tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/habitats-57436/articles
Habitats – The Conversation
2023-12-28T09:19:31Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/217415
2023-12-28T09:19:31Z
2023-12-28T09:19:31Z
Can golf courses help save the planet? Ask a herd of wild pigs
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564304/original/file-20231207-29-1fpb9i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-young-hermann-turtle-on-synthetic-1814171870">Mathilde.LR/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>An Arizona golf course, so picture-perfect it was described as “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/oct/24/arizona-javelina-pig-destroy-golf-course">the Imax of golf</a>”, was wantonly trashed by intruders in the autumn of 2023. But no, this was not Just Stop Oil <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4NB7FgPmx2w">back for another round</a>, nor the result of <a href="https://www.golfdigest.com/story/how-to-control-anger-golf-course">a disgruntled golfer</a>. In fact, it was the work of a squadron of <a href="https://www.desertmuseum.org/kids/oz/long-fact-sheets/Javelina.php">javelinas</a>.</p>
<p>Javelinas (or peccaries) are small but feisty relatives of the domesticated pig, found across the southern US and into South America. Like many of their relations, javelinas are bright, enterprising and with an extensive palate that includes everything from tubers to roadkill, though cacti are a firm favourite.</p>
<p>These tough little pigs are not the only porcine terrors of the fairway, though. In New Zealand, feral pigs have <a href="https://www.thepost.co.nz/nz-news/350051669/marauding-wild-pigs-rip-golf-course">grubbed up a course</a>; in southern China, wild boar damage has seen hunters <a href="https://www.thepost.co.nz/nz-news/350051669/marauding-wild-pigs-rip-golf-course">called in</a>; and in South Africa, warthogs do the pitch invading. </p>
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<p>These pig invaders hint at a role for golf in nature conservation that is not immediately obvious. A study of wild boar in Spain revealed that they raided golf courses less often during the COVID lockdown, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363435273_SARS-CoV-2_lockdown_reduced_wild_boar_raids_in_golf_courses">when hunting was curtailed</a>. </p>
<p>The courses offered a refuge from hunting which the pigs did not need during lockdowns. What else might they offer wildlife?</p>
<h2>The bogey of management</h2>
<p>When nestled within farmland or suburbs, golf courses can support <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10021-008-9217-1">markedly more biodiversity</a> than the surrounding landscapes, hosting inventories of wildlife that include birds, insects and amphibians.</p>
<p>Golf courses might provide all sorts of benefits to species. Those grassy expanses could offer a cooling oasis amid overheated concrete sprawl. Wildflower meadows that <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11252-019-00907-0">benefit bees and other pollinators</a> can also lure bats <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11252-023-01397-x">looking for insects to eat</a>. But these benefits depend on good management to create a mix of habitats, including flower-filled rough grass, scrub and woodland. </p>
<p>Wildlife-friendly golf course management can even benefit the game itself. The same flowers that entice pollinators attract natural enemies of turf-trashing caterpillars like the fall armyworm, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-019-00885-w">reducing the impact of this pest</a>. Water hazards that operate as wildlife ponds might also be a boon, but careless planting of showy plant varieties can <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10750-011-0678-4">push native flora out</a>.</p>
<p>There are sterner environmental challenges with running a golf course, though. Irrigation is a major drain on water – especially for courses in arid regions. Water draining from these courses may be polluted with pesticides or nutrients that <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/abs/10.1139/b03-081">alter the algae</a> in adjacent streams. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aerial view of a golf green surrounded by desert habitat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564305/original/file-20231207-15-ybbla2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564305/original/file-20231207-15-ybbla2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564305/original/file-20231207-15-ybbla2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564305/original/file-20231207-15-ybbla2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564305/original/file-20231207-15-ybbla2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564305/original/file-20231207-15-ybbla2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564305/original/file-20231207-15-ybbla2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Golf courses can be hard to justify in regions where water is scarce.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/scottsdale-golf-course-aerial-view-upscale-190651205">Dave Morgan/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Golfers themselves could be a large and generally affluent body of allies for nature conservation – although a nationwide survey conducted in France in 2021 suggested involvement in conservation is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213078023000567?via%3Dihub">not high on many golfers’ agendas</a>. Rampaging javelinas probably do not help.</p>
