tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/weight-lifting-17254/articlesWeight lifting – The Conversation2024-02-21T13:19:09Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2161252024-02-21T13:19:09Z2024-02-21T13:19:09ZYour heart changes in size and shape with exercise – this can lead to heart problems for some athletes and gym rats<p>Exercise has long been recognized by clinicians, scientists and public health officials as an <a href="https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/heart/physical-activity/benefits">important way to maintain health</a> throughout a person’s lifespan. It improves overall fitness, helps build strong muscles and bones, reduces the risk of chronic disease, improves mood and slows physical decline. </p>
<p>Exercise can also significantly reduce the risk of developing conditions that negatively affect heart heath, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol and obesity. But large amounts of exercise throughout life may also harm the heart, leading to the development of a condition called <a href="https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/cardiovascular-disorders/sports-and-the-heart/athlete%E2%80%99s-heart">athletic heart</a>.</p>
<p>As the <a href="https://medschool.cuanschutz.edu/cardiology/clinical-programs/multidisciplinary-programs/sports-cardiology">sports cardiology director</a> at the University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, I’m often asked how much and what kind of exercise is necessary to get the benefits of exercise. Many people also wonder about the risks of exercise, and what happens if you exercise too much. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/fitness/fitness-basics/aha-recs-for-physical-activity-in-adults">American Heart Association generally recommends</a> 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise, such as brisk walking, or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity exercise, such as running, each week. It also recommends muscle strengthening exercises at least twice per week.</p>
<p>When people exceed these guidelines, the heart may remodel itself in response – that is, it begins to change its size and shape. As a result, heart function may also change. These changes in heart structure and function among people who engage in high levels of exercise are referred to as the athletic heart, or athlete’s heart. Athletic heart doesn’t necessarily cause problems, but in some people it can increase the risk of certain heart issues.</p>
<h2>What is athletic heart?</h2>
<p>To understand how exercise affects the heart, it’s important to consider what kind of exercise you’re participating in. </p>
<p>Exercise is generally divided into <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2015.09.033">two broad categories</a>: dynamic and static. </p>
<p>Dynamic exercises, like running, cross-country skiing and soccer, require the heart to pump an increased amount of blood, compared to the amount delivered to the body at rest, in order to sustain the activity. For example, when running, the amount of blood the heart pumps to the body may increase by threefold to fivefold compared to at rest.</p>
<p>Static exercises, like weightlifting, gymnastics or rock climbing, require the body to use skeletal muscle in order to push or pull heavy amounts of weight. While the heart does pump more blood to skeletal muscles that are working during these activities, these kinds of exercises depend on a muscle’s ability to move the weight. For example, in order to do curls with dumbbells, the biceps must be strong enough to lift the desired weight. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up of lower half of the back of a person cycling, one hand outstretched towards the vegetation on the side of the road" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576223/original/file-20240216-28-rwjbi1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cycling involves both dynamic and static exercise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/man-in-black-shorts-riding-bicycle-on-road-during-daytime-vRuoDd-Qnq8">Judit Murcia/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>Some exercises, like rowing or cycling, are both highly dynamic and highly static because they require the heart to pump large amounts of blood while simultaneously requiring a large amount of muscle strength to sustain effort.</p>
<p>It is important to distinguish between dynamic and static exercise because the heart adapts differently according to the type of exercise you engage in over time. Dynamic exercise increases the volume of blood pumping through the heart and can cause the heart to become enlarged, or dilated, over time. Static exercise increases the amount of pressure on the heart and can also cause it to become enlarged over time but with thickened walls.</p>
<h2>Who develops athletic heart?</h2>
<p>Exercise that exceeds guidelines, such as exercising more than an hour most days of the week, may lead to development of athletic heart. Athletic heart commonly occurs <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.101.3.336">among endurance athletes</a>, who regularly compete in activities like marathons or other long-duration events. Many exercise several hours per day and more than 12 to 15 hours per week.</p>
<p>Among runners, for example, the heart remodels itself in response to having to pump a high volume of blood. As a result, the chambers of the heart enlarge to hold and pump more blood. Among weightlifters, the heart remodels itself by thickening in response to the increase in pressure applied on the heart.</p>
<p>Exercise is good for the body, and athletic heart results from a lifelong commitment to an activity that promotes good health. But there may be some issues that arise from an athletic heart.</p>
<p>First, athletes with markedly enlarged hearts may be at risk of developing <a href="https://www.acc.org/Latest-in-Cardiology/Articles/2019/08/16/08/20/Atrial-Fibrillation-in-Competitive-Athletes">atrial fibrillation</a>, which is abnormal heart rhythms that typically occur among older adults or people with high blood pressure or heart failure. Abnormal heart rhythms are worrisome because they may lead to a stroke. </p>
<p>There are many potential reasons atrial fibrillation occurs in athletes. A dilated atrium – the top chamber in the heart – may become inflamed and develop scar tissue, increasing the risk of atrial fibrillation. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000031733.51374.C1">Stress and environmental factors</a> may also work together to increase the risk of arrhythmia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Clip of an ultrasound reading of an enlarged heart beating" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576219/original/file-20240216-28-p2nrzu.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=675&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This is an echocardiogram of a 30-year-old athlete with an enlarged heart.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:4_chamber_(1).gif">Runandbike/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.027834">Coronary artery calcification, or CAC</a>, is another concern among elite athletes. Coronary artery calcification, which commonly occurs in older adults or those with risk factors for coronary artery disease, increases the risk of having a heart attack or stroke. In recent years, doctors have been using imaging tests to monitor calcium buildup in the arteries of their patients to try to determine their risk of heart attack or stroke over time.</p>
<p>It is not entirely clear why elite athletes develop coronary artery calcification. Fortunately, it does not appear that athletes have an increased risk of heart attack, even among those with very high levels of CAC. For example, a large study of almost 22,000 participants found that even athletes who engaged in high amounts of exercise and had elevated levels of CAC <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2018.4628">did not have an increased risk</a> of death from cardiovascular disease over a decade of follow-up.</p>
<p>Some athletes are appropriately concerned about having calcium buildup in their heart arteries and may wonder whether or not they should be taking medications like aspirin or statins. But risks <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2019.03.007">vary from person to person</a>, so anyone concerned about CAC should talk to their doctor</p>
<h2>Putting exercise in its place</h2>
<p>Though elite athletes may have an increased risk of developing athletic heart, exercise undoubtedly remains one of, if not the best, methods to maintain a healthy lifestyle.</p>
<p>For example, if someone does not exercise routinely, their heart <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.105.541078">will become stiff</a> and not pump blood as well as it once did. Routine exercise – especially dynamic exercise like running – maintains a compliant heart and prevents stiffening. A compliant heart will expand a lot more as it fills with blood and, in turn, pump out more blood with each heartbeat. A stiff heart has difficulty filling up with blood and has difficulty pumping blood through the body.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two people running on a road lined with trees -- the younger person is trailing behind the older person who has leaped into the air with arms raised" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576226/original/file-20240216-24-i1u421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Regular exercise can help keep your heart young.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/the-old-and-young-sportsmen-running-on-the-road-royalty-free-image/1086683052">Viacheslav Peretiatko/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>Generally, routine exercise throughout adulthood encourages the heart to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2014.03.062">remain strong and flexible</a> even in old age. Even if someone were only to begin regularly exercising in their 40s to 50s, it is possible to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.117.030617">reverse some of the effects</a> of sedentary aging.</p>
<p>For example, a 2018 study of 53 sedentary people mostly in their early 50s found that those who participated in a two-year exercise training program using a combination of running, cycling and elliptical exercise had hearts that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.117.030617">became more compliant</a> compared to the hearts of those who did not exercise.</p>
<p>It is never too late to start exercising. Routinely following exercise guidelines can help promote physical and mental health and help your heart stay young throughout your life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216125/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Cornwell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People who regularly engage in significant amounts of exercise, as endurance athletes do, may develop enlarged hearts. While athletic heart is adapted for performance, it can be cause for concern.William Cornwell, Associate Professor of Cardiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical CampusLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2057532023-06-29T23:03:54Z2023-06-29T23:03:54ZNew study: much of what we’re told about gym exercises and resistance training is from studies of males, by men<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528518/original/file-20230526-23-5fzgqw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6200%2C4130&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When you lift weights, why are you doing what you are doing? Who told you to train that way – coach, a personal trainer, an online exercise guru? And where did they learn how to prescribe exercise?</p>
<p>In fact, much of what we (and our trainers) think of as typical resistance training routines is heavily influenced by “governing body” fitness industry organisations you’ve likely never heard of: groups like the American College of Sports Medicine, the United Kingdom Strength and Conditioning Association, and the Australian Strength and Conditioning Association.</p>
<p>These peak bodies often release “consensus statements” on what works when it comes to resistance training. These statements influence TAFE and university courses, and help shape the education of personal trainers and coaches. The findings in these statements trickle down into what you and I see happen in the gym every week.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I wanted to take a closer look at these statements, and the studies on which they’re based. We were interested to know how many of those studies looked at both males and females, and the gender of the people who authored these statements. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-023-01878-1">paper</a>, published today in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-023-01878-1">Sports Medicine</a>, found most of what you are being told to do in the gym is likely primarily based upon male data, written by men.</p>
<p>It’s worth noting research hasn’t served sex and gender diverse people well and has tended to use a binary.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528992/original/file-20230530-27-vm7aep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528992/original/file-20230530-27-vm7aep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528992/original/file-20230530-27-vm7aep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528992/original/file-20230530-27-vm7aep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528992/original/file-20230530-27-vm7aep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528992/original/file-20230530-27-vm7aep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528992/original/file-20230530-27-vm7aep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528992/original/file-20230530-27-vm7aep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When you lift weights, why are you doing what you are doing?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<p>
<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lift-heavy-or-smaller-weights-with-high-reps-it-all-depends-on-your-goal-190902">Lift heavy or smaller weights with high reps? It all depends on your goal</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What we did</h2>
<p>Sex is a biological construct, whereas gender refers to the roles and traits society often assigns to men and women. It is important to note neither sex nor gender are binary. </p>
<p>However, data are typically presented in research in a binary manner. As our research was looking at the literature from a biological perspective, we used the terms female and male to describe the participants included in these studies. We used the terms woman and man to describe the gender of the authors and looked at all consensus statements published after the year 2000. As my colleagues and I noted in our paper, we acknowledge that our chosen methods of classifying sex and gender based on the above terminology may have resulted in misclassification of some people. </p>
<p>We then went through the list of studies referenced in these statements. We analysed the number of males and females who participated in these studies. </p>
<p>We also collected information about the gender of the authors of these statements. In other words, we collated the sex of over 100 million participants cited in the reference lists of 11 consensus statements from around the world.</p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>We found:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>91% of the first authors of these statements were men</p></li>
<li><p>women made up only 13% of authors overall</p></li>
<li><p>female participants only accounted for approximately 30% of all people in the studies on which adult and youth consensus statements were based</p></li>
<li><p>guidelines relating to older adults were a bit more balanced, with 54% female participants.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Some may argue 30% female participant data is probably fine, because women don’t lift weights so much. In the 1980s and before, weight training was seen as a masculine pursuit.</p>
<p>Not any more.</p>
<p>In fact, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27119145/">a recent survey</a> in Australia found women are more likely to report adequate muscle strengthening activities over the previous 12 months when compared to men.</p>
<p>All this matters because a growing body of evidence suggests <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34762308/">physiological differences</a> between sexes in response to exercise.</p>
<p>Research suggests differences in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4285578/">skeletal muscle structure</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10769046/">the way muscle fibres work</a>, and in the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11090586/">time taken to recover </a> following intense exercise. </p>
<p>Work from our team has also shown men <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33332016/">gain more absolute muscle size and strength</a> following participation in resistance training but that relative gains tend to be <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33332016/">similar or greater in women</a>.</p>
<p>And recent research has shown strength <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36610023/">differences appear to still be present</a>, even when muscle size is matched between sexes. </p>
<p>Could there be benefit in prescribing exercise differently between sexes?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529016/original/file-20230530-27-iaic5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529016/original/file-20230530-27-iaic5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529016/original/file-20230530-27-iaic5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529016/original/file-20230530-27-iaic5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529016/original/file-20230530-27-iaic5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529016/original/file-20230530-27-iaic5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529016/original/file-20230530-27-iaic5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529016/original/file-20230530-27-iaic5a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We know resistance training is good for our physical and mental health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>We don’t know what we don’t know</h2>
<p>We know resistance training is good for our physical and mental health.</p>
<p>At the moment, however, we don’t know if we are disadvantaging half the population by knowing too little about how best they should do it.</p>
<p>Due to the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11090586/">longer time course for recovery</a> mentioned above, should females have more rest days between high intensity sessions? </p>
<p>Given females appear to be <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5777316/">more fatigue-resistant</a>, should they actually be doing more training than males per session?</p>
<p>Unfortunately, we don’t yet know. A lot of the research needed to answer these questions conclusively hasn’t been done yet. And the research that we do have does not seem to be making its way to the papers informing the guidelines. </p>
<h2>What now?</h2>
<p>We need more women researchers authoring studies that feature female participants.</p>
<p>In other fields of medical research, the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35191324/">proportion of women authors</a> is linked to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32757645/">greater enrolment</a> of female participants in research studies. </p>
<p>Women authors are also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31024130/">more likely to present data</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30739690/">by sex or gender</a>, making this data more useful for real world interpretation. </p>
<p>The bottom line? What you are being told to do in the gym is likely primarily based on studies that include more males than females. And we can’t yet be sure if that is delivering the best results for females and girls who work out.</p>
<p>We need more research evidence examining sex differences during exercise, and methodologically rigorous studies focused solely on female cohorts.</p>
<p>This will bridge the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33400219/">data</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36453705/">gap</a>, and help us understand how to get the best out of exercise for all. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-often-should-you-change-up-your-exercise-routine-194905">How often should you change up your exercise routine?</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205753/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mandy Hagstrom does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our new paper found most of what you are being told to do in the gym is likely primarily based upon data about men, written by men.Mandy Hagstrom, Senior Lecturer, Exercise Physiology. School of Health Sciences, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2005832023-03-08T16:11:06Z2023-03-08T16:11:06ZMuscle memory is key to helping you get in shape again after time away from exercise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514196/original/file-20230308-26-uc5ftq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=50%2C0%2C5615%2C3732&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There are two types of muscle memory – one of which can help us in the gym.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/gorgeous-brunette-lifting-some-weights-working-167050910">antoniodiaz/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Whether it’s riding a bike, playing the piano or hitting a hole in one, there are just some things you never forget how to do. And the reason for this phenomenon is thanks to something called “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/muscle-memory">muscle memory</a>”. </p>
<p>Muscle memory applies to a wide range of physical activities, from playing an instrument to sports. But though we need to practice a movement repeatedly in order to develop muscle memory, the term doesn’t actually refer to the muscles’ ability to remember movements. Rather, this “memory” happens in our central nervous system – which explains why many of us can retain skills we learned in childhood, even if we haven’t used them in years.</p>
<p>But muscle memory doesn’t only apply to skills and physical movements. It turns out that muscle memory can help us in the gym – especially if you’re trying to get back in shape after time off.</p>
<h2>Types of muscle memory</h2>
<p>There are two types of muscle memory.</p>
<p>The first type refers to our ability to perform physical tasks automatically and easily. By practising a movement repeatedly, it allows you to perform those movements in a more automatic way, without needing to think very much about doing it. This is why athletes will practice a move or specific shot repeatedly, so they can perform it quickly and accurately during the pressure of competition. </p>
<p>At a basic level, this type of muscle memory involves the development of neural pathways which helps our brain communicate with our muscles more effectively. This occurs through a process called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/030100829390015K?via%3Dihub">myelination</a>, in which the myelin sheath (an insulating layer which surrounds nerve fibres) becomes thicker and more efficient at conducting electrical signals in both the body and brain. </p>
<p>Studies show myelination is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2826520/">enhanced through repeated practice</a> of a physical task. Even relatively brief periods of practice can lead to significant changes in the brain and body that support the development of muscle memory.</p>
<p>But it’s important to note that not all repetition leads to muscle memory. It only happens when you engage in <a href="https://clinica.ispa.pt/ficheiros/areas_utilizador/user11/4_-_the_influence_of_experience_and_deliberate_practice_on_the_development_of_superior_expert_performance.pdf">deliberate practice</a> – meaning you perform specific movements or activities with focused attention and effort. </p>
<h2>Back to fitness</h2>
<p>The second type of muscle memory applies to our ability to get in shape.</p>
<p>Let’s say you were someone who, until recently, had never lifted heavy weights at the gym. You probably remember how awkward and difficult these exercises felt when you first started, and how it took a lot of gradual work to build your way up to lifting heavier weights.</p>
<p>Now let’s say you took a break from working out and returned many months later. You might have found that despite the time off, it was quite easy to return to the weights you were lifting before.</p>
