tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/architecture-507/articlesArchitecture – The Conversation2024-03-25T19:05:50Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256742024-03-25T19:05:50Z2024-03-25T19:05:50ZIf you’ve got a dark roof, you’re spending almost $700 extra a year to keep your house cool<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584001/original/file-20240325-26-6somxa.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C66%2C4025%2C2969&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sebastian Pfautsch</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you visit southern Greece or Tunisia, you might notice lots of white rooftops and white buildings to reflect the intense heat and keep residents cooler. </p>
<p>It’s very different in Australia. New housing estates in the hottest areas around Sydney and Melbourne are dominated by dark rooftops, black roads and minimal tree cover. Dark colours trap and hold heat rather than reflect it. That might be useful in winters in Tasmania, but not where heat is an issue.</p>
<p>A dark roof means you’ll pay considerably more to keep your house cool in summer. Last year, the average household in New South Wales paid A$1827 in electricity. But those with a lighter-coloured cool roof <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/content/dam/pdfs/unsw-adobe-websites/arts-design-architecture/built-environment/our-research/high-performance-architecture-research-cluster/2022-08-22282-UNSW-Cool-Roofs-Project-Report-WEB.pdf">can pay</a> up to $694 less due to lower cooling electricity needs. Put another way, a dark roof in Sydney drives up your power bill by 38%. </p>
<p>When suburbs are full of dark coloured roofs, the whole area heats up. And up. And up. This is part of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-western-sydney-is-feeling-the-heat-from-climate-change-more-than-the-rest-of-the-city-201477">urban heat island effect</a>. In January 2020, Penrith in Western Sydney was the <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/the-sydney-suburbs-that-hit-50c-last-summer-20201002-p561by.html">hottest place on Earth</a>. </p>
<p>Cool roofs have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2022.112577">many benefits</a>. They slash how much heat gets into your house from the sun, keep the air surrounding your home cooler, boost your aircon efficiency, and make your solar panels work <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960148123013939?via%3Dihub">more efficiently</a>.</p>
<p>State governments could, at a stroke, penalise dark roofs and give incentives for light-coloured roofs. Scaled up, it would help keep our cities cooler as the world heats up. But outside South Australia, it’s just not happening. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583606/original/file-20240322-18-1dka8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="infrared image of housing estate showing dark roofs becoming much hotter than light" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583606/original/file-20240322-18-1dka8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583606/original/file-20240322-18-1dka8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583606/original/file-20240322-18-1dka8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583606/original/file-20240322-18-1dka8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583606/original/file-20240322-18-1dka8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=356&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583606/original/file-20240322-18-1dka8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=356&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583606/original/file-20240322-18-1dka8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=356&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You can clearly see here the difference roof colour makes. On the left, you can see the real view of a new housing estate. On the right, an infrared camera shows you the difference in heat (redder = hotter, green = cooler.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sebastian Pfautsch</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>Why won’t state governments act?</h2>
<p>To date, our leaders show no interest in encouraging us to shift away from dark roofs. </p>
<p>In New South Wales, plans to ban dark roofs were <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/apr/09/plan-to-ban-dark-roofs-abandoned-as-nsw-government-walks-back-sustainability-measures">axed abruptly</a> in 2022 after pushback from developers. </p>
<p>The current NSW planning minister, Paul Scully, has <a href="https://www.nsw.gov.au/media-releases/basix-pause-to-help-home-buyers-and-builders">now paused upgrades</a> to the state’s sustainability building standards which would have <a href="https://www.news.com.au/technology/environment/nonsense-call-leaves-millions-vulnerable-to-summers-silent-killer/news-story/d4f9221eb33157f8d6df4b6213e4c1e3">encouraged light-coloured roofs</a>. Other Australian states and territories have <a href="https://www.absa.net.au/notes/ncc-2022/">also paused</a> the rollout of new, more ambitious building sustainability standards. </p>
<p>This is short-sighted for several reasons: </p>
<ol>
<li>it costs the same for a light- or dark-coloured roof </li>
<li>owners will pay substantially higher electricity bills to keep their houses cool for decades</li>
<li>keeping the building status quo makes it harder to reach emission targets</li>
<li>dark roofs <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2023.111948">cut how much power</a> you get from your rooftop solar, especially when it’s hot. This is doubly bad, as blackouts are most likely during the heat. </li>
</ol>
<p>At present, South Australia is the only state or territory acting on the issue. Early this year, housing minister Nick Champion announced dark roofs <a href="https://www.premier.sa.gov.au/media-releases/news-items/northern-suburbs-housing-hotspots-cooler-future">will be banned</a> from a large new housing development in the north of Adelaide. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-great-australian-dream-new-homes-in-planned-estates-may-not-be-built-to-withstand-heatwaves-166266">The Great Australian Dream? New homes in planned estates may not be built to withstand heatwaves</a>
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<h2>What’s at stake?</h2>
<p>At present, the world’s cities <a href="https://ghgprotocol.org/ghg-protocol-cities">account for 75%</a> of all energy-related carbon dioxide emissions. It’s vitally important we understand what makes cities <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/resources/factsheets">hotter or cooler</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583603/original/file-20240322-30-hbnhwz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="chart showing city design and built infrastructure make cities hotter while trees and proximity to water make it cooler" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583603/original/file-20240322-30-hbnhwz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583603/original/file-20240322-30-hbnhwz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583603/original/file-20240322-30-hbnhwz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583603/original/file-20240322-30-hbnhwz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583603/original/file-20240322-30-hbnhwz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583603/original/file-20240322-30-hbnhwz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583603/original/file-20240322-30-hbnhwz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=634&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">These are the main factors making cities hotter or cooler.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/figures/chapter-10/faq-10-2-figure-1">IPCC</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Brick, concrete, tarmac and tiles can store more heat than grass and tree-covered earth can, and release it slowly over time. This keeps the air warmer, even overnight. </p>
<p>Built-up areas also block wind, which cuts cooling. Then there’s transport, manufacturing and air-conditioning, all of which increase heat. </p>
<p>Before aircon, the main way people had to keep cool was through how they designed their homes. In hot countries, buildings are often painted white, as well as having small windows and thick stone walls. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583975/original/file-20240325-30-bm2jka.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="mykonos greece panorama, white rooftops" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583975/original/file-20240325-30-bm2jka.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583975/original/file-20240325-30-bm2jka.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583975/original/file-20240325-30-bm2jka.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583975/original/file-20240325-30-bm2jka.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583975/original/file-20240325-30-bm2jka.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583975/original/file-20240325-30-bm2jka.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583975/original/file-20240325-30-bm2jka.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">White rooftops are common in hot regions, such as Mykonos in Greece.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mykonos-greece-panoramic-view-town-cyclades-1916571950">Izabela23/Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>The classic <a href="https://www.architectureanddesign.com.au/features/list/why-queensland-architecture-is-celebrated">Queenslander house</a> was lifted off the ground to catch breezes and had a deeply shaded veranda all around, to reduce heat. </p>
<p>But after aircon arrived, we <a href="https://archive.curbed.com/2017/5/9/15583550/air-conditioning-architecture-skyscraper-wright-lever-house">gradually abandoned</a> those simple cooling principles for our homes, like cross-ventilation or shade awnings. We just turned on air conditioning instead. </p>
<p>Except, of course, the heat doesn’t go away. Air conditioning works by exchanging heat, taking the heat out of air inside our house and putting it outside. </p>
<p>As climate change intensifies, it makes hot cities even hotter. Heatwaves are projected to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL081004">be more frequent</a>, including in spring and autumn, while overnight temperatures will also increase. </p>
<p>As cities grow, suburbs can push into hotter areas. The 2.5 million residents of Western Sydney live at least 50km from the sea, which means cooling sea breezes don’t reach them. </p>
<p>Sweltering cities aren’t just uncomfortable. They are dangerous. Extreme heat <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102671">kills more people</a> in Australia than all other natural disasters combined. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/western-sydney-will-swelter-through-46-days-per-year-over-35-c-by-2090-unless-emissions-drop-significantly-177056">Western Sydney will swelter through 46 days per year over 35°C by 2090, unless emissions drop significantly</a>
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<hr>
<h2>How can we cool our cities?</h2>
<p>We don’t have to swelter. It’s a choice. Light roofs, light roads and better tree cover would make a real difference. </p>
<p>There’s a very practical reason Australians prize “leafy” suburbs. If your street has established large trees, you will experience less than half the number of days with extreme heat compared on residents <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/11/9/945">on treeless streets</a>. If you live in a leafy street, your home is also <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016920461200299X">worth more</a>.</p>
<p>Blacktop roads are a surprisingly large source of heat. In summer, they can <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2024-01-24/why-australia-builds-dark-roads-despite-heatwaves-climate-change/103375122">get up to 75°C</a>. Our research shows reflective sealants can cut the temperatures <a href="https://doi.org/10.26183/hstd-bj72">up to 13°C</a>. Some councils <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2024-01-24/why-australia-builds-dark-roads-despite-heatwaves-climate-change/103375122">have experimented</a> with lighter roads, but to date, uptake has been minimal. </p>
<p>Cool roofs markedly reduce how much energy you need to cool a house. When used at scale, <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/arts-design-architecture/our-schools/built-environment/our-research/clusters-groups/high-performance-architecture/projects/study-on-the-cool-roofs-mitigation-potential-in-australia">they lower</a> the air temperatures of entire suburbs. </p>
<p>The simplest way to get a cool roof is to choose one with as light a colour as possible. There are also high-tech options able to reflect <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778823003614">even more heat</a>.</p>
<p>Soon, we’ll see even higher performance options available in the form of daytime radiative coolers – <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/3/1110">exceptional cooling materials</a> able to reflect still more heat away from your house and cut glare.</p>
<p>Until we choose to change, homeowners and whole communities will keep paying dearly for the luxury of a dark roof through power bill pain and sweltering suburbs.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-western-sydney-is-feeling-the-heat-from-climate-change-more-than-the-rest-of-the-city-201477">Why Western Sydney is feeling the heat from climate change more than the rest of the city</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225674/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Riccardo Paolini has received funding from the Department of Industry, Science and Resources</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sebastian Pfautsch does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We could make our hot cities cooler with white roofs and light roads. But progress has been glacially slow.Sebastian Pfautsch, Research Theme Fellow - Environment and Sustainability, Western Sydney UniversityRiccardo Paolini, Associate Professor, School of Built Environment, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2245562024-03-19T18:17:42Z2024-03-19T18:17:42ZTropical Modernism: Architecture and Independence at V&A reintroduces Indian and Ghanaian pioneers of the style<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580770/original/file-20240308-22-2gtl2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3811%2C2144&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Legislative Assembly/Chandigarh-Duncid and Independence Square in Ghana.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons </span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.vam.ac.uk/exhibitions/tropical-modernism-architecture-and-independence?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAiA6KWvBhAREiwAFPZM7l2B8bPetmVYtGJiuonIMljqeZ4K8Scca1xkzgkLnPDikSo2WlquBRoCnisQAvD_BwE">Tropical Modernism: Architecture and Independence</a> exhibition at London’s Victoria and Albert Museum showcases the legacy of tropical modernism in Ghana and India.</p>
<p>The architectural style was developed specifically for tropical climates, so its key design consideration was optimal ventilation and minimal solar heat gain. Elaborate building forms and abstract ornamentation later became characteristic of the style. </p>
<p>Although the movement began with colonial architects after the second world war, it was redefined by newly independent nations of the 20th century, who wanted to create an identity detached from their colonial past. The V&A exhibition spotlights India and Ghana’s nation-building projects following their independence from Britain in 1947 and 1957 respectively. </p>
<p>It begins with the early work of British architects Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew in Ghana. Until a few decades ago, European and colonial architects’ designs <a href="https://journal.eahn.org/article/id/7484/">dominated the historical narrative of tropical modernism</a>. This narrow viewpoint is currently <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Third-World-Modernism-Architecture-Development-and-Identity/Lu/p/book/9780415564588">contested</a> and extensive research on post-independence architecture and non-European architects is being conducted. </p>
<p>The V&A exhibition attempts to redress this Euro-centric story. It centres around the lesser known architects whose input has been historically overlooked or erased. It celebrates their contributions to tropical modernism and the impact of independence projects on local architectural education. </p>
<h2>The architecture of a new nation</h2>
<p><a href="https://architectuul.com/architecture/city-of-chandigarh">Chandigarh</a>, a planning project for Punjab’s new capital after India’s partition, is one of the architectural works featured in the exhibition. The city is a famous <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203481561-25/chandigarh-india-modernist-experiment-nihal-perera">example</a> of 20th-century modern architecture and urban planning. It was led by European architects Le Corbusier, Pierre Jeanneret, Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew.</p>
<p>While the story of Chandigarh tends to be <a href="https://courseworks2.columbia.edu/courses/26049/files/938908/download?verifier=hudOZmzeLo5FDraH2uXFwKx8uuzqw86zN2SELwyS&wrap=1">dominated by these architects (especially Le Corbusier)</a> its creation included a budding team of Indian architects and artists, many of whom returned to India from overseas.</p>
<p>Works by these Indian architects are on display in the V&A show. There’s <a href="https://worldarchitecture.org/articles/cvnnz/urmila_eulie_chowdhury_indiais_first_woman_architect_as_i_know_her.html">Eulie Chowdhury</a>’s Chandigarh chair which was co-designed with Pierre Jenneret, <a href="https://mapacademy.io/article/jeet-malhotra/">Jeet Malhotra</a>’s photographs of the city under construction and <a href="https://www.artnet.com/artists/giani-rattan-singh/">Giani Rattan Singh</a>’s wooden model of the Legislative Assembly.</p>
<p>These architects were on the design team for the Capitol Complex, which comprised grand administrative buildings and monuments. The buildings were exposed concrete structures with sculpture-like forms and deep concrete louvres (slats that control sunlight entering a building).</p>
<p>Once dominated by British colonial architects, <a href="https://research.manchester.ac.uk/files/23724029/POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS.PDF">Ghana’s building industry expanded post-independence</a> to include architects from Africa, the African diaspora, and Eastern Europe. <a href="https://fiatlux1717.org/AdegbiteHistory.pdf">Victor Adegbite</a>, a Ghanaian architect, oversaw several public works as head of the country’s housing and construction corporations. He led the team for the building, popularly called Job 600, which was constructed to host the Organisation of African Unity Conference in 1965.</p>
<p>Nation-building programmes also acknowledged the importance of local expertise. This subsequently aided the development of <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/reformation-architecture-education-post-independent-india-deepak-das/">local architectural practice and education</a>. The <a href="https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/rtf-architectural-reviews/a5067-campus-life-at-chandigarh-college-of-architecture/">Chandigarh College of Architecture</a> opened in 1961 and more followed suit.</p>
<p>Ghana’s Africanisation policies (intended to increase the population of Africans in corporate and government positions) influenced the founding of the architecture department at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/post-colonial-education-in-kumasi">KNUST</a>). </p>
<p>The department began by recruiting educators from Britain and around the world. On display is a student-made geodesic dome (lightweight shell structure with load-bearing properties), which was constructed during a teaching programme with American designer Buckminster Fuller.</p>
<p>Among the staff were Ghanaian architects like John Owusu Addo – the first African head of department. He designed new buildings for the university most notably the Senior Staff Club and Unity student hall included in the exhibition. The hall’s nine-storey blocks combine exterior and interior corridors to improve indoor ventilation.</p>
<h2>The many dimensions of tropical modernism</h2>
<p>Exhibitions like this are important because they educate the public on the strides made by academic institutions and cultural organisations in rewriting the history of tropical modernism.</p>
<p>V&A’s collaboration with the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology and Chandigarh College of Architecture was integral to the exhibition. However, the show only briefly addresses the contemporary issues of <a href="https://www.academia.edu/35992935/Modernity_Architecture_and_Higher_Education_in_Ghana_in_Ben_Ashler_et_als_Timely_Teaching_Educational_Idealism_and_Modern_Architecture">conservation</a>, sustainability and the alternative histories of the style. </p>
<p>Institutions and organisations are now pushing for the conservation of tropical modernism in <a href="https://www.designandarchitecture.com/article/how-to-rehabilitate-mid-century-modern-architecture.html">Asia</a> and <a href="https://docomomojournal.com/index.php/journal/article/view/674">Africa</a>. Although monuments like Chandigarh Capitol Complex, have attained <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321/">heritage status</a>, many are in decline, repurposed or at risk of demolition. </p>
<p>In India for example, the Hall of Nations, a group of pyramidal exhibition halls, was <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/874154/the-demolition-of-delhis-hall-of-nations-reveals-indias-broken-attitude-to-architectural-heritage">demolished in 2017</a>. Social media platforms like <a href="https://www.instagram.com/postbox.ghana/">Postbox Ghana</a> and international collaborations like <a href="https://docomomo.com/student-workshops/">Docomomo International</a> and <a href="https://sha.architectuul.com/">Shared Heritage Africa project</a> centre the African experience in documenting and reviving public interest in tropical modernism.</p>
<p>Unlike the architects and the experts celebrated in this exhibition, construction labourers are not as visible in historical sources because they were often unrecorded. Oral history’s ability to fill this gap diminishes with time, but we have a duty to avoid repeating the same erasure and omissions of the past. The legacy of tropical modernism is incomplete without addressing the contributions made by both professionals and labourers alike. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adefola Toye's PhD research is funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC). It is a Collaborative Doctoral Partnership between The National Archives and the University of Liverpool.</span></em></p>The style was redefined by newly independent nations of the 20th century, who wanted to create an identity detached from their colonial past.Adefolatomiwa Toye, PhD Candidate, School of Architecture, University of LiverpoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2201922024-03-07T13:32:14Z2024-03-07T13:32:14ZA Barbie dollhouse and a field trip led me to become an architect − now I lead a program that teaches architecture to mostly young women in South Central Los Angeles<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578670/original/file-20240228-7861-7ydzy1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=30%2C10%2C6669%2C4426&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Do dollhouses possess the potential to inspire young girls to design and build?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/curious-playful-girl-arranging-her-doll-house-while-royalty-free-image/1267317545?phrase=girl+dollhouse+purple&adppopup=true">Kosamtu via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As a kid growing up in the suburbs of St. Louis, Missouri, in the ’80s, my sister and I spent a lot of time playing with Barbie in the basement of our single-family home. I loved dressing her and imagining her life. But the best part about Barbie was her house.</p>
<p>I learned recently that the Barbie house I had was the Dreamhouse A-frame <a href="https://creations.mattel.com/products/barbie-dreamhouse-an-architectural-survey-limited-run-edition-hvy37">designed in 1979</a>. The house takes its name from the fact that the front view of the steep roof looks like the capital letter “A.”</p>
<p>I clearly remember the distinctive yellow, orange and white color scheme and the sloping roof. But the best part was that the house could be configured in different ways. The house opened and closed, and walls and rooms could switch places. I could change Barbie’s whole world by changing her space. That was a powerful discovery. </p>
<p>Perhaps for many girls who grew up playing with a Barbie doll, it was doing her hair that might be the most memorable. But for me looking back – and as Barbie enthusiasts celebrate <a href="https://www.nationaldaycalendar.com/national-day/national-barbie-day-march-9#:%7E:text=On%20March%209th%2C%20National%20Barbie,Toy%20Fair%20in%20New%20York.">National Barbie Day</a> on March 9, 2024, the iconic doll’s 65th year – it was playing with Barbie’s house that stands out. It was probably the first time I realized that the places where we live, work and play all serve to shape who we are.</p>
<p>Today, I am an <a href="https://arch.usc.edu/error">architect and professor</a>. I lead a program for high school students in South Central Los Angeles at the University of Southern California School of Architecture. The program, called the <a href="https://arch.usc.edu/a-lab">A-LAB Architecture Development Program</a>, provides a pathway for young people – and especially for young women – into architecture as a field.</p>
<p>Only 25% of people working as architects in the U.S. are women. For comparison, 36% of lawyers are women and 41% of physicians and surgeons are women. This figure, and other facts about women in architecture, can be found in “<a href="https://www.acsa-arch.org/resource/where-are-the-women-measuring-progress-on-gender-in-architecture-2/">Where are the Women? Measuring Progress on Gender in Architecture</a>,” written by <a href="https://www.acsa-arch.org/leadership/staff/">Kendall A. Nicholson</a>, director of research, equity and education at Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture. </p>
<h2>Having fun at work</h2>
<p>A few years after my Barbie house experience, I took a school field trip to visit an architecture office in St. Louis. There I saw people who seemed like they were having fun at work. </p>
<p>Everywhere I looked, I saw pencils, markers, scissors, glue, cardboard and plenty of other tools I had never seen before. The office was full of creative people making drawings and models of new buildings and landscapes. The energy I felt there was exciting and palpable. These people had purpose. I decided that day that I would become an architect.</p>
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<img alt="Two women look at a miniature model of a building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578674/original/file-20240228-24-172pg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578674/original/file-20240228-24-172pg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578674/original/file-20240228-24-172pg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578674/original/file-20240228-24-172pg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578674/original/file-20240228-24-172pg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578674/original/file-20240228-24-172pg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578674/original/file-20240228-24-172pg4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Only 25% of architects are women.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/shoreditch-office-royalty-free-image/549776575?phrase=architectural+firm&adppopup=true">Kelvin Murray via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>I didn’t realize it then, but looking back, I can connect the fun I had with Barbie’s Dreamhouse to the work people were doing in the architecture firm. We were both using architecture and design to shape the world around us. </p>
<h2>Providing practical experience</h2>
<p>In the A-LAB program that I run, students spend time learning how to see, draw and design. They use those skills to develop conceptual design projects in their own neighborhoods in South Central Los Angeles.</p>
<p>Students are asked to think about and research the needs of their communities and to propose a new project that fulfills a need that has not yet been met. One student proposed an outdoor community pool with a shade structure. The shade structure is for fresh air, exercise and a place for people of all ages to hang out. Another student proposed a small theater with a stage and snack bar, where students in bands could practice in the evening when the high school is closed. Yet another proposed a homework and day care hub, so that students and younger siblings could have a safe place to go after school. Overall, each of these design projects aim to emphasize architecture’s role in positively shaping culture and community. </p>
<p>So far, over 80 local students have participated in A-LAB. They also earned four units of college credit in the process. </p>
<p>The majority of students tell us that A-LAB has changed the way they see the buildings and places we use to live our lives. The program attracts both young men and women, yet with each new A-LAB cohort, we see an increase in the percentage of young women participating. Over the past three years, 65% of A-LAB students have been young women. And this semester alone, a whopping 85% of A-LAB students are young women.</p>
<p>This trend could be part of the <a href="https://www.acsa-arch.org/resource/where-are-the-women-measuring-progress-on-gender-in-architecture-2/">steady increase</a> in women entering architecture schools. Or it could be that successful female students are sharing their experiences with younger female students and encouraging them to apply. </p>
<p>I also think it doesn’t hurt that I show up to the schools and talk about the program and invite students to consider joining it. I think there is really something about a female representing the outward face of A-LAB that makes it seem more welcoming to young women. And to think it all started with a little girl playing with a Barbie dollhouse in her basement some 40 years ago.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220192/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Matchison does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Women are underrepresented in architecture, occupying just 25% of jobs in the field. An architecture professor shares insights from her childhood on how those numbers can be turned around.Lauren Matchison, Associate Professor of Practice, University of Southern CaliforniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243212024-02-28T14:23:58Z2024-02-28T14:23:58ZValencia apartment block fire: can safety regulations keep up with innovation in construction?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578005/original/file-20240226-30-x5bd7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C11%2C3719%2C2416&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ongoing rescue operation by firefighters burned residential buildings in Valencia, Spain - 23 February 2024.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/es/image-photo/rescue-operation-progress-by-firefighters-burnt-2429272853">Dina Mukhutdinova/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A devastating fire that engulfed two large apartment buildings in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/24/death-toll-in-valencia-fire-rises-to-10-as-remains-of-last-missing-person-found">Valencia</a>, Spain, on 23 February killed ten people and destroyed dozens of homes. Video footage shows flames spreading swiftly up the buildings’ exterior, fanned by strong winds to create what onlookers described as a “fireball”. The two blocks – 14-storey buildings containing 138 apartments – were gutted in under an hour, raising questions as to the materials used in their construction.</p>
<p>Parallels have been drawn between this fire in Valencia’s western neighbourhood of Campanar and the 2017 <a href="https://theconversation.com/grenfell-tower-disaster-how-did-the-fire-spread-so-quickly-79445">Grenfell Tower fire in London</a>, which spread in a similar way across the building’s exterior, resulting in the tragic loss of 72 lives. The Grenfell fire was spread by <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/jul/13/grenfell-tower-building-control-warned-about-refit-insulation-plan">the building’s flammable cladding</a>, which had been approved by <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/jul/14/grenfell-tower-cladding-passed-by-council-officers-in-2015">fire safety inspectors</a> only two years before the fire. Grenfell profoundly affected British society, leading to <a href="https://www.governmentevents.co.uk/how-has-grenfell-changed-building-regulations-and-fire-safety-in-the-uk/">significant regulatory changes</a> aimed at preventing similar tragedies.</p>
<p>In the wake of the Valencia tragedy, the public is urgently seeking clear answers, not just about this particular fire but about the overall safety of homes.</p>
<h2>The challenges of keeping fire safety up to date</h2>
<p>Older Spanish homes are notoriously cold in winter: <a href="https://www.esade.edu/ecpol/en/publications/como-la-rehabilitacion-de-edificios-puede-ayudar-a-la-independencia-energetica-y-a-la-descarbonizacion-de-espana/">51% of all Spanish houses were built</a> at a time when there was no legal requirement for homes to have any kind of insulation. As building techniques modernised, insulation became the norm, and cavity insulation, covered by cladding panels, replaced traditional bricks and mortar. </p>
<p>The building that caught fire in Valencia was modern. It was completed in 2008, and was advertised as being made with “<a href="https://english.elpais.com/spain/2024-02-23/high-rise-complex-consumed-by-fire-in-spain-was-made-in-2008-with-innovative-materials-by-a-developer-that-went-bankrupt.html">innovative materials</a>”, including cladding made from an aluminium-synthetic composite and cavity insulation.</p>
<p>While it would be unjust to claim that Spanish fire safety regulations are totally lacking, there is always scope for improvement. In the coming weeks and months, experts will conduct thorough investigations into all aspects of the buildings, including materials, external factors such as wind, evacuation routes and alarm systems, as well as the origin of the fire itself. As a result, regulations will be updated. However, these processes must be agile, effective and proactive if further tragedies are to be prevented.</p>
<p>Technology is developing faster than ever before, and keeping pace with this change is a huge problem for fire safety. If current regulations cannot keep up with new developments, new systems need to be put in place as a matter of urgency. </p>
<h2>Wooden buildings</h2>
<p>They have been around for centuries, but in recent decades, new construction techniques have made it possible to construct <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/12/this-office-block-is-australia-s-tallest-wooden-building-7ef06575-f841-4fbb-a03b-d6d33a29cb19/">much larger wooden buildings than before</a>. There are numerous studies on the way fire behaves on tall concrete and steel buildings, as well as many tragic real life fires that have prompted changes in legislation. There are, however, much fewer studies on large wooden structures.</p>
<p>This calls into question the <a href="https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/we-need-to-talk-about-timber-fire-safety-design-in-tall-buildings">fire safety of tall wooden buildings</a> compared to concrete and steel ones. Doubts about wood’s safety in large scale construction raise the question of whether people should be <a href="https://www.dezeen.com/2018/02/19/sumitomo-forestry-w350-worlds-tallest-wooden-skyscraper-conceptual-architecture-tokyo-japan/">planning to build skyscapers</a> out of it in the near future. </p>
<h2>Hydrogen fuel cells in buildings</h2>
<p>One novel way to reduce emissions is the installation of photovoltaic energy systems that, in turn, allow for the production and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S259017452400014X">accumulation of hydrogen for use in the building itself</a>, disconnecting the building from the grid. </p>
<p>However, a holistic H2 system can also be a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S259017452400014X">source of fires</a>. Systems like this are not, at least in Spain, currently covered by rules and regulations in residential buildings.</p>
<p>This is a significant example of legislation not keeping pace with technology – hydrogen cells are not illegal, but there are few rules covering their use in certain contexts. The question for developments such as this is: do we temporarily stop promoting these solutions, or stop researching them altogether?</p>
<h2>Electric vehicles</h2>
<p>While the shift towards electric electric vehicles (EVs) brings benefits, they present a unique challenge for <a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-vehicles-and-the-challenge-of-fire-risks-in-car-parks-218567">underground parking facilities</a>. The smoke evacuation and fire suppression systems in older car parks are tailored to combustion engines, and do not take into account the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10694-019-00944-3">distinct fire behaviour of EVs</a>. </p>
<p>The widespread adoption of EVs has prompted a <a href="https://open-research-europe.ec.europa.eu/articles/3-178">reconsideration of existing infrastructure to ensure safety and compatibility</a>, raising questions for fire safety experts, such as whether electric vehicles should be banned from buildings, or whether they should even be sold until regulations can catch up.</p>
<p>This also includes electric scooters and bicycles, which are usually charged in users’ homes, similar to much smaller devices like mobile phones and laptops. There have already been cases where these devices have caught fire, some of them very <a href="https://www.wandsworthguardian.co.uk/news/24139875.family-escape-balcony-wandsworth-e-scooter-fire/">recent</a>.</p>
<p>These vehicles are fast becoming ubiquitous, but their large batteries present a substantial fire risk, and there is little to no guidance on charging or storing them in residential areas.</p>
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Leer más:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-vehicles-and-the-challenge-of-fire-risks-in-car-parks-218567">Electric vehicles and the challenge of fire risks in car parks</a>
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<h2>The increasing pace of change</h2>
<p>Many of us adopt the latest technology in without a second thought, trusting that it has been tested and is safe to use in our homes. Historically, however, the techniques used to build our homes have evolved gradually, giving ample time for architects, engineers, builders, and regulatory bodies to establish and implement an effective framework.</p>
<p>The swift pace of technological progress calls for innovative approaches to risk assessment. Some elements have seemingly little to do with technology: as apartment buildings grow taller, for example, a deeper understanding of how variables like wind influence the way fires spread is essential, and requires more sophisticated simulations and extensive testing. </p>