<p>French golfers have it easy compared with some of the creatures roaming the fairways in other countries. Florida’s golfers, for example, would do well to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RXn1g0xtUMk">keep an eye out for alligators</a>. But the wild can be a selling point for golf courses too. Some African courses even advertise their <a href="https://africafreak.com/golf-safaris-in-africa-when-golfing-embraces-wildlife">wildlife encounters</a>.</p>
<p>The Arizona course staff were understandably horrified by the damage done, but the javelinas have their fans too. Their media allies eulogise the javelinas’ cunning at exploiting our world, their complex family lives which may include <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/eth.12709">mourning their dead</a>, and their attempts at rewilding an alien habitat.</p>
<h2>Rewild the fairway</h2>
<p>The potential for letting nature take back golf courses may also be surprisingly high. </p>
<p>In the US, the total number of golf courses is declining, with <a href="https://www.golfpass.com/travel-advisor/closed-golf-courses-history">more closures than openings</a> since 2006 – many of them abandoned with no new purpose in mind. While some may be reused for housing, there are other possibilities, such as parks. Reversing the drainage from derelict courses could create new wetland habitats capable of stalling <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/88216">floods</a> during heavy rainfall.</p>
<p>However, abandoning courses may not be enough to benefit nature on its own. The hangover from past management, such as high nutrient levels in the soil, can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/biohorizons/hzn022">linger for years</a> and allow a small number of hyper-competitive species to dominate.</p>
<p>Projects to reverse this damage and rewild golf courses are springing up in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/dec/25/frodsham-cheshire-golf-course-transformed-woodland">England</a>, <a href="https://rewilding.academy/rewilding/rewilding-abandoned-golf-courses/">the US and Australia</a>. In all these cases, conservationists are planting native species, diversifying habitats and preventing water from draining. These interventions raise a thorny issue for conservationists – does <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(15)01575-4.pdf">it count as rewilding</a> if people are doing so much of the work?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A fox next to a tree with golfers in the distance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564302/original/file-20231207-17-ukpe7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564302/original/file-20231207-17-ukpe7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564302/original/file-20231207-17-ukpe7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564302/original/file-20231207-17-ukpe7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564302/original/file-20231207-17-ukpe7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564302/original/file-20231207-17-ukpe7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/564302/original/file-20231207-17-ukpe7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Golf courses lure wildlife looking for food and shelter.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fox-on-golf-course-sunny-summer-2272997033">Mats Silvan/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Perhaps we should look to the javelinas, an example of wildlife taking the initiative, for an answer. The usefulness of pigs and their kin for grubbing up the land is widely recognised in rewilding projects. They reset the stage, bringing static landscapes <a href="https://knepp.co.uk/rewilding/free-roaming-herbivores/tamworth-pigs/">back to life</a>. On a farm that was returned to nature in Sussex, England, the <a href="https://knepp.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/The-Vegetation-of-the-Pig-Rootled-Areas-at-Knepp-Wildland-and-their-use-by-Farmland-Birds-Ivan-de-Klee.pdf">rooting around of pigs</a> has been credited with opening up bare ground and allowing annual weeds to flourish, whose seeds then sustain a remarkable number of endangered turtle doves. </p>
<p>It has become fashionable among opponents of rewilding to <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2023/07/12/race-to-rewild-britain-is-putting-food-security-at-risk/">criticise</a> this approach to nature conservation for taking land out of food production. But the use of agriculturally productive land for golf courses goes unremarked. </p>
<p>Don’t blame the javelinas for taking matters into their own trotters.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Jeffries does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
A herd of javelinas wrecked a pristine golf course. Is this rewilding in action?
