tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/what-makes-a-30147/articlesWhat makes a ...? – The Conversation2018-02-16T01:32:26Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/919272018-02-16T01:32:26Z2018-02-16T01:32:26ZWhat makes a winning snowboard cross athlete like Jarryd Hughes?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206685/original/file-20180215-131003-y3g2ix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jarryd Hughes has won Australia's first medal in the snowboard cross event at a Winter Olympics.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP/Dan Himbrechts</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian Jarryd Hughes won a silver medal in the men’s snowboard cross event at the Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang on Thursday. This is Australia’s third medal at these Games, adding to <a href="http://pyeongchang2018.olympics.com.au/athlete/matt-graham">Matt Graham’s silver</a> in mogul skiing and <a href="http://pyeongchang2018.olympics.com.au/athlete/scotty-james">Scotty James’ bronze</a> in the snowboard halfpipe.</p>
<p>This is the first medal for Australia in this event at a Winter Olympics, despite having been competitive on the world stage for several years. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Highlights of the men’s snowboard cross final from Pyeongchang.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Physical differences between disciplines</h2>
<p>Some of the physical test predictors of a successful snowboarder differ among the snowboarding disciplines (parallel, snowboard cross, and halfpipe) and genders.</p>
<p>For men, the only test that proved to <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2009/08000/Comparison_of_Physical_Characteristics_and.9.aspx">have a strong influence</a> on performance was a countermovement jump for halfpipe. But when looking at overall World Cup points for males (regardless of discipline), greater bench press and bench pull strength were found in athletes with higher point scores.</p>
<p>For women, the <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2009/08000/Comparison_of_Physical_Characteristics_and.9.aspx">physical influences</a> differ across snowboard disciplines. In parallel snowboarding and overall World Cup points, performance can be associated with leg power on a bicycle ergometry test. Snowboard cross performance is influenced by maximum push-off speed, but halfpipe does not have a link with any particular physical test.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-snow-deprived-aussies-can-win-in-snowboard-cross-and-ski-cross-in-pyeongchang-91568">How snow-deprived Aussies can win in snowboard cross and ski-cross in Pyeongchang</a>
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<h2>Injuries</h2>
<p>Several competitors crashed out of the men’s snowboard cross event in Pyeongchang. Australian Cameron Bolton put in a brave effort and competed with a <a href="https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/winter-olympics/australias-jarryd-hughes-claims-silver-medal-in-winter-olympic-snowboard-cross-final/news-story/b5e03098f873e3b2372b8f1ab9bfc76d">heavily taped wrist</a>.</p>
<p>Hughes has had to <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-02-15/winter-olympics-jarryd-hughes-wins-silver-for-australia/9451338">overcome five knee surgeries</a> throughout his career. Given he is just 22, this only highlights the risk these athletes face every day in their sport.</p>
<p>The snowboard cross has the <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/bjsports/48/7/631.1.full.pdf">highest incidence</a> of injury during competition among snowboarding disciplines, with 11.9 injuries per 1,000 runs. It also has a higher risk of severe injury – those that cause an athlete to miss more than 28 days from training or competition.</p>
<p>Like the snowboard halfpipe, the most common injuries are to <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/40/3/230.short">the knee and spine</a>. However, snowboard cross has a greater shoulder injury rate.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-makes-a-winning-halfpipe-snowboarder-like-scotty-james-91833">What makes a winning halfpipe snowboarder like Scotty James?</a>
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<p>It’s clear that all snowboard disciplines require athletes to overcome fear of serious injury. But what is it that makes snowboard cross one of the riskiest snowboard competitions?</p>
<h2>Racing tactics and anticipation</h2>
<p>The main difference between the snowboard cross and <a href="https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/en/sports/snowboard">other snowboard disciplines</a> is the pack racing element. </p>
<p>Athletes who participate in halfpipe, big air, slopestyle, and parallel giant slalom all compete in their own personal space without the need to anticipate and adapt to their competitors’ movements. </p>
<p>In these sports the athletes can mentally prepare ahead of competition runs as they already know what performances are needed to win. They have the time before a run to work through their performance plan and make any necessary changes.</p>
<p>Snowboard cross athletes also prepare their race tactics, such as the best racing lines to take and managing features of a given course. But they are also required to read fellow competitors’ movements and react and adjust movements accordingly. </p>