<p>This is because of muscle memory. It applies to any exercise you perform, and can make it easier to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0531556519307806?via%3Dihub">regain lost muscle mass</a> compared to when building muscle the first time. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young couple high five in the gym." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514200/original/file-20230308-28-wn9nqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514200/original/file-20230308-28-wn9nqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514200/original/file-20230308-28-wn9nqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514200/original/file-20230308-28-wn9nqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514200/original/file-20230308-28-wn9nqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514200/original/file-20230308-28-wn9nqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514200/original/file-20230308-28-wn9nqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Muscle memory explains why it can feel quicker to get in shape after a gym break.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mixed-race-friends-doing-cross-fit-2012737628">StratfordProductions/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The mechanisms behind this type of muscle memory aren’t fully understood. But our current theory is that even as muscle shrink, muscle cells remain.</p>
<p>In order to build muscle, they need to be placed under stress – for example, when doing exercises such as weight lifting. This stress triggers muscle cells to grow, helping us to become stronger.</p>
<p>For a long time, it was believed that if you don’t use your muscles, these new cells would die off. But research suggests this may not be the case, with a <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/219/2/235/33480/Muscle-memory-and-a-new-cellular-model-for-muscle">2016 study finding</a> that myonuclei (a part of the muscle cell which contains genetic information, and also acts as a key indicator of muscle growth) actually only shrink down when we’re inactive – they don’t disappear at all. While <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/apha.13465">more research is needed</a> to help us fully understand this process, this does at least suggest that our bodies use myonuclei to bank our capacity for fitness – which would explain why it’s faster to get fit the second time around. </p>
<p>But if you’re wondering how long it will take for you to get back in shape after a break from training, unfortunately that isn’t quite so easy to answer and will vary from person to person. </p>
<p>The rate at which muscle is regained can also depend on the level of inactivity you’ve had during your break from training. For example, it may <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/apha.13465">take longer to get back into shape</a> if you’ve been bedridden for months compared to if you simply stopped resistance training but continued with normal daily activities. </p>
<p>In the latter case, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1827108">one study in women</a> showed that even after more than six months off, participants were able to regain their pre-break muscle strength and size during six weeks of re-training compared to the 20 weeks of strength training it took them to initially get in shape. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30991013/">Another study</a> found both men and women who trained for ten weeks then took 20 weeks off were slightly stronger and slightly more muscular after five weeks of retraining than they were after the initial ten weeks of training.</p>
<p>While there’s still a lot we don’t know about muscle memory, the good news is that it’s never too late to get back to the gym – even if it has been a long time. Although it may feel like starting from scratch initially, the gains will come back in no time. But while it can be tempting to go back to what you were doing before taking time off, it’s important to listen to your body and re-introduce yourself to the gym gradually to avoid injury.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200583/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jack McNamara does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Muscle memory may explain why people find it easier to gain muscle the second time around.Jack McNamara, Lecturer in Clinical Exercise Physiology, University of East LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2006552023-03-06T12:04:10Z2023-03-06T12:04:10ZWhy a couple of post-workout beers probably won’t stop you gaining muscle<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513137/original/file-20230302-22-tjtqwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C4938%2C3280&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some believe any amount of alcohol will ruin your 'gains'.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/muscular-male-hand-holds-out-heavy-1632677644">Slava Dumchev/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’re trying to build muscle, you’ve probably come across a slew of videos online by influencers and so-called experts discussing all the things you need to do outside of the gym to help your progress. One popular piece of advice is to avoid alcohol entirely if you want to build muscle, with many suggesting that drinking alcohol will prevent you from building muscle.</p>
<hr>
<iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/why-a-couple-of-post-workout-beers-probably-wont-stop-you-gaining-muscle-200655&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
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<p>While this advice may sound a bit extreme, research shows there is some truth to these claims.</p>
<p>For example, one study looked at how eight physically active young men were affected by heavy alcohol intake (the equivalent of drinking around seven beers over a three hour period) after exercise. It found they had reduced <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24533082">muscle protein synthesis</a> –- the metabolic process that helps the body build muscle – compared to when no alcohol was consumed. </p>
<p>But while this suggests that binge drinking may hamper your muscle gains, it might not prevent you from gaining muscle altogether. And at the moment, evidence on the impacts of more moderate alcohol intake (one to two beers) on muscle gain is lacking. </p>
<p>However, there is similar research looking at the effects of alcohol in other body organs. For example, research looking at the liver shows that drinking the equivalent of two beers does not negatively impact liver protein synthesis rates – but drinking the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9446843/">equivalent of five beers</a> does.</p>
<p>Similarly, research in rodents has also shown that moderate daily alcohol intake for two weeks <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25780086/">did not impair muscle growth</a> in response to overloading (a method used to cause muscle growth in rodents). </p>
<p>This implies that a beer or two is unlikely to impede your ability to build muscle in response to resistance exercise. The research also suggests there may be an alcohol intake threshold which – once you go over it – will negatively affect the body’s muscle growth response to resistance exercise. </p>
<p>However, we currently have no corresponding evidence of this effect in humans due to the ethical problems with asking volunteers to repeatedly consume <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36671386/">large amounts of alcohol</a>. This is why the majority of the existing studies on alcohol intake are performed in animals, which provide a model system often used to study <a href="https://paulogentil.com/pdf/TREINO%20DE%20FOR%C3%87A/Evaluation%20of%20animal%20models%20for%20the%20study%20of%20exercise-induced%20muscle%20enlargement.pdf">muscle growth</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young woman in a gym uses a bench to support herself while performing a one-arm dumbbell row." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513139/original/file-20230302-17-a110wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513139/original/file-20230302-17-a110wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513139/original/file-20230302-17-a110wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513139/original/file-20230302-17-a110wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513139/original/file-20230302-17-a110wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513139/original/file-20230302-17-a110wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513139/original/file-20230302-17-a110wc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We’re still not entirely sure how alcohol affects the muscle building process.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sportswoman-lifting-weights-gym-554553316">Bojan Milinkov/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The exact mechanisms by which alcohol impacts the muscle building process remain to be fully established. But some research has shown heavy alcohol consumption reduces the molecular signals which turn on the muscle-building process. </p>
<p>Specifically, in people who consumed alcohol after a workout, a protein known to help regulate the muscle building process – called mechanistic/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) – <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24533082/">did not increase to the same extent</a> as in those who didn’t drink alcohol after their workout. </p>
<p>Alcohol’s effect on the body’s hormones – specifically testosterone – may also impact muscle gains. Testosterone is a hormone that helps <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31568675/">increase muscle mass</a> in response to resistance exercise training. </p>
<p>Research shows that moderate doses of alcohol – equivalent to around two beers – can actually <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12711931/">increase testosterone levels</a>. The downside, though, is that this increase doesn’t last very long, making it therefore unlikely to significantly contribute to muscle gain. </p>
<p>Research also shows that high levels of alcohol intake can actually <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2128439">reduce testosterone levels</a>. This suggests that there’s a threshold beyond which alcohol impairs the benefits of exercise. </p>
<p>Research has also shown that you can counteract the effect of alcohol on muscle growth to some extent by ingesting between <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24533082">20g-25g</a> of protein after exercising (the equivalent of approximately <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/protein-in-egg#TOC_TITLE_HDR_2">three large eggs</a>). This is likely due to the fact that protein intake is one of the main drivers of muscle growth <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22289911/">in the body</a>.</p>
<h2>Other effects</h2>
<p>Drinking alcohol can have many other effects on the body, such as causing weight gain. So what does this mean for a post-workout beer? </p>
<p>Well, the average 70kg person can burn anywhere <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/diet-and-weight-loss/calories-burned-in-30-minutes-for-people-of-three-different-weights">between 108-216 calories</a> per 30 minutes of weightlifting – depending on the intensity of the exercise. A pint of beer, on the other hand, contains around <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-ok-to-have-a-beer-after-exercise-61695">200 calories</a>. </p>
<p>So, it’s unlikely your post-workout drink will lead to excessive weight gain. But regularly indulging in heavy alcohol consumption may <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25741455/">increase your risk of gaining weight</a>. </p>
<p>If you’re someone who enjoys having a couple drinks throughout the week, it looks like a post-workout drink or two is unlikely to hamper your efforts to gain muscle – though binge drinking could. </p>
<p>Much more research is needed to better understand the impacts of different amounts of alcohol on muscle growth in response to exercise, particularly in other populations – such as women and older adults. So, for now, we continue to reiterate what we’ve said before: <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-ok-to-have-a-beer-after-exercise-61695">everything in moderation</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200655/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip J Atherton has received funding from Abbott, Arla and Fresenius.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Colleen Deane does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Just be careful not to drink too much.Colleen Deane, Lecturer in Muscle Cell Biology, University of SouthamptonPhilip J Atherton, Professor of Clinical, Metabolic & Molecular Physiology, University of NottinghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1957732022-12-08T09:53:08Z2022-12-08T09:53:08ZTailoring workouts to your menstrual cycle may help your physical fitness – but only if done properly<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/499256/original/file-20221206-1581-tumv7n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C0%2C6898%2C4609&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some research suggests the luteal phase may be optimal for weight lifting. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-strong-young-woman-performing-shoulder-708400726">SeventyFour/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’re someone who has to deal with a period regularly, you’re probably all too familiar with just how much your energy levels can change throughout your cycle thanks to hormonal fluctuations. Not only can this sometimes make even the simplest daily tasks challenging, it can make it even harder to stay motivated to keep fit and stick to your regular workout routine, especially when noticing a decline in your performance. </p>
<hr>
<iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/tailoring-workouts-to-your-menstrual-cycle-may-help-your-physical-fitness-but-only-if-done-properly-195773&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
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<p>But, according to some popular information on social media, a technique called “cycle syncing” may help you avoid feeling this way. </p>
<p>The premise of <a href="https://www.womenshealth.com.au/cycle-syncing-to-optimise-life/">cycle syncing</a> is relatively simple. Instead of doing the same type of workouts throughout the month, you instead tailor your workouts according to the current phase of your menstrual cycle. Some women also go a step further and tailor their diet to each phase as well. The claim is that, by doing so, it can help “balance” your hormones – which in turn may lead to a range of health benefits, including improved energy levels, fewer PMS symptoms and better health overall.</p>
<p>But while evidence does show that certain phases of your menstrual cycle may be optimal for different types of exercise, there’s currently no evidence showing cycle syncing has any benefits beyond making it easier to keep fit. Not to mention that actually managing to execute cycle syncing properly may be easier said than done. </p>
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<img alt="Quarter life, a series by The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/quarter-life-117947?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of Quarter Life</a></strong>, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.</em></p>
<p><em>You may be interested in:</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/barbell-exercises-arent-essential-for-getting-fit-heres-what-you-can-do-instead-181743?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Barbell exercises aren’t essential for getting fit – here’s what you can do instead</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/getting-fit-after-covid-why-you-should-be-strength-training-and-how-to-do-it-190689?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Getting fit after COVID? Why you should be strength training – and how to do it</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/five-things-to-do-in-your-20s-and-30s-to-reduce-your-risk-of-preventable-cancer-191283?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Five things to do in your 20s and 30s to reduce your risk of preventable cancer</a></em></p>
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<h2>Your cycle</h2>
<p>The menstrual cycle can be split into <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-periods-and-the-pill-affect-athletic-performance-145891">four phases</a>: menses, follicular, luteal and pre-menses. The concentration of the sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone change in each phase. </p>
<p>During the menses phase (your period), oestrogen and progesterone are at their lowest levels. But as you move into the follicular phase, oestrogen begins to increase. In the luteal phase, which immediately follows, progesterone concentrations also begins to increase. Both hormones <a href="https://aap.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1902/jop.2004.75.3.408">reach their peak</a> near the end of the luteal phase, before dropping dramatically during the pre-menstrual phase (days 25-28 of the average cycle). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An infographic showing the way hormones change throughout the menstrual cycle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498732/original/file-20221202-24-8g1f32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498732/original/file-20221202-24-8g1f32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498732/original/file-20221202-24-8g1f32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498732/original/file-20221202-24-8g1f32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498732/original/file-20221202-24-8g1f32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498732/original/file-20221202-24-8g1f32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498732/original/file-20221202-24-8g1f32.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hormone concentrations change in each phase on your cycle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dan Gordon</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Research shows that thanks to these hormones, certain phases of your menstrual cycle are optimised for different types of exercise.</p>
<p>For instance, the luteal phase may be the perfect time for strength training thanks to the boost in both oestrogen and progesterone. Research shows there are noticeable increases in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dan-Gordon-3/publication/257306035_The_effects_of_menstrual_cycle_phase_on_the_development_of_peak_torque_under_isokinetic_conditions/links/54cb794c0cf26a838e4cfd7c/The-effects-of-menstrual-cycle-phase-on-the-development-of-peak-torque-under-isokinetic-conditions.pdf">strength</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.2165/11317090-000000000-00000">endurance</a> during this phase. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/104/1/15/4569669?login=true">Energy expenditure</a> (calories burned) and energy intake are also greater during the luteal phase, alongside a slight decrease in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/104/1/15/4569669">body mass</a>. You may also find you <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030121151200125X">feel more energetic</a> and capable of exercise during this phase. The hormone concentrations in the luteal phase may also <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-019-01219-1">promote the greatest degree of muscle change</a>.</p>
<p>The folicular phase also shows some increases in strength, energy expenditure and energy intake – <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-022-01679-y">albeit smaller</a>.</p>
<p>But when progesterone and oestrogen are at their lowest levels during your period (menses phase), you’re likely to see fewer changes when it comes to <a href="https://springerplus.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/2193-1801-3-668">building muscle</a>. There’s also a greater chance that you will <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2020.00517/full">feel fatigued</a> due to low hormone levels, alongside the loss of menstrual blood. This may be a good time to consider adjusting your training, focusing on lower-intensity exercises (such as yoga) and prioritising your recovery. </p>
<p>So based on the way hormones change during each phase of the menstrual cycle, if you’re looking to improve strength and fitness you may well want to plan your most intense workouts for the follicular and luteal phases to achieve the greatest gains.</p>
<h2>Too good to be true?</h2>
<p>This all seems fantastic, and you may well be wondering why more women are not following this trend. But the answer is that it may all be too good to be true. </p>
<p>While the responses reported do take place, actually putting this all into practice is easier said than done. First, most research on the menstrual cycle’s impact on fitness assume the cycle has a regular pattern of 28 days. But 46% of women have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010782404001313">cycle lengths that fluctuate</a> by around seven days – with a further 20% exhibiting fluctuations of up to 14 days. This means a regular cycle varies for each person.</p>
<p>The second key assumption is that the responses of progesterone and oestrogen, which drive the changes in fitness are constant. But this is often not the case, as both oestrogen and progesterone <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/31246715">exhibit large variations</a> both between cycles and each person. Some women may also <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1083318814002605">lack oestrogen and progesterone</a> due to certain health conditions. These responses make it difficult to track the phases of the cycle precisely through monitoring of hormones alone – and make syncing accurately also very difficult. </p>
<p>So while the idea of syncing your menstrual cycle with your workouts seems logical, the outcomes each person sees are likely to vary. But if you do want to give it a try, menstrual tracking apps – alongside the use of ovulation test strips and temperature monitoring – can help give you a good idea of what stage in your menstrual cycle you’re at.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195773/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Melville works for Breakaway Coaching and Analytics. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chloe French and Dan Gordon do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The concentration of certain hormones during different phases of your menstrual cycle may give you a boost in the gym.Dan Gordon, Associate Professor: Cardiorespiratory Exercise Physiology, Anglia Ruskin UniversityChloe French, PhD Candidate in Sport and Exercise Science, Anglia Ruskin UniversityJonathan Melville, PhD Candidate in Sport and Exercise Science, Anglia Ruskin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1872902022-08-16T16:13:56Z2022-08-16T16:13:56ZTraining cardio and weights during the same workout probably won’t hurt your ‘gains’ – here’s why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478906/original/file-20220812-22-plgtr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C20%2C6713%2C4451&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The 'interference effect' has long since been debunked.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/back-view-sports-people-on-running-721502398">4 PM production/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the past, getting in shape was synonymous with strapping on a pair of trainers and going for a run. But these days, people who want to get fit are more likely to be told to try lifting weights. </p>
<p>In fact, cardio has become a somewhat maligned form of exercise in some circles, with much debate about it online. Not only are people arguing about whether you should do cardio during the same training session that you lift weights, some even argue you shouldn’t do it at all (lest you ruin those hard-earned “gains”). </p>
<p>The answer to this question isn’t entirely straightforward – and depends on your fitness level and goals. </p>
<h2>The interference effect</h2>
<p>Most of us do at least a little bit of cardio to warm up before a workout – preferring to save dedicated cardio sessions for a different day. But others prefer to combine resistance training (such as weight lifting) with cardio training in the same session. This is known in the scientific literature as “<a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4663/6/4/127/htm">concurrent training</a>”.</p>
<p>When concurrent training was <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7193134/">first studied in the 1980s</a>, research ruled that it led to fewer gains in strength compared to resistance training alone. This was termed the “interference effect”, suggesting that concurrent training interferes with our ability to develop both strength and endurance at the same time. But more recently, the view on the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7193134/">interference effect</a> has shifted – with research showing it’s more nuanced than it first appeared. </p>