<p>Ultimately, these rapid advances will render traditional practices outdated. The tragedy that occurred in Valencia serves as a potent reminder of the urgent need for adaptation in our assessment of risk.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224321/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>César Martín-Gómez recibe fondos de Cátedra Fundación Saltoki. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mohd Zahirasri Bin Mohd Tohir no recibe salario, ni ejerce labores de consultoría, ni posee acciones, ni recibe financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y ha declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del cargo académico citado.</span></em></p>Following the tragic, devastating apartment block fire in Eastern Spain, questions are being asked about fire safety, and how it can keep pace with new technology and construction techniques.César Martín-Gómez, Catedrático en instalaciones y sistemas energéticos en arquitectura y urbanismo, Universidad de NavarraMohd Zahirasri Bin Mohd Tohir, Investigador postdoctoral en ingeniería de seguridad contra incendios, Universidad de NavarraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2208032024-01-17T13:37:51Z2024-01-17T13:37:51ZChallenging medieval art’s dark, gloomy reputation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568430/original/file-20231114-15-xtz1t7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C8%2C2687%2C1786&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The interior of Sainte-Chapelle, a Gothic chapel in Paris.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/es/image-photo/paris-france-october-16-2017-interior-747335830">SIAATH/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Middle Ages began with the rise of Christianity in Western Europe in the 4th century, and went up to the period of Gothic art from the 13th to the 15th centuries. It is a era that is typically imagined in cinema, television, literature and Romantic paintings as dark and sinister, plagued by the diseases that ravaged Europe, with filthy, unhealthy cities and buildings. </p>
<p>This can be seen in both the novel and film <a href="https://www.filmaffinity.com/uk/film288865.html">The Name of the Rose</a>, where the buildings are drab and chilly. Similarly in the series <a href="https://www.filmaffinity.com/us/film874956.html">Game of Thrones</a> – set in a fictionalised world that draws heavily on the medieval period – war, violence and death dominate society.</p>
<p>Even in drama series <a href="https://www.filmaffinity.com/uk/film813456.html">The Pillars of the Earth</a>, romanesque buildings were taken as examples of harsh, grim architecture. The Middle Ages have always been characterised by muddy streets, cold palaces, rough stone walls, and an overall atmosphere of depression.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559378/original/file-20231114-25-nras3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The interior of a stone building, with winding stairs." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559378/original/file-20231114-25-nras3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559378/original/file-20231114-25-nras3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559378/original/file-20231114-25-nras3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559378/original/file-20231114-25-nras3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=341&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559378/original/file-20231114-25-nras3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559378/original/file-20231114-25-nras3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559378/original/file-20231114-25-nras3l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Video still from The Name of the Rose, a film adaptation by Jean-Jaques Annaud of the novel by Umberto Eco.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://m.imdb.com/title/tt0091605/mediaviewer/rm3150524160/">IMDB</a></span>
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<p>However, research by Medieval scholars in recent decades – combined with new digital reconstruction techniques – has shattered these myths, presenting us with a wholly different picture. Thanks to the study of written sources, archaeological sources and, above all, physical objects and buildings, a startlingly colourful panorama is beginning to appear. </p>
<h2>Glimpses into the High Middle Ages</h2>
<p>Most experts consider medieval art and architecture to have emerged in the 4th century. In many cases, buildings that have survived to the present day are heavily modified, or even ruined. </p>
<p>Experts have reconstructed, for example, <a href="https://parpatrimonioytecnologia.wordpress.com/2022/06/06/reconstruccion-virtual-en-3d-de-la-basilica-constantiniana-de-san-pedro-del-vaticano-roma-s-iv/">Old Saint Peter’s basilica, erected in the Vatican City by Emperor Constantine</a>, which has since been demolished and replaced with the building that stands there today. The data found by historical researchers was used to create a virtual model of the building. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">3D virtual reconstruction of Emperor Constantine’s basilica at Sain’t Peter’s, the Vatican, Rome. (s. IV)</span></figcaption>
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<p>Inside, it was filled with colour. It was airy and bright thanks to large windows, and the fixtures were sumptuous, showing off slender proportions in its columns. The building, with its marble, mosaics, textiles, and other elements, dispels the myth that medieval architecture is dark and sinister. In fact, many buildings of the early Middle Ages were painted in bright colours, though the passage of time has erased these fragile murals. </p>
<p>These reconstructions are not some exaggerated fantasy for a mass audience, but the fruit of years of documentation work by scholars.</p>
<p>The monastery churches, basilicas and cathedrals of these periods were not dreary, nor were their walls frigid, bare stone. Even when buildings have completely disappeared, <a href="https://parpatrimonioytecnologia.wordpress.com/2023/05/04/reconstruccion-virtual-en-3d-del-presbiterio-romanico-de-la-antigua-catedral-de-girona/">work such as that on the Romanesque cathedral of Gerona, in Catalonia (Spain)</a> has created a splendid image of its interior, where everything shone: the painted walls, the gold and silver canopies, the rich fabrics, and the candles and tapers that illuminated every nook and cranny.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1654426083284901889"}"></div></p>
<h2>Gothic cathedrals and light</h2>
<p>Large Gothic cathedrals are often depicted as dark, unsettling spaces. This is the way Notre Dame Cathedral, in Paris, is presented in Victor Hugo’s 1831 novel <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hunchback_of_Notre-Dame">The Hunchback of Notre Dame</a>, as well as in the <a href="https://www.filmaffinity.com/uk/film428225.html">1996 Disney film</a> of the same name.</p>
<p>This image could not, however, be any further from the truth. The technical prowess involved in many buildings erected between the 12th and 15th centuries allowed for the presence of large stained glass windows. These cast shimmering beams of light inside, which caressed the buildings’ walls, pillars and furnishings. The light inside Gothic temples generated an atmosphere that enhanced the spiritual experience of the faithful, and aimed to bring them closer to God. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559429/original/file-20231114-21-5bghec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The interior of a cathedral, with stained glass windows illuminating the nave." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559429/original/file-20231114-21-5bghec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559429/original/file-20231114-21-5bghec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559429/original/file-20231114-21-5bghec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559429/original/file-20231114-21-5bghec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559429/original/file-20231114-21-5bghec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559429/original/file-20231114-21-5bghec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559429/original/file-20231114-21-5bghec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The interior of the cathedral of Santa María de Regla in León.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/es/image-photo/leon-spain-july-15-2013-interior-389135920">Madrugada Verde / Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A lot of the furniture from these buildings has long since disappeared, but <a href="https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=5715110">the conscientious studies of researchers such as Fernando Gutiérrez Baños</a> have allowed us to visualise what the altarpieces and tabernacles of these spaces were like. This was achieved through digital reconstruction, and by rebuilding lost or destroyed elements.</p>
<p>Textiles and tapestries covered walls, floors and altars, giving an almost luxurious air to these spaces of worship. Many of these, however, were sadly lost to fires, damp or robberies.</p>
<h2>Spaces filled with colour</h2>
<p>The great Gothic cathedrals of France – including Notre-Dame in Paris and Amiens cathedral – have been extensively researched by Stephen Murray and Andrew Tallon, who have made use of <a href="https://mcid.mcah.columbia.edu/art-atlas/mapping-gothic/paris-cathedrale-notre-dame">laser and structural analysis techniques</a>. Their studies have played a key role in determining how these churches should be restored, especially in the case of Notre Dame, which was badly damaged by fire in April 2019. </p>
<p>Today we know that medieval art was colourful and lively. This much is clear from <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Polychromie-du-portail-de-la-cathedrale-dAmiens_fig1_278634747">the colour restoration of the Amiens cathedral façade</a>, with striking reds and blues applied to the sculptures. The application of 3D rendering techniques to the architecture and art of the Middle Ages is a very useful tool in gaining a better understanding of the past. </p>
<p>However, if the aim is to create images close to the initial state of the works, this must always be accompanied by careful studies of documentary sources, archaeology and the artistic works themselves. When that goal is achieved, medieval art, full of clarity, colour and light, reveals itself to us.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220803/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Las personas firmantes no son asalariadas, ni consultoras, ni poseen acciones, ni reciben financiación de ninguna compañía u organización que pueda obtener beneficio de este artículo, y han declarado carecer de vínculos relevantes más allá del cargo académico citado anteriormente.</span></em></p>The Middle Ages are often portrayed as dark and dirty. New research is revealing that it was, in fact, a period filled with light and colour.José Alberto Moráis Morán, Profesor Titular de Universidad, Universidad de LeónMaría Dolores Teijeira Pablos, Catedrática de Historia del Arte, Universidad de LeónLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2203232024-01-16T13:41:58Z2024-01-16T13:41:58ZHow to prevent America’s aging buildings from collapsing – 4 high-profile disasters send a warning<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568330/original/file-20240108-26-byn97e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C316%2C5087%2C3291&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">This six-story apartment building in Davenport, Iowa, had clear signs of trouble before it partially collapsed in May 2023.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/BuildingCollapseIowa/de2d6d38aa2e4925a6bc2a585b6266df/photo">AP Photo/Charlie Neibergall</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Four recent catastrophic building collapses and a near miss are raising concerns about the state of America’s aging buildings and questions about who, if anyone, is checking their safety.</p>
<p>Many cities have buildings showing signs of aging and in need of repair. In New York City, where a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/15/nyregion/bronx-collapse-engineer.html">seven-story apartment building partially collapsed</a> in December 2023, the <a href="https://www.renthop.com/research/building-age-and-rents-in-new-york/">median building age is about 90 years</a>, and many neighborhoods were built before 1900.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://drexel.edu/engineering/about/faculty-staff/A/aghayere-abieyuwa/">a civil engineer</a>, I study building failures, and I have seen how crucial structural inspections and careful maintenance are – and how often the signs of trouble are ignored in the U.S. until a problem becomes a crisis. Too often, it is up to residents to call attention to the risks.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/cAiIte8i2oM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A video from 2020 shows moisture stains and evidence of failed repairs at the bottom of the basement level parking garage slab in Champlain Towers South condominium before it collapsed. Fiorella Terenzi.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Many disasters had clear warning signs</h2>
<p>There were two common threads prior to many of the recent building collapses: visible signs of the defects that eventually led to the building’s demise and a history of documents submitted to city building departments clearly showing deteriorating conditions. </p>
<p>For example:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>In June 2021, the <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/federal-investigators-surfside-condo-tower-collapsed-meet-building/story?id=100142150">sudden collapse of the Champlain Towers South</a> condominium in Surfside, Florida, killed 98 people and stunned the nation. Three years earlier, an <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/live-updates-miami-area-condo-collapse/2021/06/29/1010976101/timeline-what-we-know-so-far-about-what-led-up-to-the-surfside-condo-collapse">engineers report had raised concerns</a> about the structural integrity of concrete in the pool deck area that later collapsed, but the strength of the pool deck slab was not thoroughly investigated. Federal investigators in a 2023 preliminary report found that the original design of the pool deck <a href="https://www.tampabay.com/news/florida/2023/06/16/surfside-condo-collapse-investigation-pool-deck-champlain/">did not follow building standards</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>In May 2023, three people died when part of a <a href="https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/news/2023/09/07/davenport-apartment-building-collapse-cause-revealed-in-new-report/70787740007/">116-year-old apartment building in Davenport, Iowa</a>, collapsed. Inspectors pointed to a history of improper maintenance, and photos show clear signs of trouble, such as walls that were bowed.</p></li>
<li><p>In April 2023, one person was killed when a New York City <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/15/nyregion/nyc-garage-collapse.html">parking garage collapsed</a>. The nearly-100-year-old building had several past violations, and its collapse triggered a swift check of similar garages that turned up more potential hazards. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>In a near-miss, in November 2023, a large hole <a href="https://nypost.com/2023/11/13/metro/gaping-hole-opens-in-nyc-garage-above-amtrak-tracks/">opened in the base of another New York City parking garage</a>, offering a <a href="https://abc7ny.com/nyc-amtrak-suspended-trains-structural-issues/14049092/">view to the Amtrak rail line below</a>. It forced the closure of the line while the building was repaired.</p>
<h2>What cities and states can do</h2>
<p>Many buildings today are designed to last from as little as <a href="https://www.builderspace.com/how-long-do-modern-buildings-last">50 years to over 100 years</a>, depending on the materials used and assuming periodic maintenance and repairs.</p>
<p>Just as human beings need to see their physicians on a more regular basis as they age, older buildings also require more care and attention. That is even more important when they are exposed to adverse environmental conditions, such as corrosive de-icing salts in the Northeast and saltwater and salt air moisture in coastal regions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An aerial photo of four condo towers on the beach. In the center is Champlain Towers South, which partially collapsed in June 2021." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568331/original/file-20240108-22-eeetre.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Champlain Towers South’s collapse in Surfside, Fla., near Miami, killed 98 people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ApartmentBuildingEvacuatedFlorida/e05b4770e98c4f9e852c944a0474b4d1/photo">AP Photo/Gerald Herbert</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet, inspections of buildings primarily happen <a href="https://www.park.edu/blog/building-inspections-101-what-to-know-in-2023-and-beyond">only as they are being built</a>, resold or remodeled. Policies vary by state, but there are currently few widespread mandated rules for structural inspections of entire existing buildings. Some <a href="https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2023/154/BillText/er/HTML">exceptions are in Florida</a>, where structural inspections are required for condominium and co-op buildings statewide at age 25 to 30 years, and every 10 years thereafter, and <a href="https://library.municode.com/nj/jersey_city/ordinances/code_of_ordinances?nodeId=1153837">Jersey City</a>, New Jersey, where periodic structural inspections are required every 10 years for all buildings. Several <a href="https://www.fortlauderdale.gov/government/departments-a-h/development-services/building-services/building-safety-inspection-program">Florida cities</a> and counties have extended the state-mandated periodic inspections to commercial buildings.</p>
<p>Some cities have enacted ordinances governing <a href="https://www.concrete.org/publications/internationalconcreteabstractsportal.aspx?m=details&i=51740203">periodic inspections of specific structural elements</a>, such as balconies and facades. And a few require periodic inspections or condition assessments for parking garages. After the Surfside condo tower collapse, the International Code Council initiated efforts to develop <a href="https://www.floridabuilding.org/fbc/commission/fbc_1021/hrac-101221/21-20724_CORP_FL_Report_Oct_Update_BRO_v3_MIDrez-002.pdf">condition-assessment guidelines</a> for existing buildings that local governments could choose to adopt.</p>
<h2>Cities need to prioritize inspections</h2>
<p>In each of the recent collapses, there were signs of the problems that, had they been addressed, might have prevented the tragedy. </p>
<p>In the New York City apartment building, a visible, vertical crack in the corner column, which should have been a glaring red flag, was ignored. The <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/bronx-building-collapse-engineer-made-grave-errors-inspection-report/">NYC Buildings Department commissioner</a> recently said that “The Department of Buildings does not have enough of its own staff to inspect every building in New York City.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of the corner of a building with a deli and a giant crack down the front support column." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568142/original/file-20240108-23-5ec61g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A corner column in the New York City building that collapsed in December 2023 had a large crack in 2020, as this photo in a city buildings department report shows.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://a810-dobnow.nyc.gov/Publish/DocumentStage/PortalDownloadedDocuments/BRONX/912259/TR6-912259-9A-I1/Supporting%20Documents/Elevation%20Photographs881950890.pdf">NYC Buildings Department</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This problem is <a href="https://www.americancityandcounty.com/2021/08/30/a-low-cost-approach-to-managing-building-inspections-and-risk-mitigation-challenges-facing-local-and-county-governments/">not unique to New York</a>. Building departments across the country are <a href="https://www.msn.com/en-us/money/realestate/a-decade-after-philly-s-deadly-market-street-collapse-residents-are-still-endangered-by-construction-destruction/ar-AA1lHB1C">understaffed and have oversight challenges</a>. </p>
<p>If increasing budgets for municipal inspection departments is not an option, another route is to contract with structural engineering firms to review submitted documents. While this comes at a cost, so do legal settlements <a href="https://therealdeal.com/miami/2022/05/27/surfside-collapse-1b-settlement-breakdown-revealed/">after building disasters</a>.</p>
<p>If cities and states enact periodic structural condition assessment rules for existing buildings within their jurisdiction, problems could also be spotted by expert inspectors before they develop into failures. </p>
<p>Insurance companies could also be a partner in this effort by requiring periodic inspection and maintenance by licensed design professionals as a condition of continuing coverage.</p>
<h2>If you see something, say something</h2>
<p>Residents also must adopt a more vigilant and proactive approach to identify and prevent structural problems.</p>
<p>Anyone can learn to identify the <a href="https://www.tjpa.org/files/2018/09/9.26.18-Press-Release-Temporary-Closure-of-Salesforce-Transit-Center-with-pics.pdf">telltale signs of building deterioration and defects</a>, though there may be some <a href="https://www.dezeen.com/2018/09/26/salesforce-transit-center-closed-cracked-beam-san-francisco/">hidden structural deterioration</a> behind architectural finishes that may not be visible. If these problems are spotted and addressed in a timely manner, that could help reduce the likelihood of structural failures and more costly repairs in the future.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A basement with metal clearly showing through the cracked cement on the ceiling." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568319/original/file-20240108-19-ff6j3c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Deteriorating reinforced concrete and rusted or exposed reinforcing steel are warning signs to watch for.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Jensen/BRV Engineering</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If you see any of the following problems, report them to your landlord or the city building department – they could be signs of structural trouble:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://macleans.ca/news/canada/elliot-lake-how-could-so-many-engineers-be-so-wrong/">Water intrusion, ponding, leaks</a>, water stains, rust stains and peeling paint on floors or ceilings.</p></li>
<li><p>Sagging floors, roofs and ceilings and <a href="https://apnews.com/article/iowa-davenport-building-collapse-621844c0d6c206ced4639ddcf443eb80">bulging or bowed walls</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>Cracks that are expanding in elevated floors or roof slabs, walls, beams and columns.</p></li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><p>Cracks on a floor slab that create a trip hazard, or wall cracks, which may be the result of the foundation settling.</p></li>
<li><p>Chunks of concrete falling from slabs, beams, walls and columns; and exposed rusted steel reinforcement.</p></li>
<li><p>Rusting or corroded steel beams and columns.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A rusted steel beam sticking up through a cracked sidewalk." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568324/original/file-20240108-17-cvpgay.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Exposed and rusted steel canopy roof support columns are a structural stability problem.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of Jensen/BRV Engineering</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<ul>
<li><p>Balconies where the rainwater drains toward the interior of the building, rather than away from it.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.berkeleyside.org/2017/11/21/deadly-berkeley-balcony-collapse-lawsuit-settled">Rotted wood</a> structural parts, such as floor joists or wall studs.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Everyone needs to understand the warning signs and be willing to speak up so officials and building owners take the necessary steps to stem this <a href="https://nypost.com/2023/12/15/opinion/bronx-building-collapse-is-a-warning-of-disasters-likely-to-get-ever-more-common/">scary tide</a> and protect residents.</p>
<p>Our buildings are talking to us, and in some cases crying out for help – it’s time everyone listened.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220323/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Abieyuwa Aghayere does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Too often, signs of trouble are ignored until a problem becomes a crisis. Here are some clear warning signs residents should watch for.Abieyuwa Aghayere, Professor of Structural Engineering, Drexel UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2167992023-11-12T14:02:46Z2023-11-12T14:02:46ZBirds’ nests express their unique style and past experiences<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558442/original/file-20231108-23-ci8gl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3303%2C2185&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Zebra finches learn from experience when it comes to building nests.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/birds-nests-express-their-unique-style-and-past-experiences" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Walking through a town or city, you will encounter buildings with diverse shapes and sizes. These unique styles exist in part because the buildings were constructed by different architects, engineers and builders. </p>
<p>Birds are also architects, engineers and builders. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.108194">Our research</a> finds that, similar to human architecture, individual birds build nests in their own unique style. Experienced birds build with more consistent style and use fewer material resources than inexperienced birds. </p>
<h2>Animal architecture</h2>
<p>Architecture impacts our everyday lives, allowing us to adapt to and thrive in various climates. Humans build different structures to achieve different goals: farms to grow and store food, castles and skyscrapers to display wealth, homes for shelter or as a place to raise a family. </p>
<p>The same is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.09.082">true for other species</a>. Bees build <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/946778/the-incredible-architecture-of-bees">hives and honey combs</a> to store and protect food. Spiders <a href="https://news.mit.edu/2021/considering-the-spiderweb-0810">spin webs</a> to catch prey. Beavers <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/buildabeaverdam.htm">build dams</a> to create a pool. Many species of birds <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.01.020">construct nests</a> for shelter or to raise their chicks.</p>
<p>Building architecture allows animals to shape their environments to better meet specific needs.</p>
<h2>Architectural styles</h2>
<p>Human structures look different, even when those structures share a similar purpose. This might reflect differences in culture and available resources.</p>
<p>In western societies, houses tend to be cuboids made from stone, wood and glass. Plains Indigenous Peoples make conical <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/folio/2018/05/tipi-raised-to-recognize-relationship-between-first-nations-u-of-a.html">tipis from wood and bison hides</a>. Inuit peoples use <a href="https://www.avataq.qc.ca/en/Nunavimmiuts/Puurtaq-Project/Life-in-an-igloo">ice and snow to make spherical igloos</a>. East African Maasai peoples build cylindrical <a href="https://friendsofnamuncha.org/clearing-the-smoke-from-manyattas/">manyatta huts from earth, grass and cow dung</a>.</p>
<p>There are differences in architectural style among individuals within the same culture using the same materials. </p>
<p>Visualize your home: the size and shape of each room, position of doors and windows, arrangement of furniture. Now compare your visualized blueprint to the blueprint of a friend’s house. They likely look quite different, as humans have individual variation in architectural style.</p>
<p>Our research suggests the same is true for animal architects: animals also build structures with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.108194">individual variation in architectural style</a>. </p>
<h2>Avian architects</h2>
<p>Birds are among the most <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.06.078">well-known builders in the animal world</a>. Many avian species build nests to create safe, warm environments to incubate their eggs and raise chicks. Nest building is a key task that individuals must complete to successfully reproduce. </p>
<p>Our team, the <a href="https://sites.psych.ualberta.ca/animal-cognition-ualberta/">Animal Cognition Research Group</a> in the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/psychology/index.html">Department of Psychology</a> at the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/index.html">University of Alberta</a>, ran an experiment testing whether birds built nests in their own individual style. </p>
<p>We studied <a href="https://ebird.org/species/zebfin2">zebra finches</a>, small songbirds native to Australia. Zebra finches have been bred in captivity for years and are common in pet stores and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/MUv110n3_ED">scientific research</a>. These birds are ideal for our test, as males build many nests in short periods of time using a range of materials.</p>
<p>We measured the sizes and shapes of multiple nests built by the same zebra finches. Comparing nests built by the same male found similarities in style. Comparing nests built by different males found dissimilarities in style. This shows individuals do build nests in their own unique and repeatable style.</p>
<h2>Psychology of style</h2>
<p>The minds of human architects can be studied through analyzing the style in which they build. This gives insights on their understanding of technology and their cultural influences or social values.</p>
<p>Some ancient structures, like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/685/1/012001">the pyramids of Giza, Stonehenge and Mayan structures</a>, are aligned to the sun and stars. This demonstrates ancient architects had the ability to precisely plan and execute designs with great detail. It also suggests that celestial bodies held some significance to these cultures, perhaps for mapping landscapes or the passage of seasons. </p>
<p>An individual architect might specialize in building structures of a particular style, such as <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/983605/the-origins-and-evolution-of-gothic-architecture">Gothic</a>, <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/972018/what-is-art-deco-architecture">Art Deco</a>, <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/774100/should-victorian-era-architecture-be-saved-at-all-costs">Victorian</a> or <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/957201/brutalism-the-architecture-style-we-love-to-love">Brutalist</a>. Their style might change over time as the architect learns and refines their skills through experience. </p>
<p>These examples show how the psychology of style can be analyzed in human architects. We wanted to investigate the psychology of style, specifically learning from experience, in our zebra finches.</p>
<h2>Style and experience</h2>
<p>We gave one group of zebra finches practise building five nests, giving each male opportunities to learn from this nest-building experience. A second group of zebra finches had no practise building. These males had never built a nest before the start of the experiment. Both groups then built nests so that we could compare the nest style built by the two groups.</p>
<p>Experienced birds had more consistent nest style and used less material compared to inexperienced birds. This indicates that learning opportunities influence nest style. </p>
<p>Practice building nests allows birds to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2011.06.011">develop motor skills</a> and better manipulate materials. Birds also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104336">remember past outcomes</a> of nests and will replicate successful design elements. </p>
<p>Individual style might develop from differences in learning opportunities. Maintaining a style might even be beneficial. Creating consistent nests while using fewer resources may be advantageous, especially if the style has been successful or resources are limited.</p>
<p>We can learn a lot about how both human and animal architects adapt and respond to their surroundings and culture by studying the structures they build. Our research also shows home isn’t just where the heart is … it’s also in the brain.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216799/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Birds’ nest-building skills are informed by their environment and experiences, and nests can reflect the individual styles of their builders.Ben Whittaker, Postdoctoral Researcher, Department of Psychology, University of AlbertaLauren Guillette, Assistant Professor & Canada Research Chair in Cognitive Ecology, Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, University of AlbertaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2166922023-11-08T16:41:53Z2023-11-08T16:41:53Z‘Beauty’ in architecture can’t be enforced – but design competitions could help architects strive for it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557737/original/file-20231106-24-trvg0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">New Islington Marina in Manchester.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/an-aerial-view-of-a-city-with-a-river-running-through-it-CowORvlVTOQ">Matt Newton|Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 2021, the UK government made beauty an explicit objective of the English planning system. The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-laws-to-speed-up-planning-build-homes-and-level-up">Levelling Up and Regeneration Act</a>, which <a href="https://www.housing.org.uk/news-and-blogs/news/levelling-up-and-regeneration-bill-receives-royal-assent/">received royal assent</a> on October 26 2023, now <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/new-homes-fact-sheet-6-the-role-of-design-and-placemaking/fact-sheet-6-the-role-of-design-and-placemaking-in-new-homes-and-communities">requires local authorities to use design codes</a> to deliver beauty in new developments.</p>
<p>Driving this emphasis on beauty (which is likely to be strengthened through <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/levelling-up-and-regeneration-bill-reforms-to-national-planning-policy/levelling-up-and-regeneration-bill-reforms-to-national-planning-policy#chapter-6--asking-for-beauty">further planned revisions</a> to national planning policy) is a particularly knotty problem in England’s approach to housing. Everyone agrees that more housing is needed, but no one wants it to be built near them. The government’s hope – as the secretary of state for levelling up, housing and communities, Michael Gove, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/long-term-plan-for-housing-secretary-of-states-speech">has put it</a> – is that “communities will welcome development when it is beautiful”.</p>
<p>English towns and cities do desperately need attention. A 2019 national audit by advocacy group <a href="https://placealliance.org.uk/">Place Alliance</a> found that, in terms of design quality, new housing developments <a href="https://placealliance.org.uk/research/national-housing-audit/">are overwhelmingly mediocre or poor</a>. <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-converting-office-space-into-flats-wont-solve-the-housing-crisis-215557">Office buildings</a> converted under permitted development rights into <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0042098020936966">housing</a> have been characterised by the campaign group Town and Country Planning Association as creating “<a href="https://www.tcpa.org.uk/collection/campaign-for-healthy-homes/">slums of the future</a>”. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, outstanding heritage assets are being <a href="https://theconversation.com/ive-been-chronicling-liverpools-renaissance-for-40-years-heres-why-the-citys-unesco-status-should-not-have-been-removed-164719">harmed</a> by insensitive new development. And under-resourced local authorities are in no position to help because they have so little <a href="https://placealliance.org.uk/research/design-skills/">design expertise</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Buildings on the Liverpool waterfront." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557730/original/file-20231106-19-cq6i0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557730/original/file-20231106-19-cq6i0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=292&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557730/original/file-20231106-19-cq6i0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=292&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557730/original/file-20231106-19-cq6i0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=292&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557730/original/file-20231106-19-cq6i0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557730/original/file-20231106-19-cq6i0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557730/original/file-20231106-19-cq6i0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Unesco revoked Liverpool’s world heritage status over concerns its cultural value has been compromised by new buildings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/low-angle-photography-o-buildings-RsIsVDqSiF0">Atanas Paskalev|Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is mounting evidence that <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315768373/architects-matter-flora-samuel">buildings</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13574809.2018.1472523">places</a> have a profound influence on <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057487">public health and wellbeing</a>. The British designer Thomas Heatherwick has gone so far as to claim that boring architecture has brought us <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2023/oct/25/thomas-heatherwick-war-on-boring-buildings-ive-never-gone-against-the-whole-industry-before">“misery, alienation, sickness and violence”</a>.</p>
<p>The government is right to expect more of development. However, it is debatable whether beauty should or realistically can be a planning objective. My research looks at how planning rules influence the design of the built environment. The best way “<a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/long-term-plan-for-housing-secretary-of-states-speech">to build beautiful</a>” – to reprise Gove’s leitmotif – might be to regulate design processes, rather than outcomes. </p>
<h2>The problem with beauty</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/creating-a-design-code">Design codes</a> establish detailed requirements and rules for how sites or areas are developed. They exist to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305900623000363">improve design standards</a>. It is questionable, however, whether they can ensure a new development is beautiful. </p>
<p>This is because beauty is mutable, multifaceted, emotive and subjective. It defies definition, let alone physical prescription. </p>
<p>This is evident in the way <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-design-guide">national design guidance</a> sidesteps the issue of how beauty should actually be achieved. Nowhere is “beauty” – or “beautiful development” – even defined. </p>
<p>This lack of clarity could result in “beauty” ending up being whatever certain planners or politicians <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14649357.2022.2113613">say it is</a>.