<p>This is referred to as <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/47250/1/47250_PUB.pdf">perception-action coupling</a>: an athlete’s ability to use information from their environment and find the most accurate and efficient movement to produce a successful performance – just like a football goalkeeper reading the play in front of them and reacting to block the ball. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Explanation of perception-action coupling in differing contexts.</span></figcaption>
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<p>The same concept applies to snowboard cross. A snowboard cross athlete may have an optimal race line, but different situations can interfere with holding this line. Examples would be: a fellow competitor cutting them off, getting too much air off a jump, hitting a difficult patch of snow and losing some control. As a result they have to constantly react to the changes in their environment. </p>
<p>It is not that other snowboard disciplines don’t use perception-action coupling in their own sports. They just don’t have the stimulus of fellow competitors at close quarters during their performances.</p>
<p>What makes the snowboard cross competitors more susceptible to serious injuries is this ever-changing environment created with their fellow competitors. Athletes are at the mercy of their own ability and their competitors’ ability to react and control high-speed situations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91927/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jade Haycraft receives funding from the Australian Government (Australian Postgraduate Award).</span></em></p>Snowboard cross has the highest incidence of injury during competition among the snowboarding disciplines.Jade Haycraft, PhD Candidate, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/918332018-02-15T03:03:04Z2018-02-15T03:03:04ZWhat makes a winning halfpipe snowboarder like Scotty James?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206339/original/file-20180214-174969-4tur21.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Scotty James became the second Australian in Winter Olympic history to win a medal in the snowboard halfpipe event.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Fazry Ismail</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On Wednesday, <a href="http://pyeongchang2018.olympics.com.au/athlete/scotty-james">Scotty James</a> won <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-02-14/scotty-james-takes-bronze-on-the-halfpipe-in-pyeongchang/9444852">Australia’s second medal</a> at the Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang – bronze in the men’s snowboard halfpipe competition.</p>
<p>James’ medal adds to those won by fellow Australian <a href="http://corporate.olympics.com.au/sports/snowboard/medals">Torah Bright</a> (gold at the 2010 Vancouver Olympics and silver at Sochi in 2014) in the women’s snowboard halfpipe event. </p>
<h2>What is snowboard halfpipe?</h2>
<p>The snowboard halfpipe made its debut at the 1998 Nagano Olympics. <a href="http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2754608-olympic-freestyle-skiing-2018-complete-guide-to-pyeongchang-winter-games">The event</a> takes place on a trough-like feature made of snow, built on a shaped earth base. The Olympic halfpipe is sloped at approximately 17-18°, and is between 150-170 metres long, 19-22m wide, and 6.7m high. </p>
<p>The halfpipe event consists of three runs lasting around 20-30 seconds, and involves between six and eight “hits” of the pipe. A “hit” is an aerial trick (jump, rotation and twist) off the top of the pipe. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/Snowboard/04/21/07/FISSnowboardJudgesbook1314_Final_English.pdf">Six judges score</a> a competitor’s run based on each hit’s height, rotation, technique and degree of difficulty, with a score given out of 100. The highest and lowest scores are removed, and the final score is the average of the four remaining scores. </p>
<p>The best score of the three runs is recorded; the highest scores determine the medals.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/Snowboard/04/21/07/FISSnowboardJudgesbook1314_Final_English.pdf">International Ski Federation’s</a> snowboard judges’ manual specifically outlines the scoring criteria:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>amplitude – with the greater the height of the jump off the top, the riskier the hit, and greater point scores;</p></li>
<li><p>difficulty – more rotations increases the difficulty, but also switch take-offs (opposite side to natural board stance), frontside or backside rotation, take-offs (on heel or toe side), different hand grab placements on board, blind landings (athlete can’t see where they are landing), combinations and sequential hard tricks, different rotational axis (lateral/longitudinal or horizontal), and an alley-oop (spin opposite direction to jump entry (for example, front entry to back spin);</p></li>
<li><p>execution – overall control throughout the run, and for each individual hit. It is also the ability to perform the positions of the intended trick once they have initiated it;</p></li>
<li><p>variety – changing the type of trick for each hit gets a higher score (for example backside then frontside, changed spin axis, different grabs);</p></li>
<li><p>combinations – consecutive difficult hits score higher;</p></li>
<li><p>pipe use – anything performed before an athlete crosses the marked finish line is counted in judging, with hits scoring higher if performed off the top of the pipe;</p></li>
