYqy-a3T5X8-6Fgp68-7yaGfK-6Gy1nU-bUNtzT-e4hWtk-4sB525-pT2ggg-e3BjkD-769whj-5vb3tc-cVRSzQ-GVB5y-6H61Cx-qugZ8W-6Ha4A9-cAL6By-JGkq7-fpYeRd-9TT8zS-dzeXVZ-dk1qvS-9NDjL9-nWXvMR-6Ha56G-daHYUZ-5RMPCP-5eNbZZ-6PyhY8-6aWfXE-7RKFQN-bU8rmr-aCRaXL-5rYqmE-daJ7qb-k947vx-7EtP6w-6GKSVP-9X2Fiy-7bviU6-dbdKsJ-cyu1p1">NASA's Marshall Space Flight Cente</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ironically enough, it fell upon post-communist Russia to <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2001/TECH/space/05/06/glenn.tito/index.html">pioneer the advent of space tourism</a> well ahead of the runaway free market space power the US. In 2001 Russia, launched the first space tourist, American millionaire Dennis Tito, by allowing him to visit and stay on International Space Station Alpha as a commercial space tourist. NASA opposed the move saying that the passenger would be a safety risk. The US emphasised that Tito’s trip was to be considered a one-time exemption and he had to sign an agreement that he would not wander through American segments of the station without an escort.</p>
<p>Since then space tourism has been largely designed around the idea of private participation in outer space activities. This is unsettling certain legal concepts and categories that took painstaking effort to put into place over the last 60 years of international regulation of outer space affairs.</p>
<h2>Responsibility</h2>
<p>The language of space law is such that it expects, if not requires only states to play prominent roles in outer space. Ultimately states are responsible for the actions of their nationals in space. And this is just the start of the terminological, ideological and other socio-legal confusion which afflicts the law and practice of space tourism.</p>
<p>Where does <a href="http://www.herts.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/38629/HLJ_V1I2_Oduntan.pdf">outer space legally begin</a>? Where does airspace end? Are low orbit flights or weightlessness experiences generated by parabolic flights a mis-sold service given that penetration of outer space may not have occurred? Who is an astronaut? Are tourists protected by space treaties written for astronauts and scientific personnel? What happens when one tourist smashes a bottle of rum <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s6apAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86&dq=JURISDICTION+IN+AIR+BOTTLE+OF+RUM&source=bl&ots=VR2cNKZpi9&sig=SugFcNBBmOzCrj0ZCJWfhQpJUzw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XzSIVcibGIPvUqing9AF&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=JURISDICTION%20IN%20AIR%20BOTTLE%20OF%20RUM&f=false">on the head of another</a>? Thousands of combinations of criminal and civil jurisdictional nightmares will cascade down from the heavens over the next few years.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/85885/original/image-20150622-17729-15v2vxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/85885/original/image-20150622-17729-15v2vxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/85885/original/image-20150622-17729-15v2vxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85885/original/image-20150622-17729-15v2vxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85885/original/image-20150622-17729-15v2vxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85885/original/image-20150622-17729-15v2vxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85885/original/image-20150622-17729-15v2vxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/85885/original/image-20150622-17729-15v2vxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Way too much fun to be legal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jurvetson/224239224/in/photolist-kPhvw-kLUzY-kPh3D-p5KYS-cWMR7h-cEQdcG-hi4dM-6PCcnP-5nkNHB-7BZ8b6-7C3VRw-7C3VXQ-7BZ7Vp-8KX52k-5nq5hm-5nkNLX-5nkMP2-4CU39F-4sYSzA-dWBcVs-ayiszt-9huw5r-rPM8pg-4sUMdP-4sYRDq-4CU39v-5nkNsk-4sYSkQ-5nkN5D-5nq53h-9bLirj-5nq4qs-5nkN1z-5nq4nu-eJU1mY-eJMUDT-eJMTxk-eJMVjX-eJU15j-eJMU9F-eJTZW7-eJTZcA-eJMVrH-eJTZvo-mGqfnH-dSVfXC-rPJWDG-e1B1SK-9NCmFo-8vccig">Steve Jurvetson</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some states may indeed opt to prohibit the exploration of outer space by private bodies within their territories so as not to be liable in the event of damage caused by their actions. Some states have already drawn particular attention to the need for adaptation of <a href="https://www.iata.org/policy/pages/mc99.aspx">the Montreal Convention</a> rules on International Air Carrier Liability to include cover for space tourism.</p>
<p>There are also other clear dangers inherent in a no-holds-barred, liberal capitalistic agenda for space tourism championed by business interests from a few states. Atmospheric and outer space pollution will inexorably increase. Space debris, <a href="http://www.space.com/27651-space-tourism-virgin-galactic-spaceship-crash.html">space accidents</a>, airspace collusion are all clear possibilities. There will be an increase of political tensions as a result of trespass in airspace. </p>