Further, it risks sidelining more pressing matters, including sustainability and affordability. </p>
<p>There is evidence that even planning inspectors are <a href="https://placealliance.org.uk/research/appealing-design/">opting not to use beauty</a> in their <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/618cf8dbe90e07043f2b95a7/21-11-11_DL+IR_20_Bury_Street_3244984.pdf">decisions</a> on planning applications. The question, then, is whether expecting local authorities to codify it in planning rules is realistic.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A housing development in England." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557429/original/file-20231103-19-2sq5e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557429/original/file-20231103-19-2sq5e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557429/original/file-20231103-19-2sq5e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557429/original/file-20231103-19-2sq5e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557429/original/file-20231103-19-2sq5e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557429/original/file-20231103-19-2sq5e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557429/original/file-20231103-19-2sq5e0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The UK government’s aim is to encourage more development by regulating its aesthetic qualities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Gethin Davison</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Regulating processes rather than outcomes</h2>
<p>My colleagues and I have looked at how design is regulated internationally. In Sydney, Australia, rather than prescribing design outcomes, the approach is to regulate the design process. In other words, planning rules do not specify the exact types of buildings and spaces that must be developed on a site. Instead, they specify that a particular process must be used to find the right design. </p>
<p>Through the local planning system, it is a legal requirement in the City of Sydney that all major developments, public and private, start with a design competition. Developers of residential blocks, office buildings and even electrical substations cannot simply produce a design in-house, or hire their tried-and-tested architect to do the work. </p>
<p>Rather, they must invite at least three different firms to come up with a proposal. The brief these firms work to sets out the design objectives for the competition, the commercial and construction considerations, and the criteria against which entries will be assessed (such as compliance with the design brief or buildability). A panel of judges then picks the winner. It is a form of competitive procurement, not unlike those used for UK public contracts.</p>
<p>The focus in the Sydney planning system is not on achieving beauty but “design excellence” – a similarly multifaceted and intangible quality that defies simple definition. But by regulating the design process through competitions, Sydney’s planners <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-13-2056-9">can require</a> that new developments achieve design excellence without needing to define or prescribe it. They simply establish some basic ground rules and challenge the competing architects to find the best way of delivering an excellent design. </p>
<p>Where other prescriptive approaches to planning often see developers doing the absolute minimum required to gain planning approval – resulting in poor-quality designs – this lack of prescription gives architects the freedom to think outside the box. The sheer fact that a competition generates multiple designs for a site ensures against <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/levelling-up-and-regeneration-bill-reforms-to-national-planning-policy/levelling-up-and-regeneration-bill-reforms-to-national-planning-policy#chapter-2---policy-objectives">ugliness</a>. It makes it more likely that the best possible design will be found. </p>
<p>Design competitions have a reputation for being costly and unpredictable, but <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13602365.2023.2257713?src=">they don’t need to be</a>. The UK government wants to better enable communities to take <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/long-term-plan-for-housing-secretary-of-states-speech">control of their housing future</a>. Competitions are a proven way of engaging members of the public in debate about the relative merits of different designs for a site or area. There’s no reason why those members of the public couldn’t also be part of the judging process. </p>
<p>When it comes to our towns and cities, it’s hard to argue against beauty in the abstract. Who wouldn’t want to live in a beautiful home or neighbourhood? </p>
<p>But new development doesn’t happen in the abstract, it happens in real places. Beauty in the built environment matters, but enforcing it through design codes risks creating confusion and disillusionment. Mostly, it serves as a distraction away from more pressing priorities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216692/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gethin Davison has received funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>The UK government aims to enforce beauty through the planning system’s design codes. But intangible qualities like beauty are best achieved by challenging architects – not constraining them.Gethin Davison, Associate Professor of Urban and Regional Planning, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2171472023-11-07T13:36:33Z2023-11-07T13:36:33ZAcapulco was built to withstand earthquakes, but not Hurricane Otis’ destructive winds – how building codes failed this resort city<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557873/original/file-20231106-267225-w11vn6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C16%2C3593%2C2246&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Acapulco's beachfront condo towers were devastated by Hurricane Otis.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/aerial-view-of-damages-caused-by-the-passage-of-hurricane-news-photo/1750791993">Rodrigo Oropeza/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Acapulco wasn’t prepared when Hurricane Otis struck as a powerful Category 5 storm on Oct. 25, 2023. The short notice as the <a href="https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/news/hurricane-otis-causes-catastrophic-damage-acapulco-mexico">storm rapidly intensified</a> over the Pacific Ocean wasn’t the only problem – the Mexican resort city’s buildings weren’t designed to handle anything close to Otis’ 165 mph winds.</p>
<p>While Acapulco’s oceanfront high-rises were built to withstand <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/strong-quake-rocks-mexicos-acapulco-damaging-airport-killing-one-2021-09-08/">the region’s powerful earthquakes</a>, they had a weakness. </p>
<p>Since powerful hurricanes are <a href="https://coast.noaa.gov/hurricanes">rare in Acapulco</a>, Mexico’s <a href="https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/247555/300617_EvaluacionEstructuras_02-Viento.pdf">building codes didn’t require</a> that their exterior materials be able to hold up to extreme winds. In fact, those materials were often kept light to help meet earthquake building standards.</p>
<p>Otis’ powerful winds ripped off exterior cladding and shattered windows, exposing bedrooms and offices to the wind and rain. The storm <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/death-toll-from-hurricane-otis-hits-48-with-36-missing-as-search-and-recovery-continues">took dozens of lives</a> and caused <a href="https://www.reinsurancene.ws/corelogic-pegs-hurricane-otis-insurable-loss-at-10bn-to-15bn/">billions of dollars in damage</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A large glass tower with sloping sides, like a sliced egg, reflects the sunrise with the Pacific Ocean looking placid in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557814/original/file-20231106-17-xzhpml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557814/original/file-20231106-17-xzhpml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557814/original/file-20231106-17-xzhpml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557814/original/file-20231106-17-xzhpml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557814/original/file-20231106-17-xzhpml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557814/original/file-20231106-17-xzhpml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557814/original/file-20231106-17-xzhpml.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A US$130 million luxury condo building on the beach in Acapulco before Hurricane Otis struck on Oct. 25, 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hamid Arabzadeh, PhD., P.Eng.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A stormy sky shows through the floors that were once apartments." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557815/original/file-20231106-19-vbqly2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557815/original/file-20231106-19-vbqly2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557815/original/file-20231106-19-vbqly2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557815/original/file-20231106-19-vbqly2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557815/original/file-20231106-19-vbqly2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557815/original/file-20231106-19-vbqly2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557815/original/file-20231106-19-vbqly2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The same Acapulco condo tower after Hurricane Otis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hamid Arabzadeh, PhD., P.Eng.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I have worked on engineering strategies to enhance disaster resilience for over three decades and recently wrote a book, “<a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781633888234/The-Blessings-of-Disaster-The-Lessons-That-Catastrophes-Teach-Us-and-Why-Our-Future-Depends-on-It">The Blessings of Disaster</a>,” about the gambles humans take with disaster risk and how to increase resilience. Otis provided a powerful example of one such gamble that exists when building codes rely on probabilities that certain hazards will occur based on recorded history, rather than considering the severe consequences of storms that can devastate entire cities.</p>
<h2>The fatal flaw in building codes</h2>
<p>Building codes typically provide “<a href="https://asce7hazardtool.online/">probabilistic-based” maps</a> that specify wind speeds that engineers must consider when designing buildings. </p>
<p>The problem with that approach lies in the fact that “probabilities” are simply the odds that extreme events of a certain size will occur in the future, mostly calculated based on past occurrences. Some models may include additional considerations, but these are still typically anchored in known experience. </p>
<p>This is all good science. Nobody argues with that. It allows engineers to design structures in accordance with a consensus on what are deemed acceptable <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-19-1347-2019">return periods</a> for various hazards, referring to the likelihood of those disasters occurring. Return periods are a somewhat arbitrary assessment of what is a reasonable balance between minimizing risk and keeping building costs reasonable.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://www.structuremag.org/?p=13360">probabilistic maps</a> only capture the odds of the hazard occurring. A <a href="https://hazards.atcouncil.org/">probabilistic map</a> might specify a wind speed to consider for design, irrespective of whether that given location is a small town with a few hotels or a megapolis with high-rises and complex urban infrastructure. In other words, probabilistic maps do not consider the consequences when an extreme hazard exceeds the specified value and “all hell breaks loose.”</p>
<h2>How probability left Acapulco exposed</h2>
<p>According to the Mexican building code, hotels, condos and other commercial and office buildings in Acapulco must be <a href="https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/247555/300617_EvaluacionEstructuras_02-Viento.pdf">designed to resist 88 mph winds</a>, corresponding to the strongest wind likely to occur on average once every 50 years there. That’s a Category 1 storm.</p>
<p>A 200-year return period for wind is used for essential facilities, such as hospital and school buildings, <a href="https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/247555/300617_EvaluacionEstructuras_02-Viento.pdf">corresponding to 118 mph winds</a>. But over a building’s life span of, say, 50 years, that still leaves a 22% chance that winds exceeding 118 mph will occur (yes, the world of statistics is that sneaky). </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557871/original/file-20231106-15-ffcd7l.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of the Mexico area with lots of storm tracks offshore and a few crossing land in the southern part of the country." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557871/original/file-20231106-15-ffcd7l.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557871/original/file-20231106-15-ffcd7l.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557871/original/file-20231106-15-ffcd7l.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557871/original/file-20231106-15-ffcd7l.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557871/original/file-20231106-15-ffcd7l.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557871/original/file-20231106-15-ffcd7l.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557871/original/file-20231106-15-ffcd7l.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mexico’s hurricane history in storm tracks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://coast.noaa.gov/hurricanes/#map">NOAA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557869/original/file-20231106-19-jxgqql.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of the Acapulco area with lots of storm tracks offshore and a few crossing land." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557869/original/file-20231106-19-jxgqql.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557869/original/file-20231106-19-jxgqql.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557869/original/file-20231106-19-jxgqql.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557869/original/file-20231106-19-jxgqql.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=427&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557869/original/file-20231106-19-jxgqql.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557869/original/file-20231106-19-jxgqql.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557869/original/file-20231106-19-jxgqql.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A century of hurricane storm tracks near Acapulco show several offshore storms that brought strong winds and rain to the city, but few direct landfalls. Acapulco Bay is in the center of the map on the coast. Red, pink and purple lines are categories 3, 4 and 5, respectively.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://coast.noaa.gov/hurricanes/#map">NOAA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The probability wind maps for both return periods show Acapulco experiences lower average wind speeds than much of the 400 miles of Mexican coast north of the city. Yet, Acapulco is a major city, with a metropolitan population of over 1 million. It also has <a href="https://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?cityID=586&offset=100&statusID=1">more than 50 buildings</a> taller than 20 stories, according to the SkyscraperPage, a database of skyscrapers, and it is the only city with buildings that tall along that stretch of the Pacific coast.</p>
<p>Designing for a 50-year return period in this case is questionable, as it implies a near 100% chance of encountering wind exceeding this design value for a building with a 50-year life span or greater. </p>
<h2>Florida faces similiar challenges</h2>
<p>The shortcomings of probabilistic-based maps that specify wind speeds have also been observed in the United States. For example, new buildings along most of Florida’s coast must be able to <a href="https://www.flrules.org/gateway/readRefFile.asp?refId=13160&filename=Florida_Building_Code_7thEdition_1609_3_Tables.pdf">resist 140 mph winds</a> or greater, but there are a few exceptions. One is the Big Bend area where <a href="https://www.tampabay.com/hurricane/2023/09/02/map-idalia-flooding-big-bend-surge/">Hurricane Idalia made landfall</a> in 2023. Its design wind speed is about 120 mph instead.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://codes.iccsafe.org/content/FLBC2023P1/chapter-16-structural-design#FLBC2023P1_Ch16_Sec1609">2023 update to the Florida Building Code</a> raised the minimum wind speed to approximately 140 mph in Mexico Beach, the Panhandle town that was <a href="https://mexicobeachfl.gov/uploads/2022/06/Wind-load-Ordinance-21919.pdf">devastated by Hurricane Michael</a> in 2018. The Big Bend exception may be the next one to be eliminated.</p>
<h2>Acapulco’s earthquake design weakness</h2>
<p>A saving grace for Acapulco is that it is located in one of <a href="https://mexicodailypost.com/2021/04/19/earthquake-map-30-of-mexico-under-high-seismic-risk/">Mexico’s most active seismic risk zones</a> – for example, a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/live/2021/09/07/world/mexico-earthquake">magnitude 7 earthquake struck nearby in 2021</a>. As a result, the lateral-load-resisting structural systems in tall buildings there are designed to resist seismic forces that are generally larger than hurricane forces.</p>
<p>However, a drawback is that the larger the mass of a building, <a href="https://www.wbdg.org/resources/seismic-design-principles">the larger the seismic forces</a> the building must be designed to resist. Consequently, light materials were typically used for the cladding – the exterior surface of the building that protects it against the weather – because that translates into lower seismic forces. This light cladding was not able to withstand hurricane-force winds.</p>
<p>Had the cladding not failed, the full wind forces would have been transferred to the structural system, and the buildings would have survived with little or no damage.</p>
<h2>A ‘good engineering approach’ to hazards</h2>
<p>A better building code could go one step beyond “good science” probabilistic maps and adopt a “<a href="https://michelbruneau.com/TheBlessingsOfDisaster.htm">good engineering approach</a>” by taking stock of the consequences of extreme events occurring, not just the odds that they will.</p>
<p>In Florida, the incremental cost of designing for wind speeds of 140 mph rather than 120 mph is marginal compared to total building cost, given that cladding able to resist more than 140 mph is already used in nearly all of the state. In Acapulco, with the spine of buildings already able to resist earthquake forces much larger than hurricane forces, designing cladding that can withstand stronger hurricane-level forces is likely to be an even smaller percentage of total project cost.</p>
<p>Someday, the way that design codes deal with extreme events such as hurricanes, not only in Mexico, will hopefully evolve to more broadly account for what is at risk at the urban scale. Unfortunately, as I explain in “<a href="https://michelbruneau.com/TheBlessingsOfDisaster.htm">The Blessings of Disaster</a>,” we will see more extreme disasters before society truly becomes disaster resilient.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217147/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michel Bruneau does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The best science is not always the best engineering when it comes to building codes. It’s also a problem across the US, as an engineer who works on disaster resilience explains.Michel Bruneau, Professor of Engineering, University at BuffaloLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2163742023-10-26T10:45:21Z2023-10-26T10:45:21ZDomicide: a view from Homs in Syria on what the deliberate destruction of homes does to those displaced by conflict – podcast<p>Homs was once the centre of the Syrian revolution. Today, 12 years on, much of the city remains scarred and deserted after years of siege and heavy bombardment. </p>
<p>In this episode of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/the-conversation-weekly-98901"><em>The Conversation Weekly</em></a> podcast, we speak to an architecture researcher from Homs about what the deliberate destruction of homes and neighbourhoods, known as domicide, does to people displaced by conflict. </p>
<iframe src="https://embed.acast.com/60087127b9687759d637bade/653a3b02ab9fa2001249c1e0" frameborder="0" width="100%" height="190px"></iframe>
<p></p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-561" class="tc-infographic" height="100" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/561/4fbbd099d631750693d02bac632430b71b37cd5f/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Ammar Azzouz has fond memories of growing up in Homs. “It was quiet and peaceful. It was called the city of the poor because people from all backgrounds and social income felt that they could belong. People were very kind and warm and generous,” he remembers.</p>
<p>But in 2011, when uprisings began against the government of Syrian president Bashar al-Assad, Homs became a central point of protest – and crackdowns by government forces. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>For that opposing position to the government, the city has paid a very huge price in terms of being targeted many times. The strategy used by the Syrian government during these early years of the revolution was to siege different neighbourhoods in Homs and to try to control these neighbourhoods. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>He says that 12 years later, the city has been transformed. Over 50% of the neighbourhoods have been heavily destroyed and over a quarter partially destroyed. </p>
<p>Azzouz fled Homs in late 2011, but has continued to <a href="https://theconversation.com/my-home-city-was-destroyed-by-war-but-i-will-not-lose-hope-how-modern-warfare-turns-neighbourhoods-into-battlefields-211627">research and chronicle</a> what’s happened to his city ever since. He describes what happened in Homs as domicide – the deliberate destruction of home. He uses the word home to refer not just to the tangible built environment of people’s homes and properties, “the architecture of the everyday” as he puts it, but also to people’s sense of belonging and identity. </p>
<p>Azzouz says that the Israeli bombardment of Gaza following the Hamas attack on Israel on October 7 is a form of domicide. Watching the destruction of whole residential blocks in Gaza and the mass displacement of Palestinians from their homes has been very difficult for him. “It’s absolutely domicidal. It’s deliberate targeting of people’s homes, killing of civilian people, killing of their everyday life and mass destruction of neighbourhoods,” he says. </p>
<p>Listen to the full interview on <a href="https://podfollow.com/the-conversation-weekly/view">The Conversation Weekly</a> podcast. A transcript of the episode <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/2900/The_Conversation_Weekly_domicide_transcript.pdf?1699436942">is now available.</a></p>
<hr>
<p><em>This episode was written and produced by Mend Mariwany and Gemma Ware. Eloise Stevens does our sound design, and our theme music is by Neeta Sarl. Gemma Ware is the executive producer of the show.</em></p>
<p><em>Newsclips in this episode are from <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1QOBTBlzK_A&ab_channel=AssociatedPress">Associated Press</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=isVuusJFlLU&ab_channel=euronews">euronews</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oC55uPBKYqU&ab_channel=AlJazeeraEnglish">Al</a> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PG62kEFkB3M&ab_channel=AlJazeeraEnglish">Jazeera</a> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k3R4DfKCROA&ab_channel=AlJazeeraEnglish">English</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qu64L74LC1k&ab_channel=Channel4News">Channel 4 News</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZFTK9V_mEjI&ab_channel=GuardianNews">Guardian News</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>You can find us on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/TC_Audio">@TC_Audio</a>, on Instagram at <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/">theconversationdotcom</a> or <a href="mailto:podcast@theconversation.com">via email</a>. You can also subscribe to The Conversation’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/newsletter">free daily email here</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>Listen to <em>The Conversation Weekly</em> via any of the apps listed above, download it directly via our <a href="https://feeds.acast.com/public/shows/60087127b9687759d637bade">RSS feed</a> or find out <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-listen-to-the-conversations-podcasts-154131">how else to listen here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216374/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ammar Azzouz receives funding from British Academy for his research at the University of Oxford. </span></em></p>An interview with a Syrian architect about domicide: the deliberate destruction of homes during war. Listen to The Conversation Weekly podcast.Gemma Ware, Editor and Co-Host, The Conversation Weekly Podcast, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2082602023-10-19T15:24:59Z2023-10-19T15:24:59ZNew ‘healing’ prison in Ireland points to long history of progressive penal reform<p>Ireland has formally opened <a href="https://www.irishprisons.ie/minister-justice-helen-mcentee-visits-new-limerick-prison-expansion-announces-publication-irish-prison-service-annu/">the new women’s wing</a> of the Limerick prison. </p>
<p>This expansion was desperately needed. The former wing was at <a href="https://www.iprt.ie/latest-news/iprt-voices-grave-concern-about-prison-overcrowding-as-bed-capacity-reaches-100-across-prison-estate/">164% capacity</a>, with women reportedly sleeping on mattresses on the floor of what were already inadequate conditions of a dilapidated 19th-century building. </p>
<p>The new build now offers space for 50 women, an increase in capacity of 78%. It also eschews the <a href="https://theconversation.com/prisons-and-asylums-prove-architecture-can-build-up-or-break-down-a-persons-mental-health-109989">dehumanising cliches</a> of the traditional prison environment. </p>
<p>Corridors follow gently bending routes into skylight-lit spaces. Rooms are painted in what has been described as a “<a href="https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/limerick-womens-prison-an-architecture-of-hope">calming colour palette</a>” of lilac and pale blue. </p>
<p>The windows don’t have bars. The prisoners’ cells look like student accommodation. In place of a prison yard, there is a garden and a children’s play area.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A colourful view of a prison recreation room." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554379/original/file-20231017-17-e4f19r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554379/original/file-20231017-17-e4f19r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554379/original/file-20231017-17-e4f19r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554379/original/file-20231017-17-e4f19r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554379/original/file-20231017-17-e4f19r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554379/original/file-20231017-17-e4f19r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554379/original/file-20231017-17-e4f19r.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An architectural rendering of the new Limerick female prison wing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Department of Justice|Louise Brangan</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Like anyone in the care of the state, prisoners should expect clean and humane living conditions. <a href="https://www.irishprisons.ie/wp-content/uploads/documents_pdf/Press-Release-Limerick-Prison-B-Division.pdf">More than</a> good conditions, though, this design project has been hailed as an <a href="https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/limerick-womens-prison-an-architecture-of-hope">“architecture of hope”</a>, providing a healing space in which the prisoners might be “thrive and flourish”. </p>
<p>This is not Ireland’s first experiment in progressive incarceration. My research shows that <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1362480619843295">in the 1960s and 1970s</a>, the nation cleaved to the idea that the best kind of penal system is when there is the least amount of imprisonment.</p>
<figure>
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</figure>
<h2>Policies to avoid imprisonment</h2>
<p>Before the 1970s, prison policy in England and much of the western world was underpinned by a <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-lessons-in-scandinavian-design-could-help-prisons-with-rehabilitation-106554">rehabilitative</a> ambition. The idea was that by employing the likes of criminologists, social workers and psychologists, prisons could transform people and ultimately reduce crime. </p>
<p>In Ireland, things were a little different. The prison system was managed by the Prison Division, a small group of generalist civil servants who were unconvinced by the new prison professionals and their individuated schemes. </p>
<p>The Division held that prisoners were not inherently criminal. Poverty in Ireland at the time was endemic. Officials assumed that prisoners’ crimes had socio-economic, not pathological, causes.</p>
<p>Contrary to other nations, the Division also worried that prison was, in fact, fundamentally damaging. In 1963, Minister for Justice Charles Haughey stated in an internal memo that “the institutionalisation, psychological deterioration and disruption to family and individual life, consequent on imprisonment”, must be avoided. </p>
<p>This was a widely held view. During <a href="https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/debates/debate/dail/1970-05-27/3/?highlight%5B0%5D=basically&highlight%5B1%5D=unsuitable&highlight%5B2%5D=encouraging&highlight%5B3%5D=individuals&highlight%5B4%5D=become&highlight%5B5%5D=adequate&highlight%5B6%5D=responsible&highlight%5B7%5D=members&highlight%5B8%5D=normal&highlight%5B9%5D=society">a debate on prisons in 1970</a>, TD (member of the Irish parliament) for Fine Gail John Bruton said that prison was “basically unsuitable” as a tool for encouraging people to become responsible members of society.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An old manor house in rural Ireland." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554337/original/file-20231017-23-m0c4vb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554337/original/file-20231017-23-m0c4vb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554337/original/file-20231017-23-m0c4vb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554337/original/file-20231017-23-m0c4vb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554337/original/file-20231017-23-m0c4vb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554337/original/file-20231017-23-m0c4vb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554337/original/file-20231017-23-m0c4vb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shelton Abbey, in County Wicklow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%22Church,_Interior,_Arklow,_Co._Wicklow%22_is_in_Arklow,_but_definitely_exterior_(35740556981).jpg#/media/File:%22Church,_Interior,_Arklow,_Co._Wicklow%22_is_in_Arklow,_but_definitely_exterior_(35740556981).jpg">Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Ireland’s humane penal reforms</h2>
<p>It was in this sceptical spirit that the Irish government would go on to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1362480619843295">implement</a> significant reform. In 1973, the Republic of Ireland’s first open prison, Shelton Abbey, was established in a former country manor. A maximum of 90 prisoners spent their days tending to the gardens. </p>
<p>In 1975, the Training Unit, the nation’s first purpose-built prison, opened on the site of Mountjoy prison in Dublin. Modernist in style, it was lauded for its semi-open regime. Its 90 prisoners wore their own clothes and came and went during the day for work and training purposes. </p>
<p>Perhaps the most radical of these changes was the permissive and liberal use of temporary release. Established in Ireland in 1960, this allowed an increasing number of prisoners to return home for days, weeks and sometimes permanently, serving the end of their sentence at home. </p>
<p>None of this was undertaken with the central ambition of reducing crime. That kind of rehabilitation was beyond the prison, they believed. The Division hoped that by being released more frequently and by having access to more engaging activities and less austere spaces, it might help prisoners develop as people, but at least it would reduce the pains of imprisonment. As an internal 1981 Prison Division report <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1362480619843295">put it</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>[The aim is] to equip the offender with educational, technical and social skills which will help him to turn away from a life of crime, if he so wishes. However, even if the offender on release does not turn away from a life of crime, those services can be regarded as having achieved some success if they bring about an improvement in the offender’s awareness of his responsibilities to himself, his family and the community.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Success, they concluded, was impossible to measure. Best to be lenient, first and foremost.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A black and white archival photograph of people playing sport indoors." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554513/original/file-20231018-17-32t82p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554513/original/file-20231018-17-32t82p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554513/original/file-20231018-17-32t82p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554513/original/file-20231018-17-32t82p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554513/original/file-20231018-17-32t82p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554513/original/file-20231018-17-32t82p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554513/original/file-20231018-17-32t82p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The recreation hall at the Training Unit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Department of Justice|Louise Brangan</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The damage prison causes</h2>
<p>The temporary release system still operates today, though in a much more restricted form. As Ireland changed, so too did public and political attitudes. </p>
<p>By the 1990s, it was felt that prisons in Ireland should do a little more confining and a little less releasing. In 1995, 21% of prisoners served their sentence on temporary release, that figure has now dropped to <a href="https://www.irishprisons.ie/wp-content/uploads/documents_pdf/SEPTEMBER-2023.pdf">9%</a>. </p>
<p>In the decades since these innovative regimes were instituted, a formidable body of research has amassed, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00043/full">proving</a> that the Prison Division’s scepticism of imprisonment’s benefits was well founded. </p>
<p>Being deprived of liberty and cut off from society puts a person at greater risk of poor mental health, homelessness and poverty after imprisonment. It also contributes, as research <a href="https://archive2021.parliament.scot/S4_JusticeCommittee/Inquiries/Dr_Lesley_Graham.pdf">in Scotland</a> has found, to a greater risk of dying prematurely.</p>
<p>Prison officials in the 1960s and 1970s saw incarceration as inescapably repressive – a site of harm for individuals, their communities and the wider society. Their bold new policies (open facilities; the temporary release scheme) sought to reduce the use and impact of the prison. The Irish Prison Division thought the prison was the problem, not the prisoners. </p>
<p>Limerick’s new women’s unit embodies the opposite idea: that prison can fix damaged prisoners and help reduce crime, all while expanding the size of the prison estate. </p>