<p>In 2012, a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22002517/">meta-analysis</a> of all the previously published studies on the interference effect was performed. It suggested that concurrent training did indeed lead to smaller strength gains and less muscle growth, as well as reduced improvement in power (such as the explosive strength needed for sprinting or jumping) compared to resistance training alone. For many people, this confirmed their long-held belief that concurrent training is bad for those who want to build muscle and strength.</p>
<p>But there were several problems with the way this analysis was conducted. For example, the researchers didn’t account for differences in the participants’ fitness levels. They also compared studies where participants performed cardio and weights in the same training session against those who performed each activity in different training sessions (sometimes even on different days), which may not accurately show the real effect of concurrent training. </p>
<p>Since then, research has actually shown that for the average person, doing cardio and weight lifting in the same workout has <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33751469/">no significant effect</a> on strength when compared to doing cardio and weight lifting in separate training sessions. Another study has confirmed that the interference effect <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34757594/">doesn’t impact strength</a> and muscle gain. However, it may impact power, particularly explosive strength. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of sprinters on the starting line of a race." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478907/original/file-20220812-19-vpqmhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/478907/original/file-20220812-19-vpqmhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478907/original/file-20220812-19-vpqmhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478907/original/file-20220812-19-vpqmhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478907/original/file-20220812-19-vpqmhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478907/original/file-20220812-19-vpqmhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/478907/original/file-20220812-19-vpqmhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Explosive strength is important for sprinting and jumping.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/tampere-finland-july-10-athlets-on-1268314297">Denis Kuvaev/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These findings seem to hold true regardless of whether cardio is performed before or after resistance training – though it does appear that the type of cardio could play a small role, with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35476184/">running more likely</a> to cause an interference effect than other forms of cardio such as cycling.</p>
<h2>What should you do?</h2>
<p>Generally, people new to exercise <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0210292">benefit from adding cardio</a> to a resistance training routine. While not essential that they are performed in the same session, many people find combining their training to be a more time efficient way to meet the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33239350/">World Health Organization guidelines</a> of 150 minutes of moderate (or 75 minutes vigorous) intensity exercise per week.</p>
<p>For more advanced lifters, whether or not to train weights and cardio in the same session depends on your goals. For instance, a competitive bodybuilder may not want to risk even the smallest chance they stall their progress. Other athletes focused on training power and explosiveness may also want to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33751469/">separate their training sessions</a> to avoid any potential negative effects. </p>
<p>As for whether you should ditch cardio entirely, the answer to that question also depends on your goals. Certain types of weight training (such as “<a href="https://theconversation.com/training-to-failure-debunking-claims-this-popular-weightlifting-technique-is-the-most-effective-for-building-muscle-and-strength-173872">training to failure</a>”, where you perform an exercise until your muscles are temporarily so fatigued you can’t perform the movement anymore) can <a href="https://www.asep.org/asep/asep/JEPonlineJUNE2012_Steele.pdf">improve cardiovascular fitness</a>. </p>
<p>But specific cardio training may confer different benefits – such as allowing our blood to pump more blood around our body with every heartbeat and improving our oxygen carrying capacity. This means cardio workouts help our heart get better at doing its job, improving our performance and reducing our risk of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6481017/">cardiovascular disease</a>. The good news is that these cardio benefits still happen even with <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Fulltext/2012/07000/Does_Aerobic_and_Strength_Exercise_Sequence_in_the.18.aspx">concurrent training</a>.</p>
<p>Of course, many other factors might influence how you structure your workout – such as how much time you have, and whether you like certain types of training. For most of us, the interference effect will be mostly insignificant – so whether you do cardio before or after a workout (or at all) is a matter of personal preference. In reality, the best workout is the one you’ll consistently do.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187290/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jack McNamara does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Research has shown training cardio and weights on the same did has little effect on strength and muscle gain.Jack McNamara, Lecturer in Clinical Exercise Science, University of East LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1846692022-06-13T13:14:33Z2022-06-13T13:14:33ZBuilding muscle: slowing down the tempo of your workout won’t help you get stronger faster – but it may still have benefits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468443/original/file-20220613-24020-el71u6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C0%2C5000%2C3300&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Advocates of the weightlifting technique claim moving slower makes muscles work harder.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-african-american-man-sitting-lifting-1447450724">Twinsterphoto/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Everyone wants to get fit, but many of us lack the time or patience required to get results – especially if our goal is to build a more muscular physique. While there’s plenty of advice online telling people about the best ways to do this, not all of the information is trustworthy or backed by evidence. One suggestion often made by fitness enthusiasts is a training method called “time under tension”. This is the idea that slowing down the pace of your exercises – such as your squat or bicep curls – is the secret to helping you get stronger faster. </p>
<p>Put simply, time under tension refers to the length of time a muscle is working during a certain exercise. For example, if you were doing a push up, you might aim to take two seconds on the way down, then two seconds as you push back up from the ground – meaning you’re keeping the muscle under more tension (theoretically making it work harder) than if you were to rush through your push ups. So if you did ten push ups, it would take you around 40 seconds to complete a set. </p>
<p>Advocates of time under tension claim that by maintaining longer periods of muscle tension – usually 40 to 60 seconds per set – you’re more likely to experience muscle growth. It sounds great in theory, but in practice it’s not that straightforward.</p>
<h2>The muscle building equation</h2>
<p>In order to build muscle, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27433992/">training volume</a> is the most important factor. This refers to the overall amount of weight lifted throughout the workout. So for example, if you do four sets of a barbell squat, and perform eight repetitions each set lifting 100kg, your overall training volume for that exercise would be 3,200kg. However, the number of muscle fibres we recruit during an exercise (which depends on the amount of force needed to perform an exercise or lift a weight) is also important. </p>
<p>Blood flow also plays an important role in muscle growth. As our muscles contract during a resistance training exercise, the blood vessels that feed the working muscles become compressed. This reduces circulation to the muscle, temporarily <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7957136/">preventing enough oxygen</a> from reaching the muscle (known as hypoxia). Although we’re not clear on the reasons why, we do know that hypoxia leads to <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijspp/5/4/article-p497.xml">increased muscle growth</a>, and that exercises with prolonged time under tension reduce blood supply to muscles for longer periods of time. This is why many people believe that longer time under tension will lead to greater muscle growth. </p>
<p>However, the research tells a different story.</p>
<p>Studies have repeatedly found that slowing down the tempo of a lift or movement has no more benefit for building muscle than lifting at a regular or even fast pace. This is true whether the workout is for the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18978616/">whole body</a>, based on <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30325791/">compound lifts</a> (exercises that engage multiple muscle groups at once, such as a back squat), or using <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7061915/">resistance machines</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Young woman performs a barbell squat using the smith machine at the gym." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468444/original/file-20220613-31449-m5oyhb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468444/original/file-20220613-31449-m5oyhb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468444/original/file-20220613-31449-m5oyhb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468444/original/file-20220613-31449-m5oyhb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468444/original/file-20220613-31449-m5oyhb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468444/original/file-20220613-31449-m5oyhb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468444/original/file-20220613-31449-m5oyhb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Your regular tempo will work just as well for building muscle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fitness-asian-woman-doing-exercise-lifting-1164752842">Peera_stockfoto/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In fact, some research has even suggested that while no difference in muscle growth is achieved at slower speeds, muscle fibre activation, overall training volume and even strength gains <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16177617/">are all lower</a> in people who train at a slower – rather than their natural – tempo.</p>
<h2>Waste of time?</h2>
<p>But that doesn’t mean we should reject the role of time under tension entirely. While research suggests that overall muscle growth may not be any better than exercising at a normal tempo, spending more time under tension (around 60-90 seconds per set) may lead to greater muscle growth in specific muscle fibres. </p>
<p>Our muscles are comprised of different types of muscle fibres. One type are slow-twitch muscle fibres (known as type I fibres), which are important for endurance as they don’t fatigue as quickly as other muscle fibres. This makes them essential for activities such as long runs or bike rides, high rep sets, or isometric holds (such as the plank). </p>
<p>Short durations of exercise with very heavy weights are unlikely to make our slow-twitch muscle fibres tired. But research shows that <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17100349/">time under tension</a> may help us <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19799341/">better develop</a> these important muscle fibres. </p>
<p>Of course, many of us aren’t highly experienced weightlifters or bodybuilders but time under tension may still be beneficial to us – and can also be a great place for people to start, especially if they haven’t lifted heavy weights before. In fact, in clinical exercise settings we use time under tension as a way of reinforcing good technique. This helps reduce the risk of injury and helps people learn how to optimally recruit their muscles. </p>
<p>All in all, there’s no real “hack” to building muscle, despite what proponents of time under tension may claim. If you want to build muscle, it requires consistency, proper nutrition, and trying to challenge yourself each workout by doing a bit more or lifting a bit heavier.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184669/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jack McNamara does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>‘Time under tension’ may be a popular weightlifting technique, but research shows it’s no better than exercising at your normal pace.Jack McNamara, Lecturer, University of East LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1821752022-05-03T13:26:29Z2022-05-03T13:26:29ZExercising during pregnancy: what to consider<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460989/original/file-20220503-20-vqx0xu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C17%2C5894%2C3870&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There's no need to stop exercising if you're able to.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/active-pregnant-woman-running-outdoor-sport-1415641412">Leszek Glasner/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While exercise is often said to be safe to do while pregnant, with so much information out there, it can be hard to figure out just how much exercise you should do – and if there are certain exercises to avoid. </p>
<p>Exercise is good for the mother and her baby, but given all the changes that happen to the body during pregnancy, it is advisable to take it a bit easier when exercising.</p>
<p>One of these changes is how our cardiovascular system functions. Because the baby needs a constant supply of oxygen to develop – and because of how quickly it grows – the mother will experience a <a href="http://thehubedu-production.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/4234/78ef71e5-2ce1-491e-b6f4-c7690c7f7016/Hemodynamic_changes_in_pregnancy.pd">45-50% increase</a> in blood volume to carry this much-needed oxygen to the baby. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84867746119&origin=inward&featureToggles=FEATURE_NEW_DOC_DETAILS_EXPORT:1">mother’s heart rate</a> also increases to ensure the baby gets enough oxygen. This could put an extra strain on the woman’s heart and lungs when doing any sort of activity.</p>
<p>The respiratory system is also affected. The <a href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.994.4602&rep=rep1&type=pdf">amount of oxygen</a> a mother can inhale increases by around 40-50% to give the baby the oxygen it needs. This change also happens because the growing baby <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/2047-783X-15-S2-189">affects lung function</a> by reducing the space in which the mother’s lungs can inflate. These changes may see the mother experience more shortness of breath – which will make even everyday tasks more demanding.</p>
<p>The body’s <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1016/j.pmrj.2018.06.012">joints also relax</a> – partly due to the mother’s <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2411-5142/4/4/72/htm">centre of mass changing</a>, and because the pelvis has tilted. The way the body fuels itself also changes. When we eat foods, the body stores these byproducts (typically glucose or carbohydrates) in our liver and muscles so that our body can draw upon these stores for energy when needed (such as when we exercise). When pregnant, there is <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniel-Mintz-2/publication/16202011_Blood_Glucose_Control_During_Pregnancy/links/54c9b5750cf298fd26269e74/Blood-Glucose-Control-During-Pregnancy.pdf">less glucose available</a> to draw on for energy. This is because the baby needs this energy to develop. As a result, the mother might feel more fatigued more quickly when they’re doing any type of task – including exercise.</p>
<h2>Keep moving</h2>
<p>But all these changes don’t mean you shouldn’t exercise during pregnancy.</p>
<p>Studies show that <a href="https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD000180.pub2/pdf/full">doing aerobic exercise</a> (such as walking, jogging or swimming) during pregnancy for at least 150 minutes a week can improve fitness, increase <a href="https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84870055782&origin=inward&featureToggles=FEATURE_NEW_DOC_DETAILS_EXPORT:1">muscle tone and strength</a> and reduce weight gain. Exercise may also lower the risk of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12178-008-9021-8">experiencing back pain</a>, which is a common problem for many pregnant women.</p>
<p>There’s also some limited evidence that following an exercise plan during pregnancy can help some women <a href="https://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(16)30204-5/pdf">experience shorter labour</a> – and decrease the likelihood of needing a caesarean section. It’s currently unclear why this link may exist.</p>
<p>Not only is exercise safe for the mother, it’s also safe for the baby. Although exercise can directly affect the baby (such as the baby’s <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1701216316303097">heart rate increasing</a> when the mother exercises), researchers have shown exercise causes <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0266613807000459">no symptoms or signs of stress</a> to the baby. Exercising regularly during pregnancy may also lower the likelihood of the baby <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/circulationaha.109.906081">being overweight</a> in adulthood.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A pregnant woman lifts a barbell in the gym." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460990/original/file-20220503-31848-9imgcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460990/original/file-20220503-31848-9imgcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460990/original/file-20220503-31848-9imgcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460990/original/file-20220503-31848-9imgcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460990/original/file-20220503-31848-9imgcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460990/original/file-20220503-31848-9imgcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460990/original/file-20220503-31848-9imgcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Weight lifting can still be safe to do.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pregnant-woman-exercising-gym-fitness-healthy-602774699">ZephyrMedia/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But though exercise is safe for both mother and baby, some activities may need to be avoided. Somewhat obviously, combat sports or those that may have an increased risk of falling (such as horse riding or mountain biking) should be avoided.</p>
<p>If you enjoy lifting weights, it’s still considered a safe and effective form of exercise to do during pregnancy. But it may be best to lift with a friend or personal trainer and avoid excessive loads, as these increase the risk of muscle and joint injuries.</p>
<p>You should also avoid exercising in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/jmwh.13286">hot temperatures</a> (especially those above 32◦C) because of the extra stress this could place on you and your baby’s heart. Something else to consider carefully is any form of exercise that requires the mother to lie flat on her stomach or back – such as during yoga or pilates. The reason for this is there’s an <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1532-429X-13-31">increased chance of hypotension</a> (a rapid drop in blood pressure) that may increase the risk of fainting when standing up.</p>
<p>So while you might need to take it a bit easier if you want to exercise while pregnant (especially during the second and third trimester), this doesn’t mean you need to work out less than you did before. Generally, people are recommended to get at least 150 minutes of cardiovascular exercise a week. The same is true for women who are pregnant, though you may need to lower the intensity you exercise at.</p>
<p>And if you do decide to exercise during pregnancy, it’s important to make sure you’re <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2006.00541.x">eating and drinking enough</a> since exercise requires more energy. The more demanding the exercise, the more calories you’ll need to consume afterwards.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182175/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Exercising during pregnancy is safe – and can have many benefits for both mother and baby.Dan Gordon, Associate Professor: Cardiorespiratory Exercise Physiology, Anglia Ruskin UniversityMatthew Slater, PhD Candidate and Vascular Healthcare Scientist, Anglia Ruskin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1817432022-04-29T10:16:21Z2022-04-29T10:16:21ZBarbell exercises aren’t essential for getting fit – here’s what you can do instead<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460514/original/file-20220429-20-h0umhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C10%2C3500%2C2226&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Dumbbell variations allow us to adjust an exercise to better suit our body.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/powerful-brutal-adult-bearded-male-sportswear-2057035379">Max kegfire/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0193723515615181">strong is the new sexy</a>, it’s no wonder more people than ever want to start lifting weights. Instagram hashtags such as “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5390113/#:%7E:text=%E2%80%9CFitspiration%2C%E2%80%9D%20commonly%20shortened%20to,communicate%20with%20like%2Dminded%20individuals.">fitspiration</a>” (fitness inspiration) and <a href="https://www.instagram.com/explore/tags/gym/">#gym</a> contain millions of posts, typically of flexed muscles, inspirational quotes and exercise advice. </p>
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<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>While weight training can be a great way to lose weight and build muscle, it can be confusing and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1612197X.2020.1739108?casa_token=osE_TXN7y6gAAAAA%3Adsa87FnAN0eRNX__IrMSXiWQEokWXFK6S9U9KbklUTSkLeWatLBqrJL9jE8jTpGoOFA2RKmxXg">even intimidating</a> knowing where to get started – especially when there’s so much contradictory fitness advice available online. Another problem is that most of the fitness advice you do find online will tell you there are certain “must do” exercises you need to include in your fitness regime – or else you won’t see progress. </p>
<p>These are often barbell exercises, such as barbell squats (balancing a barbell on the upper back while lowering your hips to around 90 degrees before pushing back up), deadlifts (lifting a barbell off the ground to hip-level) or hip thrusts (resting the upper back on a bench or flat object and using the hips to push a barbell upwards).</p>
<p>But are these exercises really essential? Well, the answer is a bit more nuanced than a simple yes or no.</p>
<p>While barbell exercises allow you to load up heavy weights, they require you to perform very specific movements patterns. Whether it’s upper body exercises such as the bench press (lying on a bench and pushing a barbell skyward) or overhead press (standing or kneeling and pushing the barbell from chest level to above the head), or lower body exercises such as squats or deadlifts, barbell exercises are <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Fulltext/2016/02000/Unilateral_vs__Bilateral_Squat_Training_for.12.aspx%C3%AF%C2%BB%C2%BF">bilateral exercises</a> – meaning two limbs work together at the same time to lift the weight.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Quarter life, a series by The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/quarter-life-117947?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of Quarter Life</a></strong>, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.</em></p>
<p><em>You may be interested in:</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/body-image-issues-affect-close-to-40-of-men-but-many-dont-get-the-support-they-need-179046?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Body image issues affect close to 40% of men – but many don’t get the support they need</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/exercise-can-fast-track-your-workplace-well-being-heres-how-107473?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Exercise can fast-track your workplace well-being – here’s how</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/muscle-dysmorphia-why-are-so-many-young-men-suffering-this-serious-mental-health-condition-147706?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Muscle dysmorphia: why are so many young men suffering this serious mental health condition?</a></em></p>