Mike Jeffries, Associate Professor, Ecology, Northumbria University, Newcastle
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/215832
2023-11-01T17:04:03Z
2023-11-01T17:04:03Z
Our new map reveals the effects of 20th century land-use and climate change on Britain’s wild species
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556825/original/file-20231031-25-eweeyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C24%2C5413%2C2553&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/arable-land-ploughed-field-background-panorama-2159524289">Brian A Jackson/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Under the stewardship of geographer <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dudley-Stamp">Sir Dudley Stamp</a>, thousands of volunteers (including many schoolchildren) came together in the 1930s on a mission that sounds relatively simple on paper: to record how British land was being used. </p>
<p>Equipped with an Ordnance Survey map, a clipboard and a pencil, these volunteers recorded information that collectively formed the earliest <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1784994?origin=crossref">spatial record</a> of where and how the British people were using their environment at the beginning of the third agricultural revolution. Spanning the mid-20th century, that revolution changed the British landscape almost beyond recognition.</p>
<p>The landscape changed largely because it had to. More land was brought into production to feed a growing post-war population. This involved converting semi-natural habitats to cropland, removing hedgerows and enhancing pastures with fertilisers and faster-growing fodder (creating agriculturally “improved” grassland). More homes were also built to provide a better quality of life.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-42475-0">our new study</a>, we digitally converted scanned copies of the Dudley Stamp maps and compared them with modern-day satellite data to record the full extent of land-use change across Britain in the mid-20th century. Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.5878/9wks-qg91">change map</a> outlines the level of land conversion for every 10km x 10km grid square of Britain.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556675/original/file-20231030-27-8x99t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A digital map showing the proportion of land converted in Britain between the 1930s and 2007." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556675/original/file-20231030-27-8x99t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556675/original/file-20231030-27-8x99t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=843&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556675/original/file-20231030-27-8x99t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=843&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556675/original/file-20231030-27-8x99t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=843&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556675/original/file-20231030-27-8x99t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1059&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556675/original/file-20231030-27-8x99t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1059&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556675/original/file-20231030-27-8x99t6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1059&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Land conversion in Britain between the 1930s and 2007. Higher values indicate that more land changed use in that area.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-42475-0">Suggitt et al. (2023)/Nature Communications</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Mapping land-use change in Britain</h2>
<p>We estimate that roughly 90% of <a href="https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/habitats/grassland/lowland-meadow-and-pasture">lowland meadow and pasture</a> has been lost. Land was converted either to arable farmland, which saw a 22% increase, or to agriculturally improved grassland, which now occupies 27% of Britain’s land area.</p>
<p>Urbanisation saw the nation’s built area expand from 4% to 5%. And woodland cover doubled from 6% to 12%, largely due to a concerted effort to increase the country’s reserve of timber. For better or worse, the nation’s land use became less mixed and more consolidated.</p>
<p>All of this environmental change is thought to have had a profound effect on biodiversity. According to the recent <a href="https://stateofnature.org.uk/">State of Nature Report</a>, the abundance of UK species has declined by an average of 19% since 1970. Some 1,500 species (or 16% of those analysed) are now threatened with national extinction.</p>
<p>The impacts of climate change on biodiversity are also becoming ever more apparent in almost all the Earth’s ecosystems and at all levels of biological organisation – <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf7671">from genes right up to ecosystems</a>. There is no doubt that increasing human activity is posing a greater series of challenges for the natural world in this new geological epoch we term “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14258">the Anthropocene</a>”.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dawn-of-the-anthropocene-five-ways-we-know-humans-have-triggered-a-new-geological-epoch-52867">Dawn of the Anthropocene: five ways we know humans have triggered a new geological epoch</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556690/original/file-20231030-30-ia0qku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map from the original Land Use Survey of Britain." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556690/original/file-20231030-30-ia0qku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556690/original/file-20231030-30-ia0qku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556690/original/file-20231030-30-ia0qku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556690/original/file-20231030-30-ia0qku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556690/original/file-20231030-30-ia0qku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556690/original/file-20231030-30-ia0qku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556690/original/file-20231030-30-ia0qku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ambleside and Great Langdale, as surveyed by the Land Use Survey of Britain in 1931/32. Large areas of upland Britain were classified as rough hill pasture or commons (yellow shading).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Giles Clark</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s driving biodiversity change?</h2>
<p>Although evidence documenting widespread changes to biodiversity is now relatively easy to come by, attributing these changes to a particular driver, or series of drivers, continues to prove quite difficult. This is because we know relatively little about how these drivers can “interact” with one another to make things worse.</p>
<p>But the net effect of drivers acting in concert can be quite different to the individual effect of each driver acting alone. For example, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04644-x">research</a> has demonstrated that climate change is more likely to lower insect diversity in agricultural landscapes compared to more natural systems.</p>
<p>Disentangling the different drivers of biodiversity change has proved particularly problematic in the UK. The intensification of agriculture and the other changes in land use of the mid-20th century occurred before Earth observation satellites were in orbit. Many habitats were lost before we could document the true scale of the change and, just as importantly, which regions, landscapes and locations were most affected.</p>
<h2>Climate and land-use change acting together</h2>
<p>Making our new land-use change map for Britain meant that we could now finally investigate the extent to which this change combined with climate change to worsen the prognosis for the country’s flora and fauna.</p>
<p>Our investigation determined that these drivers did not often interact. In fact, less than one in five of the species we studied were affected by change drivers acting to accelerate or dampen one other. And their combined effect on extinction risk was often mild. </p>
<p>For roughly three-quarters of the species that responded to environmental change (668 of 898 species), we found that climate warming and land conversion acted independently of one other. This means that for species like the <a href="https://butterfly-conservation.org/butterflies/small-pearl-bordered-fritillary">small pearl-bordered fritillary butterfly</a> (<em>Boloria selene</em>), which predominantly inhabits cooler and wetter habitats, the impacts of warming temperatures and habitat loss, while detrimental, have not exacerbated each other to increase the chance of the butterfly’s populations dying out.</p>
<p>Many species were only affected by one of the change drivers we analysed, and not both. We found that <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/globeflower">globeflower</a> (<em>Trollius europaeus</em>), for example, has declined due to habitat loss alone.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556669/original/file-20231030-27-j6zkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Globeflower flowering in a meadow." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556669/original/file-20231030-27-j6zkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556669/original/file-20231030-27-j6zkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556669/original/file-20231030-27-j6zkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556669/original/file-20231030-27-j6zkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556669/original/file-20231030-27-j6zkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556669/original/file-20231030-27-j6zkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556669/original/file-20231030-27-j6zkc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Globeflower has declined due to habitat loss. Some 53% of open grassland habitat such as this has been lost in the UK over the past 75 years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pmau</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Because our results were less complicated than we expected, the so-called “winners” and “losers” of environmental change among British flora and fauna might be easier to predict than we anticipated. However, the highly individual responses to change we detected – and the wide split between winners and losers associated with these responses – mean it is difficult to come up with rules of thumb for conservationists, authorities or land managers to use when taking action on the extinction crisis. </p>
<p>As such, we need to maintain our emphasis on the inclusion of species-level information when devising plans to maintain biodiversity. We also need to continue supporting biological recording efforts, as these often act as the barometer by which we can judge if conservation measures are successful.</p>
<p>We hope that our study is the first of many to make full use of the valuable information collected by Dudley Stamp and his volunteer army almost 100 years ago. Digital versions of our maps are publicly available for <a href="https://doi.org/10.5878/9wks-qg91">free download</a> so that researchers, conservationists and the general public can see where Britain’s landscape has changed the most.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Britain has lost large areas of semi-natural habitat since the 1930s.