<p>The Prison Division was right. Humane penal policy has to be about much more than buildings, design and physical spaces. Using incarceration sparingly – cautiously, leniently – is better for individuals and society at large.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208260/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>In the course of her research, Louise Brangan has received funding from the ESRC, Fulbright Commission, British Academy and Leverhulme.</span></em></p>In the mid-20th century, civil servants in Ireland recognised the harms incarceration wreaks not just on individuals but their families and society at large.Louise Brangan, Chancellor's Fellow | Senior Lecturer, University of Strathclyde Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2154192023-10-16T15:36:36Z2023-10-16T15:36:36ZBillions of birds collide with glass buildings – but architecture has solutions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553484/original/file-20231012-17-b38m69.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C422%2C6000%2C3565&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bird stickers are used to deter collisions with a glass wall in Korea.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/glass-soundproof-wall-anticollision-stickers-prevent-1871228722">Ki Young/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At least 1,000 birds were <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/oct/07/chicago-mccormick-place-building-bird-deaths-windows">killed</a> in one day in early October, when they collided with a single Chicago building, <a href="https://www.choosechicago.com/meeting-planners/mccormick-place-convention-center/">McCormick Place Lakeside Center</a> – the largest convention centre in North America. A paradigm of architectural modernism, the Lakeside Centre was built in stages from 1960 to 2017, and is a steel, concrete and glass behemoth. </p>
<p>Although not particularly tall by contemporary standards, the building’s almost unbroken glass facade presents a problem for birds, most notably at night when the brilliantly lit interiors cause them to become confused. The thousand killed that day were a small proportion of the millions of migratory birds that were moving southwards across the continent to their wintering grounds – a journey undertaken twice yearly by these animals. </p>
<p>What makes this mass bird death unusual isn’t the number of animals that died (the American Bird Conservancy <a href="https://abcbirds.org/glass-collisions/">estimates</a> that up to a billion birds suffer the same fate every year), but that it garnered so much public attention. This was thanks to <a href="https://www.birdmonitors.net/">the Chicago Bird Collision Monitors</a>, a volunteer group that has recorded bird strikes in the city since 2003. According to their records, this was the largest number of dead birds recorded in the grounds of one building over a single day.</p>
<p>One way to prevent bird strikes is to pay more attention to the design of glass buildings in cities. Chicago set an example for this in 2009, when US architect <a href="https://studiogang.com/people/jeanne-gang">Jeanne Gang</a>’s Aqua Tower was completed. Its wave-like facade and fritted glass were in part designed to stop birds flying into the building’s windows. Fritted glass is printed with ink and contains ultra-small particles of ground-up glass, giving it a frosted or otherwise slightly opaque appearance.</p>
<p>This was just one aspect of Gang’s effort to “naturalise” the skyscraper – buildings that are typically composed of straight lines on account of their steel or concrete frames. As the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí once quipped: “There are no straight lines or sharp corners in nature.” </p>
<h2>Bird-safe glass</h2>
<p>The Aqua Tower has curved balconies to soften the hard edges of what is an otherwise conventional skyscraper. The wave-like rippling effect also serves to minimise wind shear and create shade. In tandem with the fritted glass, the reflective qualities and hard edges of the glass are dampened, helping to prevent confusion, particularly at night. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553465/original/file-20231012-24-l36cev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A skyscraper facade with curved balconies." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553465/original/file-20231012-24-l36cev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553465/original/file-20231012-24-l36cev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553465/original/file-20231012-24-l36cev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553465/original/file-20231012-24-l36cev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553465/original/file-20231012-24-l36cev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553465/original/file-20231012-24-l36cev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553465/original/file-20231012-24-l36cev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Aqua Tower was the tallest woman-designed building in the world at the time of its completion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqua_(skyscraper)#/media/File:AquaTower2009_02_08_image2.jpg">Paperclips0701</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The tower demonstrates how architectural features usually chosen to enhance human lives can also benefit other organisms. This challenge was taken up by Buffalo-based architect Joyce Hwang in her project <a href="https://twitter.com/PrairieAnt/status/647781319993368576/photo/1">No Crash Zone</a> from 2015. Hwang temporarily applied patterns to the windows of the <a href="https://www.architecture.org/learn/resources/buildings-of-chicago/building/sullivan-center/">Sullivan Center</a> in Chicago, ostensibly to deter birds from flying into the glass, but also to add aesthetic interest to the material itself.</p>
<p>Hwang has argued that architects can still use glass in buildings – but with a little imagination, they can incorporate graphic ornamentation that will please us as well as other creatures (or maybe just not distract them).</p>
<p>More easily applied design solutions include bird-friendly film: a laminate of dots applied to glass to help birds see windows as objects rather than transparent, which minimises the risk of collision. This feature has been adopted by Columbia University in New York and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/sep/07/nyc-migrating-birds-night-lights-architecture">several other buildings</a> in the city, including a hotel, cemetery, mail facility and ferry terminal. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An office building window with dots covering the glass." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555367/original/file-20231023-21-75sfob.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555367/original/file-20231023-21-75sfob.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555367/original/file-20231023-21-75sfob.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555367/original/file-20231023-21-75sfob.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555367/original/file-20231023-21-75sfob.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555367/original/file-20231023-21-75sfob.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555367/original/file-20231023-21-75sfob.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bird-friendly windows with a repeating dot pattern.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brendon Samuels/FLAP Canada</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Lights out</h2>
<p>The way humans make use of artificial light, it seems, is the more intractable problem when it comes to caring for birds. </p>
<p>In 2019, it was <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/09/nyregion/911-tribute-birds.html">discovered</a> that the annual <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribute_in_Light">Tribute in Light installation</a>, held in New York City every year to mark the anniversary of the 9/11 attacks, caused migratory birds to become disorientated and exhausted. The birds are drawn to the four-mile high beams of light, veering off their migratory routes and becoming trapped by the spectacle.</p>
<p>In 2020, the decision was made to periodically switch off the lights and then restart them so that, even if the birds become disorientated, they can recover and continue on their way.</p>
<p>A 2021 <a href="https://www.audubon.org/news/turning-lights-night-could-halve-bird-deaths-chicagos-lakeshore">study</a> carried out in Chicago demonstrated the wider application of this principle: by shutting off half the lights in larger buildings at night, bird collisions can be reduced by anything from six- to 11-fold. At the time of writing, a change in the law is being <a href="https://legistar.council.nyc.gov/LegislationDetail.aspx?ID=6203111&GUID=D371C0A1-CBB9-401D-B547-429757E2E0E1&Options=ID%7CText%7C&Search=1039">debated in New York</a> to prohibit nighttime illumination of unoccupied buildings. Many courtrooms, libraries and public schools in the city already turn off their lights during the bird migration season.</p>
<p>Whether these changes can spur a wider transformation of attitudes towards artificial light in cities is uncertain. After all, nighttime illumination is bound up with the 24/7 culture of cities, which has seen the natural cycles of light and dark long since banished. Today, the illuminated city only goes dark in extreme circumstances, like the widespread power failures across New York City that followed Hurricane Sandy in October 2012. </p>
<p>Yet people could choose other ways to use less artificial light. Darkness is a vital part of nature. It is the means by which animals, and plants, rest and take cover. For migratory birds, darkness is a safe place; it also allows them to perceive the world as they need to, with the light of the Moon and stars (and their sensitivity to the Earth’s magnetic field) guiding their long journeys.</p>
<p>Care for migratory birds could also yield a greater appreciation of dark skies. Making nighttime cities more bird-friendly might help human residents reconnect with the beauty and awe that these vistas <a href="https://theconversation.com/cities-need-to-embrace-the-darkness-of-the-night-sky-heres-why-149129">inspire</a>. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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</figure>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Dobraszczyk does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>By adding stickers to glass walls and dimming lights, cities can be safer places for migrating birds.Paul Dobraszczyk, Lecturer in Architecture, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2144262023-10-04T17:07:47Z2023-10-04T17:07:47Z‘La France moche’: French artists rally to celebrate the country’s much-snubbed commercial zones<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550304/original/file-20230926-25-1l1pk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5176%2C3872&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Heir to the Trente glorieuses, commercial zones in city suburbs generally suffer from a poor image.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Elodie Bitsindou</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On 11 September, France’s Minister for Ecological Transition and Territorial Cohesion, Christopher Béchu, and Olivia Grégoire, the Minister Delegate for Small and Medium-sized Enterprises, Trade, Crafts, and Tourism, announced a <a href="https://www.gouvernement.fr/upload/media/content/0001/07/2dc90efc2c1a0e97572bf027240fac63e4dc9d75.pdf">national programme to rethink the country’s commercial zones</a>.</p>
<p>Often situated at the edge of towns, these zones are major consumer hubs. France counts no less than 1,500 of them, equivalent to an area of 500 km<sup>2</sup>, or 5 times the size of Paris. 72% of spending by French households takes place within them, according to the <a href="https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1283665">country’s economy ministry</a>.</p>
<p>Associated with the rule of the car and overconsumption, a way of life now judged obsolete by urban and district planning professionals, these zones are also an inheritance of the <em>Trente Glorieuses</em>, the thirty-year period of economic growth between 1945 and 1975, and so form a collective memory.</p>
<p>However, the climate crisis is increasingly putting their existence into question, as calls grow to stop building new zones and to transform existing ones, including for residential purposes. If that is to happen, we French people will have to learn to look at what are now often commercial ghettos under a new light. Luckily, the country’s artists and writers have started that job for us.</p>
<h2>“Ugly France”: a subjective perspective</h2>
<p>Since the government announcement, the expression “Ugly France” has <a href="https://www.liberation.fr/idees-et-debats/tribunes/a-quoi-bon-embellir-la-france-moche-20230920_RUJYQZAV6JANXNY7ZPXOIFXNWA/">reappeared in public discourse</a>. First used in the pages of <a href="https://www.telerama.fr/monde/comment-la-france-est-devenue-moche,52457.php">the cultural magazine <em>Télérama</em> in 2010</a>, the expression encapsulates the forms that urban spread takes: road infrastructure, commercial zones and housing developments.</p>
<p>Critics see ugliness, banality, boredom, and unhappiness. Their residents are seen as exiles. Never mind that a third of the population resides in these districts, in a mosaic of different socio-economic classes and diverse and changing living arrangements. What is more, the <a href="https://www.eyrolles.com/BTP/Livre/la-ville-franchisee-9782903539757/">“franchised town”</a>, as the sociologist David Mangin put it in 2003, is a reality that concerns the suburbs as much as historic towns. <a href="https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceinter/podcasts/histoires-economiques/histoires-economiques-du-lundi-24-janvier-2022-8956659">The sheer number of ads</a> in all forms in the central areas of the capital constitute the perfect example.</p>
<p>But other authors are also asking us to consider these spaces anew. In 2011, Éric Chauvier opposed these criticisms by publishing the essay <a href="https://www.editions-allia.com/fr/livre/489/contre-telerama"><em>Against Télérama</em></a>, taking aim at the “class judgement” of the Parisian magazine. The writer Annie Ernaux, for her part, wrote an account of her sensorial experience of large supermarkets in the opus <a href="https://www.seuil.com/ouvrage/regarde-les-lumieres-mon-amour-annie-ernaux/9782370210371"><em>Look at the lights my love</em></a>. She has since been awarded the <a href="https://www.seuil.com/ouvrage/regarde-les-lumieres-mon-amour-annie-ernaux/9782370210371">Nobel Prize for Literature</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://editions.flammarion.com/nus-et-paysages/9782700734133">The philosopher Alain Roger informs us</a> that we can appreciate a landscape with art as an intermediary. Artists, and photographers in particular, have produced much work that can enable us to appreciate this aspect of commercial zones. Just as <a href="https://archive.org/details/RobertVenturiStevenIzenourDeniseScottBrownLearningFromLasVegasTheForgottenSymbol">Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown</a> became aware of the visual and cultural qualities of the commercial boulevards of Las Vegas, are we not also able to change our perception of those commercial zones on the outskirts of French towns?</p>
<h2>When artistic production meets town planning</h2>
<p>The fascination of photographers for suburban spaces first manifested itself during the <a href="https://missionphotodatar.anct.gouv.fr/accueil">Photographic Project of DATAR</a> (Interministerial Delegation for Urban Planning and Regional Attractivity). DATAR was created in 1963 with the aim of documenting the national politics of urban planning. In 1984, Bernard Latarjet and François Hers founded the project in order to “represent the French landscape of the 1980s” and to “recreate a culture of landscapes”.</p>
<p>Photographers captured the transformation of coastal areas, rural and provincial zones; they bore witness to the effects of spreading urbanisation; and captured a disappearing countryside, or at least, one that had been irremediably transformed; they explored infrastructure and landscapes that did not cease to change and showed the men and women who occupied these spaces.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550207/original/file-20230926-23-py161m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550207/original/file-20230926-23-py161m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550207/original/file-20230926-23-py161m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550207/original/file-20230926-23-py161m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550207/original/file-20230926-23-py161m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550207/original/file-20230926-23-py161m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550207/original/file-20230926-23-py161m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Series: Commercial zones in Southern France.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Albert Giordan, Mission photographique de la Datar</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unveiled to the public for the first time at the end of 1985, the photography of DATAR were <a href="https://www.ina.fr/recherche?q=Territoires+photographiques&espace=1&sort=pertinence&order=desc">published widely in the press</a>. However, the philosopher Michel Gerrin’s opinion that <a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1986/01/13/miracle-on-a-retrouve-des-paysages-en-france_2938819_1819218.html">“Miracle! We have rediscovered French landscapes!”</a>, was an exception. The public at the time did not see in these photographs the desire for renewal but rather a testament to these landscapes’ changing nature.</p>
<p>These images tell the story of France as a country undergoing profound change: the story of a territory conquered by a flux of circulation and energy; where nature (never wildlife), habitat, and industry are superimposed and intertwined; where the functionality of the State that delivered the <em>Trente Glorieuses</em> coexists with the proliferation of the individual habitat, and where the public space is peopled by images and signs.</p>
<h2>New stories</h2>
<p>Following the DATAR model, photography projects and independent commissions – <a href="https://www.archive-arn.fr/">such as ARN, the Atlas of Natural Regions</a> – show portraits of landscapes where the sensorial aspect never comes at the cost of the urban realities.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550208/original/file-20230926-19-w4cu54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550208/original/file-20230926-19-w4cu54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550208/original/file-20230926-19-w4cu54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550208/original/file-20230926-19-w4cu54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550208/original/file-20230926-19-w4cu54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550208/original/file-20230926-19-w4cu54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550208/original/file-20230926-19-w4cu54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Montchanin. Atlas des Région Naturelles (ARN).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nelly Monnier et Éric Tabuchi</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Initiated by the Forum Vies Mobiles (a mobility research unit), <a href="https://www.citedesartsparis.net/fr/exposition-les-vies-quon-mene-cite-x-tendance-floue-x-forum-vies-mobiles">“The lives we lead”</a> seeks to capture the diversity of contemporary ways of life in France. The photography series capture stories, following individuals from all backgrounds, in different regions. In particular, they examine the vital role of the car in everyday life, the main method of transport, an instrument of work, or an object of pride, and reveal <a href="https://www.librairie-gallimard.com/livre/9782367441627-les-vies-qu-on-mene-tendance-floue-nicolas-mathieu/">“our dependence on carbon energy”</a>. Exhibited at the International City of the Arts in 2022, these images were displayed side by side statistics, underlining the fact that today 70% of journeys in France are done by car and that, in 2018, 85% of households had a car.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550209/original/file-20230926-29-w4cu54.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550209/original/file-20230926-29-w4cu54.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=748&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550209/original/file-20230926-29-w4cu54.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=748&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550209/original/file-20230926-29-w4cu54.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=748&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550209/original/file-20230926-29-w4cu54.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=940&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550209/original/file-20230926-29-w4cu54.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=940&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550209/original/file-20230926-29-w4cu54.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=940&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Série</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Antoine Séguin</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another independent project, launched in 2020, <a href="http://www.francesterritoireliquide.fr/">“France(s), a fluid land”</a> is set apart by its ambition to take up the baton of DATAR, and at the same time liberate itself from the constraints of a commission. It is about exploring a territory in metamorphosis, from different aspects, at once material and emotional. Far from simply documenting, the project focuses on narration, featuring the inhabitants of suburban zones with vivid evocative power.</p>
<h2>The aesthetic of contrast</h2>
<p>It is difficult to establish an exhaustive list of photographers who have been inspired by the suburban. Like Raymond Depardon who participated in the DATAR mission <a href="https://www.imageandnarrative.be/index.php/imagenarrative/article/view/203">and captured the effects of urban spread on the countryside</a>, then published a book <a href="https://www.seuil.com/ouvrage/la-france-de-raymond-depardon-raymond-depardon/9782021009941"><em>The of Raymond Depardon</em></a> nearly twenty years later, many photographers have engaged in a contemplation of <a href="https://editions.flammarion.com/la-france-peripherique/9782081312579">“Suburban France.”</a></p>
<p>Their choice of subjects and the framing influences our perception of these spaces. Their gaze is never neutral. They are animated by nostalgia, off-beat humour, or are inspired by cinematic influences. Commercial zones become stories, and their visual qualities, full of contrasts, are sublimated by the art.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.galignani.fr/livre/9782916774008-hexagone-t-1-le-paysage-fabrique-jurgen-nefzger/">“Hexagone : le paysage fabriqué”</a> de Jurgen Nefzger montre des paysages périurbains dotés points de repères et de monumentalité. Les chefs-d’œuvre de l’architecture post-moderne, structurent l'espace au même titre que les fameux pastiches d’architecture vernaculaire délivrés partout à l’identique par les chaînes de restauration.</p>
<p>Jurgen Nefzger’s <a href="https://www.galignani.fr/livre/9782916774008-hexagone-t-1-le-paysage-fabrique-jurgen-nefzger/">“The Hexagon : a manufactured landscape”</a> shows suburban landscapes endowed with landmarks and given a monumental quality. Structure is given either to the space by the masterpieces of post-modern architecture or similarly by the famous pastiches of vernacular architecture, seen in restaurant chains that are always identical wherever you are.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550210/original/file-20230926-23-r93gm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550210/original/file-20230926-23-r93gm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550210/original/file-20230926-23-r93gm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550210/original/file-20230926-23-r93gm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550210/original/file-20230926-23-r93gm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550210/original/file-20230926-23-r93gm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550210/original/file-20230926-23-r93gm5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Series: Motorways of the Sun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Raphaël Bourelly</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Julien Roche’s photo series <a href="http://www.julienrochephotography.com/gallery/paradise-lost/">“Paradise Lost”</a> plays with repetition, while in the series <a href="https://antoineseguin.com/Sur-la-piste-des-derniers-hommes-sauvages">“On the Hunt for the Last of the Wild Men”</a>, Antoine Séguin focuses on the differences in scale between the <em>Homo suburbianus</em> and his environment.</p>
<p><a href="https://xavierlours.bigcartel.com/product/rodeo">“Rodeo 3”</a> by Xavier Lours lingers over the nocturnal life of <a href="https://www.revue-urbanites.fr/vu-rodeo/">Plan-de-Campagne</a>, a commercial zone created in 1960 in the suburbs of Marseille, the biggest in France, and that has been the focus of many photographers since the DATAR project.</p>
<p>While Raphaël Bourelly’s <a href="http://www.raphaelbourelly.com/autoroute.html">“Motorway in the Sun” series</a> celebrates the neons and the play of light.</p>
<p>Public bodies have been interested in representing commercial zones as landscapes; these photography projects have won prizes in the competition <a href="https://www.urbanisme-puca.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/puca-27042021allegecorrige.pdf">“A look at these zones of economic activity”</a> sponsored <a href="https://www.urbanisme-puca.gouv.fr/">by PUCA</a> (Plan Urbanisme Construction Architecture) – an interministerial service created in 1998 to raise awareness about these regions and the towns and to shine a light on public policy.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550212/original/file-20230926-15-bm5p19.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550212/original/file-20230926-15-bm5p19.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550212/original/file-20230926-15-bm5p19.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550212/original/file-20230926-15-bm5p19.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550212/original/file-20230926-15-bm5p19.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550212/original/file-20230926-15-bm5p19.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550212/original/file-20230926-15-bm5p19.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Series: Hyperlife, 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stéphanie Lacombe</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The photography of Stéphanie Lacombe, for her part, involves a change of scale and focus, She looks less at the landscape of these commercial zones and more at its appropriation by individuals. Her series <a href="https://lacombestephanie91e7.myportfolio.com/hyper-life">‘Hyperlife’</a> reveal the social relationships that play out on the carpark of the Intermarché supermarket of Saint-Erme (Hauts-de-France). The exhibition of the work in the carpark in question was a fascinating subversion of the zone’s function and a way to value it differently and validate it fully as a space for the living.</p>
<p>Through this body of work, commercial zones are not simply seen as functional spaces or hubs for consumption, but reveal themselves as zones where different layers superimpose on themselves, as do borders and gaps. Starting with these representations, it is vital to recognise and preserve these existing practices that may not conform to a consumerist outlook. They must not be erased.</p>
<hr>
<p>Translation from French into English by <a href="https://www.fleurmacdonald.co.uk/">Fleur Macdonald</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214426/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elodie Bitsindou ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>French artists and intellectuals attempt to salvage the spirit of an era, as French government reveals plans to transform the country’s commercial zones.Elodie Bitsindou, Doctorante en histoire de l'architecture contemporaine, Centre Chastel, Sorbonne UniversitéLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2114342023-09-25T12:22:52Z2023-09-25T12:22:52ZKwame Nkrumah: memorials to the man who led Ghana to independence have been built, erased and revived again<p>Kwame Nkrumah Memorial Park lies at the centre of Ghana’s capital, Accra. <a href="https://citinewsroom.com/2023/07/akufo-addo-to-commission-redeveloped-kwame-nkrumah-memorial-park/">Recently renovated</a>, it is dedicated to the memory of <a href="https://theconversation.com/kwame-nkrumah-why-every-now-and-then-his-legacy-is-questioned-120790">Kwame Nkrumah</a>, the leader of Ghana’s independence struggle and its first president. Marking the spot of his final resting place at the park is a massive statue. </p>
<p>The statue has been continuously contested since its original commission in 1956 and its unveiling at the first anniversary of independence in 1958. As a <a href="https://www.blogs.uni-mainz.de/fb07-ifeas-eng/academic-staff-university-professors/prof-dr-carola-lentz/">social anthropologist</a> who has <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320148363_Ghanaian_Monument_Wars_The_Contested_History_of_the_Nkrumah_Statues">researched and written</a> about Kwame Nkrumah themed monuments, I have <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Remembering-Independence/Lentz-Lowe/p/book/9781138905733">explored</a> the contradiction that generally characterises monuments: built as lasting memories, they remain embedded in social and political conflict. </p>
<p>Nkrumah is heralded as one of the most influential African political leaders of the modern era. His vision of a liberated and united African continent influenced politics on the continent in the 1950s and 1960s. But that’s only one view of a man who was <a href="https://www.eaumf.org/ejm-blog/2018/2/23/february-24-1966-dr-kwame-nkrumah-overthrown-as-president-of-the-republic-of-ghana">deposed in a coup in 1966</a> and died in exile <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1972/04/28/archives/nkrumah-62-dead-ghanas-exleader-nkrumah-former-president-of-ghana.html">in 1972</a>. </p>
<p>In Ghana, there was vociferous criticism of “personality cult” and “hero worship”. Alongside presentations of him as the country’s “redeemer” were descriptions of him as a “dictator”. </p>
<p>The idolisation of Nkrumah began even before the country became independent. It had all the hallmarks of a new nation state trying to establish a charismatic national “founder” to stabilise its creation. But, as I have <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320148363_Ghanaian_Monument_Wars_The_Contested_History_of_the_Nkrumah_Statues">shown</a>, Nkrumah’s story shows both the limits and dangers of doing this. </p>
<p>These debates have been matched by unfolding dramas around various efforts to commemorate him – before and after his death. Attitudes have shifted from straightforward veneration to confrontation and destruction and, finally, to more subtle forms of remembrance.</p>
<h2>The birth of a monument</h2>
<p>With thoughts of Ghana soon celebrating 25 years of independence, then military ruler <a href="https://www.graphic.com.gh/features/opinion/remembering-general-kutu-acheampong-1.html">Ignatius Kutu Acheampong</a> intended to publicly honour the memory of Nkrumah. The deposed leader had <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1972/04/28/archives/nkrumah-62-dead-ghanas-exleader-nkrumah-former-president-of-ghana.html">passed away</a> in 1972, in exile. After his overthrow, several of his statues and images had been destroyed by the military government. His memory was taboo.</p>
<p>Acheampong discussed the possibility of creating a mausoleum, adorned with an imposing new statue, on the grounds where the ex-president had declared independence. The statue was commissioned in Italy but before it could be erected the Acheampong government was toppled by <a href="https://theconversation.com/saint-or-sinner-rawlings-was-pivotal-to-ghanas-political-and-economic-fortunes-150025">Flight Lieutenant Jerry J. Rawlings</a> in 1979.</p>
<p>In addition, the continued economic crisis militated against any large-scale investment in the monumental landscape.</p>
<p>The memorial project was finally realised in 1992 based on the design of Ghanaian architect <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/pdf/20822">Don Arthur</a>. The heart of the memorial is the mausoleum, surrounded by water basins, with fountains and figures of Asante elephant-horn blowers that traditionally accompany royal processions. </p>
<p>The mausoleum stands in a landscaped park that is successively greened by commemorative trees planted by important international visitors. It is complemented by a museum that exhibits a collection of Nkrumah memorabilia. These include the famous smock he wore to declare independence, his desk at the seat of government and numerous photographs. </p>
<p>The mausoleum itself, made of Italian marble, evokes a gigantic tree stump, but also draws on the imagery of Egyptian pyramids, the <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252/">Taj Mahal</a> and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Eiffel-Tower-Paris-France">Eiffel Tower</a>. The whole ensemble celebrates Nkrumah as a kind of chief. The shining large bronze statue erected in front of the mausoleum shows Nkrumah clad in royal kente cloth, not the humble smock of the original sculpture. </p>
<p>Opponents of Rawlings regarded the mausoleum project as an attempt to exploit the growing nostalgia for Nkrumah in his electoral campaign and to style himself and his party as worthy heirs of Nkrumah’s ideas. Another major motivation behind the project was to show the world that Ghanaians, after many years of neglect, respected Nkrumah as a great African leader. This was actually the first time since his overthrow that Nkrumah was publicly commemorated with such splendour. The memorial park conferred on Nkrumah an indisputable place in the national narrative. </p>
<p>This status, however, did not mean that his political legacy was now without contest. When the anti-Nkrumah New Patriotic Party won the elections in 2000, they, unlike the <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/232661566.pdf">1966 coup-makers</a> (who removed all images and monuments of Nkrumah), made no attempts to destroy the Nkrumah monument. However, the new government found other ways to correct, or at least complement, Nkrumah-centred nationalist narratives. </p>
<p>For instance, in the course of preparing for the golden jubilee of Ghana’s independence in 2007, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Kufuor">the John Kufuor</a> administration <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40175209">created a series of monuments</a> that commemorate the political heroes of his party, the New Patriotic Party. Most prominently, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/721348">J.B. Danquah</a>, Nkrumah’s most noted political opponent, was honoured by a renovated sculpture at a busy traffic roundabout in the capital.</p>
<p>This proliferation of historical monuments can be read as an attempt to neutralise the commemoration of Nkrumah. This was done not by eliminating existing statues of him, but rather by reducing Nkrumah’s status to being only one of several national founders. </p>
<h2>Strong memories remain</h2>
<p>For the masses of Ghanaian students and foreign tourists who come to the park, the statue of a triumphant Nkrumah has become the dominant icon of the national hero and of Ghana’s independence. It has been reproduced over and over again on thousands of private photographs, and is marketed on postcards, posters, calendars, T-shirts, bags, towels, tea cups and similar souvenirs. </p>
<p>However, there are still limits to the depoliticisation of Nkrumah’s memory. Heated debates over whether Nkrumah was a “democrat” or a “despot” flare up periodically. National heroes, as the case of Nkrumah shows, can divide people just as much as they can unite.</p>
