tag:theconversation.com,2011:/us/topics/yogurt-38822/articlesYogurt – The Conversation2020-10-07T23:15:23Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1477302020-10-07T23:15:23Z2020-10-07T23:15:23ZNobel Prize for CRISPR honors two great scientists – and leaves out many others<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362282/original/file-20201007-14-pjrk6r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=54%2C998%2C5997%2C3747&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">CRISPR enables editing DNA with unprecedented precision.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/genome-editing-royalty-free-image/1153361167">wildpixel/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The gene-editing technique <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2020/summary/">CRISPR earned the 2020 Nobel Prize in chemistry</a>. Recognition of this amazing breakthrough technology is well deserved.</p>
<p>But each Nobel Prize can be awarded to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-fair-is-it-for-just-three-people-to-receive-the-nobel-prize-in-physics-85161">no more than three people</a>, and that’s where this year’s prize gets really interesting. </p>
<p>The decision to award the prize to <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YO5XSXwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Jennifer Doudna</a> and <a href="https://www.emmanuelle-charpentier-lab.org">Emmanuelle Charpentier</a> involves geopolitics and patent law, and it pits basic science against applied science.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362283/original/file-20201007-22-4ispcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="award announcements with winners projected on a slide" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362283/original/file-20201007-22-4ispcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362283/original/file-20201007-22-4ispcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362283/original/file-20201007-22-4ispcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362283/original/file-20201007-22-4ispcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362283/original/file-20201007-22-4ispcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362283/original/file-20201007-22-4ispcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362283/original/file-20201007-22-4ispcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">At the announcement of the winners of the 2020 Nobel Prize in chemistry, Emmanuelle Charpentier (onscreen left) and Jennifer Doudna (onscreen right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/professor-pernilla-wittung-stafshede-and-goran-k-hansson-news-photo/1228934991">Henrik Montgomery/TT News Agency/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Editing letters in the book of life</h2>
<p>CRISPR is a powerful gene-editing tool that has taken molecular biology from the typewriter to the word processor age. One could say it’s like Microsoft Word for the book of life. CRISPR allows a researcher to find not just a gene, but a very specific part of a gene and change it, delete it or add a completely foreign gene. Genetic modifications that used to take sophisticated biological laboratories years to do are now done in days and at <a href="https://www.addgene.org/guides/crispr/">significantly less cost</a>. </p>
<p>The CRISPR story begins in 1987, when molecular biologist <a href="https://hyoka.ofc.kyushu-u.ac.jp/search/details/K001659/english.html">Yoshizumi Ishino</a> and his co-workers discovered a strange palindromic stretch of DNA in <em>E. coli</em>, a commonly studied stomach bacteria. No one could imagine <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/jb.169.12.5429-5433.1987">what purpose it served</a>.</p>
<p>By 2002, DNA sequencing methods were cheaper and more common, and researchers had found Ishino’s repeat sequences in nearly half of all bacteria and most of the single-celled archaea that had been sequenced. At this point there were enough puzzle pieces for <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=wtNG-xkAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Francisco Mojica</a> at the University of Alicante and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ruud_Jansen">Ruud Jansen</a> at Utrecht University to come up with a great acronym: CRISPR – for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats.</p>
<p>Nearly five years later, at the National Center for Biotechnology Information in Bethesda, Maryland, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=F4P3ghEAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Eugene Koonin</a> established the odd DNA’s function as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2018.0087">a bacterial defense system composed of two parts</a>. The first is a stretch of DNA that acts as an album of vanquished foes. When the bacterium overcomes an enemy, it snips out a section of the defeated invaders’ genetic material and places it into the album. These genetic mug shots are separated by repetitive stretches of DNA that read the same forward or backward. These palindromic bits of DNA are the PR in CRISPR.</p>
<p>The second component of the bacterial defense system is a search-and-destroy weapon. Each genetic mug shot has a search-and-destroy protein associated with it called a CRISPR-associated (Cas) protein. These Cas proteins circulate inside the cell, and when they encounter a stretch of genetic material corresponding to their genetic mug shot target, they kill the invader.</p>
<p>It took 20 years and much research to discover and understand these proteins.</p>
<p>Then in 2007, Danisco, a Danish food and beverage company, confirmed Koonin’s hypothesis that CRISPR is a bacterial defense system. Today, most yogurt and cheese manufacturers include CRISPR sequences in their cultures to protect their products from common viral outbreaks. <a href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/crispr-natural-history-in-bacteria-20150206/">According to Rodolphe Barrangou</a>, who conducted this research at Danisco USA: “If you’ve eaten yogurt or cheese, chances are you’ve eaten CRISPR-ized cells.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362280/original/file-20201007-18-182n3ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="computer-generated illustration of CRISPR ribonucleoprotein" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362280/original/file-20201007-18-182n3ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362280/original/file-20201007-18-182n3ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362280/original/file-20201007-18-182n3ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362280/original/file-20201007-18-182n3ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362280/original/file-20201007-18-182n3ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362280/original/file-20201007-18-182n3ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362280/original/file-20201007-18-182n3ew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A Cas protein gets to work snipping out an offending bit of DNA.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/AldevronNowOfferingaCRISPRRibonucleoproteinManufacturingServiceforClinicalApplications/177b8e66bc4ad85a9141f619776ccca5/photo?Query=CRISPR&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=10&currentItemNo=2">Business Wire/AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>Harnessing CRISPR’s potential</h2>
<p>Jennifer Doudna, a biochemist with extensive experience working with RNA at the University of California, Berkeley, started working with CRISPR in 2006. At a 2011 American Society for Microbiology meeting in San Juan, Puerto Rico, she met Emmanuelle Charpentier, an associate professor at the Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden at Umeå, who worked on a particular CRISPR-associated protein called Cas9.</p>
<p>Doudna and Charpentier had complementary skills. While walking around the old town of San Juan, Charpentier convinced Doudna that Cas9 was responsible for finding the DNA sequence that corresponds to the mug shot and cutting it. Doudna was intrigued and agreed to take a closer look at the <a href="https://www.hmhbooks.com/shop/books/A-Crack-in-Creation/9781328915368">role Cas9 played</a>.</p>
<p>Charpentier worked with Cas9 in <em>Streptococcus pyogenes</em>, the bacteria that cause strep throat and flesh-eating disease. Rather than send Doudna these dangerous bacteria, she overnighted her the DNA encoding the CRISPR-Cas9. The more Doudna studied Charpentier’s molecular scissors, the more obvious it became to her that this bacterial system could be co-opted to edit DNA. She was right, and with some tweaking, she converted CRISPR-Cas9 into a gene editing tool. Doudna noted in her memoir that CRISPR-Cas9 “<a href="https://www.hmhbooks.com/shop/books/A-Crack-in-Creation/9781328915368">was the perfect bacterial weapon</a>: a virus-seeking missile that could strike quickly and with incredible precision.”</p>
<p>Doudna and her collaborators wrote up their results and submitted their manuscript to the journal Science, which fast-tracked the paper and published it days after submission. Around the same time, she filed a patent application for the CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing system.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-05308-5">Virginijus Siksnys</a>, a molecular biologist at Vilnius University in Lithuania with a research background in a class of proteins that cut DNA called restriction endonucleases, also foresaw the CRISPR system’s potential. He submitted his own results to the journal Cell. The editor rejected the manuscript without sending it out for review. Siksnys, confident in his work and its importance, submitted his manuscript to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1208507109">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. The paper was sent in before Doudna’s paper was published, but it needed some revisions and was thus published three months after Doudna’s paper appeared.</p>