<li><p>progression – introducing new tricks never seen in the sport is highly favoured; and</p></li>
<li><p>risk-taking – pushing to the maximum limit of ability is advantageous.</p></li>
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<p>Judges deduct points for errors in a run based on the following criteria:</p>
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<li><p>one-to-ten points for small mistakes (hand drag, flat landings, deck landings, and sliding);</p></li>
<li><p>11-20 points for medium mistakes (stop full, longer hand drags, heavy hand touches, slight butt touches, and revert to natural stance on board);</p></li>
<li><p>21-25 points for major mistakes (heavy butt or body landing, complete bailing from hit).</p></li>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Highlights of the men’s snowboard halfpipe final from Pyeongchang.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Injuries</h2>
<p>The nature of snowboard halfpipe means most competitors risk serious injury – and <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2089155/Sarah-Burke-death-Skier-dies-brain-damage-9-days-half-pipe-crash.html">possible death</a> – throughout their career. </p>
<p>Halfpipe has the third-highest incidence of injury (behind big air and snowboard cross). There is a <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/40/3/230.short">reported</a> 1.6 injuries reported per 1,000 runs for men, and 2.3 injuries per 1,000 runs for women.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/40/3/230.short">most common injuries</a> are to the lower arm/wrist, spine, and knee. As a result, current training practices focus heavily on giving athletes the physical tools to prevent these injuries.</p>
<p>Specifically, many programs <a href="https://benthamopen.com/ABSTRACT/TOSMJ-5-1">target jumping/landing force</a>, as this is the common factor of injury occurrence for snowboard halfpipe athletes. Training for “crash robustness” requires athletes to build joint strength and soft-tissue support in muscles and ligaments across the entire body. </p>
<p>Core strength to support and tolerate spinal loads during rotations, jumps and landings is also crucial in avoiding spinal injuries. </p>
<h2>Physical demands</h2>
<p>Snowboard halfpipe is an explosive, skill-based sport. While building “crash robustness” is integral, these athletes need to train to perform. They may seem laid-back and relaxed, but they are subjected to high physical load and fatigue induced by training and competition.</p>
<p>An <a href="https://benthamopen.com/ABSTRACT/TOSMJ-5-1">average training day</a> for halfpipe may consist of between ten and 12 runs (each lasting 20-30 seconds), plus hikes to the top of the pipe. This equates between two and four hours of training each day. Managing <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-winter-olympic-athletes-cope-with-the-cold-91575">sub-zero temperatures</a> and the <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.00901.x/full">effects of altitude</a> on physical performance is also a concern.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-winter-olympic-athletes-cope-with-the-cold-91575">Explainer: how Winter Olympic athletes cope with the cold</a>
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<p>The northern hemisphere training and competition period can last between four and five months. But athletes like James may also <a href="http://www.fis-ski.com/news-multimedia/news/article=winter-the-southern-hemisphere-multiple-fis-competitions-underway.html">train and compete</a> during the southern hemisphere winters.</p>
<p>Halfpipe snowboarders do not require large muscle mass to compete; they prefer to remain lean to maximise their hit amplitude. Their physical training focuses on neuromuscular adaptations to induce greater muscle fibre recruitment, power/speed, and eccentric (muscle lengthening under tension) force absorption for landings.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Scotty James demonstrates core strength and neuromuscular gym training, and other off-snow training.</span></figcaption>
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<p>A <a href="https://benthamopen.com/ABSTRACT/TOSMJ-5-1">large majority of off-snow training</a> focuses on sport-specific skill development, such as building co-ordination and the smoothness of trick execution. Athletes and coaches use a “gymnastic approach” to off-snow training – via trampolines, foam pits, and diving platforms/pools – to practice aerial skills in a safe landing environment.</p>
<p>So, behind his cool exterior, James has worked as hard as any other elite athlete on all aspects of his training to avoid injury and increase performance. Put together, this enabled him to stand on the podium to receive his bronze medal.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91833/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jade Haycraft receives funding from the Australian Government (Australian Postgraduate Award Scholarship).</span></em></p>Halfpipe snowboarders like Scotty James may seem laid-back and relaxed, but they are subjected to high physical load and fatigue induced by training and competition.Jade Haycraft, PhD Candidate, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/917432018-02-13T01:08:33Z2018-02-13T01:08:33ZWhat makes a winning mogul skier like Matt Graham?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206091/original/file-20180213-58312-19q1onl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What makes the mogul discipline distinctive is that it is both a judged event and a timed event.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Sergei Ilnitsky</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On Monday, <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-02-13/freestyle-skier-matt-graham-parties-after-winning-silver-medal/9425316">Matt Graham</a> won Australia’s first medal – a silver – at the Pyeongchang Winter Olympics in the freestyle moguls.</p>