<p>Developing the mausoleum into an attractive tourist site, as happened in the renovation and re-inauguration of the park in 2023, adds another intriguing twist to the long history of the commemoration of Kwame Nkrumah – another attempt at depoliticising and nationalising memory.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211434/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carola Lentz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Attitudes towards Kwame Nkrumah have shifted from veneration to confrontation and destruction and, finally, to more subtle forms of remembrance.Carola Lentz, Professor of Anthropology, Johannes Gutenberg University of MainzLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2130912023-09-14T16:15:15Z2023-09-14T16:15:15ZAsymmetrical bridges, timber towers and a repurposed gas platform: awards hail 2023’s best structures<p>The 2023 Structural Awards, hosted by the Institution of Structural Engineers, has unveiled <a href="https://www.istructe.org/structural-awards/shortlist/2023-shortlist/">its shortlist</a> of the world’s 35 most outstanding building projects. </p>
<p>Aimed at highlighting technical innovation, the featured structures comprise seven bridges, two footbridges, three stadiums and one football stadium stand, redevelopments, new builds, malls, museums, community hubs, a college and a school. They also include a retired gas platform transformed into an art installation and Stufish Entertainment Architects’ <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/983752/abba-arena-stufish-entertainment-architects">Abba Arena</a>, a venue custom-built in London’s Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, to house the Swedish band’s Voyage concert. </p>
<p>The prize has a global remit, featuring entrants from Canada and China to New Zealand, Niger and the Netherlands. Of the 35 shortlisted structures, however, 16 are in London. These include <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/big-ben-is-back-telling-the-time-and-the-bongs-will-soon-ring-out-again-12618628">the £80 million renovation</a> of Big Ben and the redevelopment of the grade-II listed <a href="https://www.dezeen.com/2022/10/05/battersea-power-station-opens-wilkinson-eyre/">Battersea power station</a> by the WilkinsonEyre architecture studio. </p>
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<p>Since 2022, the judging process has put ever greater emphasis on the environmental impact of the buildings, the social value they provide and the effect they have on the people who use them. </p>
<p>The need to promote sustainability within architecture and construction is gaining ground, as <a href="https://theconversation.com/lacaton-and-vassal-how-this-years-pritzker-prize-could-spark-an-architectural-revolution-157636">recent</a> Pritzker prize <a href="https://theconversation.com/diebedo-francis-kere-how-first-black-winner-of-architectures-top-prize-is-committed-to-building-peaceful-cities-179483">laureates</a>, among other international accolades, show. </p>
<p>I have spent 20 years <a href="https://eng.ox.ac.uk/people/barbara-rossi/">researching</a> sustainability and resilience within the construction sector. Here are four highlights from the shortlist that show why this matters.</p>
<h2>Battersea power station</h2>
<p>To preserve this <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0957-1272(91)90048-J">cultural icon</a>, engineering firm Buro Happold deployed structural engineering prowess and creative solutions. The <a href="https://www.burohappold.com/projects/battersea-power-station-building-works/#">2,495,000 sq ft</a> building has been refurbished to include more than 250 apartments, restaurants, shops, cinemas, offices, and an entertainment venue. </p>
<p>The building posed significant challenges. First, at foundation level, there were obstructions and deep geological scour hollows that created significant risk when combining the new structures with those already in place. The firm also worked hard to restore the external fabric of the building to maximise its reuse. Fire risk management also posed a big challenge – it is always highly complex in this kind of mixed-use building, especially since the Grenfell Tower fire.</p>
<p>Of particular note are the elegant tree structures used to carry an unprecedented load. They are composed of four curved, V-shaped branches. Each weighs 43 tonnes and supports six column lines from the commercial space above, transferring their load into the foundation. This minimises the footprint of the structure, ensuring the impressive space of the north atrium remains open. </p>
<h2>The Black and White Building</h2>
<p>Located in Shoreditch, London, this multi-storey new-build office block is designed by the engineering firm Eckersley O'Callaghan. It is central London’s tallest mass timber office structure and has already netted the firm the Architectural Review Future Projects Award for Best Office in 2022 and been shortlisted for the Construction News Awards low carbon project of the year in 2023. </p>
<p>The building is comprised of a reinforced concrete substructure (below ground level) beneath a timber superstructure. The latter includes the staircases and, most unusually, the core, which enable the designers to achieve a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109320">lower embodied carbon</a> score. Most massive timber buildings have a concrete core, which increases their embodied carbon, thereby defeating the purpose of using timber in the first place. </p>
<p>Eckersley O'Callaghan also created unusually long spans (up to 10 metres between internal columns) and, in the facade, used steel cross-bracing to provide support against what construction specialists term <a href="http://web.mit.edu/4.441/1_lectures/1_lecture18/1_lecture18.html">“lateral loads”</a> (the horizontal forces applied to a structure, by things like wind).</p>
<h2>The Youshui Bridge</h2>
<p>Designed by architect Wen Wanqing and structural designer Yan Aiguo for the China Railway Siyuan Survey and Design Group, this is an awe-inspiring railway bridge in Furong Town, China. It is essentially a giant, <a href="https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/10.1680/jbren.19.00016">asymmetrical</a> arch, the north foundation of which sits 48.4m higher than the south foundation. </p>
<p>The structure is made of a concrete-filled steel tubular truss and spans 292 meters across the Youshui river valley. This is very rare, especially over a gorge, which only makes construction harder. </p>
<p>Concrete arches will typically span over anything up to 200m. Above that, steel (or concrete combined with steel) has to be employed. The construction process was a feat of engineering: it involved building a 865m highline to transport elements of the truss. </p>
<h2>The Marisfrolg Fashion Apparel Campus</h2>
<p>Designed by the Architecture Van Brandenburg studio for a fashion company in Shenzen, China, this curved building has already garnered awards for lighting design, among other things. It uses a notable mix of materials in an intricate composition of concrete shells, covered with a carapace of bricks, stone and ceramics. It really looks like the feather of a cretaceous bird just landing on the ground. </p>
<p>Structurally speaking, concrete shells are extremely challenging structures, both to calculate and to build. The designers must have used extensive <a href="https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/book/10.1680/fedcs.41899#:%7E:text=Finite%2Delement%20Design%20of%20Concrete%20Structures%2C%20Second%20edition%2C%20is,with%20the%20aid%20of%20computers.">finite element modelling</a> (a numerical approach that involves breaking down a problem into many smaller parts). And they would have needed complex <a href="https://www.eca.ed.ac.uk/research/rethinking-concrete-formwork">“formwork”</a>, that is, moulds, as well as high-quality concrete. </p>
<p>In terms of sustainability, however, despite the studio’s claims that the roof of the pavilion is clad in recycled materials and that bamboo was used for the concrete formwork, in the concrete structure itself, it appears that only Portland cement was used. It is difficult to rule, therefore, on the project’s actual sustainability credentials.</p>
<p>Winners will be announced on November 10 2023. The hope for such awards, of course, is that they will continue to promote sustainability within structural engineering. </p>
<p>The question, though, is whether even more stringent criteria should not be considered. The Institution of Structural Engineers offers a course to design net-zero structures. Imagine the impact this institution might have if it were to restrict the award to net-zero projects only.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213091/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barbara Rossi receives funding from The European Commission (Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions). </span></em></p>The 35 shortlisted structures from around the world showcase engineering ingenuity and big ideas for making construction more sustainable.Barbara Rossi, Associate Professor and Tutorial Fellow in Engineering Science (Structures & Mechanics), University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2093092023-08-10T12:45:59Z2023-08-10T12:45:59ZHeritage algorithms combine the rigors of science with the infinite possibilities of art and design<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/541961/original/file-20230809-29902-o57gog.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=53%2C0%2C7168%2C4088&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Artist AbdulAlim U-K (Aikin Karr) combines the fractal structure of traditional African architecture with emerging technologies in computer graphics.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/Cge-WOAsrkz/?img_index=2">AbdulAlim U-K</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The model of democracy in the 1920s is sometimes called “<a href="https://www.populismstudies.org/Vocabulary/melting-pot/">the melting pot</a>” – the dissolution of different cultures into an American soup. An update for the 2020s might be “open source,” where cultural mixing, sharing and collaborating can build bridges between people rather than create divides.</p>
<p>Our research on <a href="https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_TEKN.2016.v13.n2.52843">heritage algorithms</a> aims to build such a bridge. We develop <a href="https://csdt.org">digital tools</a> to teach students about the complex mathematical sequences and patterns present in different cultures’ artistic, architectural and design practices.</p>
<p>By combining computational thinking and cultural creative practices, our work provides an entry point for students who are disproportionately left out of STEM careers, whether by race, class or gender. Even those who feel at home with equations and abstraction can benefit from narrowing the gap between the arts and sciences.</p>
<h2>What are heritage algorithms?</h2>
<p>Traditional STEM curricula often present science as a ladder you climb. For example, you might be told that math starts with counting, then goes to algebra, then calculus and so on. </p>
<p>But our research has found that the global history of science is more like a bush: Each culture has its own branching set of discoveries. Some of these discoveries offer a perspective that’s different from the theorem-proof approach for math or hypothesis-experiment approach for biology. Understanding the rules and techniques that create cultural patterns from the maker’s point of view can help bridge the gap between knowledge branches. We refer to these hybrids of computation and culture as <a href="https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_TEKN.2016.v13.n2.52843">heritage algorithms</a>, and there are examples everywhere. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two photos. On the left, one man in a hat is sitting holding a book, and another person crouches next to him pointing at the page. On the right, two people stand above a table and the person on the right is stamping a blank page." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=225&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=225&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=225&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537365/original/file-20230713-17-2yr2er.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The authors learn from artisans. Left: Ron Eglash discusses fractal patterns with an Ethiopian crafter. Right: Audrey Bennett tries her hand at Adinkra stamping in Ghana.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ron Eglash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Flying over an African village, you can see the recursive geometry of <a href="https://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/african-fractals/9780813526140">African fractals</a> in their architecture: circles of circles, rectangles within rectangles, and other “self-similar” structures. These fractal patterns also appear in their textiles, carvings, paintings, ironwork and more.</p>
<p>Other kinds of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09728-6">algorithms underlie</a> the repeating sequences of bent wood arcs that make up Native American wigwams, canoes and cradles. Even <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/henna/index.html">henna tattoos</a> demonstrate the interactions among computation, nature and culture.</p>
<p>These heritage algorithms challenge the <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Reinvention-of-Primitive-Society-Transformations-of-a-Myth/Kuper/p/book/9781138282650">myth of “primitive cultures”</a> – the idea that early Africans had no math past counting on fingers or that Native American agriculture lacked sophistication.</p>
<p>The computational thinking that is embedded in Indigenous artifacts and other creative practices, such as weaving, beadwork and quilting, is not merely decorative. It also reflects different ways of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31293-9_18">thinking about the world</a>. Our interviews with artisans revealed how they visualize <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1997.99.1.112">spiritual concepts</a> in formal techniques and numerical sequences. </p>
<h2>Bringing heritage algorithms to the classroom</h2>
<p>Heritage algorithms give students a way to blend the abstract rigors of math, the grounded legacies of culture and the infinite possibilities of art. To bring these algorithms to the classroom, <a href="https://csdt.org">we have created</a> interactive computer programs and simulations that we call <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3804796">culturally situated design tools</a>, or CSDTs.</p>
<p>Each CSDT was created in collaboration with Indigenous elders, street artists, traditional crafters and others. With the creators’ permission, we transfer their knowledge of pattern creation into digital tools that students enjoy using and teachers enjoy implementing in their lesson plans.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A close up of a brown and white woven fabric" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540603/original/file-20230801-29684-6okmwr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In a woven Navajo blanket, the line y=x forms a 30-degree angle with the horizontal axis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ron Eglash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>It’s important to craft each CSDT to reflect the way those artisans think about the cultural practice. For instance, the slope of the line y=x, mathematically calculated as “rise over run,” is 1 – for every unit you move up the line, you move a unit to the right. This line forms a 45-degree angle with the x-axis. But when Navajo weavers use this “up one, over one” pattern, the slope is closer to a 30-degree angle. This is because they weave yarn horizontally through vertical cords that are thicker than the yarn. So we made sure to preserve this feature in the weaving simulation we built.</p>
<p>A crucial aspect of CSDTs is that students may use them to follow their interests. This freedom and independence lets students encounter new cultures, delve deeper into their own identity or mix designs from different cultures to create something completely new. </p>
<p>We have seen Black students choose an <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/quilting/appalachian.html">Appalachian quilting simulation</a>, Native American students choose <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/cornrowcurves/index.html">cornrow simulations</a> and white students create <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/beadloom/index.html">beadwork simulations</a>. Students’ creative designs often mix many cultures together – cornrows become “<a href="https://csdt.org/news/powwow/">powwow braids</a>,” and African fractal simulations turn into plants, lungs and river deltas.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A collage of several images, some depicting students holding up a quilt, another of a student working on the quilt, and another of a computer program featuring the quilt design" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537364/original/file-20230713-27-a3kuf7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students from Harlem Academy create designs using the Appalachian and Lakota quilt CSDTs. Many Appalachian quilts contained the ‘radical rose,’ symbolizing support for abolition.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ron Eglash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Heritage algorithms and CSDTs provide a powerful starting place for students to improve their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/cye.2009.0024">computing skills and confidence</a>. These tools even provide a foundation for a variety of careers, from <a href="https://blog.ted.com/architecture-infused-with-fractals-ron-eglash-and-xavier-vilalta/">architecture</a> to <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/anishinaabearcs/2017overview.html">environmental engineering</a>.</p>
<h2>When computation and culture collide</h2>
<p>The reach of heritage algorithms has recently extended beyond learning environments to contemporary art spaces. Artists are generating a bold new creative style using “ethnocomputing” – an understanding of computer science from a cultural perspective.</p>
<p>You can see fresh interpretations of heritage algorithms in the African fractals embedded in the work of visual artist <a href="https://www.artforum.com/print/reviews/202007/tendai-mupita-83726">Tendai Mupita</a>, the cornrow simulations integrated in the work of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/24/arts/rashaad-newsome-assembly-exhibit.html">Rashaad Newsome</a>, the blending of the African diaspora and technology by <a href="https://nettricegaskins.medium.com/afrofuturist-software-from-conception-to-manifestation-d05389d0874">Nettrice Gaskins</a> and the creative duo <a href="https://iconeye.com/?p=44925">Tosin Oshinowo and Chrissy Amuah</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.hauserwirth.com/hauser-wirth-exhibitions/35571-the-new-bend/#about">An exhibition</a> on display <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5dc84bade8c8347aab560645/t/647f625bf3739e5c9f84d163/1686069851882/Press-Release_TheNewBend_HWNY22-1-1.pdf">in New York City</a>, <a href="https://vip-hauserwirth.com/the-new-bend-somerset/">the U.K.</a> <a href="https://vip-hauserwirth.com/the-new-bend-los-angeles/">and Los Angeles</a> explores the textile techniques of artists inspired by the African American <a href="https://www.arts.gov/stories/blog/2015/quilts-gees-bend-slideshow">quilting tradition of Gee’s Bend, Alabama</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A dark-skinned girl wearing glasses sits in front of a computer screen. Conrow patterns are visible on the screen behind her, and imposed on the right side of the image." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537363/original/file-20230713-21522-dovvzg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A high school student uses a CSDT to simulate cornrow hairstyle patterns.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ron Eglash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our research on heritage algorithms is partially driven by a philosophical desire to reframe STEM as a source of <a href="https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/black-joy-resistance-resilience-and-reclamation">radical joy</a> for every ethnicity and identity. Inspired by the radical feminist phrase “sex-positive feminism,” we sometimes call our perspective “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340418728_Race-positive_Design_A_Generative_Approach_to_Decolonizing_Computing">race-positive design</a>” – thinking of race not in purely negative terms of oppression but instead as a rich source of creativity, liberation and a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-022-00815-9">free-thinking mindset</a> for curiosity and scientific inquiry.</p>
<p>This philosophical stance also has <a href="https://csdt.org/publications/">a practical side</a>: <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314263728_From_Sports_to_Science_Using_Basketball_Analytics_to_Broaden_the_Appeal_of_Math_and_Science_Among_Youth">statistically significant</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.17583/remie.2015.1399">improvement</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/2037276.2037281">in STEM scores</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.2006.108.2.347">for underrepresented students</a>. Many teachers have recognized the potential of heritage algorithms for getting students invested in STEM. One teacher using the <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/graffiti/index.html">graffiti tool</a> told us this was the first time students asked if they could stay in her math class after school. Another said she would never teach negative numbers again without the <a href="https://csdt.org/culture/beadloom/index.html">bead loom CSDT</a>.</p>
<p>Heritage algorithms, both in the classroom and beyond, open up a two-way bridge between humanistic and technical knowledge. They offer a space where everyone – teacher and student, young and old, geek and artist – can learn, share and collaborate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209309/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Audrey G. Bennett receives funding from the NEH and NSF. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ron Eglash receives funding from the NSF.</span></em></p>By bridging culture and computation, heritage algorithms challenge the myth of ‘primitive cultures’ and forge a new understanding of science and art.Audrey G. Bennett, University Diversity and Social Transformation Professor, Stamps School of Art & Design, University of MichiganRon Eglash, Professor of Information, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2073192023-08-02T19:59:39Z2023-08-02T19:59:39ZBid-rigging is rife in Australian construction, but the process itself is partly to blame<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540638/original/file-20230802-15-z4z9qi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=323%2C760%2C3502%2C1640&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Earlier this year the Federal Court found ARM Architecture and its then managing director <a href="https://www.vic.gov.au/learn-my-mistake-do-not-engage-cartel-conduct">Tony Allen</a> were guilty of attempting to <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/media-release/arm-architecture-and-its-former-md-to-pay-penalties-for-attempted-rigging-of-university-tender">rig bids</a> for a tender relating to a $250 million building project at Charles Darwin University.</p>
<p>The Court ordered ARM Architecture to pay a penalty of $900,000 and Mr Allen to pay $75,000.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.vic.gov.au/learn-my-mistake-do-not-engage-cartel-conduct">public statement</a>, Mr Allen said he had made</p>
<blockquote>
<p>a very serious mistake by attempting to induce the other firms to engage in bid-rigging, and this has had serious consequences for me. I have lost my position, my reputation, and my involvement in a profession that I love.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Allen had sent <a href="https://www.judgments.fedcourt.gov.au/judgments/Judgments/fca/single/2023/2023fca0351">an email</a> to at least eight other architecture firms that were members of the Australian Institute of Architects Victorian Branch Large Practice Forum prior to the close of bids:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Our request to you is simple. Please do not submit a tender as we are relying very heavily on continuing with this project to keep our practice alive throughout the remainder of this strange and difficult COVID time.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>He had followed it up with this second email: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We have received very positive responses from Architectus and JWA. We would greatly appreciate a short note from you to let us know of your intentions either way.`</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>The biggest fine for architects so far</h2>
<p>Although colluding in bidding for contracts is rife in the construction industry and materials supply industries, this is the biggest fine so far for an individual professional services firm.</p>
<p>In Australia, the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission managed to successfully prosecute <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/media-release/full-federal-court-orders-206million-penalties-against-cement-australia-companies">Cement Australia Pty Ltd</a> in 2017 for anti-competitive practices resulting in a fine of $20.6 million. </p>
<p>And in the United Kingdom, so many construction firms were involved in massive bid-rigging scandals uncovered in <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/builders-fined-pound-129m-for-rigging-contract-bids-1791268.html">2008</a> and <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/construction-firms-fined-nearly-60-million-for-breaking-competition-law-by-bid-rigging">2020</a>, that the UK government had to warn its agencies not to blacklist them because it would “limit choice”.</p>
<h2>Fees used to be fixed</h2>
<p>In the supposedly more genteel design professions, submitting tenders for fees is relatively new. Until about 40 years ago, architects and engineers normally worked on a fixed-fee basis, and often made deals to divide work between them. </p>
<p>The Royal Institute of British Architects, founded in 1834, was set up primarily as a <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/cartel.asp">cartel</a> to maintain a schedule of fees and prescribe educational standards for those who wanted to use the term “architect”. </p>
<p>Although fixed fees are likely to upset economists on principle, they have the advantage of not encouraging architects to shortcut their professional responsibilities in order to compete on price.</p>
<p>This might be why the law allows medical professionals, lawyers and pharmacists to set fees for their services. Few people would be tempted to select their surgeon on the basis of price.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-universities-may-come-to-regret-the-costs-of-city-deals-and-private-sector-solutions-166670">Why universities may come to regret the costs of City Deals and private sector 'solutions'</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Until about 1980, the Royal Australian Institute of Architects also attempted to fix fees. When the government gently pointed out that this was illegal under trade practices law, the Institute began a long, slow retreat and eventually stopped publishing a recommended fee scale, much to the chagrin of many members.</p>
<p>Competitive tendering is typically seen as the “gold standard” for getting value in construction, but tendering processes have become so onerous and convoluted that the costs of tendering in relation to the potential gains may now be reducing rather than enhancing competition. </p>
<p>This is especially significant for design consultants such as architects and engineers whose profitability is typically well below average for the industry.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540641/original/file-20230802-10044-ku6rqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540641/original/file-20230802-10044-ku6rqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540641/original/file-20230802-10044-ku6rqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540641/original/file-20230802-10044-ku6rqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540641/original/file-20230802-10044-ku6rqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1212&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540641/original/file-20230802-10044-ku6rqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1212&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540641/original/file-20230802-10044-ku6rqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1212&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The original Charles Darwin University design.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ARM Architecture</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bidding processes convoluted</h2>
<p>The Charles Darwin University project is a case in point. ARM was selected to design what was to be an “<a href="https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/sites/default/files/migrated/cities/city-deals/darwin/files/darwin-city-deal.pdf">iconic</a>” building, but documentation of the design was to be the subject of a second tender, which was the subject of ARM’s emails.</p>
<p>This two-stage process, devised by a project management firm, was self-defeating. </p>
<p>Charles Darwin University wanted a highly-awarded architect to deliver an iconic building, but much of the design ARM contributed has been lost. </p>
<p>The images of the new building, produced by another firm, do not resemble the original ARM design and are not the stuff architectural icons are made of.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540691/original/file-20230802-21-ctgz3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540691/original/file-20230802-21-ctgz3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540691/original/file-20230802-21-ctgz3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540691/original/file-20230802-21-ctgz3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540691/original/file-20230802-21-ctgz3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540691/original/file-20230802-21-ctgz3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540691/original/file-20230802-21-ctgz3u.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The updated Charles Darwin University design.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CDU</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>ARM and Tony Allen have paid a very high price for their folly in asking other firms not to tender, but the project management firm that devised the expensive and ultimately unproductive double tender process has not been subject to any public scrutiny or criticism.</p>
<p>If we are going to have fee tenders, we need a transparent system with enforceable rules sufficient to stop public clients needlessly adding costs by wasteful convolutions, as happened with the Charles Darwin University double tender.</p>
<h2>Maybe there’s a better way</h2>
<p>Alternatives should to be considered. It ought to be possible for the client to nominate a reasonable fee, and then select consultants who will accept the nominated fee based purely on their merit. </p>
<p>Another possibility is a two-envelope system, where the fee and the quality of submission are assessed separately, with the fee envelope only opened when an evaluation of the quality of submissions has taken place. </p>
<p>Other than that, we could do worse than revert to a fixed percentage fee and reap a huge saving in the effort, time and money put into selection processes. Free-market economists might like to think about how much competitive tenders actually cost.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207319/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Geoff Hanmer's firm ARINA was involved in the second stage of the bidding for the CDU project with Richard Kirk Architect. ARINA had no role in the selection of ARM for the project nor in the subsequent selection process other than as a participant in the second competition with Richard Kirk. </span></em></p>There’s no excuse for colluding not to complete on fees, but the time-consuming and complicated bidding process for design work encourages it.Geoff Hanmer, Adjunct professor of architecture, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2072432023-07-20T16:44:34Z2023-07-20T16:44:34ZHow to make homes cooler without cranking up the air conditioning<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538025/original/file-20230718-29-58s0si.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=35%2C17%2C5955%2C3970&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Air conditioners often become the default solution when temperatures rise.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-sitting-on-sofa-several-fans-2182239655">Jose Miguel Sanchez/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Temperatures around the world are soaring. Both California’s Death Valley and China’s Xinjiang region have seen temperatures climb <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/live/2023/jul/17/europe-heatwave-2023-us-asia-heat-extreme-severe-weather-fires-flash-floods-flooding-record-breaking-heat-wave-stress-temperature-red-alert-climate-crisis">above the 50°C mark</a>. A <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-66183069">blistering heatwave</a> is also sweeping across the Mediterranean, causing temperatures in parts of Italy, Spain, France and Greece to exceed 40°C.</p>
<p>In the future, the impact of scorching temperatures will extend beyond traditionally warm regions. In fact, our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-023-01155-z">new research</a> indicates that, if global temperature rise increases from 1.5°C to 2°C, countries at northern latitudes like the UK, Norway, Finland and Switzerland will face the greatest relative increase in uncomfortably hot days.</p>
<p>During uncomfortably hot weather, people seek ways to cool down their homes. Air conditioners often become the default solution when temperatures rise as they provide fast and effective relief from scorching heat. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/northern-europe-faces-biggest-relative-increase-in-uncomfortable-heat-and-is-dangerously-unprepared-new-research-209745">Northern Europe faces biggest relative increase in uncomfortable heat and is dangerously unprepared – new research</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But air conditioners consume a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jun/12/uk-heatwave-prompts-order-to-fire-up-coal-plant-to-meet-aircon-demand">lot of energy</a>. Many also use refrigerants called fluorinated gases that have <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/fluorinated-gases-f-gases">high global warming potential</a> when they leak.</p>
<p>Unrestrained usage of air conditioners in the future will result in increased emissions and further global warming. So it’s important to know the <a href="https://journal-buildingscities.org/articles/10.5334/bc.255">recommended steps to keep your home cool</a> in the face of rising temperatures, without causing the climate more harm.</p>
<h2>Block the sun</h2>
<p>Buildings can be protected from too much heat by creating a barrier between them and the sun’s rays. There are different ways to achieve this, ranging from reflective and ventilated roofs to external window shutters and awnings. Research one of us worked on in Spain found that using <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378778816306399?via%3Dihub">external window shutters</a> can reduce cooling needs (the thermal energy required to keep people comfortable) by up to 14%.</p>
<p>Even something as simple as painting your roof a light colour can reduce indoor temperatures. Research in very hot cities in Pakistan found that, by reflecting the sun’s energy, this approach can reduce cooling needs by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119811">more than 7%</a>.</p>