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<p>But barbell exercises might not actually work for everyone. Because of the nature of the barbell, it means that a person’s individual anatomy may actually make these movements feel uncomfortable depending on a number of different factors, such as <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Fulltext/2019/07001/Biomechanical,_Anthropometric,_and_Psychological.3.aspx">limb lengths</a> or <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/FullText/2014/04000/Characteristics_of_Shoulder_Impingement_in_the.28.aspx">past injuries</a>. This means barbell movements could actually place some people at greater risk of injury if <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/FullText/2014/04000/Characteristics_of_Shoulder_Impingement_in_the.28.aspx">performed incorrectly</a>. </p>
<p>For example, people with long legs may find <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/FullText/2019/03000/Body_Mass_and_Femur_Length_Are_Inversely_Related.33.aspx">barbell squats more challenging</a> due to the extra range of motion that’s needed to move the barbell. Muscle imbalances (which can change natural movement patterns and range of motion) may also cause <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/fulltext/2017/06000/exercise_modification_strategies_to_prevent_and.9.aspx">shoulder pain or even injury</a> during overhead presses or bench presses with a barbell.</p>
<h2>Skip the barbell</h2>
<p>Dumbbell and kettlebell variations (smaller, hand-held weights) can be much more forgiving, particularly for upper body pressing exercises – such as the overhead press – and single leg exercises. This is because dumbbell and kettlebell exercises are often unilateral exercises, which means each limb moves independently to perform the exercise. This means we can <a href="https://us.humankinetics.com/blogs/excerpt/modification-of-exercises-to-allow-injured-individuals-to-continue-training">adjust an exercise</a> to move in ways that reflects our unique anatomies. </p>
<p>While there’s still much debate in the scientific community about whether bilateral or unilateral exercises are better, some evidence indicates that the unique way unilateral exercises recruit muscles during an exercise can actually help us <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6159498/">lift more weight</a> in the long run. This may be due to the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27582260/">bilateral deficit</a>, which is a phenomenon where the force produced using two limbs at once is less than the combined force produced when they are used independently. </p>
<p>But while unilateral exercise are a great way to <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-healthfitness/fulltext/2018/05000/unilateral_and_bilateral_exercise_movements_.6.aspx">build balance and strength</a>, bilateral exercise are still useful if you’re short on time. They can also be adjusted to make them safer and more comfortable – such as using a trap bar (a big, hexagonal barbell that you step into) for deadlifts, as this places less load on the lower back and may be particularly useful for people with back issues or longer legs.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Young woman performs a trap bar deadlift with her male trainer next to her." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460515/original/file-20220429-22-8t8zf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/460515/original/file-20220429-22-8t8zf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460515/original/file-20220429-22-8t8zf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460515/original/file-20220429-22-8t8zf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460515/original/file-20220429-22-8t8zf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460515/original/file-20220429-22-8t8zf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/460515/original/file-20220429-22-8t8zf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Trap bars don’t put as much load on the lower back.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/attractive-blonde-woman-doing-trap-bar-650499031">Ajan Alen/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>If your goals are to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-018-0862-z">build muscle and get stronger</a>, the most important thing you need to do is place the muscle under load (weight) and progressively do more over time. This can take the form of lifting heavier weights, increasing the number of sets and repetitions performed or adjusting rest times to do more work in less time. This is known as “progressive overload”. </p>
<p>But progressive overload can be done with any weight lifting exercise – not just barbell exercises. If we can remove our attachment to a particular exercise and view them just as tools to get a job done, this opens new possibilities to make exercise more varied, individualised, and perhaps even more enjoyable – which might also mean we’re more likely to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577522/full">stick to it</a> in the long term. </p>
<p>It could even be argued that any exercise you enjoy and do consistently is the best form of exercise for you. And consistency, not what exercises we do, is the most important factor in achieving the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2968119/#:%7E:text=Compliance%20to%20exercise%20can%20be,find%20the%20time%20to%20exercise%E2%80%9D.">long-term benefits</a> of exercise. </p>
<p>Weight training has many benefits – such as helping us lose weight and build muscle. It can even reduce symptoms of chronic conditions like <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-csmr/fulltext/2012/07000/resistancetrainingismedicineeffectsof.13.aspx">heart disease and diabetes</a>, and <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/early/2022/01/19/bjsports-2021-105061">lower risk of death</a> by 15% from all causes. So it’s important to remember that you can achieve these benefits with any weight-based exercises – whether you use a barbell or not.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181743/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Rogerson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The best exercises to do are the ones that motivate you to workout – not the ones you think you have to do.David Rogerson, Principal Lecturer in Sports Nutrition and Strength and Conditioning, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1784532022-03-08T14:55:43Z2022-03-08T14:55:43ZThree reasons runners should start lifting weights<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450674/original/file-20220308-23-bki0sp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C0%2C5389%2C3603&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Don't skip the weights next time you train.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/athletic-brunette-young-woman-doing-some-1423397399">Manu Reyes/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Millions of people worldwide make running their exercise of choice. And whether you’ve just started running and are aiming to run a 5km or are aiming to run a marathon, you’re probably looking for ways to improve.</p>
<p>While most training programmes for runners focus primarily on <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35136001/">increasing the amount</a> of running you do, becoming a better runner isn’t only about putting in more miles. In fact, what many runners don’t realise is that it’s important to include strength training as part of your programme. </p>
<p>Here’s why:</p>
<h2>1. Improves performance</h2>
<p>A key factor in endurance running performance is running economy. This is the amount of oxygen your body consumes at different running speeds. Improving running economy can help people run farther and faster – with research showing that more economical runners are able to <a href="https://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40798-015-0007-y">use their energy more effectively</a> during their runs.</p>
<p>Strength training has consistently been shown to <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0157-y">improve running economy</a>. This is because strength training, such as heavy resistance exercise (squats or leg press) or body weight plyometrics (jumping & hopping) can <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0157-y">improve the use of elastic energy</a> – meaning you’re better able to propel your body forward, reducing the amount of work the muscles actually need to do. </p>
<p>Strength training <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0835-7">can even help people run faster</a>. This may be explained by the changes that <a href="https://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40798-015-0007-y">happen in our muscle fibres</a>, or because strength training changes our brain and nervous system so that our muscles are better able to apply force during movement.</p>
<p>This could be especially advantageous in middle-distance events – such as running events between 800m and 3,000m.</p>
<h2>2. May reduce injury risk</h2>
<p>One downside of running is that it comes with a relatively high risk of leg, foot and ankle injuries because of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095254620300727">overuse</a>. Some research suggests that around <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33862272/">40% of runners suffer an injury</a> every year of training. </p>
<p>But strength training can help reduce the number of overuse injuries runners experience. This might be due to the positive changes in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-020-01309-5?fbclid=IwAR0UqWGm8fNWq6zYlyzyA_i0SUWUb3n7R4_5_N2wiPryhQTcHz19wYW7z9M">muscle, tendon and bone health</a> that happen as a result of strength training. </p>
<p>Strength training can improve hip abductor strength (which help provide stability during movement) which can reduce instances of <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/1835351511?parentSessionId=02BEXvNOWx7%252FRp1zkndmr3TGpHFfGKNC08rEW6qf7u0%253D&pq-origsite=360link&accountid=14650">iliotibial band syndrome</a>, a common knee injury that’s caused by the iliotibial band (which runs from your pelvic bone to your knee) rubbing against your hip and knee bones. Strength training can also help improve ankle strength, which is a known risk factor for <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0363546505279918?casa_token=lEi37svCmJYAAAAA%253AWnxp1TzwiZoDnlsUlapIyh5fYatZA16k49YopfP8DFWK9O0i4YjFJFt0phJjQwKSQ9mfnj2ghza8nw">Achilles tendon injuries</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young man performs a lunge with two dumbbells in his hands." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450677/original/file-20220308-23-wa0n83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/450677/original/file-20220308-23-wa0n83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450677/original/file-20220308-23-wa0n83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450677/original/file-20220308-23-wa0n83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450677/original/file-20220308-23-wa0n83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450677/original/file-20220308-23-wa0n83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/450677/original/file-20220308-23-wa0n83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Exercises such as lunges can help protect against overuse injuries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/profile-view-young-fit-man-doing-575462254">antoniodiaz/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>While there is some promising early evidence that performing strength training reduces injury risk in runners more research is needed to confirm this. But <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=rgAaEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA207&dq=info:Mq-daATH_p8J:scholar.google.com&ots=WRg-ZUNxpD&sig=4OEmNUmp74vCeHAwQGbo0A9l4qY&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">general guidelines suggest</a> that performing short duration, high-intensity strength training, such as lower body resistance exercises (including squats and lunges) can protect against overuse injuries in runners. </p>
<h2>3. Improves the way you run</h2>
<p>Around <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0708-0">80% of the energy we use</a> when we run goes toward supporting our body weight and propelling our body forward. So if a runner can reduce the amount that their centre of mass (the balance point of the body) moves up and down (called vertical oscillation) while running, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26816209/">they might be more efficient</a>. </p>
<p>To understand this, we need to consider Newton’s laws of motion. Gravity is accelerating our body mass towards the centre of earth and we counter this by applying an equal and opposite force against it. The longer it takes us to apply this force, the more our centre of mass will move downwards and thus the longer our foot will need to be <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-016-0474-4">in contact with the ground</a> every stride we take. </p>
<p>If we have stronger muscles and tendons, we can reduce this motion and “spring” back more easily each time our foot makes contact with the ground. Strength training improves the strength of our muscle and tendons and the rate at which force can be applied. This is one factor that helps <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0835-7">improve our running economy</a>. </p>
<p>Some studies also show that strength training improves <a href="https://www.dl.begellhouse.com/journals/757fcb0219d89390,4b1dedc916dee1ae,6d08e3c62d164d3a.html">torso and hip biomechanics</a> which should in theory lead to more efficient running and <a href="https://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40798-015-0007-y/figures/2">better running economy</a>. As such, runners may benefit from many strength exercises such as squats, lunges and step-ups that help build strength in the torso and lower limbs. </p>
<h2>Getting started</h2>
<p>It’s recommended that runners do at least <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0835-7">2-3 strength training sessions</a> a week for at least six to 14 weeks to start out with. Many different types of strength training are likely to be beneficial, but <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0835-7">heavy strength training</a> (lifting a challenging amount of weight) and plyometric training (such as jumping, hopping, skipping) have been shown to be <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0835-7">most beneficial</a> for performance.</p>
<p>Any runners that want to start strength training should work with an expert, and build up slowly while aiming <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-often-should-we-exercise-to-get-in-shape-166052">to be consistent</a>. Plyometric training should start with lower impact exercises, such as box jumps or skipping, and <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/fulltext/2011/04000/The_Natural_Development_and_Trainability_of.2.aspx?casa_token=fHyxS5uPuzAAAAAA:hK_FV_rfuvUdi6O4No9F8dtZbUqavUzGYS7PbDSIjtqu3qKOQXm_knQDa_f07BitYmgVMNFJnLJER5cuCe9QdUVgXSrIF3Y">progress intensity gradually</a>. For strength training, we’d recommend movements that engage the whole body – such as squatting, lunges and step-ups. We’d also recommend exercises that seek to strengthen specific muscles that are prone to overuse injuries, such as the calves and hip muscles. </p>
<p>Alongside improving running performance, resistance training has many other health benefits – with just 30-90 minutes a week enough to <a href="https://theconversation.com/just-30-90-minutes-of-resistance-training-weekly-decreases-risk-of-premature-death-new-research-178209">reduce risk of premature death</a> from all causes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178453/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Weight lifting and other resistance exercises might be key to becoming a better runner.Matthew Wright, Lecturer in Biomechanics and Strength and Conditioning, Teesside UniversityJonathan Taylor, Lecturer in Sport and Exercise, Teesside UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1782092022-03-02T11:45:41Z2022-03-02T11:45:41ZJust 30-90 minutes of resistance training weekly decreases risk of premature death – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449504/original/file-20220302-21-1uavg31.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5943%2C3709&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's important to do resistance training alongside other types of exercise.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/senior-people-trainer-using-resistance-band-1454696495">Leszek Glasner/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s long been evidence that moderate aerobic exercise (think walking, running, or cycling) are good for your lifelong health and well-being. Research even shows us more active people also <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673617316343?via%3Dihub">tend to live longer, healthier lives</a> with lower rates of disease – <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jpubhealth/article/41/3/e253/5139677">including cancers, diabetes and cardiovascular disease</a>. </p>
<p>But what about resistance exercise – like lifting weights? While it’s thought these kinds of exercises are probably also good for health and longevity, less evidence has existed showing the benefits. But a recent study now shows that <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/early/2022/01/19/bjsports-2021-105061">30-90 minutes of resistance training a week</a> is enough to potentially decrease risk of premature death from all causes by 10%-20%.</p>
<p>The team of researchers from three universities in Japan conducted a meta-analysis – meaning they pooled data from 16 separate studies looking at longevity, disease risk and resistance exercise. This allowed them to look at tens of thousands of participants altogether.</p>
<p>They found that 30-90 minutes of resistance exercise per week was optimal for lowering overall risk of dying from all causes. More strikingly, they also found regularly performing more than three hours of strength training per week could actually increase risk of premature death by about 10%. </p>
<p>They also found that the optimal amount of time spent resistance training varied when it came to preventing different diseases. For example, while 40-60 minutes of strength training per week is optimal for reducing risk of cardiovascular disease, the risk of diabetes continues to drop the more time a person spent resistance training each week. However, resistance training was shown to have no effect on the risk of some specific types of cancer, such as bowel, kidney or pancreatic. </p>
<p>The findings of this study are largely in line with what the NHS already recommends. According to them, adults aged 19 to 64 should aim to do <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/exercise/">two strength training sessions</a> per week in order to benefit their overall health. But given public health guidelines are often a compromise between what’s optimal to perform and what people won’t be put off by, it’s promising to see that the optimal amount of strength training per week to benefit health so closely mirrors current guidelines. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A middle-aged man performs an arm exercise at the gym using a weight machine." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449505/original/file-20220302-12454-tkhu4z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Resistance exercise doesn’t just have to mean lifting weights.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/adult-age-man-working-training-gym-1289966182">VH-studio/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are a couple of limitations with this study. While the number of people pooled across the studies is large, the number of studies actually included in the analysis is still quite small. The participants of the study were also primarily North American or western European – so the findings may not be as relevant for people of many different ethnic backgrounds. Another limitation is that most of the studies included in the analysis relied on questionnaires of large groups of people asking about their exercise habits. The problem with this is that people may overestimate or lie about the amount of exercise they actually do. </p>
<h2>Optimal exercise</h2>
<p>Strength training is good for your overall health in many more ways than you might expect.</p>
<p>Besides the obvious – that it makes you stronger, for example – researchers are beginning to learn more about the role certain hormones and cells that are released during resistance exercise play in our body. </p>
<p>For example, myokines are hormones that our muscles release in response to all sorts of stimuli – <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32393961/">including exercise</a>. Circulating around the body, myokines are able to regulate metabolism, as well as liver, brain and kidney function. One specific myokine I’ve spent a career studying is myostatin. While we know that <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22340904/">it regulates muscle size</a>, there’s all sorts of new evidence that it also influences <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34856088/">metabolism</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34634123/">fat cell growth</a> – which all play a role in helping us keep healthy and live longer. </p>
<p>Research also shows us that <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34650440/">resistance exercise</a> releases tiny cell fragments from our muscle cells called “extracellular vesicles”. These allow our muscle tissues to better communicate with each other. While we don’t entirely know what they’re doing, we do know that they’re carrying RNA (a molecule similar to DNA), proteins and even mitochondria (which help convert food into energy our cells can use) from <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2018.00738/full">cell to cell</a>. So although we aren’t entirely clear of their function yet, this is just another reminder of the influence our muscles have on many aspects of our health and body function.</p>
<p>However, the authors of this recent study only looked at the relationship between strength training and longevity. This means they didn’t look at why it has a protective effect – and why more than three hours of strength training per week was also linked to slightly greater risk of premature death. While we may be able to speculate on why strength training has this protective effect based on what other research has shown, more follow-up studies will be needed that really seek to explore these questions. </p>
<p>But while this study has shown strength training to be beneficial for preventing premature death from many harmful diseases, that doesn’t mean you should only strength train. It’s important to also do moderate intensity aerobic exercise (such as walking, jogging or cycling) most days of the week to optimise your chances of living a longer, healthier life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178209/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bradley Elliott receives funding from The Endocrine Society, The Physiological Society, the Quintin Hogg Charitable Trust and private philanthropic donors. He is affiliated with The Physiological Society, and is a Trustee of the British Society for Research on Ageing.</span></em></p>The study found that short amounts of weekly resistance exercise lowered risk of premature death from many different diseases by around 10-20%.Bradley Elliott, Senior Lecturer in Physiology, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1729412022-02-02T13:07:37Z2022-02-02T13:07:37Z50-year-old muscles just can’t grow big like they used to – the biology of how muscles change with age<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443851/original/file-20220201-17-1pp1t44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=86%2C0%2C7971%2C5376&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Why is it harder to build muscle as you age?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/senior-male-bodybuilder-flexing-his-biceps-royalty-free-image/1310652763?adppopup=true"> DjelicS/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is perhaps no better way to see the absolute pinnacle of human athletic abilities than by watching the Olympics. But at the Olympics – and at almost all professional sporting events – you rarely see a competitor over 40 years old and almost never see a single athlete over 50. This is because with every additional year spent on Earth, bodies age and muscles don’t respond to exercise the same as they used to. </p>