<p>Like Doudna and Siksnys, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=B5QpZooAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Feng Zhang</a>, a professor of neuroscience at MIT, was using the CRISPR-Cas9 system to edit DNA. But while the others did all their editing in solution, Zhang was slicing and dicing DNA with CRISPR-Cas9 in human cells. In January 2013, Zhang published his own <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1231143">Science paper</a>. At this time, even though Doudna had applied for a patent seven months earlier, Feng Zhang asked his employers, MIT and the Broad Institute, <a href="https://www.kqed.org/science/1938007/making-sense-of-the-crispr-patent-dispute-between-the-university-of-california-and-broad">to file a patent on his behalf</a>. </p>
<p>The Broad Institute lawyers, knowing that Doudna’s claim was pending, paid an additional fee to accelerate their patent application. It worked, and they were granted a CRISPR-Cas9 patent before Doudna was eventually awarded hers. This has started a closely watched legal battle. The contest is far from over, but it seems that Doudna is winning the <a href="https://www.labiotech.eu/crispr/crispr-patent-europe/">legal battle in the EU</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/09/latest-round-crispr-patent-battle-has-apparent-victor-fight-continues">Zhang in the U.S</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362284/original/file-20201007-14-3c8k4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Doudna and Zhang seated on a stage" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362284/original/file-20201007-14-3c8k4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/362284/original/file-20201007-14-3c8k4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362284/original/file-20201007-14-3c8k4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362284/original/file-20201007-14-3c8k4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362284/original/file-20201007-14-3c8k4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362284/original/file-20201007-14-3c8k4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/362284/original/file-20201007-14-3c8k4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Jennifer Doudna (left) shares a stage with Feng Zhang (right) while a journalist leads a public discussion of CRISPR in 2015.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/professor-of-chemistry-and-of-molecular-and-cell-biology-at-news-photo/491145088">Anna Webber/Getty Images Entertainment via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Politics around the prize</h2>
<p>The decision to award the Nobel Prize to Doudna and Charpentier couldn’t have been easy. By choosing these two over Feng Zhang, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences sent a major message. It could have awarded the prize to a third researcher, but it didn’t. Was it a statement intended for the legal system?</p>
<p>Fortunately, scientists using CRISPR as a molecular editor aren’t affected by the legal battles. They can get their CRISPR systems from the <a href="https://www.addgene.org/crispr/#?">Addgene</a> open-source repository. Clinical applications of CRISPR – like finding a cure for genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia – will most likely be affected by the legal wranglings, as that is the technology’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2020.29180.ac">most commercial use</a>.</p>
<p>Often, basic science research goes nowhere. Often it goes in unexpected directions. Sometimes it leads to the most excitingly splendid conclusions. CRISPR-Cas9 is one of these cases. It started with a weirdly repeating palindrome, matured via mozzarella and yogurt and finally blossomed into a contested gene-editing tool that was awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize.</p>
<p><em>This article has been updated to include Francisco Mojica and Ruud Jansen in the description of early CRISPR research.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147730/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marc Zimmer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Most scientific discoveries these days aren’t easily ascribed to a single researcher. CRISPR is no different – and ongoing patent fights underscore how messy research can be.Marc Zimmer, Professor of Chemistry, Connecticut CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1261312019-11-13T10:17:05Z2019-11-13T10:17:05ZKombucha, kimchi and yogurt: how fermented foods could be harmful to your health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301371/original/file-20191112-178506-152mn9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C5590%2C3732&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fermented foods such as yogurt, kimchi, and sauerkraut, are all popular sources of probiotics. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/probiotics-food-background-kimchi-beet-sauerkraut-1320880235?src=867b087e-53c5-491a-877e-d899f5dfbb90-1-32">Nina Firsova/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fermented foods have become very popular, thanks to claims about their nutritional properties and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6723656/">reported health benefits</a>, such as improving digestion, boosting immunity and even helping people lose weight. Some of the most popular fermented foods include kefir, kombucha, sauerkraut, tempeh, natto, miso, kimchi and sourdough bread. </p>
<p>But though these fermented foods might offer us many health perks, most people aren’t aware that they might not work for everyone. For some people, fermented foods might cause serious health issues. </p>
<p>Fermented foods are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6117398/">loaded with microorganisms</a>, such as live bacteria and yeast (known as probiotics). However, not all microorganisms are bad. Many, like probiotics, are harmless and are <a href="https://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/what-are-probiotics#1">even beneficial to us</a>.</p>
<p>During the process of fermentation, probiotics convert carbohydrates (starch and sugar) into alcohol and/or acids. These act as a <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/fermentation">natural preservative</a> and give fermented foods their distinctive zest and flavour. Many factors affect fermentation, including the type of probiotic, the primary metabolites these microbes produce (such as lactic acid, or certain amino acids), and the food undergoing fermentation. For example, probiotic yogurt is produced by fermenting milk, most commonly with lactic acid bacteria that produce lactic acid.</p>
<p>Fermented foods contain high amounts of probiotics, which are generally considered safe for the majority of people. In fact, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28945458">they’ve been shown to have</a> anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic and anti-atherosclerotic activity. However, some people might experience severe side effects after consuming fermented foods.</p>
<h2>1. Bloating</h2>
<p>The most common reaction to fermented foods is a <a href="https://probioticscenter.org/bloating-and-probiotics/">temporary increase in gas and bloating</a>. This is the result of excess gas being produced after probiotics <a href="https://www.livestrong.com/article/324440-do-probiotics-kill-bad-bacteria/">kill harmful gut bacteria and fungi</a>. Probiotics secrete antimicrobial peptides that kill harmful pathogenic organisms like <em>Salmonella</em> and <em>E. Coli</em>. </p>
<p>A recent study showed this <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352939318300605">antimicrobial effect of probiotic Lactobacilli strains</a> found in commercial yogurt. Although bloating after eating probiotics seems to be a good sign that the harmful bacteria are being removed from the gut, some people might experience severe bloating, which can be very painful. </p>
<p>Drinking too much kombucha can also lead to excess sugar and calorie intake, which may also lead to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3264926/">bloating and gas</a>. </p>
<h2>2. Headaches and migraines</h2>
<p>Fermented foods rich in probiotics – including yogurt, sauerkraut and kimchi – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0924224414001599">naturally contain biogenic amines</a> produced [during fermentation]. Amines are created by certain bacteria to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30263683">break down the amino acids</a> in fermented foods. The most common ones found in probiotic-rich foods include <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27375596">histamine and tyramine</a>. </p>
<p>Some people are sensitive to histamine and other amines, and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27699780">may experience headaches</a> after eating fermented foods. Because amines stimulate the central nervous system, they can increase or decrease blood flow, which can trigger headaches and migraines. One study found that low-histamine diets <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10779289">reduced headaches</a> in 75% of participants. Taking a probiotic supplement might be therefore preferred. </p>
<h2>3. Histamine intolerance</h2>
<p>Histamine is <a href="https://bdnutritionhealth.ca/2017/07/26/histamine-the-one-disadvantage-to-fermented-foods/">plentiful in fermented foods</a>. For most, our body’s specific enzymes will naturally digest them. However, some people don’t produce enough of these enzymes. This means histamine won’t be digested and will instead be absorbed into the bloodstream. </p>
<p>This can cause a range of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16782524">histamine intolerance symptoms</a>. The most common are itching, headaches or migraines, runny nose (rhinitis), eye redness, fatigue, hives and digestive symptoms include diarrhoea, nausea and vomiting. </p>