<p>Graham’s second placing is the third time an Australian has won a medal in the event at a Winter Olympics. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Begg-Smith">Dale Begg-Smith</a> – who was also coached by Graham’s mentor, <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/sport/olympics/winter-olympics-2018-matt-graham-insists-moguls-king-mikael-kingsbury-is-beatable-20180211-h0vwpd.html">Steve Descovich</a> – won gold at the 2006 Turin Olympics and silver at the 2010 Vancouver Olympics.</p>
<h2>What is mogul skiing?</h2>
<p>There have been official mogul races since 1971. The <a href="http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/FreestyleSkiing/04/21/06/FreestyleSkiingJudgingandScoringHandbook2014v.1.0_English.pdf">International Ski Federation’s handbook</a> stipulates that a mogul competition:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… shall consist of one run of free skiing on a steep, heavily moguled course, stressing technical turns, aerial manoeuvres and speed. </p>
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<p><a href="http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/FreestyleSkiing/02/03/28/FS_FIS_FreestyleICRmarkedup201602.08.16_English.pdf">A mogul event</a> consists of one or more rounds (beginning with one run for all competitors), and a final phase of one or more rounds. Graham’s silver medal came after four runs on the Olympic course: one qualification round and three final rounds.</p>
<p>What makes the mogul discipline distinctive is that it is both a judged event <em>and</em> a timed event. </p>
<p>Athletes are given a score out of 100 for their overall time (20 points), and their technical ability in turning manoeuvres (60 points) and aerial manoeuvres (20 points). In the evaluation of turns, five judges determine “rhythmic changes in direction of travel”. Two judges evaluate the form and difficulty of a mogul skier’s aerial manoeuvres. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/FreestyleSkiing/04/21/06/FreestyleSkiingJudgingandScoringHandbook2014v.1.0_English.pdf">International Ski Federation’s judges’ handbook</a> provides very clear guidelines for awarding marks to athletes.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Matt Graham’s silver-medal-winning mogul skiing performance.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Physical demands</h2>
<p>Moguls skiers face several physical challenges in their discipline. They ski, at speed, downhill on a steep course and have to absorb the shock to their bodies of numerous artificially created undulations – known as moguls. </p>
<p>An <a href="https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/en/sports/freestyle-skiing">Olympic course</a> has:</p>
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<p>… a slope, with an average tilt of 28 degrees, a difference in elevation of 110 metres, a course length of 250 metres, and a minimum course width of 18 metres. And the middle portion of the course has two jump sections. </p>
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<p>In training, athletes must grow accustomed to the forces they will experience at speed, and prepare them for two landings on a steep slope while attempting elevated aerial manoeuvres. </p>
<p>In Pyeongchang, athletes also had to deal with extremely low temperatures that changed the texture of the skiing surface.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/winter-olympics-how-athletes-adapt-to-competing-in-the-bitter-cold-91269">Winter Olympics: how athletes adapt to competing in the bitter cold</a>
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<h2>Mental demands</h2>
<p>The decision to take part in mogul skiing requires athletes to develop their mental skills to deal with the volume of training required, the precision of their technical skills, and their ability to tolerate low temperatures on a snow surface that varies every time they ski. </p>
<p>As with all sports, athletes have to consider their exposure to injury – particularly to their lower limbs. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/44/11/803.short">2010 study of freestyle skiers</a> reported:</p>
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<p>… the injury rate among World Cup athletes in freestyle skiing is high, especially for severe injuries. The knee is the most commonly injured body part, also dominated by severe injuries.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Canada’s Michael Kingsbury won gold in the men’s mogul skiing.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>The role of coaching</h2>
<p>Mogul skiing’s technical and tactical aspects create opportunities for coaches to develop a personal learning environment for athletes. </p>
<p>Australia has both a head coach (Desovich) and a jump coach (Jerry Grossi). Both work with athletes in a daily training environment that takes them all over the world. Graham has competed in world events since 2010; he was a finalist at the 2014 Sochi Olympics. </p>