<p>I lead a team of scientists who study the health benefits of <a href="https://hnrca.tufts.edu/mission/">exercise, strength training and diet in older people</a>. We investigate how older people respond to exercise and try to understand the underlying biological mechanisms that cause muscles to increase in size and strength after resistance or strength training.</p>
<p>Old and young people build muscle in the same way. But as you age, many of the biological processes that turn exercise into muscle become less effective. This makes it harder for older people to build strength but also makes it that much more important for everyone to continue exercising as they age.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443854/original/file-20220201-17-1ljwx0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman spotting someone doing a bench press." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443854/original/file-20220201-17-1ljwx0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443854/original/file-20220201-17-1ljwx0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443854/original/file-20220201-17-1ljwx0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443854/original/file-20220201-17-1ljwx0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443854/original/file-20220201-17-1ljwx0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443854/original/file-20220201-17-1ljwx0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443854/original/file-20220201-17-1ljwx0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lifting weights and doing pushups and other strength training exercises cause muscles to grow in size and strength.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/wide-shot-of-woman-spotting-friend-bench-pressing-royalty-free-image/1346267080?adppopup=true">Thomas Barwick/Digital Vision via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>How the body builds muscle</h2>
<p>The exercise I study is the type that makes you stronger. Strength training includes exercises like pushups and situps, but also weightlifting and resistance training using bands or workout machines.</p>
<p>When you do strength training, over time, exercises that at first felt difficult become easier as your muscles increase in strength and size – a process called hypertrophy. Bigger muscles simply have larger muscle fibers and cells, and this allows you to lift heavier weights. As you keep working out, you can continue to increase the difficulty or weight of the exercises as your muscles get bigger and stronger.</p>
<p>It is easy to see that working out makes muscles bigger, but what is actually happening to the cells as muscles increase in strength and size in response to resistance training?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443857/original/file-20220201-27-l8le9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram showing how muscle contraction can move an arm." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443857/original/file-20220201-27-l8le9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443857/original/file-20220201-27-l8le9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443857/original/file-20220201-27-l8le9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443857/original/file-20220201-27-l8le9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443857/original/file-20220201-27-l8le9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=763&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443857/original/file-20220201-27-l8le9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=763&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443857/original/file-20220201-27-l8le9c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=763&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Muscles move your limbs and body by contracting or releasing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/preface">J. Gordon Betts, Kelly A. Young, James A. Wise, Eddie Johnson, Brandon Poe, Dean H. Kruse, Oksana Korol, Jody E. Johnson, Mark Womble, Peter DeSaix via OpenStax</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Any time you move your body, you are doing so by shortening and pulling with your muscles – a process called contraction. This is how muscles spend energy to generate force and produce movement. Every time you contract a muscle – especially when you have to work hard to do the contraction, like when lifting weights – the action causes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-020-00290-7">changes to the levels of various chemicals in your muscles</a>. In addition to the chemical changes, there are also specialized receptors on the surface of muscle cells that detect when you move a muscle, generate force or otherwise <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00223-014-9921-0">alter the biochemical machinery within a muscle</a>. </p>
<p>In a healthy young person, when these chemical and mechanical sensory systems detect muscle movement, they turn on a number of specialized chemical pathways within the muscle. These pathways in turn trigger the production of more proteins that get incorporated into the muscle fibers and cause the muscle to increase in size.</p>
<p>These cellular pathways also turn on genes that code for specific proteins in cells that make up the muscles contracting machinery. This activation of gene expression is a longer-term process, with genes being <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2015.05.011">turned on or off for several hours</a> after a single session of resistance exercise. </p>
<p>The overall effect of these many exercise-induced changes is to cause your muscles to get bigger.</p>
<h2>How older muscles change</h2>
<p>While the basic biology of all people, young or old, is more or less the same, something is behind the lack of senior citizens in professional sports. So what changes in a person’s muscles as they age?</p>
<p>What my colleagues and I have found in our research is that in young muscle, a little bit of exercise produces a strong signal for the many <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00324.2003">processes that trigger muscle growth</a>. In older people’s muscles, by comparison, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01383.2003">signal telling muscles to grow is much weaker</a> for a given amount of exercise. These changes begin to occur when a person reaches around 50 years old and become more pronounced as time goes on.</p>
<p>In a recent study, we wanted to see if the changes in signaling were accompanied by any changes in which genes – and how many of them – respond to exercise. Using a technique that allowed us to measure changes in thousands of genes in response to resistance exercise, we found that when younger men exercise, there are changes in the expression of more than 150 genes. When we looked at older men, we found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.14-254490">changes in the expression of only 42 genes</a>. This difference in gene expression seems to explain, at least partly, the more visible variation between how young and old people respond to strength training.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443859/original/file-20220201-28-r1wl98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An older woman in a swimsuit flexing and showing off muscles." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443859/original/file-20220201-28-r1wl98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443859/original/file-20220201-28-r1wl98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443859/original/file-20220201-28-r1wl98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443859/original/file-20220201-28-r1wl98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443859/original/file-20220201-28-r1wl98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443859/original/file-20220201-28-r1wl98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443859/original/file-20220201-28-r1wl98.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Strength training can help maintain overall fitness and allow you to keep doing other things you love as you age.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/older-caucasian-woman-flexing-her-muscles-on-beach-royalty-free-image/526298515">Peathegee Inc via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Staying fit as you age</h2>
<p>When you put together all of the various molecular differences in how older adults respond to strength training, the result is that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glp146">older people do not gain muscle mass as well as young people</a>.</p>
<p>But this reality should not discourage older people from exercising. If anything, it should encourage you to exercise more as you age. </p>
<p>Exercise still remains one of the <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/exercise-physical-activity">most important activities older adults can do for their health</a>. The work my colleagues and I have done clearly shows that although the responses to training lessen with age, they are by no means reduced to zero.</p>
<p>We showed that older adults with mobility problems who participate in a regular program of aerobic and resistance exercise can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.5616">reduce their risk of becoming disabled by about 20%</a>. We also found a similar 20% reduction in risk of becoming disabled among <a href="https://doi.org/10.7326/M16-2011">people who are already physically frail</a> if they did the same workout program.</p>
<p>While younger people may get stronger and build bigger muscles much faster than their older counterparts, older people still get incredibly valuable health benefits from exercise, including improved strength, physical function and reduced disability. So the next time you are sweating during a workout session, remember that you are building muscle strength that is vital to maintaining mobility and good health throughout a long life.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172941/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Roger Fielding receives funding from USDA, NIH, Biophytis, Nestle', Lonza. </span></em></p>As people age, the chemical signaling pathways in muscles become less potent, and it gets harder to build muscle and maintain strength. But the health benefits of strength training only increase with age.Roger Fielding, Senior Scientist Team Lead Nutrition Exercise Physiology and Sarcopenia Team Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging, Professor of Medicine, Tufts UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1730492022-01-12T13:36:47Z2022-01-12T13:36:47ZThe COVID-19 pandemic has inspired new health habits for these 4 scholars – here’s what they put into practice and why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438924/original/file-20211223-19-1hdjhyq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=581%2C442%2C4882%2C3178&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Health and well-being come in many forms, including finding solitude and connection with nature. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/relaxed-woman-breathing-fresh-air-in-a-green-forest-royalty-free-image/1314559532?adppopup=true">Pheelings Media/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>For some people, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought about change – some welcome and some not so welcome – to their routines or to what they prioritize. We asked four scholars to reflect on a health habit that they have adopted during the tumultuous months and years since COVID-19 turned people’s lives upside down.</em></p>
<p></p><hr><p></p>
<h2>Walking as a source of solitude and connection</h2>
<p><strong>Libby Richards, Associate Professor of Nursing, Purdue University</strong></p>
<p>As a busy working mom of two active boys, I embrace solitude whenever I can; I even take solace in grocery shopping. But when the pandemic hit, my errands became risky activities. Instead, with schools closed and the family at home, I embraced my time with them and got creative entertaining the kids. </p>
<p>But it was harder to find time for myself. “Alone time” went out the window. If I wanted to keep my sanity, I knew I needed to find some space. That’s when I put on my walking shoes and went outside. </p>
<p>At first, the walk was simply an escape. But as my routine became more consistent, I began to recognize and experience its benefits. <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/hhs/nur/directory/faculty/richards_libby.html">As a nurse</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Pdh4gSgAAAAJ&hl=en">physical activity researcher</a>, I already understood the importance of an active lifestyle. But before the pandemic, I focused only on the physical aspects, like keeping my muscles toned and weight stable. </p>
<p>I discovered that I had overlooked a crucial <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-runners-high-may-result-from-molecules-called-cannabinoids-the-bodys-own-version-of-thc-and-cbd-170796">benefit of physical activity</a>: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2333721421999316">mental health</a>. Instead of focusing my walks on physical fitness, I started walking for <a href="https://www.webmd.com/fitness-exercise/mental-benefits-of-walking#1">stress and tension relief</a>. And it worked. My sleep improved, I had fewer headaches and I could concentrate better. </p>
<p>Although my family is easing back into a new routine, I continue to walk, even during phone meetings and when it’s <a href="https://www.wishtv.com/news/medical/why-exercising-in-the-cold-can-be-more-beneficial-than-in-warm-weather/">cold out</a>. Sometimes I walk to do errands instead of driving. I feel more connected <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916518800798">with nature</a>, and I have a greater appreciation for fresh air. I’ve been able to disconnect from daily stressors, my mood and outlook are better and my overall sense of well-being has improved. </p>
<p></p><hr><p></p>
<h2>Making weightlifting a strong habit</h2>
<p><strong>Alison Phillips, Associate Professor of Psychology, Iowa State University</strong></p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/FSZyzhi8C9o?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Consistency is key to forming habits, and you have to cultivate the habits that get you closer to your goals.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I decided to lift weights during the pandemic to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0b013e31825dabb8">build strength and to reduce stress</a>. As <a href="https://psychology.iastate.edu/directory/dr-alison-phillips/">a health psychologist</a> who studies <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=TU08z8YAAAAJ&hl=en">how to build health-related habits</a>, I already knew what I needed to do: repeat the behavior in the same time or place and make sure a reward was tied to the behavior. No problem, I thought. </p>
<p>When it comes to cardio activity, I already had a solid habit, starting years before the pandemic. Every day, before dinner, I would do something that counts as cardio. During the pandemic, this has included getting on the home elliptical, jogging outside or doing a step video. I knew that one way to form a new habit is to piggyback on an existing habit, so I planned to lift weights after my cardio sessions. Four times a week, I would alternate resistance training of arms and legs.</p>
<p>But lifting weights wasn’t fun, it didn’t feel good at first, and I couldn’t tell if I was improving. I kept track of my weights workout on a calendar, and for most of 2020, that was the only reward I felt – a sense of accomplishment and a check mark on a piece of paper. I still had to persuade myself to do it, and only guilt or anticipated regret would drive me.</p>
<p>That didn’t work so well. Three days or more would pass with no weightlifting, until I would finally force myself to do it. Eventually, after months and months of semiregular lifting, I came to see it as something I valued. </p>
<p>What was my reward? I became more toned and fit, sure. And that was part of my identity and something I could be proud of during the mess of the pandemic. But what finally turned weightlifting into a habit was the good physical sensations I came to appreciate during and after a muscle-building exercise. If I didn’t lift weights after doing cardio, my body felt unused. </p>
<p>All habits, good or bad, require a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2013.876238">similar process to become habitual</a>. Typically, this involves <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033417">repetition in a familiar context</a>, paired with a reward for the behavior. The “context” for the habit might be a consistent location, timing and/or a sequence of activities. </p>
<p>It took me a full year to develop what I would call a habit of lifting weights. Now, even when my context changes – like returning to the gym after getting vaccinated or traveling for work or holidays – my body expects and needs the muscle work, and I find a way to do some kind of resistance training. </p>
<p></p><hr><p></p>
<h2>Small indulgences, in moderation</h2>
<p><strong>Katherine Basbaum, Clinical Dietitian, University of Virginia</strong></p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/katherinebasbaum/">a registered dietitian</a>, I’ve always promoted and followed the “all foods fit” mentality. This means that, as long as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2013.11.013">the majority of your meals and snacks</a> are prepared with nutritious foods, then <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2011.05.013">small indulgences are fine</a>. </p>
<p>For as long as I can remember, chocolate has been one of the tiny indulgences I allowed myself. Pre-pandemic, my chocolate habit consisted of one small piece in the morning with coffee, none during the day since I was running around a hospital from 9 to 5, and then another after dinner. </p>
<p>But when the pandemic began and I began working at home a few days per week, my routines changed in a big way, including what and when I ate. I still had three mostly balanced meals on the days I worked from home. But a new habit emerged too. My chocolate consumption, once a morning and evening indulgence, sometimes tripled. That’s because the chocolate was always right there, easily accessible all day long. </p>
<p>When I realized my once-harmless habit was out of control, I stopped buying the large bags of chocolate. Instead, I <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2007.05.019">downsized to a single-serving package</a> once per week. Because I wasn’t going to stores much, I was forced to stretch it out. </p>
<p>Ultimately I got back to my two-a-day routine. And even though I’m back to working in person at the hospital, I haven’t gone back to the big bags of chocolate. Those single-serving packages still suit me just fine.</p>
<p></p><hr><p></p>
<h2>Clearing the mind through meditation</h2>
<p><strong>Jessica Bane Robert, Writing and Mindfulness Instructor, Clark University</strong></p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/q0DMYs4b2Yw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A growing body of research shows that meditation can sharpen the mind.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I’ve <a href="https://clarknow.clarku.edu/2018/03/26/clark-campus-embraces-mindfulness-and-meditation/">taught a course</a> called <a href="https://catalog.clarku.edu/preview_course_nopop.php?catoid=25&coid=83651">Mindful Choices</a> at Clark University for eight years, so one might think I would have had a consistent meditation practice before now. </p>
<p>Yet not until the pandemic did I find the time and mental space to commit to daily meditation. Since March 2020, at least once daily, I have reserved 10 minutes to calm my mind by focusing on the breath or by using guided visualizations to picture beautiful supportive places or positive future outcomes. Depending on the day, I performed my “sits,” as they are called by meditation practitioners, by the pond in front of my home, upon waking or at bedtime. </p>
<p>[<em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Since then, my <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/meditation-and-a-relaxation-technique-to-lower-blood-pressure">blood pressure has dropped</a> – but even more importantly, I have experienced greater peace. I have less attachment to negative thoughts and emotions while being able to really dwell and linger on the positive. Further, meditation has improved my focus and “working memory.” Research suggests that <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-09-mindfulness-meditation-minutes-day-cognitive.html">benefits can be achieved</a> with as little as 10 minutes a day spent meditating.</p>
<p>Taking time to meditate may feel selfish to some, but research shows it <a href="https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/three_ways_mindfulness_can_make_you_less_biased">can reduce prejudice and bias toward others</a> as well as lessen one’s own tendency to find the negative in situations, called negativity bias. To foster gentleness toward oneself and compassion for others, my students and I practice loving kindness – <a href="https://www.mindful.org/a-guided-loving-kindness-meditation-with-sharon-salzberg/">a type of meditation practice popularized by</a> author Sharon Salzberg. </p>
<p>Many <a href="https://www.prevention.com/health/g27241883/best-meditation-apps/">apps are available</a> to guide you while cuing you to meditate and provide community – <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/29/health/5-steps-habit-builder-wellness/index.html">two things that make a new habit stick</a>. Insight Timer – my favorite – has a free version, but you may want to try Headspace, Waking Up, Ten Percent Happier and Calm, all apps that offer free trials. If you learn a new practice better by reading, dive into Salzberg’s “<a href="https://www.sharonsalzberg.com/real-happiness-the-power-of-meditation/">Real Happiness</a>” or Jon Kabat-Zinn’s classic “<a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/14096.Wherever_You_Go_There_You_Are">Wherever You Go, There You Are</a>.” </p>
<p>What I love about my new habit is that meditation can be done anytime, anywhere. All you need is your breath and, with it, you can change the quality of your thoughts and your day.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173049/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>L. Alison Phillips has received funding to conduct habit-related research from Les Mills. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica Bane Robert, Katherine Basbaum, and Libby Richards do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The new year is a perfect time to adopt new health habits and routines. These four scholars reflect on the ways that they overcame the pandemic blues to get fit.Libby Richards, Associate Professor of Nursing, Purdue UniversityJessica Bane Robert, Professor of English, Clark UniversityKatherine Basbaum, Clinical Dietitian, University of VirginiaL. Alison Phillips, Associate Professor of Psychology, Iowa State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1660522021-08-25T10:38:53Z2021-08-25T10:38:53ZHow often should we exercise to get in shape?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417798/original/file-20210825-21-83acrh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4277%2C2916&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">You probably won't need to train as much as Jakob Ingebrigtsen to get in shape.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://webgate.epa.eu/?16634349628007773501&MEDIANUMBER=57105777"> VALDRIN XHEMAJ/ EPA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Elite athletes – like <a href="https://www.independent.ie/sport/other-sports/olympics/after-12-years-of-refining-plans-and-expectation-project-ingebrigtsen-delivers-on-the-biggest-stage-of-them-all-40735000.html">Jakob Ingebrigtsen</a>, who won gold for the men’s 1500m race at the Tokyo 2020 Olympics – train <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1747954119872321?journalCode=spoa">almost ten to 14 times per week</a>, clocking up numerous hours on the track and in the gym. But for the rest of us, getting into shape does not necessarily mean such an arduous regime.</p>
<p>How often you should train depends on a lot of different factors – such as your training goals, the intensity of your exercise and any history of injury you may have. The type of training you do can also determine how often you need to exercise. </p>
<p>Exercise stresses different systems in our body. This stress causes fatigue, but also leads to “adaptations” (improvements) specific to the stress we’ve experienced. For example, while resistance training (such as weight lifting) helps us build muscular strength, it’s less likely to improve our cardiovascular fitness because it puts more stress on our skeletal muscles than it does our heart.</p>
<p>But improvements only happen with a combination of recovery and repetition. If we don’t repeat the training stress, improvements will be lost. We also need to give our body enough time – but not too much time – between training sessions to <a href="https://us.humankinetics.com/products/nscas-essentials-of-sport-science">recover and “adapt”</a>. In short, the key to improving fitness is to train consistently, which means striking a balance between exercising and recovering enough.</p>