<p>Economic competition, financial disasters and intellectual property issues are just a few of the potential avenues for disputes among states and their corporate interests. And this is all in the relatively close embrace of our earth’s orbit; once tourists set their sights on Mars then the lawyers will really start <a href="http://www.space.com/24112-private-mars-colony-1058-martian-volunteers.html">earning their stripes</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/43586/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gbenga Oduntan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The turbocharged capitalism of private space flight is strangely at odds with the brotherly, generous global consensus that built the legal framework for extra-terrestrial travel.Gbenga Oduntan, Senior Lecturer in International Commercial Law, University of KentLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/337592014-11-05T00:33:36Z2014-11-05T00:33:36ZFive space travel accidents that shaped the modern era<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63666/original/2gn7qsjd-1415146339.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">National Transportation Safety Board inspectors with a tail section of SpaceShipTwo.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">National Transportation Safety Board/Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last week was a particularly grim one for private space flights. Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo <a href="https://theconversation.com/pilots-of-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-deserve-our-admiration-and-honour-33710">crashed</a> in the Mojave Desert, about 150km north of Los Angeles, killing a pilot, Michael Alsbury, and seriously injuring another, Peter Siebold.</p>
<p>Although the US National Transportation Safety Board investigation is ongoing, there have been reports the “feathering” system that SpaceShipTwo uses may have been <a href="http://www.space.com/27637-virgin-galactic-spaceshiptwo-crash-feather-system.html">prematurely activated</a>, leading to the crash.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/cZnQcMpzunM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Earlier in the week, an unmanned Antares rocket, taking cargo to the International Space Station, <a href="https://theconversation.com/an-unmanned-rocket-exploded-so-what-33645">exploded shortly after take-off</a>.</p>
<p>Space travel is a risky business. As we push for technological advances and further exploration, accidents unfortunately happen. Spacecraft are extremely complicated systems, with countless aspects to consider, simulate and test to ensure successful take-off and re-entry.</p>
<p>Here are five key space accidents that have defined modern space travel, and the reasons they happened.</p>
<h2>1. Voskhod 2: March 19, 1965</h2>
<p>Failure: equipment malfunction during re-entry.</p>
<p>The Russian Voskhod 2 mission is best known as it was the first successful spacewalk in history. The spacecraft had two crew members on board: Pavel Belyayev and Alexey Leonov. Leonov was the first person to leave a spacecraft to conduct a 12-minute spacewalk. </p>
<p>However, it had a disastrous re-entry in which a malfunction of the automatic landing system forced the pilots to land the spacecraft manually, in a heavily forested area located more than 300km (186 miles) away from the intended landing zone. Leonov and Belyayev had survived, but their mission control did not know their locations. After spending a night in freezing temperatures, they were finally spotted and rescued.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/fts1543xPRE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Voskhod 2: first spacewalk in history.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. Soyuz 1: April 24, 1967</h2>
<p>Failure: parachute failure during re-entry.</p>
<p>Soyuz 1 was launched carrying astronaut Colonel Vladimir Komarov. Upon re-entry, Komarov died after his module crashed when both the main chute and back-up parachutes failed to open. </p>
<p>His death was particularly controversial due to the numerous system failures in previous tests reported by engineers, but ignored by the Soviet establishment. </p>
<p>The mission was plagued with other problems, including a faulty solar panel. The tragedy resulted in an 18-month delay in the subsequent launches of Soyuz 2 and Soyuz 3, but led to improvements in the program.</p>
<figure>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Vladimir Komarov in Soyuz 1.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Soyuz 11: June 30, 1971</h2>