<p>Another effective technique is to make use of the shade provided by tree canopies. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360132313002060?via%3Dihub">Research</a> in Melbourne, Australia, has shown that trees covering buildings in shade can lower the surface temperature of walls by up to 9°C.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538514/original/file-20230720-15-de54aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="annotated diagram of house" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538514/original/file-20230720-15-de54aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538514/original/file-20230720-15-de54aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538514/original/file-20230720-15-de54aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538514/original/file-20230720-15-de54aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538514/original/file-20230720-15-de54aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538514/original/file-20230720-15-de54aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538514/original/file-20230720-15-de54aj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How to protect a building from the sun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jesus Lizana</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Use natural ventilation</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113658">One effective way</a> to cool down a poorly ventilated building, is to open windows when the outside temperature drops. This lets warm air escape and invites cooler air in.</p>
<p>But additional features, such as ventilation chimneys and roof vents, can be incorporated into building design to further assist airflow. These features are often found in hot and arid climates, particularly in the Middle East. Historically, buildings in this region made use of tall, chimney-like structures called <a href="https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20180926-an-ancient-engineering-feat-that-harnessed-the-wind#:%7E:text=Wind%20catchers%20are%20tall%2C%20chimney,rooms%20to%20refrigerate%20perishable%20foods">wind catchers</a> that capture cool prevailing winds and redirect them into homes. Ventilating a building with cool air at night can also keep it cool for longer during the day.</p>
<p>Buildings can also be “cross ventilated”, where a fresh breeze enters through an opening and exits through another on the opposite side. If necessary, this can be promoted by incorporating inner courtyards – a design that has been used for centuries in warmer climates to keep buildings cool. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210670721008556">previous research</a> found that inner courtyards can reduce the total amount of time in which we need to take measures to cool down (known as indoor discomfort hours) by 26%. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532350/original/file-20230616-29-t2t7gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A figure showing different ways to ventilate a building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532350/original/file-20230616-29-t2t7gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532350/original/file-20230616-29-t2t7gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532350/original/file-20230616-29-t2t7gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532350/original/file-20230616-29-t2t7gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532350/original/file-20230616-29-t2t7gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532350/original/file-20230616-29-t2t7gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532350/original/file-20230616-29-t2t7gp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Natural ventilation techniques for buildings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jesus Lizana</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Cooling beyond temperature control</h2>
<p>Our perception of coolness is not solely determined by temperature. Factors like humidity and air speed also play a role in how comfortable we feel. </p>
<p>That’s where fans come in handy, whether they’re on the ceiling or standing on their own. By combining fans with air conditioning, it’s possible to <a href="https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/ashrae-handbook/ashrae-handbook-online">raise the thermostat setting from 24°C to 27°C</a> and still feel cool. This simple adjustment can reduce household energy consumption for cooling by more than 20%. </p>
<p>Centralised air conditioning systems also often end up <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-03121-1">cooling us down more than necessary</a> or even waste energy by cooling empty rooms. But we can tackle this by combining more relaxed cooling settings, like raising the thermostat, with personal cooling devices such as desk fans, cooled seats or wearable thermoelectric coolers. These devices allow people to have more control of their immediate cooling needs without having to cool down an entire space.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532351/original/file-20230616-23-yq97q4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A figure showing different ways to keep cool." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532351/original/file-20230616-23-yq97q4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532351/original/file-20230616-23-yq97q4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532351/original/file-20230616-23-yq97q4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532351/original/file-20230616-23-yq97q4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532351/original/file-20230616-23-yq97q4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532351/original/file-20230616-23-yq97q4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532351/original/file-20230616-23-yq97q4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">(a) Keeping cool only by temperature control; (b) using all thermal comfort variables.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://journal-buildingscities.org/articles/10.5334/bc.255">Lizana et al. (2022)/Buildings and Cities</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When air conditioning still remains necessary, choose units with a high efficiency rating using refrigerants with low global-warming potential. To figure out how efficient they are, there’s an indicator called the energy efficiency ratio (ERR) – you’ll want to pick a unit with an ERR that’s close to or above four.</p>
<p>When designing or adapting buildings, it’s essential to consider the overall heating and cooling demands. For example, maximising ventilation can prevent overheating during summer, but minimising ventilation can help reduce the need for heating during winter. </p>
<p>The key is to find solutions that work well together and can be adapted easily so that the cost of installing energy-intensive air-conditioning systems can be avoided or reduced. This approach will allow people to stay comfortable during hotter temperatures, without compromising the climate further for future generations.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 20,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207243/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jesus Lizana receives funding from European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Miranda and Radhika Khosla do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Air con uses lots of energy – try these things first.Jesus Lizana, Marie-Curie Research Fellow, Department of Engineering Science, University of OxfordNicole Miranda, Senior Researcher and College Lecturer in Engineering, University of OxfordRadhika Khosla, Associate Professor, Smith School of Enterprise and Environment, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2097452023-07-14T14:32:31Z2023-07-14T14:32:31ZNorthern Europe faces biggest relative increase in uncomfortable heat and is dangerously unprepared – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537510/original/file-20230714-21935-ymm8xc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C4885%2C3264&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Northern Europe will experience the greatest relative increase in uncomfortably hot days if global temperature rise reaches 2℃.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://theconversation.com/asset_images/537118/edit?content_id=207243">DRG Photography/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Limiting the global temperature rise to 1.5°C is getting harder. A <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/emissions-gap-report-2022">recent UN report</a> even stated that there is now “no credible pathway” to achieve this goal. </p>
<p>Our planet has entered uncharted territory, with all kinds of records being broken. For four consecutive days at the start of July 2023, Earth <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/4th-july-breaks-record-highest-temperature-measured/story?id=100702850">experienced its hottest day on record</a>. And the North Atlantic Ocean is <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-66143682">currently experiencing</a> the highest sea-surface water temperatures ever recorded. </p>
<p>There is a good chance that many more temperature records will be broken in the coming months. A <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-66183069">heatwave</a> is currently sweeping across large parts of southern Europe, with temperatures expected to exceed 40°C in parts of <a href="https://www.meteoam.it/it/home">Italy</a>, Spain, France and Greece. There’s even a chance that the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-58130893">current European temperature record</a> of 48.8°C, could be broken.</p>
<p>Additionally, our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-023-01155-z">new research</a> highlights how dangerously under prepared northern Europe is for the consequences of climate change.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A girl cools off in fountain during a heatwave in Athens, Greece." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537515/original/file-20230714-26-ile1sh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537515/original/file-20230714-26-ile1sh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537515/original/file-20230714-26-ile1sh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537515/original/file-20230714-26-ile1sh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537515/original/file-20230714-26-ile1sh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537515/original/file-20230714-26-ile1sh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537515/original/file-20230714-26-ile1sh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A heatwave is currently sweeping across large parts of southern Europe.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/search/greece-heatwave?image_type=photo">Alexandros Michailidis/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found that, out of countries with more than 5 million inhabitants, Switzerland, the UK, Norway and Finland will experience the most significant relative increase in heat exposure and cooling requirements if global warming reaches 2°C. When we accounted for countries with populations of 2 million and over, Ireland came top.</p>
<p>Buildings in the northern hemisphere are primarily designed to withstand cold seasons by maximising solar gains and minimising ventilation – like greenhouses. The effects of extra heat are thus felt more acutely in these countries. Compared to other regions, the impact of even a moderate increase in temperatures will be huge.</p>
<p>We modelled climate scenarios at both 1.5°C and 2°C of global warming, using a concept called “cooling degree days” to quantify exposure to uncomfortable temperatures. Cooling degree days help us assess when people will need to take extra measures, like switching the air-conditioning on, to keep themselves cool.</p>
<p>It calculates how much (in degrees), and for how long (in days), the outside average daily temperature exceeds a reference temperature – normally taken to be 18°C. For example, two days where the average outdoor temperature was 25°C (7°C above the 18°C threshold) would have a total of 14 cooling degree days.</p>
<h2>Northern Europe and Africa at risk</h2>
<p>Our findings show that countries in the tropics will see the largest absolute increase in extreme heat as measured in this way if global temperatures rise from 1.5°C to 2°C. Countries in central and sub-Saharan Africa, such as the Central African Republic, Burkina Faso, Mali, South Sudan, and Nigeria will be hit the hardest, with an additional 250 annual cooling degree days or more. </p>
<p>These repercussions of these results will impose further strain on the continent’s social and economic development. Our results are also a clear indication that Africa is shouldering the burden of a problem it <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-which-countries-are-historically-responsible-for-climate-change/">did not create</a>.</p>
<p>However, it’s the countries at northern latitudes that will face the greatest relative increase in uncomfortably hot days. Of the top ten countries with the most significant relative change in cooling degree days as global warming exceeds 1.5°C and reaches 2°C, eight are located in northern Europe. </p>
<p>If we measured from today until we reached 2°C, this relative increase would be even higher.</p>
<p><strong>Increasing heat exposure:</strong></p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532344/original/file-20230616-27-dmali7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two world maps showing the absolute and relative increase in cooling degree days." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532344/original/file-20230616-27-dmali7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532344/original/file-20230616-27-dmali7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532344/original/file-20230616-27-dmali7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532344/original/file-20230616-27-dmali7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532344/original/file-20230616-27-dmali7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532344/original/file-20230616-27-dmali7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532344/original/file-20230616-27-dmali7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Absolute (a) and relative (b) increase in cooling degree days (CDDs) as global mean temperature increases from 1.5°C to 2°C.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-023-01155-z">Miranda et al. (2023)/Nature Sustainability</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Fuelling global warming</h2>
<p>Air conditioners are often seen as the go-to solution for rising temperatures, as they provide fast relief from the heat. However, if left unchecked, the <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/the-future-of-cooling">increased demand for cooling</a> to combat the heat will lead to higher emissions and further global warming.</p>
<p>This is not a hypothetical situation. In June 2023, as temperatures soared in the UK, the demand for air conditioning rose to such an extent that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jun/12/uk-heatwave-prompts-order-to-fire-up-coal-plant-to-meet-aircon-demand">coal was burned</a> to generate electricity.</p>
<p>Many air conditioners also use refrigerants called fluorinated gases. These gases can leak, and when they do they have a global warming potential up to nearly <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/fluorinated-gases-f-gases">14,800 times greater than CO₂</a>.</p>
<p>The need for air conditioning can be reduced and even eliminated by <a href="https://journal-buildingscities.org/articles/10.5334/bc.255">making appropriate adaptations</a>. These <a href="https://journal-buildingscities.org/articles/10.5334/bc.255">can be</a> as simple as adding windows shutters or awnings, loft ventilation, painting your roof a light colour, enabling natural ventilation when the outside temperature drops, or using ceiling fans.</p>
<p>These would make it possible for people in northern Europe to stay comfortable during hotter temperatures without compromising the climate further for future generations. But this requires northern Europe to take the effects of climate change seriously and to start getting prepared for the coming heat.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 20,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209745/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jesus Lizana receives funding from European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Miranda and Radhika Khosla do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Rising temperatures threaten the UK, Switzerland and Norway with more uncomfortably hot days – new research.Jesus Lizana, Marie-Curie Research Fellow, Department of Engineering Science, University of OxfordNicole Miranda, Senior Researcher and College Lecturer in Engineering, University of OxfordRadhika Khosla, Associate Professor, Smith School of Enterprise and Environment, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2080902023-06-27T14:52:52Z2023-06-27T14:52:52ZHow the NHS’s original vision to design healthier hospitals fell into disrepair<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534381/original/file-20230627-21-xd13tl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C2%2C1764%2C1114&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When St Helier Hospital in Carshalton opened, it was viewed as the last word in modernist design.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Student_Nurse-_Life_at_St_Helier_Hospital,_Carshalton,_Surrey,_1943_D13888.jpg">Imperial War Museum Archives via Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>Outpatients at St James’ Hospital feel better even before they see the doctor – thanks to a new note in hospital design. ‘Comfort while you wait’ is the new policy, and that means an informal atmosphere, extra comfy chairs, concealed lighting, heated cork floors, and an ultra-modern design throughout. No shades of depressing institutions here.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>You might think this description comes from the glossy marketing material for one of today’s cutting-edge private hospitals. In fact, it’s from a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qygR9TwXHbU">1954 Pathé News clip</a> celebrating one of the earliest buildings designed for Britain’s fledgling National Health Service (NHS) – launched six years earlier on July 5, 1948.</p>
<p>What St James’ Hospital in Balham, south London, lacked in size, it made up for in ambition. The new central complex embodied the stated ideals of the NHS, to provide an equitable service for all citizens, free of charge and of the highest standard. The new buildings contained consulting rooms, staff offices and waiting rooms, and a children’s room that was lauded by the Pathé commentator:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>In the children’s room, the longer the youngsters have to wait, the better they like it. They can play as loudly as they like, for in their own room their chatter and high spirits can’t worry other patients … It’s no wonder that in this hospital, some of the children and their parents come a little early for their appointments on purpose!</p>
</blockquote>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/qygR9TwXHbU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A tour of the newly opened St James’ Hospital in Balham (1954)</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As we take stock of the NHS on the occasion of its 75th anniversary, most attention is focused on staff pay demands, lengthy waiting lists for treatment, and the intolerable pressures on staff during and beyond the pandemic. But the design and upkeep of NHS hospital buildings, and the impact these can have on the patients and staff who inhabit them, is another <a href="https://www.itv.com/news/2023-02-21/patient-safety-at-risk-from-crumbling-nhs-hospitals-in-urgent-need-of-repair">pressing</a>, if less widely publicised, issue.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533674/original/file-20230623-7118-vgag2i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533674/original/file-20230623-7118-vgag2i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533674/original/file-20230623-7118-vgag2i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533674/original/file-20230623-7118-vgag2i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533674/original/file-20230623-7118-vgag2i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533674/original/file-20230623-7118-vgag2i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533674/original/file-20230623-7118-vgag2i.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
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</figcaption>
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<p><em>To mark the 75th anniversary of the launch of the NHS, we’ve commissioned <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/how-to-fix-the-nhs-140880?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UKNHSseries">a series of articles</a> addressing the biggest challenges the service now faces. We want to understand not only what needs to change, but the knock-on effects on other parts of this extraordinarily complex health system.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>I believe we can find answers to at least some of today’s health service problems by looking at the history of these buildings, and the shifting design priorities they reflect.</p>
<p>The story of St James’ Hospital is a case in point. Less than 40 years on from the proud launch of its new central complex, the entire hospital stood empty and ruinous – a symbol, perhaps, of the failed ambitions of the early NHS. The buildings were demolished in 1992, and the site was redeveloped for housing.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532864/original/file-20230620-25-e74oss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Overgrown and disused hospital building with graffiti" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532864/original/file-20230620-25-e74oss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532864/original/file-20230620-25-e74oss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532864/original/file-20230620-25-e74oss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532864/original/file-20230620-25-e74oss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532864/original/file-20230620-25-e74oss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532864/original/file-20230620-25-e74oss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532864/original/file-20230620-25-e74oss.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=546&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">St James’ Hospital outpatients department in 1991, prior to its demolition.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Harriet Richardson Blakeman</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Parts of this hospital are sinking</h2>
<p>Another south London hospital was in the news recently. “Patient safety at risk in crumbling hospital Boris Johnson promised to replace,” read a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/may/13/patient-safety-at-risk-in-crumbling-hospital-boris-johnson-promised-to-replace">headline in the Observer</a>, describing conditions in St Helier Hospital, Carshalton.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532895/original/file-20230620-24-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Crumbling hospital building" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532895/original/file-20230620-24-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532895/original/file-20230620-24-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532895/original/file-20230620-24-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532895/original/file-20230620-24-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532895/original/file-20230620-24-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=861&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532895/original/file-20230620-24-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=861&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532895/original/file-20230620-24-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=861&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">St Helier Hospital, Carshalton.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Harriet Richardson Blakeman</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Helier_Hospital">St Helier was built</a> just before the outbreak of the second world war, constructed on reinforced concrete foundations with a steel-frame and brick infill, faced in white-painted cement render. At the time, it was regarded as the last word in up-to-date modernist design, with “accommodation of the highest class in any part of the world”.</p>
<p>Now, parts of this hospital are sinking. The basement floods, wards are sometimes forced to close, and the hospital has become “dilapidated and unpleasant”, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/may/13/where-are-the-tories-promised-40-new-hospitals-we-cannot-afford-to-wait-any-more">according to Ruth Charlton</a>, chief medical officer of Epsom & St Helier University Hospitals NHS Trust. In a recent commentary, she wrote:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Our ageing estate looked awful even when I joined, and over the years it’s decayed further before my eyes. Healthcare standards are getting higher while our hospitals are sliding into even more disrepair … Only last week we had to close one of our wards because the lift wasn’t working.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Nor is this an isolated case. In April, a <a href="https://twitter.com/doctor_oxford/status/1643894825182285827?s=20">tweet</a> by palliative care doctor and author Rachel Clarke showed “an actual interior corridor of a major NHS hospital”. The photograph looks like the bowels of a particularly unsavoury multi-storey carpark, yet the reflection in the mirror clearly shows it is an internal space. The paint is peeling, the damp so bad that a streak of green algae is running down the corner of the room.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1643894825182285827"}"></div></p>
<p>Along with such images of decay and dereliction, we have also seen images of egregious overcrowding over the past few years, as COVID-19 put extreme demands on NHS facilities that were already creaking badly. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/jul/14/hospital-patients-being-treated-in-corridors-and-waiting-areas-says-rcn">Accounts</a> of patients being treated in corridors and even in <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/patients-treated-in-car-parks-as-a-e-crumbles-under-pressure-lnxqgd6nf">hospital car parks</a> continued last winter, even when the COVID threat had receded somewhat.</p>
<p>In January 2023, Alice Kenny, a junior sister at Queen’s Hospital in Romford, east London, who had been redesignated as a “corridor nurse”, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-64226656">told the BBC</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We don’t train to give care in corridors. It is really not nice and if we were in [our patients’] shoes, we’d be really upset as well. We’re supposed to look after patients like we do our own family, and we’re not able to do that.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/wyC-fU_c0G8?wmode=transparent&start=43" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Interviews with staff forced to look after patients in corridors at Queen’s Hospital, Romford.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The ideas and ideals of early NHS designs</h2>
<p>As the architectural history of the NHS is such a huge subject, I have mainly focused on Scotland where I live and can access the official records – some of which have only become available to researchers in recent years. This has provided fresh insights into the ideas and ideals behind the design of the first purpose-built hospitals built by the NHS.</p>
<p>The problems back then were not dissimilar to those faced today: old worn-out buildings, staff shortages, rising costs and economic austerity. Take Old Monkland Home in Coatbridge, to the east of Glasgow – one of the 3,000-or-so hospitals that were transferred to state ownership when the NHS came into being in July 1948. A review of this <a href="https://www.workhouses.org.uk/OldMonkland/">former poorhouse</a>’s facilities, published in a <a href="https://archive.org/details/b32179121_0005">national hospital survey</a> before the end of the second world war, was damning:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Old Monkland Home occupies a depressing site in Coatbridge. The hospital part now contains 69 beds, and there is also an asylum for milder types of lunatic … The impression is one of general neglect. The dining-room is very gloomy, the hospital is very little better than the main house, and the asylum block is totally unsuitable for patients of any kind. We are of the opinion that this institution is quite unsuitable for the care of the sick, and should be abandoned.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The NHS had inherited a patchwork of hospitals, predominantly over half-a-century old, that had been built to meet the medical needs of the time: sanatoria for tuberculosis, isolation hospitals for once-common infectious diseases such as measles and diphtheria, and cottage hospitals run by country GPs who carried out routine surgery, delivered local babies, set bones and treated wounds from accidents.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/288776/original/file-20190820-170910-8bv1s7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>This article is part of Conversation Insights</em></strong>
<br><em>The Insights team generates <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/insights-series-71218">long-form journalism</a> derived from interdisciplinary research. The team is working with academics from different backgrounds who have been engaged in projects aimed at tackling societal and scientific challenges.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>There were also large urban workhouse infirmaries full of chronically ill elderly patients, huge mental hospitals, teaching hospitals, and convalescent homes. Funding to build and run them came from a wide range of sources, including public donations, church collections, the rates, government loans, and work-placed insurance schemes.</p>
<p>These buildings had been “built to last” 100 years or more (brick or stone buildings that were expensive to construct were only economically viable if they had a long lifespan). But they suffered from a lack of structural maintenance and redecoration during the war, and afterwards from the severe shortages of labour and materials.</p>
<p>The UK-wide survey of hospitals had been intended to inform post-war reconstruction and the development of a “<a href="https://wdc.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/health/id/208/">national hospital service</a>”, which aimed to “ensure that every patient requiring hospital treatment could obtain it without delay in the hospital most suited to their needs”. In reality, it painted a picture of uneven distribution and poor facilities, with the worst of the buildings being the old workhouses:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Wigtownshire Home, Stranraer, has not undergone any appreciable change since it was built about 1850. The building is worn out and dreary … This is a very poor place, and is quite unsuitable for housing the sick or aged, or indeed for any other purpose.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In the immediate post-war years, new housing was the most urgent requirement throughout Britain, along with new schools after the <a href="https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/butler-act.htm#:%7E:text=The%20Education%20Act%20%2D%20or%20'Butler,into%20primary%20and%20secondary%20schools.">Butler Act of 1944</a> raised the school-leaving age to 15 (with a post-war baby boom to follow). Yet there was also a widespread consensus among the public that the current level of healthcare provision was no longer acceptable. A new type of hospital facility was needed to reflect the scientific advances of medicine and the aspirations of post-war Britain.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532893/original/file-20230620-29-veiebv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Aerial view of hospital complex on front of postcard with text" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532893/original/file-20230620-29-veiebv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532893/original/file-20230620-29-veiebv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532893/original/file-20230620-29-veiebv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532893/original/file-20230620-29-veiebv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=428&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532893/original/file-20230620-29-veiebv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532893/original/file-20230620-29-veiebv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532893/original/file-20230620-29-veiebv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A postcard extols the futuristic design of Vale of Leven, the NHS’s first new general hospital.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A five-star ‘hospital of the future’</h2>
<p>These aspirations found physical form in the <a href="https://historic-hospitals.com/2016/04/10/vale-of-leven-hospital-the-first-new-nhs-hospital-in-britain/">first new general hospital</a> built in Britain for the NHS, which <a href="https://www.facebook.com/savethevale/videos/aother-old-video-of-the-vale-hospital-thank-you-for-these/209682076082610/">opened</a> in Scotland in 1955 at Vale of Leven to the north-west of Glasgow. One of its most striking features were the wards, which were dramatically different from the traditional “Nightingale-style” open wards that offered no privacy to patients.</p>
<p>At Vale of Leven, the beds were grouped in bays separated by glazed screens. Ceiling heights were lower to create a more homely feel. The day room was furnished like a domestic sitting room, with comfortably upholstered armchairs. Windows were set low enough in the walls for patients to be able to see the grounds while lying in bed – and they also provided natural ventilation, allowing fresh air and the sound of birdsong to enter each ward.</p>
<p>Facilities for staff were an important consideration, as <a href="https://archive.org/details/sim_architect-building-news_1955-09-29_208_13/page/n35/mode/2up?q=%22Vale+of+leven+Hospital%22">the Architect & Building News</a> explained:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A nurse’s station is an L-shaped counter containing knee space, drawers, filing cabinets etc, with a dwarf glass screen to cut off draughts, record board and shaded reading light, and small cupboards behind in the storage wall. The station is raised on a low step so that, when sitting, the nurse has a view of her 13 beds and, in fact, is only 25 feet away from her farthest patient and is quickly conscious of any movement or disturbance. Signal lights from beds are placed so that they can be seen from either of two nurse’s stations in case one is temporarily unoccupied.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The subject of hospital design was now a hot topic among architects, health professionals and administrators alike – with an emphasis on the collaborative planning processes and research-led design that had evolved in more progressive architecture schools before the war. Schools such as the Architectural Association in London and Liverpool had developed a belief in social theory and managerial efficiency. Architects sought specialist advice on every aspect of the hospital, from the wards to catering and even laundries. As the regional architect for the South Eastern Regional Hospital Board wrote in 1951 about his new building schemes:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It would be futile for medical science to progress and leave in its wake a dull, unimaginative architecture.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another reason for the extra care being taken over these new buildings was that, in the period of full employment in the 1950s and ‘60s, it was often proving difficult to attract enough hospital staff. The shortage of nurses, traditionally a female role, was especially acute because the rate of pay was lower than for many office jobs in the private sector – jobs that also offered shorter hours and fewer pressures than nursing.</p>