<p>However, histamine intolerance can also cause more severe symptoms, including asthma, low blood pressure, irregular heart rate, circulatory collapse, sudden psychological changes (such as anxiety, aggressiveness, dizziness and lack of concentration) and sleep disorders. </p>
<h2>4. Food-borne illness</h2>
<p>While most fermented foods are safe, it’s still possible for them to get contaminated with bacteria that can cause illness. In 2012, there was an outbreak of 89 cases of <em>Salmonella</em> in the US because of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3810924/">unpasteurised tempeh</a>.</p>
<p>Two large outbreaks of <em>Escherichia coli</em>, were reported in South Korean schools in 2013 and 2014. They were associated with eating <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27557346">contaminated fermented vegetable kimchi</a>. </p>
<p>In most cases, probiotics found in fermented milk products such as cheese, yogurt and buttermilk can effectively prevent the growth of certain bacteria, such as <a href="https://academic.oup.com/femsre/article/36/4/815/52040"><em>Staphylococcus aureus</em></a> and <em>Staphylococcal enterotoxins</em> which can cause food poisoning. But in some cases probiotics fail and bacteria can actually secrete toxins, so the product may be hazardous.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301372/original/file-20191112-178516-8r6ija.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301372/original/file-20191112-178516-8r6ija.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301372/original/file-20191112-178516-8r6ija.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301372/original/file-20191112-178516-8r6ija.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301372/original/file-20191112-178516-8r6ija.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301372/original/file-20191112-178516-8r6ija.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301372/original/file-20191112-178516-8r6ija.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Staphylococcus aureus can cause skin and respiratory infections, as well as food poisoning.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/bacteria-staphylococcus-aureus-on-surface-skin-407372458?src=73e7fd33-427b-426f-a49f-1c175c44d41e-1-0">Kateryna Kon/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>5. Infection from probiotics</h2>
<p>Probiotics are generally safe for the vast majority of people. However, in rare cases, they can cause infection – especially in people who <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14679449">have a compromised immune system</a>. </p>
<p>A London study reported the first case of a 65-year-old diabetic patient whose liver abscess had been <a href="https://casereports.bmj.com/content/2017/bcr-2016-218423">caused by probiotic consumption</a>. Susceptible patients, such as those with compromised immunity, should be advised against consuming too many probiotics.</p>
<p>Treatment with probiotics <a href="https://jcm.asm.org/content/52/8/3124">can cause serious infections</a>, such as pneumonia in vulnerable people and systemic infections, including <a href="https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/115/1/178?sso=1&sso_redirect_count=1&nfstatus=401&nftoken=00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000&nfstatusdescription=ERROR%3a+No+local+token">sepsis</a> and <a href="https://thij.org/doi/10.14503/THIJ-15-5121">endocarditis</a>.</p>
<h2>6. Antibiotic resistance</h2>
<p>Probiotic bacteria can carry genes that confer resistance to antibiotics. These antibiotic resistance genes may pass to other bacteria found in the food chain and gastrointestinal tract via <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00284-010-9856-2">horizontal gene transfer</a>. The most common antibiotic resistance genes carried by fermented foods are against <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128023099000297">erythromycin and tetracycline</a>, which are used to treat respiratory infections and some sexually transmitted diseases.</p>
<p>Researchers found resistant probiotic strains in commercially available dietary supplements, which could mean resistance to several common types of antibiotics used to treat <a href="https://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12937-015-0084-2">serious bacterial infections</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/antibiotic-resistance-researchers-have-directly-proven-that-bacteria-can-change-shape-inside-humans-to-avoid-antibiotics-124296">Antibiotic resistance: researchers have directly proven that bacteria can change shape inside humans to avoid antibiotics</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Research has also found six probiotic Bacillus strains found in food products (including kimchi, yogurt and olives) are also <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/06/190621144242.htm">resistant to several antibiotics</a>.</p>
<p>And, a recent Malaysian study showed probiotic <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31319614">Lactobacilli bacteria</a> in kefir carry resistance to numerous antibiotics, including ampicillin, penicillin and tetracycline. These are used to treat serious human diseases including bladder infections, pneumonia, gonorrhoea, and meningitis. </p>
<p>Another study also showed lactic acid bacteria found in Turkish dairy products were <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5960774/">resistant mainly to vancomycin antibiotic</a>, which is the drug of choice for treatment of <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/mrsa/">MRSA infection</a>.</p>
<p>While there are a wide variety of health benefits that can happen from consuming fermented foods, these may not work for everyone. While most people will be fine eating fermented foods, for some they could cause serious health problems.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>More on evidence-based articles about diets:</em></p>
<ul>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/do-you-get-diabetes-from-eating-too-much-sugar-95833?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=IsItTrue">Do you get diabetes from eating too much sugar?</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/low-carb-paleo-or-fasting-which-diet-is-best-89685?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=IsItTrue">Low carb, Paleo or fasting – which diet is best?</a></em></p></li>
<li><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/does-eating-at-night-make-you-fat-96804?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=IsItTrue">Does eating at night make you fat?</a></em></p></li>
</ul>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301912/original/file-20191115-66957-gxdqkd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=176&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/the-daily-newsletter-2?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=TCUKengagement&utm_content=GeneralBannerA126131">Click here to subscribe to our newsletter and stay healthy with guidance you can trust.</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126131/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Manal Mohammed does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>While the probiotics found in fermented foods might have health benefits for most, these foods could cause serious harm to the health of others.Manal Mohammed, Lecturer, Medical Microbiology, University of WestminsterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1179632019-06-11T23:09:02Z2019-06-11T23:09:02ZLab-grown dairy: The next food frontier<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278583/original/file-20190609-52748-3q3tgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=45%2C0%2C5053%2C3305&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Could dairy products soon be produced in labs?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Lab-grown meat is getting a lot of attention along with plant-based meat substitutes. Technology is driving the industry toward providing alternatives to conventionally produced food products. Dairy proteins may be the next product produced in a lab, for use in fluid “milk” production and processed dairy products like yogurt and cheese, to name a few.</p>
<p>Winston Churchill predicted the rise of <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/ezzeye/winston-churchill-predicted-synthetic-lab-grown-meat-in-1931">synthetic foods</a> in 1931.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“We shall escape the absurdity of growing a whole chicken in order to eat the breast or wing, by growing these parts separately under a suitable medium. Synthetic food will, of course, also be used in the future.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>While it took longer than 50 years, his prediction is coming true with meat proteins and now dairy proteins.</p>
<h2>What is synthetic dairy?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.perfectdayfoods.com/">Perfect Day Inc.,</a> a California-based start-up, has recreated the proteins found in conventional cow’s milk without the use of animals. The company developed a form of genetically modified microflora that produces both <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/casein-vs-whey">whey and casein</a> through a fermentation process. </p>
<p>The approach can be loosely compared to the use of brewer’s yeast to produce alcohol. Yeast is used in controlled environments to create fermentation byproducts and the two processes simply employ different yeasts for a different purpose and output.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278584/original/file-20190609-52785-g8w4k8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Could she be headed for an early retirement?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amanda Kerr/Unsplash</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Perfect Day says their product is the exact same as the protein found in cow’s milk. <a href="http://milkfacts.info/Nutrition%20Facts/Nutritional%20Components.htm">Conventional milk</a> is approximately 3.3 per cent protein, of which 82 per is casein and 18 per cent is whey. The other main elements are water, fat and carbohydrates. </p>