<p>Failure: decompression in capsule during re-entry.</p>
<p>Russian Soyuz 11 is known for boarding Salyut 1, the first space station, but the mission ended tragically when the crew capsule depressurised during re-entry, asphyxiating all three crew members.</p>
<p>The culprit was a breathing ventilation valve which opened during re-entry, allowing oxygen in the capsule to escape. The crew were not wearing spacesuits. Following the accident, the Soyuz spacecraft was redesigned to allow astronauts to wear spacesuits during launch and landing.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Soyuz 11 Mission.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Space Shuttle Challenger: January 28, 1986</h2>
<p>Failure: mechanical failure during take-off.</p>
<p>As the crew of the Space Shuttle Challenger began their ascent, the shuttle suddenly broke apart 73 seconds into its flight and burst into flames, killing seven crew members. The source of the explosion was found to be an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O-ring">O-ring</a> – a seal placed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Solid_Rocket_Booster">solid rocket boosters</a> used during take-off – which failed and led to the explosion. </p>
<p>A special commission appointed by Ronald Reagan to investigate the accident found NASA had disregarded warnings from engineers that the use of the O-rings in the low-temperature conditions on the morning of the launch presented a danger.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>5. Space Shuttle Columbia: February 1, 2003</h2>
<p>Failure: disintegration upon re-entry.</p>
<p>Space Shuttle Columbia suddenly disintegrated as it was descending towards the Kennedy Space Centre, resulting in the death of all seven astronauts, and several thousands of pieces of debris landing across Texas and Louisiana. </p>
<p>The tragic accident was caused by a piece of foam insulation which broke off and hit the left wing. The damage allowed hot gases to penetrate and destroy the internal wing structure upon re-entry, slowly breaking apart the aircraft. The disaster led to several changes including adding on-orbit inspections, and the preparation of a rescue mission if irreparable damage is found.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Space Shuttle Columbia Disaster.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Is the era of space tourism over before it even started?</h2>
<p>Each of these five disasters resulted in changes which contributed to making space travel safer for the subsequent space missions - albeit the price can be measured in human lives. </p>
<p>As pointed out by Fredrick Jenet on <a href="https://theconversation.com/private-spaceflight-will-survive-virgin-tragedy-because-we-choose-to-dream-big-33711">The Conversation yesterday</a>, failure is a necessary part of great success, as shown by the 55 mission failures and only 41 successes which led to space missions to the moon. Unfortunately, catastrophic failure in aviation can result in loss of life.</p>
<p>Virgin Galactic has been at the forefront of space tourism with their <a href="https://theconversation.com/virgin-galactic-is-coming-but-how-will-space-tourism-work-6193">innovative SpaceShipTwo aircraft</a>, with Richard Branson booked on-board on an inaugural flight in the next few months and commercial service expected to begin early next year. It is now unclear how long it will take for Virgin Galactic to offer space travel to the public.</p>
<p>The tragic accident is unlikely to result in the end of space tourism as major space companies continue to grow and move forward. History shows new regulations and safety procedures are likely to result from the investigation, leading to safer space travel in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/33759/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hamza Bendemra received funding from Boeing in 2011 for engineering materials research.</span></em></p>Last week was a particularly grim one for private space flights. Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo crashed in the Mojave Desert, about 150km north of Los Angeles, killing a pilot, Michael Alsbury, and seriously…Hamza Bendemra, Research Engineer, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/337282014-11-03T01:54:01Z2014-11-03T01:54:01ZSpaceShipTwo cost a life, so why do we still use human test pilots?<p>Tragically, the experimental spaceplane <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-29857182">SpaceShipTwo crashed</a> in the Mojave desert during a test flight on Friday, killing one pilot and injuring another. </p>
<p>It is not clear what went wrong, and the coming investigation will no doubt find the cause, but a question arises: should human pilots be testing new rocket engine and fuels in flight when we live in an age when automation and remote control could probably do the job? </p>