<p>To entice new recruits and enhance retainment levels, local management boards pushed hard to get well-appointed nurses’ homes built and to provide generous staff social and recreational facilities – from tennis courts to swimming pools, coffee bars to halls for cinema shows and dances.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/RMlFYzcJS78?wmode=transparent&start=2" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">An introduction to High Wycombe General Hospital: ‘Medical science, 1967-style’.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At this time, the opening of a new hospital was a newsworthy event, featured in the architectural and medical press, national and local newspapers, and in newsreels. The opening of the new High Wycombe General Hospital in the mid-1960s was met with another <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMlFYzcJS78">gushing tribute</a> from the Pathé News team:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The spaciousness of the entrance and reception hall will give patients confidence that here they are meeting medical science 1967-style, equipped as it should be. Gone is the old atmosphere of healing on the cheap, gone too is the belief that staff of the hospitals should put up with third-rate food and bad quarters. The menus in the nurses’ dining room are varied and make eating a pleasure deserved by women whose devoted service goes far beyond the minimum they could get away with.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>I remember this hospital (more commonly known as Wycombe General) from not long after the film was released. It was where I had a tonsillectomy – then a routine operation – at the age of seven. I recall the hospital being shiny and modern, with toilets that were spotlessly clean and, unlike our loo at home, heated!</p>
<p>I remember the children’s ward being a bright sunny room with about eight beds, and a small dayroom where we had breakfast that was made rather cramped by an enormous toy cupboard, where a kind nurse hid my bowl of porridge which I could not eat. I had no trouble with the ice cream we were allowed to have in bed after our operations, though.</p>
<p>Our parents only visited for a short time during the day, but we didn’t seem to mind or feel anxious about it – perhaps in part because of the atmosphere in the hospital, where modern architecture conveyed, even to a young child, confidence in medical science. As the Pathé commentator concluded:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There is a good reason for High Wycombe General being called a five-star luxury hospital. It’s part of the new approach to the art and science of getting sick people well.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Fast-forward just over half a century, however, and Wycombe General is now <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-beds-bucks-herts-65913081">“approaching its end of life”</a> and in “dire need of replacement”, according to the NHS trust that runs it. While confirming to the BBC that the hospital is still “safe”, the hospital’s ongoing repairs and maintenance now cost the trust around £2 million a year.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532896/original/file-20230620-28-46ld25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="External view of general hospital building" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532896/original/file-20230620-28-46ld25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532896/original/file-20230620-28-46ld25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532896/original/file-20230620-28-46ld25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532896/original/file-20230620-28-46ld25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532896/original/file-20230620-28-46ld25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532896/original/file-20230620-28-46ld25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532896/original/file-20230620-28-46ld25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wycombe General in May 2020: the hospital is ‘in dire need of replacement’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/high-wycombe-buckinghamshire-uk-05-18-1737902921">Ben Molyneux/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The ambitious plan quickly comes off the rails</h2>
<p>Wycombe General was built following a period when funding for hospital building had increased by over 50%. In 1962, the UK government had published its <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-9515.1981.tb00662.x">Hospital Plan</a>, which promised that 90 new hospitals would be commenced in England and Wales by 1971. The plan was to provide a network of new district general hospitals evenly distributed around the country, so that everyone would be in easy reach of all the main hospital services, with just a few of the more unusual specialities based at a regional centre.</p>
<p>However, it did not take long for this ambitious plan to come off the rails. Not enough money had been pledged by the government to fund all the schemes that were proposed, the process of planning and design took a long time, costs escalated, and by 1964, comprehensive revisions had to be made. In successive years, the plans were scaled back.</p>
<p>By the mid-1960s, relatively little had been achieved and the policy of concentrating on district general hospitals was questioned. The <a href="https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/1969-05-23/debates/bc336ab2-a648-4657-82eb-8790c4de9597/Scotland(HospitalBuildingProgramme)">1966 revision</a> of the Hospital Plan refocused the building programme towards creating units for the elderly and mentally ill. Start dates for new hospitals were postponed and, to try to combat rising costs, stricter financial controls were introduced.</p>
<p>Despite this, there was still a belief in producing good quality buildings designed to meet the needs of modern medicine in attractive surroundings. As the Architects’ Journal put it when discussing the new staff restaurant and stores building at Kingston Hospital in Surrey:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The matter of nurses’ meals is almost a household topic and, along with spectacles and false teeth, has been giving the health ministry a bad press.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>At Falkirk Royal Infirmary in Scotland’s central belt, meanwhile, an experimental surgical ward unit was designed around new ways of organising nursing on the lines of progressive patient care, while also making the nurses’ routines easier and reducing the amount of walking they would have to do. Hospital infection and resistance to antibiotics were already a concern in the 1960s, and engineers designed more sophisticated heating and ventilation systems to control the movement of airborne infections and prevent cross infection.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, such considerations cost more than the government was willing to spend, and no health minister of either political persuasion was able to convince the cabinet or the Treasury to provide the amount of money that the rebuilding programme was going to cost.</p>
<p>The 1970s was a period of devaluation of sterling, strikes and war in the Middle East that caused an oil crisis. There was a three-day week, petrol rationing and power cuts. This led to public spending cuts that only worsened the position for the hospital building programme. At the same time, there was widespread criticism of the amount of time it was taking to build each hospital, and concern that a number of recently completed hospitals had been found to have structural defects.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532897/original/file-20230620-30-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="View of hospital building with hills in the distance" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532897/original/file-20230620-30-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532897/original/file-20230620-30-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532897/original/file-20230620-30-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532897/original/file-20230620-30-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532897/original/file-20230620-30-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532897/original/file-20230620-30-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532897/original/file-20230620-30-yaztzr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Inverclyde Royal Hospital: the brutalist building took 15 years to finish and ran way over budget.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/scottish-hospital-brutalist-architecture-greenock-inverclyde-2270853881">Richard Johnson/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A case in point is the saga of Inverclyde Royal Hospital in Greenock, west Scotland – one of the new district general hospitals promised in the original Hospital Plan. After a provisional cost limit of just over £4 million was approved in 1964, a design team was appointed the following year. However, the UK government halted the project for nearly two years due to a shortage of funds – a time when lots of large national projects were being halted. At the same time, the design brief had to be revised to keep up-to-date with technical guidance.</p>
<p>Amid new tenders, spiralling budgets and a further cost reduction exercise, work finally started on site in 1970, but the official contract completion date of March 1976 was missed, and the fabric of the building was eventually completed in November 1977 – only for the ventilation systems to be found to be defective.</p>
<p>It was not until the very end of 1979 that Inverclyde Royal Hospital was finally completed, at a cost of over £13m – more than three times the original cost limit. There was no single reason for the vastly increased cost, but the era’s high inflation rates were a significant factor. Each delay led to the cost going up, cancelling out the cost reduction exercise. Time and again on new hospital schemes, such exercise led to the use of poorer-quality materials and inferior heating and ventilation systems, which would cause problems with the building later on.</p>
<p>But more fundamentally, the new hospitals being built were now anticipated to last only between 40 and 50 years at the most. The reasons why this changed from the Victorian era when hospitals were built to last for a century or more, are many and complex. The main reason was the increasingly rapid advances being made in medical science, which led to a widespread view that the buildings would become obsolete as medical needs evolved.</p>
<p>But 40 is no age to be consigned to the scrap heap. We do not expect our homes to expire after such a short timespan – but equally, we understand that we need to invest in maintenance to keep them in good condition.</p>
<p>As the NHS celebrates its 75th anniversary, many of its hospitals built in the 1960s, ‘70s and early ‘80s have reached the end of their anticipated lifespan. As a result, the UK is now having to tackle the problem of large numbers of hospitals that have reached the end of their predicted lives.</p>
<p>Part of Johnson’s 2019 general election manifesto promised that <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/pm-confirms-37-billion-for-40-hospitals-in-biggest-hospital-building-programme-in-a-generation">40 new hospitals would be built by 2030</a>. There was talk of “levelling up our NHS” and a determination “to build back better”. However, this plan was later exposed as something of a numbers trick or “<a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/381/bmj.p1259#:%7E:text=In%202020%2C%20when%20he%20was,of%20his%202019%20election%20manifesto.">mirage</a>”, with many of the “new” hospitals turning out to be extensions or refurbishments. In February 2023, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/feb/04/only-10-of-boris-johnson-promised-40-new-hospitals-have-full-planning-permission">the Observer reported</a> that only ten of the projects had secured full planning permission, with one NHS trust leader warning that: “Some hospitals are literally falling down.”</p>
<h2>Downgrading ambitions from ‘ideal’ to ‘adequate’</h2>
<p>Search for King’s Lynn’s Queen Elizabeth Hospital online, and you are likely to find multiple <a href="https://www.edp24.co.uk/news/health/20676118.behind-scenes-britains-dilapidated-hospital/">news</a> <a href="https://uk.news.yahoo.com/first-phase-replacing-crumbling-queen-110000118.html">items</a> about its dilapidated condition, demands to hasten its replacement, and images of ceilings being <a href="https://twitter.com/RootlessCosmo/status/1643896998771269632?s=20">held up by acrow props</a>.</p>
<p>“Isn’t it lovely,” the Duchess of Kent had told the Lynn Advertiser when she first entered the new hospital in July 1980. According to the same newspaper, the public had been similarly impressed when given guided tours of the newly completed building:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Guides pointed out bright wards … most with outlooks over landscaped gardens. Mouths dropped as guides said patients would be able to choose the main course of their meals from a menu offering 17 options – and every three weeks, that menu would be changed.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Yet, just 43 years later, the Queen Elizabeth has been described as “Britain’s most dilapidated hospital”. According to a report on the <a href="https://www.norfolklive.co.uk/news/norfolk-news/queen-elizabeth-hospital-kings-lynns-8062752">Norfolk Live website</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Patients lie in bed looking up at the [roof] supports … Regular checks take place every day to make sure the roof is not at more risk of collapse through holes in the concrete described as being ‘like an Aero chocolate bar’.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The Aero bar analogy refers to the <a href="https://www.lboro.ac.uk/news-events/news/2023/march/reinforced-autoclaved-aerated--concrete-raac/">reinforced, autoclaved aerated concrete</a> (RAAC) used in the hospital roof’s construction, and in many other public buildings. In 2018, the roof of a primary school in Kent collapsed only a day after “signs of structural stress” had appeared in the staffroom ceiling. It transpired that the roof had been constructed of RAAC, which has an estimated shelf-life of just 30 years.</p>
<p>An initial investigation into the use of RAAC in schools has recently been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2023/jun/14/uk-public-buildings-feared-to-be-at-risk-of-collapse-as-concrete-crumbles">extended to look at public buildings more widely</a> – including hospitals. In May, a report on the Conservative government’s promise to build 40 new hospitals suggested that just five – <a href="https://www.theconstructionindex.co.uk/news/view/raac-crisis-prioritised-in-hospital-programme-reorganisation">those that had used RAAC in their construction</a> – were now being prioritised.</p>
<p>The Queen Elizabeth was one of the so-called “best buy” hospitals designed by the Department of Health & Social Security (DHSS) as a complete package. These were introduced in 1967 to remedy the problems of drawn-out design processes and escalating costs that had been derailing the NHS hospital building programme. It was a budget version of the district general hospital envisaged in the 1962 Hospital Plan, providing fewer beds per head of population in more confined spaces using simpler construction methods.</p>
<p>Standardisation and prefabrication were the principles of this design process, which was intended to provide an “adequate” rather than “ideal” hospital amid the country’s deep financial challenges of the 1970s. Hospital design was pared back to its essentials – a policy that has largely continued ever since.</p>
<p>The “nucleus” hospitals that followed from the mid-1970s were designed to limit new developments and major extensions to a nucleus of departments costing no more than £6 million (at 1975 prices). Every possible means of economising space and services was explored by the Hospital Building Division within the DHSS.</p>
<p>Crucially, a lower complement of beds per hospital was provided, based on the justification that earlier patient discharges would create a more intensive use of diagnostic and treatment facilities. In other words, Britain’s hospitals were now becoming high-turnover factory lines.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="External view of unusually designed visitor centre" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532900/original/file-20230620-29-in15vt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/532900/original/file-20230620-29-in15vt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532900/original/file-20230620-29-in15vt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532900/original/file-20230620-29-in15vt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=417&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532900/original/file-20230620-29-in15vt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532900/original/file-20230620-29-in15vt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/532900/original/file-20230620-29-in15vt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pushing architectural boundaries: the Frank Gehry-designed Maggie’s Centre in Dundee.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maggies_centre_Dundee.jpg">Ydam via Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Good design can be life-enhancing</h2>
<p>As hospitals at the end of their lifespan struggle to deal with patient overcrowding amid crumbling facilities, have decades of cost-cutting exercises when it comes to hospital design and construction turned out to be a false economy? Can a price be put on the damaging effects of poor hospital design on staff morale or patient health?</p>
<p>While we can put a figure on the cost of buying in agency staff to cover staff shortages or even major building repairs, less quantifiable is the impact on health and wellbeing of the buildings themselves.</p>
<p>But we know that good design <a href="https://www.maggies.org/media/filer_public/78/3e/783ef1ba-cd5b-471c-b04f-1fe25095406d/evidence-based_programme_web_spreads.pdf">can be life-enhancing</a>. Within the NHS, Maggie’s centres are a network of cancer drop-in centres unified by a groundbreaking commitment to <a href="https://www.dezeen.com/tag/maggies-centres/">pushing architectural boundaries</a>, with their multi-award-winning buildings having been designed by some of the world’s leading architects such as Frank Gehry and Zaha Hadid.</p>
<p>These centres, located throughout the UK and also in Hong Kong, offer “unique physical environments” created on the basis of a wide body of evidence that shows how aspects of physical space affect us.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QtCTqRge5Bk?wmode=transparent&start=17" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Explaining the ethos of Maggie’s Centre in Manchester.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The impact of design on inpatient wellbeing has been a growing focus of research for many years, highlighting the importance of obvious elements such as access to nature, attractive surroundings, artworks on walls, single rooms for patients. There is, for example, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1618866716303089">evidence</a> for the therapeutic benefits of “healing gardens”, and gardening or outdoor exercise is sometimes prescribed by GPs.</p>
<p>More recently, consideration of therapeutic spaces has broadened to include hospital staff as well as patients, in order to tackle the high levels of sickness absence, <a href="https://bolt.nuffieldtrust.org.uk/media/summit-2023-solving-the-workforce-burnout-crisis">distress and burnout among healthcare professionals</a> – levels that are higher in this sector than any other. Yet most solutions so far offered have been <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29200422/">short-term interventions</a>, rather than a fundamental reassessment of <a href="https://eppi.ioe.ac.uk/CMS/Portals/0/IPPO%20NHS%20Staff%20Wellbeing%20report_LO160622-1849.pdf">how the workplace should be designed</a> with staff wellbeing placed on the same footing as patient wellbeing.</p>
<p>Designing a hospital in which it is a pleasure both to work and be a patient is surely a goal worth achieving, and one which it is possible to justify on economic grounds. Spending more now on hospital buildings can save having to rebuild, at higher costs, in 20 or 30 years’ time. If done in such a way as to attract new staff, it can reduce the amount spent on agency fees.</p>
<p>Good design does not have to mean a new hospital, even if that is what people believe they want. Promising to build new hospitals is good publicity for any government, but it can also lead to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2023/may/25/broken-pledge-over-40-new-hospitals-will-leave-nhs-crumbling-ministers-told">damning headlines</a> about wildly increased costs and failed promises further down the line.</p>
<p>Good design can also be achieved through <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/a-retrofitting-revolution">retrofitting</a>, by altering and adapting existing buildings. It is a more sustainable route and ideally would be the first option considered in the face of the present climate emergency. It is a complex issue, and retrofitting may be impossible in some cases – and very probably more expensive than a new-build in almost every other case. However, it addresses the issues of the embodied carbon in existing buildings.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/W1oiC4PG4Zw?wmode=transparent&start=10" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Finalists discuss their approach to the big question: how would you design and plan new hospitals to radically improve patient experiences, clinical outcomes, staff wellbeing, and integration with wider health and social care?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Political pressures to win public votes favours the quick fix. We need a new way of thinking about building, adapting and retrofitting hospitals that can deliver comfortable environments in a sustainable way for the long term, and to understand that cost-cutting today often leads to greater expense in the future.</p>
<p>In 2021, the <a href="https://policyexchange.org.uk/wolfson-economics-prize-2021/">Wolfson Economics Prize</a> set as its challenge the planning and design of the hospital of the future, specifically with a view to “radically” improving patient experiences, clinical outcomes, staff wellbeing and integration with wider health and social care.</p>
<p>The designers of British hospitals in the 1950s and ‘60s – in the early years after the launch of the bold new NHS – might be surprised to find we are still asking the same questions they set out to solve all those years ago.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=112&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313478/original/file-20200204-41481-1n8vco4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=140&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Harriet Richardson Blakeman receives funding from AHRC for doctoral research. </span></em></p>Today’s reports of crumbling, dilapidated and dangerous hospital buildings are a far cry from the design ambitions extolled by early NHS architects and planners.Harriet Richardson Blakeman, PhD Candidate, Architectural History, The University of EdinburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2072632023-06-23T11:02:06Z2023-06-23T11:02:06ZReclaiming Windrush Square: why urban development projects need to heed local voices<p>Windrush Square is a vibrant public plaza at the heart of Brixton, in the London borough of Lambeth. It was <a href="https://www.edenharper.com/articles/a-history-of-windrush-square">first named in 1998</a> in commemoration of the arrival of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/unravelling-the-windrush-myth-the-confidential-government-communications-that-reveal-authorities-did-not-want-caribbean-migrants-to-come-to-britain-206225">Empire Windrush</a>, which docked in Essex in 1948, carrying 1,027 passengers, at least 500 of whom were from the Caribbean. </p>
<p>In 2010, Boris Johnson, as Mayor of London, oversaw an extension of the square to include the adjacent Tate Gardens, so named for erstwhile Lambeth resident and sugar merchant Henry Tate. Responding to a Lambeth council opinion poll, local residents decided that this larger, more open space – newly furnished with lighting, benches and sculptures – would continue to be known as Windrush Square.</p>
<p>Lifelong Brixton resident, Windrush descendant and community organiser Ros Griffiths chairs the Friends of Windrush Square group. This independent collection of residents, activists and business representatives (which includes the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-uk-needs-more-regional-black-archives-so-it-can-celebrate-black-british-history-in-its-entirety-168410">Black Cultural Archives</a>, <a href="https://brixtonblog.com/contact-us/">Brixton Blog</a>, <a href="https://www.blackculturemarket.co.uk/">Black Culture Market</a> and <a href="https://www.repowering.org.uk/">Repowering London</a>) exists, as its mission statement puts it, to protect and promote “the heritage, function, and architecture” of the square. It does so by advocating for initiatives that generate social value – in other words, that benefit the local community.</p>
<p>My research looks at how public space can facilitate a sense of belonging and make <a href="https://dradproject.com/9-spatial-aspects-of-de-radicalisation-processes/">diverse societies more cohesive</a>. Windrush Square offers an instructive example of how crucial it is that any urban development project be, as Griffiths argues, “people-led.”</p>
<h2>Contested heritage</h2>
<p>When Commonwealth citizens – now known collectively as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-windrush-generation-how-a-resilient-caribbean-community-made-a-lasting-contribution-to-british-society-204571">Windrush generation</a> – were invited by <a href="https://www.thehistorypress.co.uk/articles/windrush-a-landmark-in-the-history-of-modern-britain/">the UK government</a> to support post-war reconstruction, they arrived in Britain and settled in neighbourhoods all over the country, but especially in south London. <a href="https://www.lambeth.gov.uk/sites/default/files/2022-07/state-of-the-borough-2022-report.pdf">Today</a>, 43% of Lambeth’s population is Black, Asian or multi-ethnic, with Black/Black British African making up 12%, and Black/Black British Caribbean accounting for 10% of the borough’s residents.</p>
<p>Amid growing <a href="https://www.bi.team/blogs/britain-connects-reducing-political-polarisation-and-fostering-dialogue-during-national-lockdown/">political polarisation</a> and a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/nov/22/understanding-englishness-and-the-national-identity-crisis">national identity crisis</a>, quite how that history is reflected in our built environment is an ongoing and sometimes contentious <a href="https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9405/CBP-9405.pdf">debate</a>.</p>
<p>Windrush Square speaks eloquently to this history. It boasts a number of memorials, including the UK’s first <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/first-ever-memorial-to-african-and-caribbean-service-personnel-unveiled-in-brixton">memorial to African and Caribbean service personnel</a> and the <a href="https://www.adjaye.com/work/cherry-groce-memorial-pavilion">Cherry Groce memorial pavillion</a>, installed in honour of Cherry Groce, a Jamaican woman who was shot by the police in her Brixton home in 1985.</p>
<p>The square also features a bust <a href="https://www.brixtonbuzz.com/2020/02/brixton-history-the-bronze-bust-to-sir-henry-tate-in-windrush-square-brixton/">of Henry Tate</a>, first unveiled in 1905, in front of Brixton Library. As Griffiths outlines, local sentiments about Tate’s ongoing prominence on Windrush Square are mixed: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We still need to have a conversation about that history.</p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/headlines/2022/feb/did-henry-tate-have-links-slavery#:%7E:text=Researchers%20at%20the%20Centre%20for,less%20direct%20but%20fundamental%20ways.%E2%80%9D">Research shows</a> that Tate was not personally implicated in colonial slavery. However, links between the transatlantic slave trade and the broader sugar industry <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/oct/13/lifeandhealth.britishidentity">are incontrovertible</a>. </p>
<p>In 2022, Friends of Windrush Square launched the <a href="https://brixtonblog.com/Windrush_May22_html5/0001.html">Reimagining Windrush Square campaign</a> to both reexamine this history and rethink how the square is used today.</p>
<p>The group questions the <a href="https://www.brixtonbuzz.com/2021/05/campaigners-fight-lambeths-plans-for-commercial-events-on-clapham-common/">increasing number</a> of commercial events across public spaces in Lambeth. They also question how the square has been reworked to date. </p>
<p>The 2010 redesign, by <a href="https://www.planningresource.co.uk/article/449862/regeneration-news-architects-chosen-brixton-square">landscape architects Gross Max</a>, was part of the Mayor of London’s 100 Public Spaces Initiative. While some urban planners viewed the resulting openness, improved lighting and design features as bringing <a href="https://www.udg.org.uk/publications/articles/windrush-square-brixton-london">coherence to the public realm</a>, other observers criticised the changes for the impact on how it was used. </p>
<p>Chairs and greenery had been <a href="https://www.brixtonbuzz.com/2020/07/from-the-leafy-tate-gardens-to-the-concrete-blocks-of-windrush-square-in-brixton/">removed</a>. The public toilets <a href="http://www.urban75.org/brixton/features/windrush-square-brixton-2010.html">remained closed</a>. Griffiths put it plainly:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The 2010 redevelopment of Windrush Square was design-led. It should have been people-led.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The subsequent <a href="https://www.brixtonbuzz.com/2022/02/cost-of-bollards-in-windrush-square-rockets-to-2m-as-lambeth-council-spends-13k-per-bollard-whilst-admitting-no-terrorism-threat/">installation</a> of 155 security bollards in 2020 also drew local ire. The bollards reportedly cost £13,000 each and the terrorism threat, with which their presence had initially been justified, turned out to be non-existent.</p>
<p>The Friends of Windrush Square, instead, want to see Windrush Square used in a way that benefits the local community. They would love, for example, to see the disused public toilets <a href="https://www.brixtonbuzz.com/2016/08/in-photos-a-look-around-brixtons-abandoned-underground-toilets-in-windrush-square/">converted</a> into a community hub. As Griffiths says:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Friends of Windrush Square is my legacy. The history matters, but we’re imagining what Windrush Square could be in 2048.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>My colleagues and I have worked with the group on a series of community research labs. Our aim is to support that reimagining initiative through shared reflection on challenges, priorities and solutions, and to co-develop a <a href="https://dtascommunityownership.org.uk/community/community-place-plans/what-are-place-plans/local-place-plans">local place plan</a> which outlines the group’s long-term vision.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1663596688450125844"}"></div></p>
<p>London has over <a href="https://parksforlondon.org.uk/resource/community-groups/">900 Friends of Parks groups</a>, like Friends of Windrush Square, which collectively count around 100,000 members. These groups care for a variety of public spaces. </p>
<p>Some, like Windrush Square, are on publicly owned land. Others are part of a growing number of <a href="https://bigthink.com/strange-maps/the-first-map-of-londons-pseudo-public-space-epidemic/">privately owned public spaces</a>. These are managed inconsistently – quite who is permitted to use them depends largely on the <a href="https://www.centreforlondon.org/publication/public-london/">private landowners’ attitudes</a>, with local authorities, or people, given little say.</p>
<p>The city government appears to want to keep public space public. Mayor of London Sadiq Khan’s spatial development strategy for Greater London, dubbed <a href="https://www.london.gov.uk/programmes-strategies/planning/london-plan/new-london-plan/london-plan-2021">London Plan 2021</a>, highlights how important it is for local communities to support urban development projects. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.london.gov.uk/publications/public-london-charter">Public London Charter</a>, meanwhile, which details guidance for the capital’s new public spaces, emphasises unrestricted access, regardless of who the land in question belongs to. This does not however apply to existing spaces, which may have been redeveloped following other priorities.</p>
<p>Voluntary groups have a shared connection to, and concern for, the spaces they inhabit. They challenge the <a href="https://www.cprelondon.org.uk/news/forever-green-50-threats-to-londons-parks-and-green-spaces/">troubling trend</a> toward privatisation of civic spaces. They show that people want to talk about and be involved in transforming the spaces they inhabit, in a way that benefits the collective. Harnessing their voices is essential to creating a public realm that works for everyone.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://www.eventbrite.com/e/the-big-caribbean-lunch-tickets-657438394937">Big Caribbean Lunch</a> takes place on June 25 2023 in Windrush Square. To take part in reimagining the square’s future, <a href="https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSctS8wL9_VykSWlaxeHDFF0SdyAduczRUN8n-2-rAv5wwL4fg/viewform">sign up</a> to the Friends of Windrush Square engagement hub. Find out about other Windrush 75 anniversary events in <a href="https://lambethwindrush.com/whats-on/">Lambeth</a> and <a href="https://www.windrush75.org/events">across the UK</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207263/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Henry Staples is a researcher on the project 'D.Rad: Deradicalisation in Europe and Beyond: Detect, Resolve, Integrate', funded by the European Commission.</span></em></p>When a community is involved in how their spaces are developed, these can foster a sense of belonging and make diverse societies more cohesive.Henry Staples, Research Associate in Sociological Studies, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2077252023-06-19T20:00:58Z2023-06-19T20:00:58ZMosul faced mass heritage destruction by the Islamic State. We asked residents what they thought about rebuilding<p>After the Islamic State captured the northern Iraqi city of Mosul <a href="https://time.com/isis-mosul/">in mid-2014</a>, they unleashed a wave of devastating human suffering and unprecedented heritage destruction.</p>
<p>The Islamic State <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2015/05/29/the-islamic-states-threat-to-cultural-heritage/">targeted</a> many of Mosul’s most sensitive and important cultural heritage sites.</p>
<p>Most notoriously, in 2015 the Islamic State released a number of propaganda videos in which they had filmed themselves using sledgehammers to topple and destroy statues <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-middle-east-39470521">at the Mosul Museum</a>, and using power tools to deface giant reliefs at the ancient archaeological site of Nineveh. </p>
<p>In response to such mass heritage destruction, the international community has launched <a href="https://www.unesco.org/en/revive-mosul">various initiatives</a> worth millions of dollars to reconstruct the heritage sites of the city.</p>
<p>However, very little is known about whether or not the people of Mosul support such initiatives.</p>
<p>To find out, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00108367231177796">we conducted a survey</a> of 1,600 people from across Mosul. Here are four of the more significant findings. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/isis-is-destroying-ancient-artefacts-to-send-a-message-of-intent-38235">ISIS is destroying ancient artefacts to send a message of intent</a>
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<h2>1. Heritage is not a priority</h2>
<p>We wanted to gauge whether or not heritage reconstruction was a priority for the people of Mosul, given other urgent needs following years of dictatorship, war and Islamic State control.</p>
<p>We presented respondents with a list of ten options, and asked: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>If you had to choose just three, which of the following do you think are the most urgent priorities for the future of Iraq?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The top answers were “safety and security” (61%), “unemployment and poverty” (54%), “education and schools” (52%) and “hospitals, health and sanitation” (49%).</p>