<p>Perfect Day has the technology to remake the small fraction of milk that is protein, arguably the most important component to produce other foods. The company suggests that its dairy protein is vegan and lactose-free, while providing the same high-quality nutrition as conventional dairy protein. This could have significant appeal for consumers.</p>
<h2>Tough to mimic full-fat milks</h2>
<p>Milk produced by dairy cattle is a versatile ingredient used in various products worldwide. More than <a href="https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3210011301">70 per cent of milk sold</a> from Canadian farms in 2019 is used for further processing, leaving the remainder to be consumed as fluid milk.</p>
<p>It may be difficult to produce full-fat milks that mimic the taste and texture of cow’s milk. Protein is just one component of fluid milk; milk fat is another, which would likely be the most difficult to mimic with plant-based alternatives. The structure of milk fat provides a specific taste and mouth feel when drinking milk, and this may be a tougher formulation challenge than creating proteins to be used in cheese or yogurt. </p>
<p>The early focus of Perfect Day’s communication was on fluid milk — the kind we drink —but the company has shifted its focus to processed products. </p>
<p>Perfect Day has partnered with food production powerhouse <a href="https://www.adm.com/">Archer Daniels Midland (ADM)</a>, among others, to move towards full-scale production. The company is one of the world’s largest agricultural processors and food ingredient providers with more than 330 manufacturing facilities in almost 200 countries. ADM supplies a vast list of ingredients for both human and animal consumption; synthetic dairy protein may be a perfect addition to their offerings.</p>
<p>Products such as yogurt and cheese are different than fluid milk, and may be more suitable for using lab-grown casein and whey. The synthetic proteins could be used to replace dairy milk ingredients or to complement them.</p>
<p>In <a href="http://www.milkfacts.info/Milk%20Processing/Yogurt%20Production.htm">yogurt production</a>, for example, protein is often added to improve texture. There are differing proportions of milk components in various processed products. This means that fermented casein and whey proteins could augment or replace conventional protein ingredients. This is easier to do in products with high-protein ingredients.</p>
<p>That said, the potential use of animal-free dairy protein goes far beyond traditional dairy products such as cheese and yogurt. Hot dogs that contain milk powder and granola bars that contain modified milk ingredients are examples of the many foods that could use this alternative dairy protein.</p>
<h2>Tackling malnutrition?</h2>
<p>Perfect Day CEO Ryan Pandya <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/perfect-day-2018-ryan-pandya?trk=related_artice_Perfect%20Day%20in%202018_article-card_title">said last year</a>: “We began to look into how we can use our protein to prevent stunted growth and malnutrition in the developing world.” This suggests Perfect Day’s focus is on providing ingredients rather than producing milk.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/278586/original/file-20190609-52776-1tfww9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We’ve long had an alternative to butter – margarine. But a lot of consumers prefer butter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some products aren’t well-suited to this approach. Butter, for example, is made from milk fat and has almost no protein. We’ve long had a plant-based alternative to butter — margarine. But many consumers moved away from margarine and back to butter. </p>
<p>The Canadian <a href="http://www.cdc-ccl.gc.ca/CDC/index-eng.php?id=3800">per capita consumption of butter</a> increased from 2.72 kilograms to 3.21 kilograms from 2007 to 2016. This increase in butter demand has led to an <a href="http://www.agrifoodecon.ca/uploads/userfiles/files/logic%20of%20milk%20marketing%20trends%20briefing%20note-%20may%2025%202016.pdf">excess of milk protein</a> in the marketplace in both Canada and the United States.</p>
<p>While it remains to be seen if these fermented proteins can be produced economically, their introduction into the marketplace could cause significant disruption to the dairy industry. The disruption would be due in part to switching some processed products away from conventional dairy proteins.</p>
<p>There would be additional disruption because of the change in relative demand for protein and other milk components. We would likely end up with more significant surpluses of proteins from both conventional dairy and synthetic production.</p>
<h2>The future</h2>
<p>Many issues need to be resolved before these products arrive in our supermarkets. The economics of production have to work. Products need to be reformulated to incorporate the fermented proteins with other ingredients to replace the milk components.</p>
<p>The Canadian Food Inspection Agency currently <a href="http://www.inspection.gc.ca/about-the-cfia/acts-and-regulations/list-of-acts-and-regulations/documents-incorporated-by-reference/canadian-standards-of-identity-volume-1/eng/1521473554991/1521473555532">describes milk</a> as being produced by an animal. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not yet made a policy statement on classifying synthetic milk proteins. </p>
<p>Milk in Canada is also subject to a supply management system that includes quota for production. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-dairy-lobbys-cash-grab-put-canada-in-trumps-crosshairs-102974">How the dairy lobby's cash grab put Canada in Trump’s crosshairs</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Will synthetic casein and whey be subject to the same system? The regulatory environment will require significant clarification, and any changes will be vigorously debated by various interests.</p>
<p>Some consumers will highly value the fact that animals are not required to produce these proteins, creating a vegan, lactose-free product. There will also be a perception that synthetic dairy proteins will have a smaller environmental footprint. </p>
<p>Other consumers will likely have concerns that the proteins are produced using a genetically modified yeast.</p>
<p>Despite these uncertainties, we will likely see synthetic dairy products on grocery shelves within a few years.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117963/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>
Michael von Massow receives funding from the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food to research issues in food waste and nutrition labeling for restaurant menus. He has received funding from the Walmart Foundation to explore food waste at the household level. He has received money from the Tim Hortons Sustainable Food Management Fund to explore consumer attitudes to antibiotic use and animal welfare. He has also received funding from Longo's Brothers Markets in support of research into consumer behaviour in food retail.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mitchell Gingerich does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Dairy proteins may be the next product to be mass produced in labs, for use in fluid “milk” production and processed dairy products like yogurt and cheese.Michael von Massow, Associate Professor, Food Economics, University of GuelphMitchell Gingerich, Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Food, Agriculture and Resource Economics, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1033692018-09-19T04:54:51Z2018-09-19T04:54:51ZHigh levels of sugar in organic and children’s yogurts – new survey<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/237021/original/file-20180919-143281-1a6l4fp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/aricriley/3363113223/">Aric Riley/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In <a href="http://bmjopen.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-021387">our survey</a> of yogurts sold in the UK, we found that less than 10% were low sugar – almost none of which were children’s yogurts. We also found that organic products, often viewed as healthier options, contained some of the highest levels of sugar.</p>
<p>Yogurt has many health benefits for all ages and this is partly due to “friendly bacteria” (probiotics) that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24499072">help the intestines and immune systems</a>. It is also a good source of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/nbu.12130">protein, minerals and vitamins</a>. Yogurt is particularly recommended for <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10408398.2011.619671">babies and children</a> and, in fact, those up to the age of three years in the UK eat more yogurt than any other age group. But we are concerned that yogurts in the UK are laden with sugar, which is counteracting their health benefits. </p>
<p>We know that working out the sugar content of food can be confusing because government sugar recommendations for a healthy diet only refer to “free” (also called “added”) sugars, and food labels don’t distinguish between free and total sugars. But most of the sugar in high-sugar yogurts is free sugar, even for many fruit yogurts. Whole, unprocessed fruit does not contain free sugars and does not need to be counted when considering government recommendations.</p>
<h2>Nine-hundred yogurts</h2>
<p>We were concerned that yogurt was in the top nine food categories (after soft drinks, fruit juices and smoothies) that contribute the most to children’s sugar intakes. We wanted to find out how well individual yogurts, particularly those marketed to children, met UK and US dietary guidelines for low sugar, given the concern about high levels of sugar in our diets. To do this, we surveyed the 900 yogurts (after searching supermarkets online for “yogurt” or “yoghurt”) that were available at the five biggest online UK supermarket chains in October-November 2016.</p>