<p>Remotely piloted aircraft, or RPAs as the International Civil Aviation Organisation (<a href="http://www.icao.int/Pages/default.aspx">ICAO</a>) refers to them, are regularly used by the military across the world. They remove the risk to pilots because the pilots remain firmly on the ground while their aircraft fly over potentially hostile ground. </p>
<p>We are now also seeing RPAs being used by civilian organisations and businesses, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/are-police-drones-just-toys-for-the-boys-18542">police services</a>, <a href="http://www.mfb.vic.gov.au/News/Aerial-fire-fighting-tool-takes-off.html">fire departments</a> and <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-02-21/drone-journalism-takes-off/384061">media</a>. You might know these new aircraft as drones, but the term “drone” is misleading as pilots on the ground are still in control, even if sometimes they have a more supervisory rather than hands-on role. </p>
<p>The aviation industry has a history of fatal accidents during the testing phase of new developments. This is not because our aviation pioneers were careless; it is because flying in new ways has always been inherently more risky than developing new ways of doing things in most other industries, and still is. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63487/original/49g3k85d-1414975602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63487/original/49g3k85d-1414975602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/63487/original/49g3k85d-1414975602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63487/original/49g3k85d-1414975602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63487/original/49g3k85d-1414975602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63487/original/49g3k85d-1414975602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63487/original/49g3k85d-1414975602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/63487/original/49g3k85d-1414975602.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wilbur Wright after landing a glider in 1901.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When things go catastrophically wrong in an experimental aircraft, the aircraft rarely survives, so the crew of that aircraft have a high chance of death or serious injury. A test pilot is a special kind of person that is prepared to risk their life, more than the average pilot would, in order to help progress the field of aviation. </p>
<p>If brave and brilliant test pilots in the 20th century had not flown in precarious machines, it is clear that we would not have progressed aviation to the point now, where it is one of the safest forms of transport you can strap yourself into.</p>
<h2>Covering new ground</h2>
<p>SpaceShipTwo was developed by US aerospace company <a href="http://www.scaled.com/">Scaled Composites</a> for future use by the world’s first spaceline Virign Galactic, and on the weekend a flight test was conducted to assess the flight worthiness of a new rocket engine fuel. </p>
<p>This aviation industry is highly regulated and the new fuel and engine had <a href="http://www.scaled.com/projects/test_logs/33/model_339_spaceshiptwo">passed ground certification</a> and were cleared for flight tests. </p>
<p>Virgin Galactic has sold several hundred tickets for future flights to the edge of the atmosphere and there are proposals that SpaceShipTwo will be used to <a href="http://www.virgin.com/travel/nasa-charter-virgin-galactic-spaceship-two">send research experiments</a> briefly into space – all worthy endeavours. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">SpaceShipTwo’s first rocket-powered flight.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But when we have advanced RPAs, why are we still testing new rocket motor and fuel combinations, with human pilots strapped just metres away from them flying at 45,000ft? </p>
<p>Combining spaceplanes with remote control and automation is not new. </p>
<p>Just a few weeks ago, a US Air Force <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2014/oct/26/x37b-us-military-secret-space-plane-mission">robotic spaceplane</a> came back to Earth after nearly two years in orbit. Its flight was either totally automatic or partially remote controlled; but we have no idea which, as it was a top-secret program. </p>
<p>In 1988, the former Soviet Union’s space program successfully flew their robotic space shuttle <a href="http://www.buran-energia.com/bourane-buran/bourane-versvol-1erVol.php">Buran</a>, which performed two orbits of the Earth and landed back on a runway, just like the human piloted NASA space shuttles.</p>