<p>Only 16% of respondents listed “heritage protection and reconstruction” in their top three urgent priorities.</p>
<h2>2. But people still believe heritage sites should be reconstructed</h2>
<p>We also wanted to gauge respondents’ overall attitude to heritage reconstruction efforts in Mosul.</p>
<p>We asked whether they agreed with the statement: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Heritage sites that were damaged or destroyed during recent conflicts should be restored or reconstructed.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The overwhelming majority (98%) of respondents agreed with the statement.</p>
<p>So, while very few respondents considered heritage reconstruction to be among the most urgent priorities facing Iraq, assuming it would continue regardless of their preferences, it had broad support from the people of Mosul.</p>
<h2>3. Restoration should prioritise modernising buildings</h2>
<p>We also wanted to know what form they would like restoration to take.</p>
<p>We provided respondents with a list of six possible answers, and asked: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>What would you prefer to see happen to the heritage sites that have been damaged or destroyed during the recent conflicts?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>None of those surveyed wanted to see damaged or destroyed heritage sites left in ruins. Only 4% wanted them developed into entirely new structures.</p>
<p>Instead, the vast majority (96%) wanted to see buildings restored and reconstructed, with the largest number of respondents (48%) indicating they would like to see the sites “restored and reconstructed into a new and more modern structure”.</p>
<p>The people of Mosul prefer damaged structures to be transformed into new and more usable buildings for the community over projects that aim to match historical or pre-war conditions.</p>
<p>This finding has implications for foreign heritage actors as they undertake reconstruction works in Mosul. It points to a long-standing dichotomy in heritage practice between UNESCO’s stated preference to preserve the “authenticity” of heritage sites and developing something meaningful and useful for a living community.</p>
<h2>4. Iraqis think rebuilding should be Iraqi-lead</h2>
<p>Finally, we sought to understand respondents’ views on who had done the most to restore heritage sites to date and who they would like to see leading such works in the future.</p>
<p>We asked two key questions:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Which actor do you think has done the most to restore or reconstruct heritage sites across Iraq?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>And:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>If you had to choose just one, who would you most like to see being entrusted with any restoration or reconstruction work at heritage sites?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>After each question, we presented respondents with a list of 14 actors, from the Iraqi government to foreign states and multilateral institutions.</p>
<p>For the question concerning who respondents understood to have done the most reconstruction work, 17% identified global agencies such as UNESCO, 13% chose the Iraqi government and 8% identified the Gulf States. Only 2% saw Western governments as having done the most to restore heritage sites across Iraq.</p>
<p>This contrasts sharply with results from the second question on which agencies locals would most like to see leading the reconstruction efforts. </p>
<p>Most respondents named the Iraqi government (48%), with only 8% support for UNESCO, 6% for the involvement of the Gulf States, and just 2% for Western governments to lead restoration projects.</p>
<p>Despite an acknowledgement that multilateral actors like UNESCO have led much of the reconstruction to date, people expressed a clear preference for the Iraqi government to be entrusted with heritage projects into the future.</p>
<p>To harness local support for the rebuilding effort, international actors must make every effort to work closely with local partners and communities in Mosul to ensure their endeavours are embedded within broader security, developmental and infrastructure investment.</p>
<p>For Iraqis themselves to embrace ongoing efforts to reconstruct Mosul’s heritage, foreign actors will need to foster an authentic grass-roots process where Iraqis take ultimate responsibility for the reconstruction of their heritage.</p>
<p>Taken together, our findings demonstrate engaging with local opinion on heritage is perhaps the only way efforts to restore heritage can have a meaningful long-term impact on the prospects of peace in complex environments like Mosul.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/iraq-war-20-years-on-how-the-world-failed-iraq-and-created-a-less-peaceful-democratic-and-prosperous-state-200075">Iraq war, 20 years on: how the world failed Iraq and created a less peaceful, democratic and prosperous state</a>
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</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207725/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Benjamin Isakhan has received funding from the Australian Department of Defence and the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lynn Meskell has received funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>In a survey of 1,600 people from across Mosul, we asked what they thought of the millions of dollars being spent to reconstruct the heritage sites of the city.Benjamin Isakhan, Professor of International Politics, Deakin UniversityLynn Meskell, PIK Professor of Anthropology; Professor of Historic Preservation, Weitzman School of Design, Penn Museum, University of PennsylvaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2010692023-06-18T11:17:19Z2023-06-18T11:17:19ZArtificial intelligence can support architects but lacks empathy and ethics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531734/original/file-20230613-21-5v2chn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=197%2C71%2C11805%2C5974&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Artificial intelligence is changing how different disciplines are practiced and taught, including architecture.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Artificial intelligence (AI) has revolutionized many different industries in recent years. It gained a lot of attention and popularity with <a href="https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt">the launch of ChatGPT</a>, a tool capable of writing poems, solving equations and producing articles on different topics. </p>
<p>With the fast-paced implementation of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/145974">AI in different fields</a>, will it take the place of architects and architecture schools soon? To answer this question, we need to understand the capabilities of AI and the role of architects and architecture schools. </p>
<h2>Architectural education</h2>
<p>While the topics and research surrounding AI are rapidly evolving, AI lacks certain qualities and characteristics that architects gain by completing architecture school. At its core, architects learn how to use different skills to combine technical knowledge, arts, esthetics, emotions and other attributes.</p>
<p>Architecture schools train their students so that they can respond to certain design problems with solutions based on their personal experiences, design styles and other factors. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531732/original/file-20230613-21-kn6lax.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="students sitting around a blueprint" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531732/original/file-20230613-21-kn6lax.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531732/original/file-20230613-21-kn6lax.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531732/original/file-20230613-21-kn6lax.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531732/original/file-20230613-21-kn6lax.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531732/original/file-20230613-21-kn6lax.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531732/original/file-20230613-21-kn6lax.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531732/original/file-20230613-21-kn6lax.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Architecture curricula still needs to incorporate traditional design skills.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2023/03/27/the-intersection-of-ai-and-human-creativity-can-machines-really-be-creative/">Creativity and innovative solutions</a> are a result of combining different skill sets, personal experiences and technical knowledge that future architects develop in <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9780080454979">architecture schools</a>.</p>
<p>The same process exists when it comes to AI. AI is trained on <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2023/03/27/the-intersection-of-ai-and-human-creativity-can-machines-really-be-creative/">different datasets to come up with solutions</a>. In some cases, like ChatGPT, it uses this dataset to generate new and innovative solutions. </p>
<p>But AI is limited by its datasets, <a href="https://machinelearningmastery.com/impact-of-dataset-size-on-deep-learning-model-skill-and-performance-estimates/">especially when there isn’t enough data, or gathering it is too resource-intensive</a>. This is the main difference between humans and AI comes. Humans can draw on their experiences, skills and other attributes to come up with innovative solutions without being limited to specific datasets. </p>
<h2>Improved efficiency</h2>
<p>AI has different capabilities that can significantly help many different industries, including architecture and construction. For instance, <a href="https://doi.org/10.34010/injudes.v1i1.4824">AI can help architects with architectural programming and creating layouts in buildings</a>. It can provide renders and other types of visualizations. </p>
<p>In general, AI can make many different processes, such as schematic design and renders, more efficient. Architects can develop customized platforms based on their guiding principles, visions, design styles and other values. </p>
<p>However, assistive tools that result in a final product might <a href="https://www.learnworlds.com/artificial-intelligence-in-education/">interrupt the learning process at schools</a>. Students are supposed to learn skills by exploring <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0142-694X(03)00013-9">different design solutions, ideas and philosophies</a>. But architecture students might not fully engage with learning if they use assistive tools that conceal or eliminate the process.</p>
<p>Therefore, architecture schools should carefully study how AI can be integrated with their syllabi to improve the learning process for architecture students.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531728/original/file-20230613-21-wzk6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a 3D model of a green building with rolled up design plans next to it" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531728/original/file-20230613-21-wzk6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531728/original/file-20230613-21-wzk6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531728/original/file-20230613-21-wzk6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531728/original/file-20230613-21-wzk6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531728/original/file-20230613-21-wzk6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531728/original/file-20230613-21-wzk6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531728/original/file-20230613-21-wzk6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Architecture schools should teach students how to use AI technologies, but ensure that they still acquire needed skills.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Absence of true empathy</h2>
<p>Beyond architecture schools, understanding the importance of the shared values, heritage and cultural qualities of a community, or even a person, is essential for architects in coming up with design solutions. </p>
<p>While AI is capable of analyzing such information, it cannot truly empathize with and understand these different considerations.</p>
<p>At the same time, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2019.07.004">decisions made by architects carry responsibilities and liabilities</a>. Students learn about sustainability issues, long-term impacts of designs, ecological footprints and other similar topics.</p>
<p>Although AI can be provided with decision-making capabilities, it cannot replace architects’ roles in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10892-017-9252-2">ethical decision-making process</a>.</p>
<p>In addition, architecture involves collaborations among different stakeholders, from clients to interior designers, civil engineers and other experts. Although AI can engage in dialogue, it lacks the ability to engage in dynamic interactions and truly understand the intentions and experiences of different stakeholders.</p>
<h2>Human indispensability</h2>
<p>AI is still in its early stages and may certainly improve significantly in the coming years. However, at the moment, it seems unlikely to replace the indispensable role of architecture schools and architects because it cannot fully grasp cultural values and heritage. </p>
<p>In addition, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2004.02.010">AI cannot draw on personal experiences, emotions and perceptions</a> of different concepts and designs. In its current state, AI cannot engage in meaningful collaborations where it can truly understand the need of different stakeholders. Furthermore, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10892-017-9252-2">the ethical issues, responsibilities and liabilities</a> involved need to be addressed before progressing to more advanced stages that can give AI more freedom in the design process. </p>
<p>Although AI can significantly improve the efficiency of the design process and improve the learning experience, <a href="https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf">it’s too early to consider it — even as a semi-independent entity — during the architectural design process</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201069/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Farzam Sepanta does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The use of artificial intelligence in architecture practice and education is limited by its datasets and lack of empathy.Farzam Sepanta, PhD Candidate, Building Engineering, Carleton UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2043412023-06-05T12:10:20Z2023-06-05T12:10:20ZHow building more backyard homes, granny flats and in-law suites can help alleviate the housing crisis<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528095/original/file-20230524-7504-rz4zwj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C10%2C3594%2C2371&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A newly built accessory dwelling unit in Los Angeles.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-accessory-dwelling-unit-behind-grove-pashleys-main-home-news-photo/1256258319?adppopup=true">Alisha Jucevic/The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>To many people, the image of a nuclear family in a stand-alone house with a green lawn and white picket fence still represents a fulfillment of the American dream. </p>
<p>However, this ideal is relatively new within a broader history of housing and development in the U.S. It’s also a goal that has become <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/25/upshot/starter-home-prices.html">increasingly unattainable</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jeffrey-Kruth">As professors</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Tk2hQ7kAAAAJ&hl=en">of architecture</a>, we explore how cities change over time, and how certain building trends become commonplace through cultural, political, technological and economic shifts. </p>
<p>Over the past century, the U.S. has lost a rich variety of living options because of the homogenization of zoning policies that prioritize single-family housing, as well as developers’ desire to have inexpensive and easily replicated building plans.</p>
<p>These development prescriptions are so pervasive that it is now illegal to build anything other than a single-family house <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/06/18/upshot/cities-across-america-question-single-family-zoning.html">on 75% of residential land</a> in American cities. <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3768264">Single-family zoning restricts</a> the supply of affordable housing, leading to higher costs, displacement and segregation.</p>
<h2>Enter the ADU</h2>
<p>Diverse patterns of living arrangements across families, communities and plots of land <a href="https://placesjournal.org/article/housing-and-the-cooperative-commonwealth/">were far more common</a> in the 19th and early 20th centuries.</p>
<p>To accommodate these living situations, a range of housing types emerged: multifamily apartment complexes, housing cooperatives, and duplexes and triplexes. </p>
<p>There were also accessory dwelling units, or ADUs, which are sometimes called “granny flats,” “backyard homes,” “in-law suites” or “backyard cottages.”</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529640/original/file-20230601-29-iy1g1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic showing three different forms of ADUs." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529640/original/file-20230601-29-iy1g1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529640/original/file-20230601-29-iy1g1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=659&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529640/original/file-20230601-29-iy1g1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=659&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529640/original/file-20230601-29-iy1g1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=659&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529640/original/file-20230601-29-iy1g1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529640/original/file-20230601-29-iy1g1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529640/original/file-20230601-29-iy1g1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The many faces of an ADU.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://bostonthecityuponahill.files.wordpress.com/2020/01/accessory-dwelling-units_2.jpg">City of St. Paul</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These terms all refer to essentially the same thing: an additional unit of housing on a single lot, typically smaller in square footage than the main residence. They include full amenities – a kitchen and a bathroom, along with a separate entry from the primary dwelling. ADUs can either be attached to or detached from an existing house and can either be built from the ground up or be converted from existing spaces, like garages, basements or attics.</p>
<p>You may have heard of minimalist living trends such as <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/20/magazine/van-life-dwelling.html">van life</a> and <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-12-03/tiny-homes-a-new-model-for-super-chic-affordable-housing">tiny homes</a>, but the ADU was the original compact housing. </p>
<p>While ADUs are not new, many Americans are unfamiliar with them. A recent <a href="https://www.freddiemac.com/research/consumer-research/20230124-adus-can-increase-housing-stock-most-are-unfamiliar">Freddie Mac consumer survey</a> found that 71% of homeowners were unfamiliar with the concept, though 32% expressed interest in having one on their property once they learned about it.</p>
<h2>Addressing the ‘missing middle’</h2>
<p>More diverse living arrangements are both desirable and necessary. </p>
<p>Recent trends – <a href="https://time.com/6243148/working-from-home-is-the-trend-of-the-year-and-next-year-too/">working from home</a> and <a href="https://www.bcg.com/publications/2022/aging-in-place-plan-for-next-generation">aging in place</a>, along with <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/11/30/housing-market-shuts-out-millennials/">a homeownership market that’s pricing out younger adults</a> – all demand housing types that are not readily available in a market <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/essay/trend-2-americas-demographics-are-transforming-but-our-housing-supply-is-not/">dominated by single-family housing</a>. </p>
<p>We believe ADUs – with their social, economic and environmental benefits – should become a more common housing option. </p>
<p>ADUs contribute to sustainability goals primarily because they encourage density. Rather than clearing another lot in a sprawling suburb for a new single-family home, the ADU stealthily adds density to existing neighborhoods, which allows them to tap into the existing infrastructure grid. They can also lead to fewer emissions by encouraging shorter commutes. </p>
<p>Because ADUs are smaller, they also require fewer building materials to construct and less energy to heat; they can be passively cooled and need less electricity. Together, these result in reduced energy costs for the building. Additionally, <a href="https://zennihome.com">prefabricated ADUs</a> <a href="https://www.symbihom.com">can be directly purchased</a>, which further reduces construction time, can sidestep regulatory burdens, such as site inspections, and lead to lower costs and waste.</p>
<p>ADUs are also nimble. Twentieth-century forms of development often took a scorched-earth approach to redevelopment by <a href="https://www.bostonreview.net/articles/brent-cebul-tearing-down-black-america/">tearing down entire communities</a> – often communities of color – to build entirely new districts through urban renewal programs.</p>
<p>ADUs do not disrupt local communities. Because they don’t require buying up more land, they help add to the density, introducing new people from different walks of life. As neighborhood populations grow, they become more attractive to small businesses. Coffee shops, restaurants and grocery stores are more likely to flourish with more residents in a given area.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Black and white photo of a small home built behind a larger home." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528096/original/file-20230524-29-squ9xz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528096/original/file-20230524-29-squ9xz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528096/original/file-20230524-29-squ9xz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528096/original/file-20230524-29-squ9xz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528096/original/file-20230524-29-squ9xz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528096/original/file-20230524-29-squ9xz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528096/original/file-20230524-29-squ9xz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An early-20th-century backyard home in Canada.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-one-person-granny-flat-units-are-520-sq-ft-and-the-two-news-photo/499310047?adppopup=true">Toronto Star Archives/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>ADUs can also fill the gap of much-needed “<a href="https://www.enterprisecommunity.org/sites/default/files/2021-06/overcoming-barriers-to-bringing-adu-development-to-scale.pdf">missing middle</a>” housing. Many new neighborhood developments are marketed as “luxury” and try to take advantage of hot markets by maximizing price points. Affordable housing is typically developed by government housing authorities and nonprofit developers who attempt to meet the pressing housing needs at the lower end of the economic spectrum. </p>
<p>Alternatively, housing that caters to middle-income people is typically nonsubsidized through traditional government funding mechanisms but fills a need that many for-profit developers can’t meet. These are usually smaller homes that attempt to appeal to a variety of <a href="https://americanassembly.org/publications-blog/on-the-edge-americas-middle-neighborhoods-americas-middle-neighborhoods">price points and lifestyles</a>. Many ADUs could fall into that category. </p>
<p>Finally, at the scale of the household, there are numerous benefits to ADUs.</p>
<p>Going back to its moniker as a “granny flat,” ADUs offer the opportunity for intergenerational living. They are typically a single story, which makes it easier for older family members to age in place. But they also provide space and privacy for younger people who may not be able to afford a larger single-family home. </p>
<p>Some ADUs <a href="https://www.hcd.ca.gov/policy-research/docs/understandingadusimportance.pdf">serve as rental units or short-term rentals</a>. By adding units to the existing rental market, they can stanch <a href="https://nypost.com/2022/02/01/us-rent-prices-highest-in-decades-and-theyre-not-coming-down-data-shows/">soaring rental costs</a>. They can also provide passive income for homeowners who need help paying off their mortgage.</p>
<h2>California leads the way</h2>
<p>To be sure, <a href="https://sdnews.com/groups-voice-opposition-to-adu-rules/">there is plenty of opposition to ADUs</a>. It often appears from local residents who fear that there won’t be enough parking spaces to accommodate new neighbors and that adding more dwellings to their neighborhoods could decrease property values. </p>
<p>Similarly, bureaucratic hurdles can sometimes discourage homeowners who might otherwise be interested in <a href="https://www.lincolninst.edu/pt-br/publications/working-papers/accessory-dwelling-units-beyond">having their own ADU</a>. Sometimes six or seven separate permits are required, significantly delaying construction. </p>
<p>Los Angeles has had a unique approach to encourage ADUs. The city recently launched its <a href="https://www.ladbs.org/adu/standard-plan-program/approved-standard-plans">Accessory Dwelling Unit Standard Plan Program</a>, which offers homeowners and developers the option to select from 20 preapproved ADU models for construction. Plans range from a studio structure of less than 400 square feet to a 1,200-square-foot house with three bedrooms. </p>
<p>Since construction or conversion is still relatively expensive and out of reach for many homeowners, the state of California also offers homeowners a $40,000 subsidy to encourage the construction of ADUs to make them more affordable. Meanwhile, CityLAB, a university-affiliated research center at UCLA, <a href="https://citylab.ucla.edu/adu-guidebook">designed a guidebook</a> for homeowners looking to build one of these small homes. The guidebook provides a step-by-step process to walk people through information needed to submit an application to the city and find lenders, designers and contractors.</p>
<p>California’s various initiatives have largely been successful. ADU permits increased from 9,000 in 2018 to 12,392 in 2020, <a href="https://www.aducalifornia.org/">according to the UC Berkeley Center for Community Innovation</a>. Seeing the success of ADU policies in cities like Los Angeles and <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/politics/seattle-is-now-building-more-adus-than-single-houses/">Seattle</a>, <a href="https://apps.pittsburghpa.gov/redtail/images/2204_ADU_PC__Hearing_and_Action_Presentation.pdf">Pittsburgh</a> is testing an ADU pilot project in a handful of neighborhoods. <a href="https://www.wvxu.org/politics/2023-03-16/cincinnati-council-accessory-dwelling-units-single-family-neighborhoods">Cincinnati</a> is also currently advancing legislation to reverse policies that forbid ADUs. </p>
<p>As the country grapples with alleviating its housing crisis, solutions will require rethinking existing policies and re-imagining what housing development and neighborhood cohesion looks like. ADUs can be one of those solutions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204341/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Though accessory dwelling units have been around for centuries, a recent survey found that 71% of Americans were unfamiliar with the concept.Jeff Kruth, Assistant Professor of Architecture, Miami UniversityMurali Paranandi, Professor of Architecture, Miami UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2005112023-05-16T16:36:22Z2023-05-16T16:36:22ZArchitecture after COVID: how the pandemic inspired building designers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513953/original/file-20230307-24-zhnj4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=114%2C101%2C8351%2C5025&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An architect working on a model. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-male-architect-hands-making-model-721777969">Jacob Lund/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/daily-exercise-rules-got-people-moving-during-lockdown-heres-what-the-government-needs-to-do-next-143773">Walking during lockdowns</a>, following protocols and restrictions, city dwellers witnessed the birth of a new architectural aesthetic. </p>
<p>Concern with infection began gradually redefining the space of cities and the social choreography of daily urban life. This has led to a radical rethinking of the limits of architecture. I explored these changes in my new book, <a href="https://tinyurl.com/4v9xf65w">Architecture After COVID</a>. </p>
<p>It now seems absurd to think about architecture purely in terms of aesthetics or technology. As a greater awareness of hygiene in cities emerged, urban spaces and buildings were reorganised in order to minimise physical surface contact.</p>
<p>Contactless design environments became so pervasive that people must now be encouraged, via signs and announcements, to use handrails to avoid the risk of falling. The public became afraid or sceptical of touching handrails, door handles, elevator buttons or any leaning support.</p>
<p>Architects have had to adapt to these new design priorities and instincts. </p>
<h2>COVID-inspired innovation</h2>
<p>COVID has led to radical changes as architects have had to drastically rethink the “craft” of designing. Their techniques changed in terms of communication, documentation, technical innovation and unconventional ways of “meeting” clients or “visiting” construction sites.</p>
<p>To understand how this happened and better capture how the shift to online working has effected the craft of architects, I devised a small experiment with 130 practices from 40 different countries.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man and woman look at a blueprint on a table." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513954/original/file-20230307-26-tdpcoa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513954/original/file-20230307-26-tdpcoa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513954/original/file-20230307-26-tdpcoa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513954/original/file-20230307-26-tdpcoa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513954/original/file-20230307-26-tdpcoa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513954/original/file-20230307-26-tdpcoa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513954/original/file-20230307-26-tdpcoa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many architects returned to drawing and sketching, often enhanced electronically.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/team-multiethnic-architects-working-on-construction-1329116327">Ground Picture/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the past I have engaged in lengthy observations of architects at work in different firms, following their work and <a href="https://www.oma.com/publications/made-by-the-office-for-metropolitan-architecture-an-ethnography-of-design">describing their working culture</a>. The impossibility of visiting firms during the pandemic to engage in direct observation of their work prompted me to adapt techniques that could be practiced from a distance.</p>
<p>I asked firms to describe a situation that illustrated how their working routines adapted to COVID restrictions. Paying attention to the work of architects in a period of crisis – how they adjusted working methods and redefined priorities to be able to continue to design – highlighted key skills of the designers. </p>
<p>Be they in Buenos Aires or Amman, Los Angeles or Prague, Manchester or Shenzhen, what brought practitioners together was the attempt to rethink the dynamics of how they work.</p>
<h2>How the pandemic has changed architectural work</h2>
<p>My study found three important changes in architectural practice. First, many architects returned to drawing and sketching, often enhanced electronically. </p>
<p>As drawing together in the studio became impossible, designers began expressing ideas in oral and written ways. These “returns” prompted design concepts to be clearly articulated beforehand, not in the process of spontaneous exchange around the table.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cities-are-at-centre-of-coronavirus-pandemic-understanding-this-can-help-build-a-sustainable-equal-future-136440">Cities are at centre of coronavirus pandemic – understanding this can help build a sustainable, equal future</a>
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<p>The pandemic also revived the profile of the perfectionist – the calculative pensive architect, the designer who thinks more than acts, the one who writes before sketching. It also freed designers from rigid hierarchies, unlocked the hidden potential of the youngest team members and turned the makers into writers and the shy into the vocal. </p>
<p>Second, the pandemic changed the “technological landscape” in design firms. Architects began rethinking their working methods, often implementing old technologies, software and storage solutions into their daily work. Some of these technologies and tools had been around since the 1990s but had never been introduced in practice.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man and woman wear hardhats looking at the construction of a building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513955/original/file-20230307-1025-vzlpzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513955/original/file-20230307-1025-vzlpzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513955/original/file-20230307-1025-vzlpzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513955/original/file-20230307-1025-vzlpzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513955/original/file-20230307-1025-vzlpzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513955/original/file-20230307-1025-vzlpzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513955/original/file-20230307-1025-vzlpzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Architects found new ways of meeting and mobilising their communities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/asian-man-civil-engineer-woman-architect-1034683441">iChzigo/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Third, architects crafted new protocols and tactics for connecting and collecting feedback from clients and new ways of meeting and mobilising their communities. </p>
<p>Some practices went as far as training representatives in territories they could not travel to. This helped them to act and speak like an architect and represent them on the ground.</p>
<p>Others conducted design and planning meetings on renovation sites. This resulted in resourceful solutions for crafting new relations with clients, communities and construction sites that enhanced the social skills of architectural professionals and the efficiency of their designs.</p>
<p>My study found no miraculous solutions to the challenges and the disruptions created by the COVID pandemic. Yet in their everyday, repetitive design work, architects generated numerous small innovations and adjustments that provided solutions. When they were repeated and adopted by others, these inventions propagated, often leading to bigger changes.</p>
<p>Architects appeared more than ever, as resourceful agents that make sense of complex situations and devise materially smart solutions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200511/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Albena Yaneva receives funding from
ESRC
BA
EU </span></em></p>The COVID pandemic has led to a radical rethinking of the limits of architecture and tested the skill and innovation of architects like never before.Albena Yaneva, Professor Architectural Theory, University of ManchesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.