<p>We categorised the products as shown in the figure below and found that they varied enormously in sugar content, with clear differences within and between the chosen groups.</p>
<p>Unsurprisingly, desserts contained the most sugar, at an average of 16.4g per 100g. These were followed by products in the children’s, flavoured, fruit, and organic categories. In these categories, average sugars ranged from 10.8g per 100g in children’s products to 13.1g per 100g in organic products. This compares with an average of 5g per 10g for natural and Greek yogurts.</p>
<p>Low fat and low sugar were classified according to EU regulations: 3g or less of fat per 100g and 1.5g or less for drinks, and a maximum of 5g of total sugars per 100g. (This is the system currently used for food traffic-light labelling in the UK.) The sugar content of most types of yogurt was well above the recommended threshold, with children’s and organic yogurt being among the highest.</p>
<p>The average fat content was either below or just above the low-fat threshold. Desserts had the highest fat content and the broadest range, averaging 5.2g per 100g. </p>
<p>The fat content of yogurt is less of a worry than sugar as most products would not contribute a high proportion to the recommended daily intake of fat (on average, 97g for a man and 78g for a woman). Low-fat yogurts tended to have a lower calorie content, but the range overlaps with higher-fat yogurt.</p>
<h2>Check the sugar content</h2>
<p>We only surveyed products from five supermarket chains. Any low-sugar yogurts from other retailers would have been excluded. Nevertheless, yogurt may be an unrecognised source of sugar, particularly for young children, who eat a lot of it. We hope that as a result of this survey consumers will check the sugar content of a product before they buy it. </p>
<p>While yogurt may be less of a concern than soft drinks and fruit juices – the chief sources of free sugars in both children’s and adults’ diets – what is worrying is that yogurt, often perceived as a healthy food, may be an unrecognised source of sugar in the diet. </p>
<p>Getting into the habit of eating natural or Greek yogurt with fresh, whole fruit for sweetness would add no free sugar and would have the added benefit of contributing to the five a day recommendation for fruit and veg.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/103369/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Is yogurt as healthy as you think?J Bernadette Moore, Associate Professor of Obesity, University of LeedsBarbara Fielding, Senior Lecturer, University of SurreyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/942952018-05-24T20:04:03Z2018-05-24T20:04:03ZPlain, Greek, low-fat? How to choose a healthy yoghurt<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218000/original/file-20180508-46353-4spjww.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">With all the different types of yogurt on offer, making a decision on which one to buy can be difficult.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Yoghurt is one of the oldest fermented dairy foods in the world. Its origins date back to the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/article/73/suppl_1/4/1819293">dawn of civilisation</a>. When humans began domesticating animals for milk production, milk’s short shelf life required solutions for storing it. </p>
<p>The word “yoghurt” itself <a href="https://www.elsevier.com/books/tamime-and-robinsons-yoghurt/tamime/978-1-84569-213-1">comes from Turkish</a>, meaning something like “curdled” or “thickened milk”, which is pretty much what happens to milk during yoghurt production.</p>
<p>Like milk, yoghurt is a rich source of calcium and protein. And it <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/99/5/1243S/4577504">provides other nutrients</a> such as iodine, vitamins D, B2 and B12, and zinc. </p>
<p>But yoghurt is actually more nutritious than milk. The main reason is that the fermentation process makes it easier to digest, so the nutrients can be absorbed more easily into the body.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-bulgaria-to-east-asia-the-making-of-japans-yogurt-culture-76598">From Bulgaria to East Asia, the making of Japan's yogurt culture</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Yet with all the various types, like Greek and liquid yoghurts, and ones with added fruits and probiotics, how do you know which one is healthiest?</p>
<h2>Making yoghurt</h2>
<p>Yoghurt is made by introducing certain bacteria into fresh milk – typically <em>Streptococcus thermophilus</em> and <em>Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus</em>. </p>
<p>Usually, both these bacteria are present in yoghurt and form the yoghurt starter culture. Their synergistic relationship is a key factor in the consistency of the final product. These cultures may also provide some health benefits, such as reducing the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14627358">severity and duration of diarrhoea</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217999/original/file-20180508-46364-gsqsl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217999/original/file-20180508-46364-gsqsl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217999/original/file-20180508-46364-gsqsl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217999/original/file-20180508-46364-gsqsl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217999/original/file-20180508-46364-gsqsl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217999/original/file-20180508-46364-gsqsl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217999/original/file-20180508-46364-gsqsl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/217999/original/file-20180508-46364-gsqsl6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Yoghurt is made by introducing a starter culture of bacteria into milk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/inthe-arena/10372695863/in/photolist-gNAM6R-a41WoE-axxDjL-a2qdFb-cJ4KiQ-zaiG5-9Y5u1V-bwktpH-dZ1WpZ-axxESN-PFwbv-9e57PA-6aaynh-quG5pa-4pQyL1-6Y4eiy-9ZSM8P-9AXD83-6LMsD4-aavUZL-oejucg-axxD3s-axuXvv-axuYuR-6LRBJL-axuXQx-6DnSyf-QDWHf4-6o6EZa-QGLYwE-axxDAj-5hSCbx-GmBLc-7A5ypG-dRGUct-7Szc93-8bhcPt-6eHCk5-29yKSq-7TwfT5-9v9n8t-SBbdNf-dtoEBA-buwu2p-9WgKAp-aoxrax-8ZFTF-eyrRok-9Deo3D-nZqQc">Andrew Seaman/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The bacteria ferment the naturally occurring milk sugar (lactose) for energy and growth. During this process, lactose becomes lactic acid. The acidity development leads to the main milk protein, casein, breaking down and losing some of its elementary structure. </p>
<p>This partial breakdown results in the semi-solid, gel-like structure we know as yoghurt. The lactic acid is also responsible for yoghurt’s sour flavours, as well as helping it stay fresher for longer than milk. </p>
<h2>What makes yoghurt healthy?</h2>
<p>Yoghurt is easier to digest than milk because enzymes involved in the fermentation process break down substances, such as lactose, into <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/99/5/1243S/4577504">smaller compounds</a>, which can be readily absorbed and used by the body. And certain minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus and iron, are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128051344000018">better used by the body</a> when they come from yoghurt.</p>
<p>And because lactose is broken down and converted to lactic acid during fermentation, lactose-intolerant people can consume yoghurt without adverse effects. </p>
<p>Consuming yoghurt is associated with <a href="https://www.elsevier.com/books/yogurt-in-health-and-disease-prevention/shah/978-0-12-805134-4">many health benefits</a>, including maintaining a healthy microbiota (the colony of bacteria in your gut). Yoghurt can feed the good bacteria and help them fight against <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26995128">disease-causing microorganisms</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-the-gut-microbiota-and-how-does-it-affect-mind-and-body-40536">Explainer: what is the gut microbiota and how does it affect mind and body?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>Yoghurt consumption helps to maintain bone structure and has even been found to reduce the risk of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ijc.26193">certain cancers</a> and infectious diseases, as it enhances the immune response. Yoghurt <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/80/2/245/4690304">can help reduce symtpoms of conditions</a> such as constipation, inflammatory bowel disease, infection with a bacterium that can damage the stomach lining (<em>Helicobacter pylori</em>), <a href="http://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease">diarrhoeal diseases</a> and some allergic reactions, such as to certain foods. </p>
<h2>Types of yoghurt</h2>
<p>Cow’s milk is the most widely used raw ingredient for yoghurt manufacturing. But other types, such as sheep and goat milk yoghurt, are available. There are slight differences in the nutritional composition among these milk types. </p>
<p>Although cow’s milk is generally more appealing (as goat and sheep milk may have <a href="https://wakethewolves.com/goats-milk-vs-cows-milk-is-there-a-difference/">unpleasant smells</a>), the latter two may provide additional health benefits. For instance, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814612009971">goat’s milk is easier to digest</a> than cow’s milk and is less likely to cause an allergic reaction.</p>