<p>The reasons we still sometimes use human test pilots are complex. The SpaceShipTwo vehicle was inspired from <a href="http://www.space.com/16769-spaceshipone-first-private-spacecraft.html">SpaceShipOne</a>. That vehicle won the US$10 million <a href="http://ansari.xprize.org/">Ansari X-Prize</a> in 2004 when Mojave Aerospace Ventures showed that it was possible to launch a non-government developed or funded spaccraft into space with a pilot onboard, twice within two weeks. </p>
<p>SpaceShipTwo’s core business will be to take passengers into sub-orbital space, so of course having human pilots onboard makes sense as eventually there will be human passengers. Would you be prepared to board a commercial jet now if you knew their were no human pilots onboard? Knowing that the pilot’s own safety is twinned with that of the passengers means we feel safer with experts at the helm.</p>
<p>But the SpaceShipTwo disaster was not a commercial flight – it was the first flight-test of a particular engine and fuel combination. Could the engine and fuel have been tested in a rocket first? Could SpaceShipTwo have been designed with an autopilot capability? </p>
<p>Regardless, the aviation industry needs to reflect and consider whether such high-risk flights are acceptable when we have a much safer alternative – one that could actually accelerate the speed of testing, and bring new technology into regular use faster if we did not have people in the new aircraft in those very early, risky days. </p>
<p>Does the passion for flying cloud our judgement? If I was as talented and brave as these SpaecShipTwo test pilots, I would put myself into the vehicle and go for it – but should I be allowed to?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/33728/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Roberts was previously the Deputy Director of the Australian Research Centre for Aerospace Automation.</span></em></p>Tragically, the experimental spaceplane SpaceShipTwo crashed in the Mojave desert during a test flight on Friday, killing one pilot and injuring another. It is not clear what went wrong, and the coming…Jonathan Roberts, Professor in Robotics, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/337102014-10-31T21:21:44Z2014-10-31T21:21:44ZPilots of Virgin Galactic SpaceShipTwo deserve our admiration and honour<p>Success never comes without sacrifice. And frontiers are never crossed without some type of loss. We are seeing with brutal clarity that the frontier of successful space travel is one which has not yet been breached.</p>
<p>The explosion of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/an-unmanned-rocket-exploded-so-what-33645">Antares spacecraft</a> two days ago was an expensive loss for the private company, Orbital Sciences Corporation, contracted by the US space agency NASA to resupply the International Space Station. But the accident involving Virgin Galactic’s SpaceShipTwo is a much more significant loss. </p>
<p>It has put back the reality of <a href="https://theconversation.com/space-tourism-needs-an-orbital-megabus-to-truly-lift-off-29286">space tourism</a>, and it will have an impact on the development of a novel method of launching sub-orbital flight (that is, a spacecraft that doesn’t complete a full orbit around the Earth). It will also affect the balance sheet of Virgin Galactic. But, even more importantly, the accident above the Mojave Desert has led to the death of one of the two pilots, and serious injury to the second.</p>
<p>How can we rationalise such an event in the face of the grief which will be experienced by the families concerned? Given the risk involved, how can we justify the risk of space travel? On the face of it, given that we do not have to travel into space, there is no logical justification.</p>
<h2>The Apollo spirit</h2>
<p>Human beings, though, are not logical. We push through frontiers because the frontiers are there. We take risks because we can. We accept the challenge, and use the problems that come with it to inspire us to ever greater achievements. We regard risk-takers as heroes and heroines, and cite them as role-models to motivate and enthuse.</p>
<p>None of this is likely to be of consolation to the bereaved. The least we can do for them is to acknowledge that the pilots of SpaceShipTwo are pioneers in the spirit of the Apollo astronauts. They deserve our admiration and our honour. Without them, and their colleagues, we will not take the next “giant leap” that humanity must achieve if it is to travel beyond Earth orbit on a regular and routine basis.</p>
<p>Space travel is not cheap. And we must remember the price some have already paid for our aspirations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/33710/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Success never comes without sacrifice. And frontiers are never crossed without some type of loss. We are seeing with brutal clarity that the frontier of successful space travel is one which has not yet…Monica Grady, Professor of Planetary and Space Sciences, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.