<p>To complicate matters, some body systems take longer to recover than others. For example, exercise that stresses the body’s nervous system – such as sprinting, high-intensity interval training, or very heavy resistance training – will take <a href="https://www.human-kinetics.co.uk/9780736051002/athletic-development/">longer to recover from</a> than a lower-intensity session – such as a gentle jog that primarily stresses the heart and lungs. This means that depending on what type of training you do, you may need to exercise more or less than you think. </p>
<h2>Endurance exercise</h2>
<p>When training for endurance events, doing regular, low-intensity workouts are useful. Regularly training at this intensity helps the body <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20840557/">use oxygen more effectively</a>, and over time makes it easier to <a href="https://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40798-015-0007-y">exercise at the same intensity</a>. In fact, successful endurance runners tend to perform most (about 80% of their training) at <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijspp/5/3/article-p276.xml">low intensities</a>, with higher-intensity sessions planned carefully – often two to three times per week, with a minimum of 48 hours between them. This also helps athletes recover better and avoid injury between training sessions.</p>
<h2>Skill-based sports</h2>
<p>Many sports, including swimming, tennis and martial arts, require combinations of physical and technical skill. While <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02640414.2019.1688618?casa_token=kVTfwmZwtC0AAAAA%3AL4iU9SsEMqhziRabv2jFi7F9TVNoVOL_fQ1e7kgIyPzF91rTojrf9PS9JIgHnJUjeccNTfU5g5bUYw">more research is needed</a> in this area, it’s generally thought that consistent and purposeful practice improves performance for these types of sports. </p>
<p>For example, swim coaches value high-volume, low-intensity training (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5504587/">focusing on technique</a>) to enable their swimmers to move more efficiently and easily through the water. But when we do the same type of training repeatedly, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/pmrj.12503?casa_token=Endj93kgqRAAAAAA%253AYg-7OZHyHg1YW6_JAl_q7r0XGvzLAl9xFMMTytuTfA5tignY5h1qkuxRzGOHy3k4ZsuC8fVB-Gfn">overuse injuries</a> can happen, so it might be best to vary the training stress to help the body recover – so balance intense days with easier training days and recovery days.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Person wearing a swim cap performs the front crawl in a swimming pool." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417784/original/file-20210825-17-1l2ldpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417784/original/file-20210825-17-1l2ldpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417784/original/file-20210825-17-1l2ldpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417784/original/file-20210825-17-1l2ldpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417784/original/file-20210825-17-1l2ldpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417784/original/file-20210825-17-1l2ldpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417784/original/file-20210825-17-1l2ldpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Less intense but more frequent exercise may help swimmers develop technique.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/freestyle-swimming-competitor-action-414655744">Microgen/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>High-intensity activities (such as sprinting or practising a tennis serve) can change the central and peripheral nervous systems – both thought to be important for improving skill. But these activities can only be maintained for a short period at the required intensity – so to avoid injury, it’s important to only do a little each training session, but <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02640414.2019.1688618?casa_token=kVTfwmZwtC0AAAAA%3AL4iU9SsEMqhziRabv2jFi7F9TVNoVOL_fQ1e7kgIyPzF91rTojrf9PS9JIgHnJUjeccNTfU5g5bUYw">practice consistently over time</a>. </p>
<p>In short, training “smarter” not harder is key in both endurance sports and skill-based sports.</p>
<h2>Resistance training</h2>
<p>When it comes to building muscle, doing more training sessions a week results in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-018-0872-x">greater gains in muscular strength</a>. This is probably because more training volume leads to greater increases in both <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0793-0">muscle size and strength</a>. But rest and recovery (including proper nutrition) are still crucial in helping muscles <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.01.016">increase in size</a>. </p>
<p>Generally, it’s recommended that muscle-strengthening exercises are performed on <a href="https://health.gov/sites/default/files/2019-10/PAG_ExecutiveSummary.pdf">two or more days per week</a> to improve muscle and bone health. If increasing muscle size is your goal, working different muscle groups on different days can help ensure you are still challenging your muscles enough to build strength, while giving yourself enough time to recover between workouts.</p>
<p>But while performing more days of resistance training is beneficial, even just one day per week is effective in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-018-0872-x">improving strength</a>. Whole body movements, such as squats and lunges, performed with correct technique, can be great for developing strength. It’s also worth noting that exercising at your absolute maximum until you can’t lift any more repetitions on a given exercise – known as lifting to failure – provides no additional benefits for improving strength. Indeed, it may be <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/fulltext/2021/04000/effects_of_resistance_training_performed_to.39.aspx?casa_token=p7e-QS7NYlUAAAAA:QXZ6WowpEn_U71kzS5SLpvQ2iXMCtmx2EvBXtZPUyVfA-3PSsqC9P70Mk8wSnOAmmPPASg3Zkeh6FGZ9gE6vcmsOzBND">more beneficial</a> for building strength to leave a little bit in reserve. </p>
<h2>Health and fitness</h2>
<p>For the average person trying to get in shape, the most important thing isn’t necessarily how much exercise you do, but the quality of that exercise. </p>
<p>For example, high-intensity interval training (HIIT) show promise for <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-csmr/fulltext/2018/05000/interval_training_for_cardiometabolic_health__why.5.aspx">improving fitness and health</a>. This involves performing exercises at maximum effort for a short period of time, followed by a period of rest. <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspor.2021.699608/full?utm_source=S-TWT&utm_medium=SNET&utm_campaign=ECO_FSPOR_XXXXXXXX_auto-dlvrit#B85">A recent study</a> showed doing four to seven bouts of intense, one-minute exercises with 75 seconds of rest between three times a week improved fitness and mental wellbeing. So for people who don’t regularly exercise, less than 30 minutes per week could be beneficial. </p>
<p>Whether you should exercise more or less often depends on many things – including how often you’re able, your training goals and the intensity of the exercise you’re doing. We recommended trying to vary the kind of training you do within a week, and allow enough recovery between intense or resistance training days – including at least one recovery day a week. But overall, the most effective training programme is the one that you maintain consistently over a long period of time.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166052/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The amount of exercise you need to do depends on your training goals.Matthew Wright, Lecturer in Biomechanics and Strength and Conditioning, Teesside UniversityJonathan Taylor, Lecturer in Sport and Exercise, Teesside UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1477062020-10-09T13:34:02Z2020-10-09T13:34:02ZMuscle dysmorphia: why are so many young men suffering this serious mental health condition?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362640/original/file-20201009-19-172af9o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C7%2C4985%2C3315&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Muscle dysmorphia can lead to other mental health conditions, such as anxiety or depression.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/attractive-muscular-man-admiring-his-muscles-689811460">F8 studio</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/news/millions-men-uk-affected-body-image-issues-mental-health-foundation-survey">Body image concerns</a> among men are increasingly common and can have a serious impact on mental health. And for an estimated <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/article/34307044/muscle-dysmorphia-one-in-10-men-in-gyms-believed-to-have-bigorexia">one in ten young men</a> who go the gym in the UK, these body image concerns can result in a mental health condition known as muscle dysmorphia.</p>
<p>Though researchers are only just beginning to understand the complexities of the condition, it appears young men are currently being affected by it at a higher rate compared to other populations. It’s believed there are many reasons driving this, but researchers have found that media and social media pressure, alongside changing ideas of masculinity may both be major causes.</p>
<p>Sometimes referred to as “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1740144505000744">bigorexia</a>” or “reverse anorexia”, people with muscle dysmorphia believe their body is too small, skinny, or insufficiently muscular – even though the opposite may be true. This distorted view causes a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033318297714002?via%3Dihub">preoccupation</a> with becoming <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1740144512000125">overly muscular and lean</a>, often leading to the development of dangerous habits, such as excessive weight training, restrictive dieting and the use of substances such as anabolic steroids. It can also lead to anxiety, depression and may affect their daily life.</p>
<p>But currently diagnosing muscle dysmorphia is still difficult. Though several <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1740144504000269">self-report surveys</a> exist to help physicians diagnose patients, these surveys only <a href="https://www.dovepress.com/muscle-dysmorphia-current-insights-peer-reviewed-article-PRBM">assess related symptoms</a> (such as a desire for bigger muscle, or body image issues) rather than offering a robust diagnosis. </p>
<p>Diagnosis also relies on patients meeting a specific <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0033318297714002?via%3Dihub">set of criteria</a>, such as having a preoccupation with being lean and muscular, weight lifting excessively and dieting. But since so many different methods are used to diagnose muscle dysmorphia, this can make fully understanding the condition difficult. </p>
<p>However, in general, most experts agree people with muscle dysmorphia tend to engage in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10640260902848477?needAccess=true">steroid use</a>, have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1740144517300529">symptoms of eating disorders</a> (such as compulsive exercise and eating habits) and higher body dissatisfaction, usually with their <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/23311908.2016.1243194">general appearance, weight and muscularity</a>.</p>
<p>People with muscle dysmorphia also tend to have lower self-esteem, higher anxiety levels when their physique is exposed, <a href="https://www.cogentoa.com/article/10.1080/23311908.2016.1243194">higher rates of depression</a>, and obsessive compulsive behaviours towards <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/erv.1088">exercise and diet</a>. For example, people may prioritise training over <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/erv.1016">work or social activities</a> or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1740144512000125">strictly eat every three hours</a> to ensure muscle gain. And if these behaviours are disrupted, it causes anxiety and emotional disturbance.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/exercise-addiction-is-a-real-mental-health-condition-yet-still-poorly-understood-133577">Exercise addiction is a real mental health condition, yet still poorly understood</a>
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<p>Muscle dysmorphia tends to affect men in their <a href="https://connect.springerpub.com/content/sgrjcp/31/4/255">mid-20s to mid-30s</a>, though average age of onset is <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/hrp.9.5.254.259">19 years old</a>. Research suggests it’s most common in <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0004867415614106">weightlifting</a> and <a href="https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/12362">bodybuilding</a> communities. </p>
<p>However, research also shows <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s12967-014-0221-2">almost 6% of US students</a> have it. Another study found 4.2% of women and 12.7% of men in the US military <a href="https://academic.oup.com/milmed/article/181/5/494/4158268">have muscle dysmorphia</a>. So while it appears to predominantly affect young men, there’s limited research on its prevalence in other populations.</p>
<h2>The ‘ideal’ body</h2>
<p>There are many reasons a person may develop muscle dysmorphia, and it’s unique to each person. However, research suggests that the media (and social media), as well as pressure from family and friends, are likely causes.</p>
<p>For example, media portrayals of men over time have become more muscular. Specifically, over several decades <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1098-108X(200101)29:1%3C90::AID-EAT15%3E3.0.CO;2-F">male models in magazines</a> have become significantly larger and leaner. Even <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/%28SICI%291098-108X%28199907%2926%3A1%3C65%3A%3AAID-EAT8%3E3.0.CO%3B2-D">male action figures</a> have changed over time, becoming unrealistically muscular.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Superhero action figures, including Captain America." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362642/original/file-20201009-19-1sr4k9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362642/original/file-20201009-19-1sr4k9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362642/original/file-20201009-19-1sr4k9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362642/original/file-20201009-19-1sr4k9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362642/original/file-20201009-19-1sr4k9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362642/original/file-20201009-19-1sr4k9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362642/original/file-20201009-19-1sr4k9m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Portrayals of unrealistic male physiques are everywhere.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/kuala-lumpur-malaysia-october-6-2018-1197291274">Aisyaqilumaranas/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Muscle dysmorphia is linked to the belief that a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311908.2016.1243194">muscular physique is ideal</a>. So being exposed to these images and ideals in the media may cause concern and a distorted view of one’s body. Studies also show <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-019-01190-0">social media use</a> is directly linked to the idolisation of muscularity in young boys. Viewing images of <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2020-23347-001">fit people on social media</a> also predicts a fixation with becoming more muscular.</p>
<p>The view that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2211266920300207">being muscular is valuable</a> is typically learned from friends and family, and pressure to be muscular may come in the form of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311908.2016.1243194">comparisons or comments</a> about appearance from loved ones. Research shows some men even seek a muscular physique to cope with bullying and emasculation from <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Muscled-Self-and-Its-Aftermath%3A-A-Life-History-Sparkes-Batey/009cb96b6a5be6fed9b0d99d8c0576198d9fe697">family members</a> and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/men0000072">romantic partners</a>.</p>
<p>Some researchers also believe believe a so-called “<a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/000276486029005004">masculine crisis</a>” may be contributing to increased cases of muscle dysmorphia. This reflects the perceived belief there are less opportunities for men to <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Fitness-Revolution.-Historical-Transformations-Andreasson-Johansson/b67cca687f646e256b97d97ac6383d21f032d7dc">assert their masculinity</a> through manual and industrial labour. This may leave some men feeling threatened and emasculated. </p>
<p>As a result, men have learned to use a muscular physique to <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Little_Big_Men.html?id=z-ax2426Kw0C&redir_esc=y">visually show their masculinity</a>. Increasingly, masculinity in modern culture represents not what you do, but <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1469540519846196?journalCode=joca">how you look</a>. So, the value that society has placed on being muscular may explain why muscle dysmorphia is more common in men.</p>
<p>Given muscle dysmorphia is potentially under-reported, we cannot accurately know how common it is. Instead, we can only speculate based on the limited evidence we have. The uncertainty is partly because of inconsistent diagnostic tools, and the notion it’s <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0025923">taboo</a> for men to be concerned with appearance or sharing their feelings.</p>
<p>Little research has explored the treatment options for muscle dysmorphia, but <a href="https://connect.springerpub.com/content/sgrjcp/31/4/255">one review</a> suggests that cognitive behavioural therapy, thought restructuring (a technique that helps people understand and challenge their thoughts, feelings, and beliefs), and family therapy could all be beneficial. </p>
<p>Given that internal experiences are hard to change, people suffer with the condition long-term. But seeing as the condition is similar to <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/body-dysmorphia/">body dysmorphic disorder</a>, which causes people to obsess over perceived flaws in their appearance more generally, researchers may already have promising potential solutions to help manage emotions and symptoms associated with muscle dysmorphia.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147706/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ieuan Cranswick does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Social media and changing ideas about masculinity are making more and more young men believe their body is too small, skinny or insufficiently muscular.Ieuan Cranswick, Senior Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Therapy, Leeds Beckett UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1464532020-09-29T12:40:11Z2020-09-29T12:40:11ZResistance training: here’s why it’s so effective for weight loss<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360543/original/file-20200929-22-1c4yu7t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=139%2C0%2C5036%2C3453&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The more muscle you build, the more calories you body requires at rest.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/people-working-out-on-fitness-equipment-296936174">Monkey Business Images/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Weight lifting, also known as resistance training, has been <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235350711_From_Milo_to_Milo_A_History_of_Barbells_Dumbells_and_Indian_Clubs">practised for centuries</a> as a way of building muscular strength. Research shows that resistance training, whether done via body weight, resistance bands or machines, dumbbells or free weights, not only helps us <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28918566/">build strength</a>, but also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20703498/">improves muscle size</a> and can help counteract <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31244666/">age-related muscle loss</a>. </p>
<p>More recently it’s become popular among those looking to lose weight. While exercises such as running and cycling are indeed effective for <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30385379/">reducing body fat</a>, these activities can simultaneously decrease muscle size, leading to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30385379/">weaker muscles</a> and greater perceived weight loss, as muscle is <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/pdf/10.1152/physrev.1953.33.3.245">more dense than fat</a>. But unlike endurance exercises, evidence shows <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11676593/">resistance training</a> not only has beneficial effects on <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30385379/">reducing body fat</a>, it also <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20703498/">increases muscle size</a> and strength. </p>
<h2>The ‘after-burn effect’</h2>
<p>When we exercise, our muscles need more energy than they do when resting. This energy comes from our muscles’ ability to break down fat and carbohydrate (stored within the muscle, liver and fat tissue) with the help of oxygen. So during exercise, we breathe faster and our heart works harder to pump more oxygen, fat, and carbohydrate to our exercising muscles.</p>
<p>What is less obvious, however, is that after we’ve finished exercising, oxygen uptake actually remains elevated in order to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14599232/">restore muscles</a> to their resting state by breaking down stored fat and carbohydrates. This phenomenon is called excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) – though more commonly known as the “after-burn effect”. It describes how long oxygen uptake remains elevated after exercise in order to help the muscles recover. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14599232/">extent and duration</a> of the after-burn effect is determined by the type, length, and intensity of exercise, as well as fitness level and diet. Longer-lasting exercise that uses multiple large muscles, performed to or near fatigue, results in higher and longer-lasting after-burn. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man performs a squat with a barbell on his back." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360545/original/file-20200929-16-hr87iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/360545/original/file-20200929-16-hr87iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360545/original/file-20200929-16-hr87iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360545/original/file-20200929-16-hr87iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360545/original/file-20200929-16-hr87iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360545/original/file-20200929-16-hr87iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/360545/original/file-20200929-16-hr87iq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Exercises that engage more large muscle groups enhance after-burn effect.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-doing-back-squat-exercise-raising-623720516">Photology1971/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>High-intensity interval training (HIIT) and high intensity resistance training are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14599232/">most effective</a> at elevating both short and long-term after-burn. The reason HIIT-type exercises are thought to be more effective than steady-state endurance exercise is because of the increased fatigue associated with HIIT. This fatigue leads to more oxygen and energy required over a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14599232/">prolonged period</a> to repair damaged muscle and replenish depleted energy stores. As such, resistance exercise is an effective way to lose excess fat due to the high calorie cost of the actual training session, and the “after-burn effect”. </p>
<h2>Long-term fat loss</h2>
<p>Resistance training can also be effective for long-term weight control, too. This is because muscle size plays a major role in determining resting metabolic rate (RMR), which is how many calories your body requires to function at rest. Resting metabolic rate accounts for <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30385379/">60-75% of total energy expenditure</a> in non-exercising people, and fat is the body’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30385379/">preferred energy source</a> at rest. </p>