<p>Non-dairy alternatives such as soy and coconut milk yoghurt are becoming increasingly popular too.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218004/original/file-20180508-46364-qvpfkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218004/original/file-20180508-46364-qvpfkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218004/original/file-20180508-46364-qvpfkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218004/original/file-20180508-46364-qvpfkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218004/original/file-20180508-46364-qvpfkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218004/original/file-20180508-46364-qvpfkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218004/original/file-20180508-46364-qvpfkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218004/original/file-20180508-46364-qvpfkx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Goat’s milk is easier to digest than cow’s milk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The most commonly known types of yoghurt are plain set yoghurt, flavoured yoghurt, Greek yoghurt, frozen yoghurt and drinking yoghurt.</p>
<p><em>Plain set yoghurt</em> is usually made from dairy ingredients and fermented in the cups or tubs with no sugar or sweeteners.</p>
<p><em>Flavoured yoghurt</em> is made by adding sugar and fruit or other flavourings to plain yoghurt. Often, the milk mixture is fermented in large vats, cooled and then stirred for a creamy texture with various fruits or other flavours. These stirred yoghurts are also known as Swiss-style yoghurts.</p>
<p><em>Greek yoghurt</em> is a thick yoghurt. It’s traditionally prepared by straining the water known as whey from plain yoghurt to make it thicker, richer and creamier. It contains more protein than regular yoghurt and has no added sugar.</p>
<p><em>Frozen yoghurt</em> is frozen ice milk with a typical yoghurt flavour. It tastes more like ice-cream with a hint of yoghurt.</p>
<p><em>Drinking yoghurts</em> are prepared from a yoghurt mix with reduced milk solids. They come in almost every variety and flavour. They’re usually more watery, but some thick varieties are also available. Kefir and lassi are the popular drinking yoghurt types.</p>
<h2>Added ingredients for health purposes</h2>
<p>Many yoghurts contain added ingredients. These include <a href="https://www.benecol.co.uk/our-products/yogurts/garden-fruits?utm_medium=cpc&utm_source=google&utm_term=benecol-yogurt&utm_content=text&utm_campaign=mec---brand---product---yogurt-(b)&gclid=CjwKCAjw2dvWBRBvEiwADllhn7saBYlt7KTGzuaG_kj7emog2j957TlcdEyjB46RLqqdjIfeKp5AzBoCV68QAvD_BwE&gclsrc=aw.ds">cholesterol-lowering compounds</a> (such as stanol and sterol esters) and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26619790">fibre</a> aimed at improving gut health. </p>
<p>Some yoghurts also have added probiotics. These are <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2311-5637/3/4/67">live microorganisms</a> that can help establish a healthy gut microbiota. The most widely used probiotics are the acidophilus strain, known as <em>Lactobacillus acidophilus</em>, and <em>Bifidobacterium</em>. These could be useful for people who have gastrointestinal problems such as <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00535-016-1224-y">irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)</a>.</p>
<p>Probiotics can be more effective when <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0963996909002749">consumed in yoghurt</a> than through capsules or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096399691300330X">other beverages</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/so-you-think-you-have-ibs-coeliac-disease-or-crohns-heres-what-it-might-mean-for-you-39128">So you think you have IBS, coeliac disease or Crohn’s? Here’s what it might mean for you</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The two bacteria in yoghurt starter culture – <em>S. thermophilus</em> and <em>L. delbrueckii</em> ssp. <em>bulgaricus</em> – are not <a href="https://www.elsevier.com/books/yogurt-in-health-and-disease-prevention/shah/978-0-12-805134-4">natural inhabitants</a> of the intestine and cannot survive the acidic conditions and bile concentrations in the gastrointestinal tract. So they don’t do much to change the microbiota in your gut. In contrast, probiotics can survive and colonise the large intestine.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218012/original/file-20180508-46359-c4cs2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218012/original/file-20180508-46359-c4cs2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/218012/original/file-20180508-46359-c4cs2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218012/original/file-20180508-46359-c4cs2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218012/original/file-20180508-46359-c4cs2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218012/original/file-20180508-46359-c4cs2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218012/original/file-20180508-46359-c4cs2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/218012/original/file-20180508-46359-c4cs2i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s healthier to add your own fruit to yoghurt than to buy fruity yoghurt.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/MFs_fEGsoqY">Peter Hershey/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Regular intake of yoghurt that contains microbial cultures such as probiotic acidophilus has also been found to potentially reduce the risk of coronary heart disease by helping to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07315724.1999.10718826">decrease cholesterol absorption</a>. </p>
<h2>Which yoghurt is better for you?</h2>
<p>When whole milk is used to produce plain yoghurts, these may contain 3.5-4.4 grams of fat per 100g. Low-fat yoghurt contains less than 3g of fat per 100g, and non-fat or fat-free yoghurts must contain less than <a href="http://www.legendairy.com.au/%7E/media/Legendairy/Documents/Health/Fact%20sheets/2012%20Proximate%20Composition%20Booklet.ashx">0.15g fat per 100g</a>. </p>
<p>High fat and high sugar in any food can lead to health problems. So, a low-fat and low-sugar yoghurt product, like a low-fat Greek yoghurt, would be ideal if you’re looking to keep healthy.</p>
<p>Yoghurt products incorporating fruit or nuts can provide additional nutritional and health benefits, but many of these can also contain added sugar. Adding fresh fruit or nuts to a yoghurt yourself is a healthier option.</p>
<p>If you would like to have probiotic effects, you can choose a product with acidophilus or bifidobacteria. </p>
<p>You should check the product label as it is a legal requirement to list all the ingredients, cultures and nutritional information in commercial yoghurts. When it comes to probiotic yoghurts, it’s always better to choose a fresh product rather than one closer to the expiry date, as <a href="http://www.mdpi.com/2311-5637/3/4/67">probiotics die during storage</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94295/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Duane Mellor is a director, council member and spokesperson of the British Dietetic Association</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nenad Naumovski, Said Ajlouni, and Senaka Ranadheera do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Consuming yoghurt is associated with many health benefits. But with all the varieties of yoghurt, and added ingredients like fruits and probiotics, it can be hard to know which is best for your health.Senaka Ranadheera, Tutor, The University of MelbourneDuane Mellor, Senior Lecturer, Coventry UniversityNenad Naumovski, Asistant Professor in Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of CanberraSaid Ajlouni, Associate Professor, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/835952017-09-10T21:24:55Z2017-09-10T21:24:55Z‘Weather-sensitive’ products: adjusting price and promotions to increase sales<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185105/original/file-20170907-9599-9d45t0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A U.S. supermarket.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It stands to reason that the weather can affect the sales of certain products – for example, more rainfall generally means that consumers purchase less sunscreen. But the phenomenon can go much further. In the UK market, warm summer weather led to a sales increase of <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/money/markets/article-4645178/Ice-cream-saves-supermarkets-Heatwave-boosts-sales.html">23% for frozen sweets and 10% for chilled drinks</a>. In the US do-it-yourself market, stores reported falling sales of outdoor product categories due to <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2014/05/27/lowes-earnings-review-outdoor-category-sales-decline-due-to-rough-weather-but-boost-profitability/#3f92f16ed5b3">poor weather</a>. In the automobile industry, sales of convertibles increase by 5.4% when the <a href="https://www.adwordsrobot.com/en/blog/how-weather-influences-product-sales">temperature rises</a>. In the US and Canada, McDonald’s added technology that allowed them to <a href="http://www.businessinsider.fr/us/mcdonalds-menus-will-recommend-food-based-on-the-weather-2015-11/">recommend products</a> based on outside temperatures, but not adjust pricing.</p>
<h2>Optimising profits based on the weather</h2>
<p>Despite the clear influence of the weather on the sales of certain products, firms’ decisions on price, advertising or promotions can often be more a matter of habit than reason. Indeed, several marketing departments’ practices show that the links between the marketing decisions and the weather are still poorly understood. Understanding these links would give them a framework to better take the weather into account, and thus potentially increase sales and profits. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.faculty-psbedu.paris/en/content/when-temperature-rises-and-consumer-cool-down-impact-pricing-and-advertising-strategies">recent study</a>, we help fill this gap by studying how price and advertising expenses can be adjusted to the outside temperature for “weather-sensitive” products.</p>
<p>The mapping of prices of such products on the French market shows discrepancies in the order of 20% within a same geographical region and between regions. Advertising expenditures can be concentrated on certain months of the year, sometimes reaching more than twice the annual average. Our study helps companies understand whether these practices of modulation in price and in advertising expenses are justified and how they can be optimised in relation to outdoor temperature.</p>