<p>His silver medal at Pyeongchang is the culmination of support from his family and friends, years of training, and the insights of experienced coaches.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91743/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Keith Lyons does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Matt Graham’s silver medal in mogul skiing is the third time an Australian has won a medal in the event at a Winter Olympics.Keith Lyons, Adjunct Professor of Sport Studies, UC-RISE, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/629072016-08-18T03:18:35Z2016-08-18T03:18:35ZWhat makes an elite badminton player?<p>The shuttle – aka shuttlecock or badminton birdie – has been recorded moving at <a href="http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-badminton-hit-in-competition-(male)">408km per hour</a> (at the 2015 Hong Kong Open) from a badminton stroke known as the jump smash. </p>
<p>This easily beats the fastest recorded tennis serve – by Australia’s Samuel Groth (263.4km/h) – and the <a href="http://olympic.ca/2014/09/11/shuttlecock-and-balls-the-fastest-moving-objects-in-sport/">records in other sports</a>, such as golf (339.6km/h), squash (281.6km/h), soccer (210.8km/h), ice hockey (183.7km/h), baseball (174km/h), cricket (161.3km/h) and table tennis (112.5km/h).</p>
<p>To be able to hit shuttles at such high speeds or return them, badminton players need to excel in multiple areas. </p>
<p>Given badminton is one of the most popular sports in the world (especially across Asia, Denmark and the United Kingdom), with over 200 million people playing worldwide, what does it take to compete at the highest level? What, in other words, makes an elite badminton player?</p>
<h2>Physical and mental demands</h2>
<p>Badminton players need to excel in physical, tactical, psychological and technical traits. A badminton match involves the best of three games. To win a game, a player or pair needs to score 21 points. Points are scored by one player or pair after every rally. </p>
<p><a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0287-2">Competitive matches last</a> between 40 minutes and an hour, and are <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228771441_Temporal_structure_comparison_of_the_new_and_conventional_scoring_systems_for_men%27s_badminton_singles_in_Taiwan">played at a high intensity</a>; intense rallies usually go for six to eight seconds. </p>
<p>Although a badminton match goes for less than half the time of a typical tennis match (between two hours and 45 minutes and three hours for tennis), badminton players tend to run twice as far and hit nearly twice as many shots (badminton players run around 6.4km and tennis players around 3.2km). </p>
<p>Badminton is usually thought of as an aerobic or endurance type of sport since players must be able to play for around an hour. But it’s made of short, high-intensity rallies that work the anaerobic system; <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0287-2">energy is provided by both</a> the aerobic (60% to 70%) and anaerobic (30%) systems. </p>
<p>Being tall and lean may seem advantageous, but they’re not essential for success. Elite badminton players have incredible athletic ability and must possess high levels of speed, agility, strength, flexibility and muscular endurance. </p>
<h2>Exceptional skills</h2>
<p>The speed of the game requires elite badminton players to be tactically very good. This includes a high level of visual fitness – for reading the play, anticipating actions and making good strategic decisions. Indeed, <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-014-0287-2">research shows</a> elite players have a shorter reaction time to visual stimulus. </p>
<p>They also have more precise reactions and refined eye-hand coordination. This, along with experience, provides them with a greater ability to anticipate stroke outcome and increase their opportunity to win the next shot. </p>
<p>They must be able to perform movements such as lunging, jumping and changing direction with good technique to move effectively across the court. </p>
<p>Then, there’s the range of strokes. Some may require generating a lot of power in the body and velocity of the shuttle, such as the jump smash. Other strokes, such as the short serve, require precision movement involving skilful coordination of the shoulder, elbow and wrist joints to hit the shuttle with the required trajectory (path of the shuttle) and speed to ensure accuracy. </p>
<p>In what is one of the fastest sports in the world, it takes an exceptional player to be at the elite level as they must excel in many areas. It takes someone extraordinary to win in badminton at the Olympic Games.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62907/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jodie Cochrane Wilkie receives funding from the Badminton World Federation and Edith Cowan University. She is affiliated with Badminton Australia. </span></em></p>Badminton is one of the most popular sports in the world (especially across Asia, Denmark and the United Kingdom), with over 200 million people playing worldwide.Jodie Cochrane Wilkie, Senior Lecturer in Biomechanics, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/631882016-08-16T20:10:02Z2016-08-16T20:10:02ZWhat makes a winning water polo shot?<p>Medal games in water polo are notoriously close affairs, which are often decided by a single shot. The average margin in gold medal games across the last four Olympics is 3.5 goals in men’s competition and 1.5 goals in women’s competition.</p>