<p>Increasing muscle size through resistance training increases RMR, thereby increasing or sustaining <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30385379">fat loss over time</a>. A review of 18 studies found that resistance training was effective at <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32397898/">increasing resting metabolic rate</a>, whereas aerobic exercise and combined aerobic and resistance exercise were <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32397898/">not as effective</a>. However, it’s also important to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11676593/">control calorie intake</a> in order to lose fat and sustain fat loss.</p>
<p>Resistance training exercises should engage the largest muscle groups, use whole body exercises performed standing and should involve two or more joints. All of these make the body work harder, thereby increasing the amount of muscle and therefore RMR. An effective resistance training programme should combine intensity, volume (number of exercises and sets), and progression (increasing both as you get stronger). The intensity should be high enough that you feel challenged during your workout.</p>
<p>The most effective way of doing this is using the repetition maximum method. For the purpose of fat loss, this should be performing between <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19346974/">six and ten repetitions</a> of an exercise with a resistance that results in fatigue, so that you cannot comfortably do another full repetition after the last one. Three to four sets, two or three times a week for <a href="https://shop.lww.com/ACSM-s-Guidelines-for-Exercise-Testing-and-Prescription/p/9781496339065">each muscle group</a> is recommended. </p>
<p>The repetition maximum method also ensures progression, because the stronger you get, the more you will need to increase resistance or load to cause fatigue by the tenth repetition. Progression can be achieved by increasing the resistance or intensity so that fatigue occurs after performing fewer repetitions, say eight or six. </p>
<p>Resistance training helps with excess fat loss by increasing both after-burn after exercise, and by increasing muscle size, thereby increasing the number of calories we burn at rest. Combining it with a healthy diet will only further increase the loss of excess body fat – and may also provide other positive health benefits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/146453/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Workouts that include weight lifting and bodyweight exercises burn fat both during and afterwards.David R Clark, Senior Lecturer, Strength and Conditioning, Liverpool John Moores UniversityCarl Langan-Evans, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Strength and Conditioning, Liverpool John Moores UniversityRob Erskine, Reader in Neuromuscular Physiology, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1438592020-08-07T10:20:28Z2020-08-07T10:20:28ZAbility, not age, should be the only factor determining what exercise you do<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351735/original/file-20200807-20-1oszgzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=32%2C16%2C5431%2C3620&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Strength training can improve bone density, muscle mass, and physical ability in older people.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-senior-people-doing-exercises-gym-1426125440">NDAB Creativity/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s a common assumption that exercise in older people is difficult and dangerous, so it’s perhaps best avoided. But this is often not the case – even if these ideas are ingrained in society. Research has repeatedly shown that exercise in older adults is linked with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6304477/">lower disease risk</a>, <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f6234">reduced risk of falls</a>, and better <a href="https://pmj.bmj.com/content/90/1059/26">overall health</a>.</p>
<p>But misconceptions about age and exercise still exist – and it’s not difficult to see why. Exercise recommendations, even from health authorities, are often <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/exercise/physical-activity-guidelines-older-adults/">based on age</a>. But if you look closer, you notice that these recommendations are often identical to those for younger people, with the differences being in assumptions of ability. </p>
<p>Indeed, it’s true that as you age you lose muscle strength, bone density, and your body composition <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/70/3/405/4714875">shifts from muscle to fat</a>. However, research shows exercise training at any age results in positive gains in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2006.00575.x">muscle mass</a>, muscle strength, bone density, and improvements to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ageing/article/31/4/255/23668">overall health</a> – even in people as old as 97. </p>
<p>Safety is also a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27620535/">commonly perceived barrier</a> when exercising at an older age. However, it appears that the benefits of exercise, both <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31343601/">aerobic and resistance</a>, outweigh the <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/2712934">risks</a> of injury or cardiovascular events. </p>
<p>When choosing what type of exercise to do, it’s your ability – not your age – that should be your primary consideration. Older people are more likely to suffer from one or more age-related diseases or health conditions (such as type 2 diabetes, osteoarthritis, heart disease and stroke) that may affect their ability to take exercise. But risk of and recovery from these conditions are all positively influenced by daily exercise. Even arthritis symptoms can be <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/arthritis/in-depth/arthritis/art-20047971">reduced by low-impact movements</a>. </p>
<h2>Ability, not age</h2>
<p>So, what type of exercise should you be doing? <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/2467739">Prescribing training</a> based on a person’s age is too simplistic, as people can be very different from one another. For example, I’ve meet both frail 65-year-olds and others that can <a href="https://youtu.be/FFdxDVgjlwc">outpace me on the track</a>. Exercise prescription should be done by ability. And, whichever mode you choose, remember it should always challenge you.</p>
<p>Maintaining a high level of low-intensity activity (such as walking, jogging or cycling) is a lifestyle choice correlated with longevity. Given that almost <a href="https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/publications/statistics/physical-activity-statistics-2015">50% of UK adults</a> don’t meet minimum activity guidelines, this is an immediate positive impact that people can have on their fitness and health, both through the benefits of being active and by off-setting the <a href="https://bjgp.org/content/69/683/278">negative health affects</a> of being sedentary. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Older woman walking with rolling shopping bag." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351736/original/file-20200807-14-tt722a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351736/original/file-20200807-14-tt722a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351736/original/file-20200807-14-tt722a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351736/original/file-20200807-14-tt722a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351736/original/file-20200807-14-tt722a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351736/original/file-20200807-14-tt722a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351736/original/file-20200807-14-tt722a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Walking to the shops is a great way of increasing physical activity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/elder-woman-walking-alone-park-1730086546">Bauwimauwi/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Simply moving around more is a great way of maintaining fitness and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25977572/">general health</a>. For example, standing up every ad break when watching TV, walking to the shops instead of driving, or taking the stairs are all great ways of increasing activity. </p>
<p>However, other types of workouts may also have similar benefits for older people. High intensity interval training (HIIT) exercise, which involves exercising at (or near) 100% effort for short bouts followed by rest, is a popular form of aerobic training. While HIIT training is often assumed to be only for those who are athletic or young, our research shows that HIIT training in both <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.14814/phy2.13343">in older men</a> and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/103/4/1479/4781494">pre-diabetic older men and women</a>, is beneficial to overall health. It’s worth noting that we used stationary bikes for safety, as an intense bout of HIIT exercise may make people of all ages can feel a bit faint.</p>
<p>And, when HIIT training incorporates leg balance and strength exercises, there’s both perceived and actual <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/japa/27/3/article-p325.xml">decreases in fall risk</a> in older people, as well as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25773069/">cardiovascular improvements</a>.</p>
<p>Resistance training, or exercises that require your maximal strength, is also a great option for people of every age. Not only will many older people be capable of performing resistance training, they will also benefit greatly from it – with studies showing strength and resistance training <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6279907/">improves bone density</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3117172/">muscle mass</a>, and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27620705/">physical ability</a>. </p>
<p>Resistance training also doesn’t need to involve heavy weights in a gym, but as a general guide the movement should be challenging and near the limit of your strength if repeated about ten times. For example, performing a chair squat (getting up from a seated position repeatedly) can be made harder by holding weights, cans, or even a bottle of milk. It can be made harder still by balancing on one leg as you stand up. </p>
<p>While older people are likely to gain muscle mass and strength from exercise, it does get harder to <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/japplphysiol.00170.2020">build muscle tissue</a> as you age. Even elite athletes, who maintain lifelong high levels of training see <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2018.01100/full">decreases in performance</a> as they age.</p>
<p>But fitness isn’t the only positive change from exercise. Exercise is also shown to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6304477/">improve mental health</a>, well-being and cognitive function, alongside improved bone density and longer life. Improved bone density from weight lifting may also <a href="https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jos/2019/5134690/">minimise injury</a> if an older person does have a fall.</p>
<p>Balance is also an important skill at any age – and this skill can be trained. Improved balance may <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/34/1/7">prevent falls</a> or injuries from falls in older people. Activities such as yoga or tai chi may improve balance. But even something as simple as standing on one leg while putting your socks on can challenge your balance. </p>
<p>A great combination of strength and balance exercises are “asymmetric exercises” which involve moving only one side of the body at a time. This can be as simple as balancing on one foot whilst moving the other leg back and forth, or using one arm at a time to perform a <a href="https://twitter.com/Strength4_Life/status/1043783136553897984">lifting or throwing movement</a> to challenge and <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/34/1/7">improve balance</a>. </p>
<p>In short, the best type of exercise – regardless of your age – has already been <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/exercise/">outlined by the NHS</a>. Aim to be physically active daily, do activities that improve strength, flexibility and balance at least two days a week, get at least 150 minutes of moderate intensity activity or 75 minutes of vigorous intensity activity a week, and reduce time spent sitting or lying down. And no matter your age or ability, do exercises that continue to challenge you.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143859/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bradley Elliott receives funding from the Endocrine Society, the Quintin Hogg Trust, and private philanthropy to support his academic research. He is affiliated with The Physiological Society as a society representative. </span></em></p>All exercise is beneficial for our overall health – regardless of age.Bradley Elliott, Lecturer in Physiology, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/978142018-08-06T10:38:30Z2018-08-06T10:38:30ZWhy stretching is (still) important for weight loss and exercise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/226553/original/file-20180706-122253-dtg8nn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many athletes stretch before and after exercise, but they may not be gaining benefits from doing so.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portait-blond-girl-getting-streching-her-171343079">ESB Basic/shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There seems to be a lot of confusion regarding the value – or lack thereof – of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15438627.2016.1258640">muscle stretching</a> to accelerate recovery after exercise. “Stretching clears out your lactic acid,” and other similar claims abound. Is any of this true?</p>
<p>Sort of.</p>
<p>First, it is important to understand the difference between stretching for recovery and stretching for remodeling. </p>
<h2>Recovery</h2>
<p>During exercise, muscles are called upon to work. During this work, fuel is used up, waste products are created and muscle fiber structure is disrupted by multiple micro tears. Imagine a banquet, for comparison, during which the food is eaten, garbage is accumulated (napkins, chicken bones, etc.), and the table settings disrupted. Before the next banquet, the food needs to be restocked, the garbage cleared, and the tables reset. </p>
<p>For muscles, this process of resetting for the next event is called recovery. The muscle is returned to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2018.00403/full">full function</a> without soreness. </p>
<p>This is not the process that leads to body change per se, but it is important for athletes who wish to compete at their highest level multiple times during a short period. </p>
<p>Athletes have tried many things to speed up recovery: cryotherapy, massage, compression, ice water immersion, stretching, <a href="https://sbrsport.me/2017/06/21/hyperbaric-medicine-injury-recovery-basics/">hyperbaric oxygen</a>, anti-inflammatories and <a href="https://breakingmuscle.com/learn/science-says-electrical-myostimulation-can-speed-recovery">electromyostimulation</a>, just to name a few. These interventions are aimed at decreasing lactic acid, inflammatory markers and other molecules that build up following intense exercise.</p>
<p>Of these, only massage is consistently effective. Multiple studies have shown that stretching does not aid significantly in <a href="http://www.wingate.org.il/_Uploads/17barnett-usingrecovery-2006.pdf">waste removal</a> or serve in any capacity to accelerate muscle recovery. </p>
<h2>Remodeling</h2>
<p>Most of us aren’t training for professional competitions, though, but are exercising to be healthy, lose weight and improve our moods. </p>
<p>For that, we need to focus on our body’s <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550413112005037">remodeling response</a> to exercise, which is not the same as recovery from exercise.</p>
<p>Plainly said, when we exercise consistently, our bodies adapt to that stressor by changing our muscle structure, metabolism and physiology. It is that change, that remodeling, that leads to all the positive benefits of exercise. To stick with our banquet example, if we realized that 500 people are going to show up at every event, but we only have 10 tables set at present, we would change our capacity to be ready for the next event. We would increase the efficiency in the kitchen and set more tables. Likewise, our body remodels itself to adapt to increasing exercise.</p>
<p>Many studies also have been conducted to determine how to optimize the body’s remodeling response to exercise. After <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29623692">35-plus years of study</a>, six variables emerge as consistently aiding the body in its effort to reorganize in response to exercise: timing of nutritional intake (specifically protein), type of exercise, massage, sleep, low-dose creatine and – you guessed it – stretching. </p>
<p>Perhaps the most well-known and accepted benefits of muscle stretching exercises are improved or maintained range of motion, or both; alignment of bones and joints; and strengthening of connective tissues – all elements that optimize performance. Many studies have shown that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167945716301786">flexibility training</a> (dedicated attention over time to muscle stretching as part of an exercise program) directly improves muscle function, and ultrasound images have documented favorable alterations in muscle architecture following weeks of regular stretching, such as longer fibers. What’s more, a recent study has clearly shown that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29623692">stretching</a> over time improves blood flow to the muscles during subsequent exercise in animals. </p>
<p>Prior negative commentary around <a href="https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/04/03/reasons-not-to-stretch/">muscle stretching</a> may be misleading to the casual observer. It is true that studies have shown static stretching routines (reach, hold for 30 seconds, release, next stretch) prior to a workout or competition lead to decreases in strength during that event, and that stretching before activity does not prevent injuries, as was long thought. But these are very specific circumstances that don’t apply to most people. </p>
<h2>So do I stretch or not?</h2>
<p>If you are an elite athlete trying to decrease injury, increase strength or accelerate muscle recovery right before your next event – then no.</p>
<p>If you are most people, exercising to lose weight, be well and improve mood – then yes. It will help with muscle remodeling, connective tissue strengthening, range-of-motion improvement, joint alignment and potentially blood flow during subsequent exercise – all beneficial effects in the long run.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97814/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>J. David Prologo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Who hasn’t been told to stretch before and after exercise to prevent injury and improve performance? There may be no scientific evidence to back that up, although stretching has other benefits.J. David Prologo, Associate Professor, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/981982018-06-13T15:01:39Z2018-06-13T15:01:39ZDoes foam rolling actually do any good?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/222978/original/file-20180613-32316-js29s2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Roll your own. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-young-caucasian-woman-sportswoman-uses-1093781006?src=2PY1GGhCFPMszFtJO31txA-1-24">fotoliza</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Foam rolling was once for professional athletes only. These days it’s hard to walk into a gym without tripping over somebody rolling around on a neoprene tube. Dedicated classes in hip New York gyms are <a href="https://www.bustle.com/articles/52998-6-moves-you-can-do-with-a-foam-roller-besides-stretching">frequented by</a> the likes of Sarah Jessica Parker and Shakira. Forget protein shakers, resistance bands or Fit Bits: foam rollers are this season’s must-have gym accessory. </p>
<p>The rise of foam rollers owes much to the Israeli engineer and physicist <a href="https://www.feldenkrais.com/">Moshé Feldenkrais</a>, whose pioneering work on body movements to improve muscle function became popular in the 1950s. A black belt in judo, Feldenkrais incorporated them into his system for physical improvement when he came across them in the US a couple of decades later. </p>
<p>More recently, the American sports therapist Michael Clark helped introduce these accessories to the general population with his 2001 book, <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Integrated_Training_for_the_New_Millenni.html?id=hLrrXwAACAAJ&redir_esc=y">Integrated Training for the New Millennium</a>. The first US patent for a foam roller <a href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US7137926">was filed</a> as recently as 2004. </p>
<p>For the uninitiated, the practice involves applying your own body weight to a foam cylinder, using small repetitive undulating movements to exert
pressure on the muscle. The internet is full of guides on how to do this right: YouTube contains over 600,000 videos that match the term; a quick hunt on a search engine returns around 40m hits. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/aPar3wLsU9Y?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Despite this, scientific evidence to support the practice remains surprisingly limited. So does it work – and if so, how?</p>
<h2>Stretch targets</h2>
<p>Most people understand that stretching before exercise is important; it loosens you up and improves your flexibility. But too much stretching – meaning upwards of 60 seconds – <a href="https://insights.ovid.com/pubmed?pmid=21659901">will weaken</a> your muscles and could hamper your workout. One of foam rolling’s big selling points is that it <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4387728/">can improve</a> flexibility to a similar extent as stretching, but with an important added bonus – it <a href="https://insights.ovid.com/pubmed?pmid=22580977">doesn’t</a> impair strength. Foam rolling <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4831860/">can also</a> improve performance <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Blaine_Long/publication/259883124_Foam_Rolling_and_Static_Stretching_on_Passive_Hip_Flexion_Range_of_Motion/links/547f39210cf2de80e7cc7a4b.pdf">if combined</a> with stretching. This may be better than doing one or the other, but as yet the research evidence is inconclusive. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, we can now say with confidence that foam rolling is better than doing nothing. <a href="https://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40798-018-0141-4">Recent work</a> from our lab at the University of Stirling, carried out along with <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/malcolm-fairweather-59090a17/">Malcolm Fairweather</a> of SportScotland, tested the effect of foam rolling on a group of volunteers doing leg extension exercises. </p>
<p>We found that it required less effort for them to complete the exercise after two minutes of foam rolling than after two minutes of rest. Thanks to this reduction in effort, volunteers who repeated this for three days were able to perform better leg extensions than those who did not foam roll each day. </p>
<p>Foam rolling <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25415413">has also shown</a> promise as a way of recovering from exercise, by reducing muscle soreness. Since muscle soreness can <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0195051">severely hinder</a> healthy muscle function, managing this problem <a href="https://insights.ovid.com/pubmed?pmid=24343353">can help</a> people perform better next time around. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223016/original/file-20180613-32339-xui9rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223016/original/file-20180613-32339-xui9rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223016/original/file-20180613-32339-xui9rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223016/original/file-20180613-32339-xui9rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223016/original/file-20180613-32339-xui9rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223016/original/file-20180613-32339-xui9rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223016/original/file-20180613-32339-xui9rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223016/original/file-20180613-32339-xui9rw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fascia conscious.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/human-male-body-anatomy-illustration-visible-1035310306?src=fGBl3v8peBNq-JSNVMv7-A-1-92">Madesapix</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Beyond this, there is still much we don’t know. One big issue is that we are not still not sure how foam rolling works on the body. For years, it was <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136085921500217X?via%3Dihub">regarded</a> as a way of releasing tension from the soft connective tissue known as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3091466/">fascia</a> that forms a kind of matrix around the entire human body – including muscles, bones, organs and nerves. </p>