<p>Theoretical results of our study show that when the outside temperature increases, price and advertising expenditures should be increased when:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Demand is relatively <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_elasticity_of_demand">insensitive to price changes</a>; </p></li>
<li><p>Demand more sensitive to price changes than to advertising changes – that is, an increase in price impacts demand more than an increase in advertising expenditures of the same intensity.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Yop yogurt as the case study</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185108/original/file-20170907-9570-1sxcnby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185108/original/file-20170907-9570-1sxcnby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1385&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185108/original/file-20170907-9570-1sxcnby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185108/original/file-20170907-9570-1sxcnby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1385&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185108/original/file-20170907-9570-1sxcnby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1740&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185108/original/file-20170907-9570-1sxcnby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1740&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185108/original/file-20170907-9570-1sxcnby.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1740&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p>We empirically tested our theoretical results for a well-known product in the French <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast-moving_consumer_goods">FMCG market</a>, the drinkable yogurt Yop. The data used in our analysis included more than 1,300 sales and price observations over a period of three years at nine different regional levels as well as advertising expenses and outdoor temperature recordings from 1,100 weather stations all over the French metropolitan territory. We studied the relationship between temperature and price on the one hand, and between temperature and advertising expenditures on the other.</p>
<p>Estimates show that Yop’s demand is consistent with our theoretical model. It is not particularly price-sensitive (when price rises by 10%, demand falls only by 5%) and more sensitive to price than to advertising (when advertising expenditures rise 10%, demand increases by less than 1%). Most important, the price and the advertising expenses were shown to increase with the temperature.</p>
<p>In sum, our study can help firms better set prices and advertising expenditures according to temperature. For brand products (monopolistic markets), the warmer it gets, the greater firms’ ability to increase prices and advertising while increasing sales. In such markets, rising temperatures strengthens the market power of brands. For managers and their consulting firms, our study provides conceptual tools confirmed by an empirical analysis that can lead to better-informed price and advertising decisions and, ultimately, improve profits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83595/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Les auteurs ne travaillent pas, ne conseillent pas, ne possèdent pas de parts, ne reçoivent pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'ont déclaré aucune autre affiliation que leur organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Weather has an impact on the sales of certain products, and new research shows that timely adjustments in price and advertising can make it possible for firms to increase profits.Xavier Rousset, Doctorant en Économie, Université Paris CitéOctavio Escobar, Associate Professor of Economics, PSB Paris School of BusinessRégis Chenavaz, Enseignant-chercheur en économie et marketing, Kedge Business SchoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/765982017-05-22T06:22:05Z2017-05-22T06:22:05ZFrom Bulgaria to East Asia, the making of Japan’s yogurt culture<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169987/original/file-20170518-12260-1sd1ypn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One of Japan's biggest food trends right now is Bulgarian yoghurt.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cityfoodsters/16825348346/in/photolist-7Hnu3s-8RFEtu-5DhJCb-acySnA-rCNiSS-roCSrg-rEYZsY-qG6U7-dKQSVR-geqo4-qG6Uf-5xapgq-qG6Ub-nq8NFb-iNU5aT-nq8Hrn-72Uyd5-2saFFf-5geQUe-84cs8s-8zcGZx-6oYjBp-B2G18-aa6g84-h5SHxb-RPTGwQ-6p9cep-6pdkLW-6p9cbR-48sPSp-ii81dX-4qjH69-5DhJBf-qG6U3">City foodsters/Kakigōri Kanna/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><strong>Yogurt has travelled from Bulgaria to Japan and back, channelling identities and national pride as it goes. The sixth article of our series <a href="https://theconversation.com/global/topics/globalisation-under-pressure-38722">Globalisation Under Pressure</a> charts its course.</strong></em></p>
<hr>
<p>Japan has a new food fad: <a href="http://www.nzherald.co.nz/travel/news/article.cfm?c_id=7&objectid=11822188">yogurt</a>. Its artful display is the latest craze on Japanese tables, and yogurt is one of the trendiest foods in the country.</p>
<p>Today, millions of Japanese include yogurt in their daily diet, and the market <a href="http://www.pr.com/press-release/711253">is growing steadily</a>. And <a href="https://www.forbes.com/companies/meiji-holdings/">Meiji Holdings</a>, a Japanese company that has a subsidiary specialising in dairy products, is the biggest domestic producer in an industry valued at 410 billion yen ($US3.7 billion) annually, according to a March 6 article in the online newspaper <a href="http://www.ssnp.co.jp/articles/show/1703060006758720">Shokuhin Sangyou Shinbun</a>.</p>
<p>How did yogurt go from being a food alien to the Japanese, a substance often considered distasteful or even inedible just 35 years ago, to being a daily necessity and a symbol of health and well-being?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169967/original/file-20170518-12242-1e1fvam.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169967/original/file-20170518-12242-1e1fvam.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169967/original/file-20170518-12242-1e1fvam.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169967/original/file-20170518-12242-1e1fvam.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169967/original/file-20170518-12242-1e1fvam.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169967/original/file-20170518-12242-1e1fvam.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169967/original/file-20170518-12242-1e1fvam.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Plain Bulgarian yogurt has become a symbol of good health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Bulgarian_yogurt.JPG">Ned Jelyazkov/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A new superfood</h2>
<p>That was the question underlying the fieldwork I conducted from 2007 to 2012, for which I examined both dairy companies and consumers (available <a href="http://www.pastoralismbg.com/other/profile.php">here in English</a> and <a href="http://www.minpaku.ac.jp/research/education/univercity/student/yotova/02">also in Japanese</a>). I traced this commodity through time and space – from Bulgaria to Japan – watching it transform. </p>
<p>I asked people: what do you think you’re actually eating when you consume yogurt? Is it a specific bacterium, a cool trend or a health-boosting substance?</p>
<p>Turns out, yogurt’s current standing in Japan as a scientifically proven, evidence-based health food was created by a sophisticated marketing campaign that brought consumers to this non-traditional product through mythologist branding.</p>
<p>Meiji’s yogurt commercials extol the Bulgarian origins of their product, presenting the eastern European nation as the sacred birthplace of yogurt. In Bulgaria, they tell consumers, dairy production is an old tradition, and “the wind is different, the water is different, the light is different.” </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LynFO9V3RPA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Bulgaria, the sacred birthplace of Japanese yogurt.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What triggered the Japanese Meiji Bulgaria Yogurt company, which now boasts <a href="http://trendy.nikkeibp.co.jp/article/column/20090225/1024047/?SS=expand-life&FD=-310522840">43% market share and 98.9% brand awareness</a>, to invest in this product?</p>
<h2>The quest for longevity</h2>
<p>Meiji started considering how to develop Bulgarian-style yogurt for the Japanese market in the late 1960s.</p>
<p>At the time, the only type of yogurt available in Japan was a sweetened, heat-treated fermented milk with a jelly-like texture. Brands such as Meiji honey yogurt, Snow brand yogurt and Morinaga yogurt were distributed in small 80-gram jars and consumed as a snack or dessert, according to Meiji’s company history.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169965/original/file-20170518-12217-kmjo2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169965/original/file-20170518-12217-kmjo2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169965/original/file-20170518-12217-kmjo2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169965/original/file-20170518-12217-kmjo2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169965/original/file-20170518-12217-kmjo2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=674&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169965/original/file-20170518-12217-kmjo2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=674&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169965/original/file-20170518-12217-kmjo2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=674&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sweet Morinaga yogurt was around in the 1960s.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.morinagamilk.co.jp/english/products/yogurt.html">Morinaga Milk</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Plain yogurt with living <em>Lactobacillus bulgaricus</em>, like what is popularly consumed in Bulgaria, did not exist. One member of Meiji’s Bulgaria yogurt project told me he still remembered the shock of trying the plain yogurt presented at the Bulgarian pavilion at the <a href="http://www.expomuseum.com/1970">1970 World Fair in Osaka</a>. It was weird, he said, and astonishingly sour.</p>