<p>With goals such a valuable commodity, what does it take to produce a winning water polo shot? Three things go a long way to deciding water polo medallists.</p>
<p>1) Getting out of the water</p>
<p>Throwing velocity is critical to the success of a water polo shot; it gives goalkeepers and defenders less time to block. Olympic-level shot velocities exceed 60km per hour for women and 90km per hour for men.</p>
<p>To achieve these high speeds, elite players are incredibly good at getting their body above the water. Indeed, <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19442582">research shows</a> the greatest determinant of throwing velocity is a player’s ability to get out of the water. </p>
<p>Throwing is all about rotation, and rotating against the resistance of water is slow and difficult work. Players who are able to get more of their body out of the water face less resistance to hip and shoulder rotation, allowing more energy to be transferred into the throwing arm and ball.</p>
<p>2) Threading the needle</p>
<p>Beating an Olympic-level goalkeeper is no easy feat. Goalkeepers have quick reaction times, can get much of their body out of the water and have long arms capable of covering much of the goal. As a result, there are really only five areas of the goal that are likely to lead to a successful shot: the four corners and the counter-intuitive, top-middle target.</p>
<p>Hitting any of these five targets makes life difficult for a goalkeeper. The corner targets are hard to reach, while the top-middle target exploits the time needed for the goalkeeper to lift their arms out of the water and above the head.</p>
<p>Hitting these small targets (20cm by 20cm) requires incredible precision. The smallest of errors (say of five centimetres) is often the difference between a successful and a saved shot. Remarkably, elite players can hit these targets <a href="http://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2014/08000/Throwing_Performance_and_Test_Retest_Reliability.34.aspx">as often as 60% of the time</a>.</p>
<p>If all that’s not hard enough, these shots are taken under enormous defensive pressure. A successful shot not only needs to beat the goalkeeper, but opposition players as well. Like a wall in soccer, defensive players effectively block sections of the goal, reducing the options available to the shooter.</p>
<p>To combat this, shooters will often implement the baulk technique. This involves faking shots at goal until a shooting lane opens up in the defensive structure, or the goalkeeper makes a false move.</p>
<p>3) A slice of luck!</p>
<p>Finally, successful shots often require a bit of luck. Players often utilise the skip shot, whereby they intentionally bounce the ball off the water’s surface. The uneven surface creates natural variance in the trajectory of the ball, presenting an unpredictable challenge for the goalkeeper. </p>
<p>While not an exact science, this is a skilful art that elite players practise regularly to great effect.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63188/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Freeston does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Three things go a long way to deciding water polo medallists.Jonathan Freeston, Lecturer, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/629762016-08-15T07:12:23Z2016-08-15T07:12:23ZWhat makes a winning sprinter?<p>In all sprint running races (100m to 400m), every hundredth of a second gained or lost in the race counts. But, most importantly, the fastest male and female sprinters attain incredible top running speeds, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SyY7RgNLCUk">with peaks in excess of 44km per hour</a> and 38km per hour in the men’s and women’s 100m races, for example. So what makes a fast runner?</p>
<p>The fastest sprinters on average take longer strides than slower sprinters, but at a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1615256">similar stride rate</a>. This results from larger forces being delivered to the ground in the short foot-ground contact period (often 0.1 second). </p>
<p>Of course, having longer legs can <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23717364">benefit stride length</a>, which appears to be a significant <a href="http://www.meathathletics.ie/devathletes/pdf/Biomechanics%20of%20Sprints.pdf">reason for Usain Bolt’s superior top speed</a>. </p>
<h2>Generating force</h2>
<p>In addition to improving stride length, the greater distance of the foot from the hip in taller sprinters allows a faster backwards horizontal foot speed to be attained for a given hip angular velocity, since the foot velocity (v) is a function of hip angular velocity (ω) and hip-foot distance (r); v = ωr.</p>
<p>But it’s not all good news for taller runners. Longer limbs have a greater moment of inertia (they’re harder to move), so they’re accelerated less for a given hip torque production (i.e. muscle force). </p>
<p>In this case, there are different costs-benefits for shorter versus taller sprinters; shorter sprinters must attain faster limb movement speeds, but taller sprinters need to generate sufficient torque to rapidly accelerate their longer limbs.</p>