<p>Researchers have become sceptical about this, however: given the amount of force required to manipulate the fascia, many think it more likely that the pressure applied by foam rolling <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1360859212001684?via%3Dihub">may be</a> acting on the nervous system instead. </p>
<p>The findings on using rolling to avoid muscle soreness provide additional evidence here. We know that this pain relief <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5046970/">is not</a> related to “warming” the muscles, while <a href="https://insights.ovid.com/pubmed?pmid=23575360">there is</a> only limited evidence that foam rolling increases blood flow. Were either of these the case, it would suggest the benefit is coming from stimulating soft tissue in the area in question. But if we rule both of these out it suggests there must be a more global or neurological response taking place.</p>
<h2>Rolling on</h2>
<p>All the research so far has looked at the immediate and short-term effects of foam rolling. Our understanding of the longer-term effects remains cloudy. So while we know that foam rolling both before and after taking exercise can complement your training programme, we can’t say for sure whether these benefits continue into the future. And while it has previously been shown that foam rolling has <a href="https://insights.ovid.com/pubmed?pmid=23588488">no negative effect</a> on athletic performance in the short term, we still can’t say for certain that there are no detrimental long-term effects. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223015/original/file-20180613-32323-1ueurzc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223015/original/file-20180613-32323-1ueurzc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223015/original/file-20180613-32323-1ueurzc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223015/original/file-20180613-32323-1ueurzc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223015/original/file-20180613-32323-1ueurzc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223015/original/file-20180613-32323-1ueurzc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223015/original/file-20180613-32323-1ueurzc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223015/original/file-20180613-32323-1ueurzc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=467&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Roll with it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.amc.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/1469435/physical-therapist-strengthens-eod-mission-readiness/">Octavius Thompson</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also don’t have enough evidence to say how best to use foam rollers. Researchers have adopted protocols that vary from between one and five bouts of foam rolling per exercise session, and from anywhere between five seconds and two minutes. There is no suggestion that longer durations are better, so if in doubt, keep your rolling brief. </p>
<p>On the other hand, researchers are finding that you need repeated bouts to increase your range of movement. So if flexibility is your goal, you should roll and repeat at least twice during a session – just make sure nobody trips over you while you’re doing it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98198/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Angus Hunter receives funding from sportscotland and the MRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lewis Macgregor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Gyms have gone mad for these bits of neoprene. Yet researchers are still scrambling to catch up.Lewis Macgregor, Lecturer in Sport, Health & exercise Science, University of StirlingAngus Hunter, Reader in Exercise Physiology, University of StirlingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/923662018-02-26T11:57:04Z2018-02-26T11:57:04ZCan coffee improve your workout? The science of caffeine and exercise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207827/original/file-20180226-120971-1b6j9ij.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/resting-runner-260897984?src=XTj1Xdt-nA15eRNsMggkmg-1-1">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Caffeine is one of the most researched substances reported to help athletes perform better and train longer and harder. As a result, professional and amateur sportspeople often take it as a performance-enhancing “ergogenic” aids for a wide range of activities. These include intermittent exercise such as football and racket sports, endurance exercise such as running and cycling, and resistance exercise such as weightlifting.</p>
<p>But while most research looks at the effects of pure caffeine consumed as tablets with water, in the real world most people get their caffeine from coffee, energy drinks or other products like special gels or <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-017-0848-2">chewing gum</a>. So will drinking a cup of joe before your workout actually make a difference? The answer could depend as much on your genes as what kind of coffee you’re drinking.</p>
<p><a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-7-5">Scientists think</a> caffeine affects the body chemical adenosine, which normally promotes sleep and suppresses arousal. Caffeine ties up the receptors in the brain that detect adenosine and so makes it more alert.</p>
<p>But it may also increase stimulation of the central nervous system, making exercise seem like it involves less effort and pain. In high-intensity activities such as resistance training or sprinting, it may increase the number of fibres used in muscle contractions, meaning movements can be more frequent and forceful. </p>
<h2>Faster, higher, stronger</h2>
<p>Research has shown that pure caffeine can help endurance athletes <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0257-8">run faster</a> and <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/7/7/5219/htm">cycle for longer</a>. It can help footballers to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3279366/">sprint more often and over greater distances</a>, and basketball players to <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/9/9/1033/htm">jump higher</a>. It can help <a href="http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/jcr.2012.0019?journalCode=jcr">tennis players</a> and <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/fulltext/2016/01000/Effect_of_Caffeine_on_Golf_Performance_and_Fatigue.18.aspx">golfers</a> to hit the ball with greater accuracy. And it can help <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2876999/pdf/1550-2783-7-18.pdf">weightlifters lift more weight</a>.</p>
<p>The evidence for caffeine’s effects on sprinting is more mixed. Limited improvements <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2075-4663/4/3/45">have been found</a> for events lasting under three minutes. But for races of around ten seconds,
caffeine can improve peak <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-12-S1-P57">power output, speed, and strength</a>.</p>
<p>An increasing number of studies have also shown that coffee can be used as an alternative to caffeine to <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0059561">improve cycling</a> and <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0456?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed&">competitive running</a> performance, and produce similar results similar to pure caffeine. In fact, coffee may even be more effective at <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2016/10000/Effect_of_Coffee_and_Caffeine_Ingestion_on.27.aspx">improving resistance exercise than caffeine alone</a>. Similarly, drinking <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1550-2783-10-1">energy drinks</a> containing caffeine before exercise can improve mental focus, alertness, anaerobic performance and endurance performance.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207825/original/file-20180226-120971-lly7xa.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Total weight lifted when performing back squats to failure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2016/10000/Effect_of_Coffee_and_Caffeine_Ingestion_on.27.aspx">Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But drinking coffee isn’t like taking a measured dose of caffeine. The amount of stimulant in a cup, and so how it affects you, will depend on the blend of coffee and how it is brewed. Studies have shown consuming either <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0059561">0.15g</a> or <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/doi/abs/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0456?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed">0.09g</a> of caffeinated coffee per kilogram of body weight can improve performance. So a dessert spoon of coffee granules rather than a traditional teaspoon is probably best. </p>
<p>It’s also worth bearing in mind that each piece of research shows caffeine improves athletic performance of a group of people as a whole. But we also know that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5752738/pdf/40279_2017_Article_776.pdf">genetic factors</a> have a big influence on our responses to caffeine and not everyone reacts in the same way. This means consuming caffeine won’t necessarily improve your performance.</p>
<h2>Potential downsides</h2>
<p>In fact, you could end up feeling nauseated and jittery at a time when, if you are competing, you are already feeling anxious. And, as caffeine’s effects can linger for up to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK223808/">five hours</a>, taking it too late in the day could disrupt your sleep, which is a big factor in health and fitness in general. This means it’s important to practice with caffeine during training sessions or friendly fixtures before using it for an important event. </p>
<p>Some <a href="http://www.mysportscience.com/single-post/2017/06/18/Do-you-need-to-refrain-from-coffee-to-get-the-maximal-effect-of-caffeine">have also suggested</a> that you should abstain from caffeine in order to enjoy a better effect on your performance when you consume it for exercise. But maintaining your normal intake will prevent any <a href="https://theconversation.com/caffeine-withdrawal-drives-need-for-more-but-are-we-addicts-17380">possible withdrawal symptoms</a> and still provide benefits if caffeine is taken before exercise. Its effects peak between <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4898153/pdf/ictx-54-308.pdf">30 and 75 minutes after ingestion</a>.</p>
<p>Finally, it’s a a commonly held belief that caffeine is a diuretic that will lead to dehydration because it makes you produce more urine. But a <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0084154">number of studies</a> have shown that this isn’t the case with moderate amounts of coffee, cola or any other caffeinated beverage, which help keep you hydrated like any other drink.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92366/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Clarke receives funding from The Institute for Scientific Information on Coffee. </span></em></p>Drinking coffee before exercising could make you run faster and lift heavier - if you’ve the right genes.Neil Clarke, Principal Lecturer in Sport and Exercise Science at Coventry University, Coventry UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/478702015-09-22T13:59:21Z2015-09-22T13:59:21ZWhy bigger isn’t always better in the world of muscle building<p>The huge muscles sculpted by bodybuilders, action movie stars and other serious gym-goers can make them look like comic-book superheroes. And we tend to equate big muscles with being strong and powerful. But <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/EP085267/abstract">new research</a> has found that – at a cellular level – the large, defined muscles seen on bodybuilders don’t fare well against those of power athletes (such as weight lifters or sprinters, whose sport requires high forces produced quickly) or even men who don’t train at all.</p>
<p>The research, published in Experimental Physiology, was carried out on individual muscle cells taken from a group of volunteers comprising 12 bodybuilders, six power athletes and 14 control subjects (average men, physically active but not performing weight training). The researchers, led by Hans Degens of Manchester Metropolitan University, stimulated the cells and assessed the size and speed of the force produced from the resulting isometric contractions (contracting while staying the same length). By measuring the size of the muscle cell, they were able to calculate what is known as the specific force, the force produced for a defined area or unit of muscle. The higher the specific force, the better quality the muscle.</p>
<p>The study authors found that although the individual fibres of the bodybuilders’ muscle cells were considerably larger than those of the control group, they also had a lower specific force. This suggests that their muscles were of a poorer quality than those of the controls. The power athletes, who also used resistance training but lifted lighter weights more quickly, had similar quality muscles to the controls but were able to produce the force more quickly, meaning their muscles were more powerful. </p>
<h2>Weighing up the findings</h2>
<p>Although the authors have done a fantastic job on this study, the findings need to be put in context. Our skeletal muscle fibres do not function in isolation but as part of a wider body system. Weight lifting can increase the size of skeletal muscles but it can also improve the function of supporting <a href="http://physrev.physiology.org/content/84/2/649">connective tissues</a> and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25809076">blood vessels</a> and the ability to engage the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/453338?access_num=453338&link_type=MED&dopt=Abstract">nervous system</a> to use more of the available muscle.</p>
<p>This means a lower specific force at a microscopic level does not necessarily equal a poorer quality muscle or impaired function at a whole body level. As such, we shouldn’t be surprised that former bodybuilders have been able to <a href="https://www.t-nation.com/training/bodybuilder-breaks-world-squat-record">dominate strength competitions</a> while retaining much of their bulk.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=359&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95682/original/image-20150922-16679-1s5ol0v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Smaller in size but not in power: a weight lifting athlete.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/singapore2010/4900251141/">Flickr/Singapore 2010 Youth Olympic Games</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Physiologists have known for decades that a strong but imperfect and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19026016">complex relationship</a> exists between the size of a muscle and the force it can produce. Generally, the bigger the muscle, the more force it can produce. However, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1859378/?page=1">some studies</a> have noted that larger muscles do not have an equivalently large improvement in the specific force.</p>
<p>This means that as the muscle gets bigger there is not an equal increase in the quality of the muscle. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7199447">This is thought</a> to be due to changes in muscle architecture or to a dilution of the proteins that do the work of muscle contraction. <a href="http://ajpendo.physiology.org/content/281/6/E1172.full.pdf+html?">Similar results</a> occur when muscle size is enhanced with increasing doses of anabolic steroids or testosterone.</p>
<h2>Quality over quantity</h2>
<p>It seems like there is an optimal size for a muscle, above which increases in size do not necessarily lead to the same relative improvements in strength. The new study shows that this relationship exists at the microscopic, cellular level of muscle. It also means that neither the size of the muscle nor an individual muscle cell can be used to accurately predict its strength. However, bodybuilders are usually extremely genetically gifted athletes who spend hours every day eating and training for muscle growth. It’s unlikely the average gym goer would ever reach the muscle fibre sizes that would lead to this dilution in force. </p>
<p>The situation is different for power athletes, who train with weights in a very <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CczZAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=training+power+athletes+compared+to+bodybuilders&ots=kx1Agya8e2&sig=6twPUOA_XJpIUdo1Cpo6gnPvb6c#v=onepage&q=training%20power%20athletes%20compared%20to%20bodybuilders&f=false">different way to bodybuilders</a>. While bodybuilders train to grow their muscles to their genetic potential with the help of diet and sometimes drugs, power athletes try to maximise their strength at a specific body weight. The differences in training strategies combined with a constant need to maintain weight within a given category probably prevent the power athletes from growing their muscles to the sizes seen in bodybuilders.</p>
<p>In a great example of the strength differences between a strength-focused athlete and a bodybuilder, the former world record holder for the squat, Fred Hatfield, was able to lift over 200lbs (90kg) more than bodybuilder Tom Platz in a <a href="http://ifitnessnh.com/blog/?p=977">competitive “squat-off”</a>, despite having visually much less impressive legs.</p>
<p>These kind of anecdotal reports, along with the recent research, do make bodybuilders seem like paper tigers of the weight lifting world. However, they are still incredibly strong by average standards and have the capacity to become world-record holders. When it comes to a muscle’s response to weight lifting, size might not be everything, but it’s not a bad guide.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47870/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lee Hamilton has received funding from the Society for Endocrinology, Insulin Dependent Diabetes Trust and ACSM to investigate aspects of muscle metabolism and function. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Angus Hunter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research shows bodybuilders’ muscle quality is lower than that of people who don’t train at all - but size is still a pretty good guide to strength.Lee Hamilton, Lecturer in Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of StirlingAngus Hunter, Senior lecturer in exercise physiology, University of StirlingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/418092015-05-28T04:06:56Z2015-05-28T04:06:56ZPost-menopause? Hit the weights, not the treadmill<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83133/original/image-20150527-4812-boc7vl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Strength training, as opposed to gentle exercise, may be a better way for women over 50 to improve their muscle strength and kick menopause symptoms.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Claudia Daut/Reuters</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Forget pilates, yoga or even taking a brisk walk in the park. Women over the age of 50 should try lifting weights and doing other strength training exercises if they want to kick menopause symptoms. </p>
<p><a href="http://reference.sabinet.co.za/sa_epublication_article/ergosa_v25_n2_a5">Our study found </a>that older women who did weight lifting for two months built up strength in both their upper and lower bodies. And although the women did not lose any weight, they were more confident, happier - and even received compliments from their partners.</p>
<p>In practical terms the women found it easier to climb a flight of stairs, had less knee and hip pain, and could easily get onto the floor and back up again when playing with their grandchildren. </p>
<p>On top of this, unpublished findings from this study found that after three months on the programme the women also lost significant centimetres around their waists. </p>
<h2>Menopause, mood swings and wobbly bits</h2>
<p>Menopause usually occurs in women between the ages of 47 and 55 years. There are both physical and psychological symptoms linked to menopause. The physical changes are driven by a loss of estrogen hormones. One of these changes is increased belly fat, which is a risk for heart disease and type 2 diabetes. The other is the loss of muscle. Muscle loss means that women become weaker and stand more of a chance of developing problems such as <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21353405">osteoporosis</a>. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11330770">Previous studies</a> have found menopause symptoms such as aching joints and back pain are psychologically motivated and are more prevalent among white women. For <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16148247">African-American</a> women, symptoms such as hot flushes and night sweats are more prevalent. Data does not exist for South African black women yet.</p>
<p>We wanted to find a way to mitigate these symptoms, improve the health of women and decrease the risk of them being injured because of their bodies becoming more fragile. </p>
<h2>Lifting the weight off</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83135/original/image-20150527-4831-193mo58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83135/original/image-20150527-4831-193mo58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83135/original/image-20150527-4831-193mo58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83135/original/image-20150527-4831-193mo58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83135/original/image-20150527-4831-193mo58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83135/original/image-20150527-4831-193mo58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83135/original/image-20150527-4831-193mo58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Strength training helps older women deal with symptoms associated with menopause.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="http://reference.sabinet.co.za/sa_epublication_article/ergosa_v25_n2_a5">Our study</a>
looked at how 30 minutes of strength training, five times a week, could benefit a group of women aged 55 to 65. </p>
<p>The women exercised in small groups with a personal trainer doing exercises that targeted their upper bodies, torsos and legs. The programme got progressively harder as the two months went by. It, however, did not exceed 80% of the maximum effort they could exert. The intensity was tested once a month so that it could be adjusted. </p>
<p>In previous studies, the women only exercised <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19252142">three times</a> a week, at lower intensities with mixed results. This, however, did not get <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17084566">enough results</a>. </p>
<p>Our results show that the study’s design was not only successful, but that women preferred the daily routine. </p>
<p>This means that older women have a feasible and affordable way to improving their health and body strength.</p>
<h2>Converting the theory into practise</h2>
<p>On average, the retirement age for women is 65 years. This means that for 10 to 15 years after menopause women are still economically active. </p>
<p>The findings show that their health, risk of injury and ultimate productivity can be improved.</p>
<p>Most importantly, however, women over the age of 50 are more than capable of high intensity resistance training and may benefit from this type of physical activity. </p>
<p>The good news is that strength training can have tangible outcomes. Many women give up on less intense exercise programmes, like walking, because they feel there is no benefit. Now they know they have an alternative.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/41809/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Candice Christie, lead investigator, received funding from the Medical Research Council of South Africa for this research. Research team members, Tegan Crymble and Janet Viljoen, were beneficiaries of this funding allocation. Janet Viljoen received a scholarship from the Deutsche Akademiese Austausch Dienst (DAAD) during the course of this research project.</span></em></p>Strength training is an ideal way for older women to mitigate the symptoms associated with menopause.Janet Viljoen, Research Fellow in Physical Activity and Health, Rhodes UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.