<p>But plain yogurt had a powerful draw: the promise of increased longevity. At the dawn of the 20th century, Nobel Prize-winning Russian scientist Elie Metchnikoff (1845-1916), <a href="https://webext.pasteur.fr/biblio/ressources/histoire/textes_integraux/metchnikoff/smjmetabio2009tan.pdf">developed the theory</a> that ageing was caused by toxic bacteria in the gut. He pinpointed lactic acid bacteria for its ability to neutralise these toxins and thus slow the ageing process. </p>
<p>Metchnikoff touted the unparalleled effectiveness of <em>Lactobacillus bulgaricus</em>, isolated from homemade Bulgarian yogurt, for this task and recommended eating it every day.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169983/original/file-20170518-12237-1r9sjcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169983/original/file-20170518-12237-1r9sjcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=880&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169983/original/file-20170518-12237-1r9sjcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=880&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169983/original/file-20170518-12237-1r9sjcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=880&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169983/original/file-20170518-12237-1r9sjcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1105&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169983/original/file-20170518-12237-1r9sjcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1105&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169983/original/file-20170518-12237-1r9sjcs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1105&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Metchnikoff feeding his good bacteria to the elderly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Pr._Elie_Metchnikoff.jpg">Revue </a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That myth remains today. During my fieldwork in Bulgaria, I heard the same story many times: how powerful the local bacterium was; how it made delicious and healthy yogurt. </p>
<p>One elderly woman attributed her daughter’s recovery from breast cancer to homemade goat-milk yogurt. </p>
<p>“It is the bacillus that makes our milk, my girl”, she concluded. “It is unique. When I was young I didn’t eat much yogurt, but now that I take it every day, my blood pressure has been normal and I feel so energetic!”</p>
<h2>From inedible to irreplaceable</h2>
<p>Meiji realised that, technologically speaking, it would not be difficult to produce plain yogurt with living <em>Lactobacillus bulgaricus</em>. In 1971, the company launched its innovative product in Japan, simply calling it “plain yogurt”.</p>
<p><a href="http://qa.meiji.co.jp/faq/show/1409">Consumers hated it</a>. Some took its sourness to mean that the product had gone bad while others doubted its edibility.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169989/original/file-20170518-12217-zbgstj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169989/original/file-20170518-12217-zbgstj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169989/original/file-20170518-12217-zbgstj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169989/original/file-20170518-12217-zbgstj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169989/original/file-20170518-12217-zbgstj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169989/original/file-20170518-12217-zbgstj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169989/original/file-20170518-12217-zbgstj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Yogurt was associated with good health, before good taste.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ignatgorazd/11688783725/in/photolist-7Hnu3s-8RFEtu-5DhJCb-acySnA-rCNiSS-roCSrg-rEYZsY-qG6U7-dKQSVR-geqo4-qG6Uf-5xapgq-qG6Ub-nq8NFb-iNU5aT-nq8Hrn-72Uyd5-2saFFf-5geQUe-84cs8s-8zcGZx-6oYjBp-B2G18-aa6g84-h5SHxb-RPTGwQ-6p9cep-6pdkLW-6p9cbR-48sPSp-ii81dX-4qjH69-5DhJBf-qG6U3">Ignat Gorazd /Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But Meiji persevered. In 1973, after making an agreement with the Bulgarian state-owned dairy enterprise to import yogurt starter cultures, the company received permission to rename its product Meiji Bulgaria yogurt. </p>
<p>The idea was to market authenticity, making full use of the Bulgarian rural idyll: pastoral scenery, herds of sheep and cows, bagpipers in traditional garb and healthy elderly people living in harmony with nature. </p>
<p>In the 1980s, the company combined this strategy with further microbiological research and closer cooperation with the Bulgarian side. In 1984, Japanese consumers saw a new Meiji Bulgaria yogurt with sleeker packaging, helping build its market presence. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169043/original/file-20170511-32593-1b5l7hp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169043/original/file-20170511-32593-1b5l7hp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169043/original/file-20170511-32593-1b5l7hp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169043/original/file-20170511-32593-1b5l7hp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169043/original/file-20170511-32593-1b5l7hp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=721&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169043/original/file-20170511-32593-1b5l7hp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=721&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169043/original/file-20170511-32593-1b5l7hp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=721&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Meiji Bulgaria yogurt in its nice new package.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">LB Bulgaricum</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Meiji got another boost when it acquired the right to put the government-issued <a href="https://www.window-to-japan.eu/meiji-celebrates-40-years-of-meiji-bulgaria-yoghurt-lb81-a-foshu-product-for-healthy-longevity.html">Food for Specified Health Use (FOSHU)</a> seal on the label of its Bulgarian yogurt in 1996. Health benefits have been the focus of its yogurt branding and marketing ever since. </p>
<h2>Branding the holy land of yogurt</h2>
<p>Imbuing their Bulgarian brand with new meanings, images and values, Meiji has not only turned a nice profit but also created in Japan a beautiful picture of Bulgaria as “the holy land of yogurt”. </p>
<p>Back in Bulgaria, <a href="http://www.tbmagazine.net/statia/700-tona-blgarsko-kiselo-mlyako-na-den-se-proizvezhda-v-yaponiya.html">the media</a> is fascinated by the popularity of a Japanese-made Bulgarian yogurt. In one 2015 article, <a href="http://www.mediapool.bg/balgarskoto-kiselo-mlyako-po-kupuvano-v-yaponiya-ot-koka-kola-news232738.html">Japanese consumers</a> claimed that Meiji’s Bulgarian yogurt was more popular than Coca-Cola.</p>
<p>Almost every story about Japan, <a href="http://www.bacchus.bg/spisanie/gurme/2007/09/01/785505_da_pohapnesh_v_iaponiia">whether travelogues about dining</a> or <a href="https://dariknews.bg/novini/interviu/qponskiqt-poslanik-oshte-zhivkov-daval-za-primer-ikonomikata-na-qponiq-654696">economics articles</a>, mentions the Bulgarian yogurt success story. This narrative is even used <a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=aviNCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA169&lpg=PA169&dq=elby+yogurts&source=bl&ots=7R-M0tLpy0&sig=8v7993k7KV7j_6M-TlMp1ffnlMo&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=elby%20yogurts&f=false">by companies and politicians in post-socialist Bulgaria</a> to invoke national pride. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169041/original/file-20170511-32607-d02d9d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/169041/original/file-20170511-32607-d02d9d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169041/original/file-20170511-32607-d02d9d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169041/original/file-20170511-32607-d02d9d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169041/original/file-20170511-32607-d02d9d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169041/original/file-20170511-32607-d02d9d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/169041/original/file-20170511-32607-d02d9d.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In Bulgaria, preparing yogurt from goat’s milk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maria Yotova</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To many Bulgarians I met, the new Japanese identity of their local yogurt embodies the very spirit of Bulgarian collective traditions. At the same time, they feel more connected to the modern world by its adoption as a symbol of health and happiness in one of the world’s great economic powers. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/new-globalism-a-counterculture-that-could-redraw-the-world-map-69390">Globalisation may have shaken cultural values</a> across the world, but yogurt’s transformation has been a miraculous one, becoming a source of health and nourishment for people in Japan and a salve for the Bulgarian national soul.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76598/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maria Yotova has received funding from the Graduate Univversity for Advanced Studies, Mishima Foundation, and Japan Sociey for Promotion of Science. </span></em></p>How a simple bacterium traveled across time and space to become Japan’s latest food fad.Maria Yotova, Lecturer in Food Culture, Kwansei Gakuin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.