<p>It’s also clear that rapid force production is paramount. Peak <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18317373">forces of more than 2500N</a> (255kg) are delivered to the ground within a few hundredths of a second in each step.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132751/original/image-20160802-17165-1qrd3py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ground forces during sprint running. Faster sprinters (black line) produce greater forces in a shorter time (often <0.1s) than slower sprinters (grey line). The ability to produce large forces rapidly against the ground is a key to successful sprinting.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If we continued to produce such rates of force for just one second, we could accelerate a Forumula 1 car to 100km per hour, or an 80kg athlete to about 900km per hour. Of course, peak force potential is limited in humans, so we won’t see this in Rio.</p>
<h2>Muscular design</h2>
<p>To deliver such forces, we might expect that sprinters possess a unique muscular design, and there is some evidence for this. Better sprinters have a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/129449">high proportion of type II muscle fibres</a>, which can develop forces so rapidly that they’re commonly called “fast twitch” fibres. </p>
<p>Further, some important power-producing muscles in their calf and thigh regions may possess <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10710372">longer muscle fibre bundles</a> (which is thought to contribute to faster muscle-shortening speeds) attaching at <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10710372">smaller angles to the tendon</a> than slower runners.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/133617/original/image-20160810-18014-1jo9xuz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In this ultrasound image of the vastus lateralis, a lateral thigh muscle, the muscle fibre bundles can be seen to run at an angle (dotted line denotes the fibre direction at one part of the muscle) to the muscle’s shortening direction (arrow). Sprinters tend to have longer fibres that attach, in this muscle at least, at smaller angles to the muscle-shortening direction. This is believed to improve the high-speed shortening of the muscle.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But, perhaps paradoxically, the best sprinters don’t have super-sized muscles.</p>
<p>One reason is that even the fastest muscles produce forces too slowly to allow humans to come close to the fast running speeds required, and increasing their size doesn’t help them produce forces any faster.</p>
<p>Instead, muscular forces stretch elastic tissues, such as tendons, and stored energy is subsequently recaptured at much faster rates when they recoil. Because of this, tendons work as “<a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21228194">power amplifiers</a>”. </p>
<p>However, we know little about the effect of changing tendon properties. We do know that sprint runners have <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17101142">stiffer Achilles tendons</a> than non-runners. This should allow them to cope better with forces of over <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1638639">900kg placed on the tendon</a> and to recoil faster while under load during the propulsion phase of the foot-contact phase. </p>
<p>We also know that exercise such as <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4535734/">strength training tends to increase</a> their stiffness while detraining reduces it. </p>
<p>But we don’t yet know what the optimum stiffness is for the Achilles tendon (or other tendons), and we can’t yet set training programs to optimise them.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/132754/original/image-20160802-17198-1gc8hrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Before foot-ground contact (left panel) the muscle (pink) and tendon (spring) are relatively inactive. During ground contact, the joints are flexed and muscles highly active (red). Tendons and other elastic structures are stretched and store energy. As the leg extends behind the athlete during propulsion (right panel), muscle shortening is accompanied by tendon recoil, allowing for high rates of force production.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Getting a move on</h2>
<p>Another issue is that increased muscle mass increases limb inertia (in much the same way as greater limb lengths do), so reducing the acceleration for a given joint torque production. </p>
<p>The best sprinters therefore have very low limb masses, which enables them to cyclically move their arms and legs at high speeds. So, the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21916672">leanest sprinters may be the fastest</a>.</p>
<p>Of final note is that sprinters must deliver their large forces to the ground in a <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22422028">very specific direction</a> and with the least wasted energy. They spend years learning techniques that minimise unnecessary limb movements, particularly those in the frontal and transverse planes (those that are not in the direction of running). </p>
<p>The sprinters at the front in the finals will surely display better running techniques.</p>
<p>So while you might not be able to pick the fastest sprinters through muscle fibre type, fibre bundle length, or tendon stiffness tests, you can be sure their limb masses will be small and their techniques will be the most efficient. And after the races are over, perhaps we’ll be able to answer the final question: long legs or short?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/62976/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anthony Blazevich does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The fastest male and female sprinters attain incredible top running speeds with peaks in excess of 44km per hour and 38km per hour, respectively, in the men’s and women’s 100m races.Anthony Blazevich, Professor of Biomechanics, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/631062016-08-11T02:12:36Z2016-08-11T02:12:36ZExplainer: what makes a winning swimmer?<p>The Olympics are the pinnacle for world swimming. With <a href="https://www.olympic.org/swimming">34 events in all</a>, it’s where every young swimmer strives to be. What is it, then, that sets a winning swimmer apart?</p>
<p>Olympic events take place in a 50-metre pool with eight lanes and races can range from as little as 21 seconds to 16 minutes. </p>
<p>At the Rio Games, 906 swimmers from 172 different nations are competing to be the best in their discipline or stroke (freestyle, backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly and individual medley). </p>
<h2>The right combination</h2>
<p>Some argue that good swimmers are born – with extremely long limbs, flippers for feet, large hands and lungs that border on superhuman capacity. All these help, but swimming actually requires the right balance between physiological fitness, technique and mental toughness. </p>
<p>The aim, of course, is to complete the set distance in the shortest time possible. While this may sound simple, races at the international level are often decided by as little as 0.01 of a second. </p>
<p>That’s literally a fingernail separating gold from silver; separating Olympic glory and the agonising feeling of defeat. </p>
<p>Indeed, the margin for error at the elite level is so slim that swimmers must execute a near-flawless race plan on the day to claim victory. Even before the race has begun, the thought and pressure of this can be too much for some. </p>
<p>Unlike team sports, there are no opponents or external factors such as wind or rain to contend with. Once the swimmers take their place behind the blocks, they’re in control of their own destiny.</p>
<h2>The right start</h2>
<p>When the start signal sounds, swimmers typically enter the water with a dive off their block (or perform an in-water dive for backstroke). The start contributes anywhere between 1% and 26% of total race time. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/KOT1Wp0xc00?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">An elite swimmer can complete the start of the race in between 5.4 and 8 seconds.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Typically defined as the time from the start signal to when the swimmer’s head reaches 15m, an elite swimmer can complete the start of the race in between 5.4 and 8 seconds, depending on stroke. This is the part of the race when the swimmer is travelling fastest. </p>
<p>The importance of the start is, of course, greater in shorter races.</p>
<p>Swimmers then surface or break out into what’s known as free swimming. In this section of the race, swimmers must aim to travel as fast as possible while trying to be as efficient as possible to preserve energy.</p>
<p>Taking too many strokes will mean the swimmer expends too much energy to travel the same distance. It’s very similar to selecting a gear on a bicycle; selecting the wrong gear can result in wasted energy. The same can be said of swimming, and this becomes particularly important for long-distance races. </p>
<h2>Not alone</h2>
<p>In races over 50m (that’s all but one race in the Olympics), the swimmer must turn at the end of each lap. The goal is to change direction as quickly as possible because turns can contribute up to 33% of total race time. </p>
<p>Measured as the time it takes a swimmer who is 5m from the wall to swim 10m out from the wall after turning, an elite-level swimmer can turn in between 6.5 and 10 seconds. </p>
<p>Swimmers spend hours perfecting this movement in training as a good turner can make up valuable time; a swimmer who is proficient at turning can compensate for a slightly slower free swimming speed. </p>
<p>Many pieces of the puzzle must come together to produce a winning performance in swimming. What crowds at the Olympic Aquatic Stadium and the millions of viewers worldwide witness during competition is the product of months, years and sometimes decades of hard work – in and out of the pool. </p>
<p>And swimmers don’t do it all alone; behind almost every successful swimmer is a support network of coaches, sport scientists (biomechanists and physiologists), physiotherapists, medical staff, psychologists and, of course, family and friends. Each person in that team plays an important role in helping the swimmer win gold. </p>
<p>Ultimately, athletes must execute their individualised race plan to the best of their ability to win. They need to make every turn and every stroke count. Every little bit is important to the result of the race.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63106/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elaine Tor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Races at the international level are often decided by as little as 0.01 of a second.Elaine Tor, Biomechanist (Victorian Institute of Sport), Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.