Andrew Suggitt, Assistant Professor, Northumbria University, Newcastle
Alistair Auffret, Senior Lecturer in Landscape Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/214343
2023-09-28T12:29:06Z
2023-09-28T12:29:06Z
Tropical climates are the most biodiverse on Earth − but it’s not only because of how warm and wet they are
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550347/original/file-20230926-17-14uatg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=179%2C40%2C5115%2C3013&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Natural selection can get to work in isolated locations.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/YLoZAyUKVv8">Birger Strahl/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Life exists in every conceivable environment on Earth, from the peaks of towering mountains to the remote stretches of isolated islands, from sunlit surfaces to the darkest depths of the oceans. Yet, this intricate tapestry of existence isn’t spread uniformly.</p>
<p>For centuries, scientists have marveled at the extraordinary variety of species exhibited in tropical regions. The breathtaking biodiversity of the Amazon rainforest, the teeming life in Madagascar’s unique ecosystems, the species-rich cloud forests of Costa Rica – the tropics showcase nature’s opulence.</p>
<p>What makes the tropics so incredibly diverse?</p>
<p>Since the dawn of biodiversity studies, scientists have believed the predominant factor is <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/climate-meteorology">climate</a> – the long-term patterns of temperature, precipitation and other atmospheric conditions. Thinkers like <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-most-influential-scientist-you-may-never-have-heard-of-35285">Alexander von Humboldt</a> set the stage in the early 19th century with their keen observations, highlighting how life-rich regions <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02197-8">often shared certain climatic features</a>. Fast-forward to the present, and scientists <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.05613">confidently correlate climate with biodiversity</a>. Simply put, hotter, wetter, resource-rich regions are veritable cradles of life.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550930/original/file-20230928-29-ohb2bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="hilly landscape descending toward blue inlet" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550930/original/file-20230928-29-ohb2bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550930/original/file-20230928-29-ohb2bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550930/original/file-20230928-29-ohb2bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550930/original/file-20230928-29-ohb2bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550930/original/file-20230928-29-ohb2bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550930/original/file-20230928-29-ohb2bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550930/original/file-20230928-29-ohb2bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Mediterranean climate is named after where it occurs in Southern Europe, but similar isolated conditions are scattered across the globe in parts of California, central Chile, the Western Cape of South Africa and southwestern Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/oludeniz-royalty-free-image/1155048315">bodrumsurf/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some climatic conditions spread across vast landscapes, while others appear fragmented, resembling isolated islands amid varying climates. This difference raises an intriguing question: Is an area’s biodiversity solely due to its climate? Or do the size and relative isolation of these climatic pockets influence the richness and abundance of species that thrive within them?</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9zfvf9kAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">We are part of</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=WUFF6hMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">an international</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=BtH6Zm0AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">interdisciplinary team</a> interested in the puzzle of how the geography of climate and the global patterns of species diversity fit together. Geography of climate is a bigger part of the biodiversity picture than previously assumed, according to our study findings <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06577-5">recently published in the journal Nature</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550763/original/file-20230927-25-dnpvu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="map of continents showing areas with more amphibian species marked red, mostly in the tropics" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550763/original/file-20230927-25-dnpvu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550763/original/file-20230927-25-dnpvu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550763/original/file-20230927-25-dnpvu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550763/original/file-20230927-25-dnpvu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550763/original/file-20230927-25-dnpvu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550763/original/file-20230927-25-dnpvu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550763/original/file-20230927-25-dnpvu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Researchers commonly consider the geographical distribution of species, as displayed on this map highlighting the number of amphibian species across various regions of the world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marco Túlio Pacheco Coelho</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Unraveling the geography of climate</h2>
<p>Historically, to study global biodiversity patterns, researchers divided the world into equal area grids and counted the species in each square.</p>
<p>Our study diverged from conventional methods. Instead of focusing solely on specific geographical locations, we centered our attention on the unique climate profiles of regions. Essentially, we weren’t just looking at plots on Earth but every place that shared a particular set of climatic conditions. We then classified these conditions globally and meticulously counted the species – birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles – that live within the boundaries of each climate.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550764/original/file-20230927-21-ad52h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a heat map of amphibian richness along a horizontal axis from cold to warm and a vertical axis from wet to dry" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550764/original/file-20230927-21-ad52h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550764/original/file-20230927-21-ad52h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550764/original/file-20230927-21-ad52h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550764/original/file-20230927-21-ad52h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550764/original/file-20230927-21-ad52h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550764/original/file-20230927-21-ad52h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550764/original/file-20230927-21-ad52h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mapping species in this climate space, rather than traditional geographical analyses of species diversity, revealed deeper insights into the relationships between biodiversity and climate.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marco Túlio Pacheco Coelho</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Central to our investigation was an exploration of the geography of these climates, examining both their size and isolation. Some climates are widespread and common, sprawling over vast areas. Others are more fragmented, emerging as isolated pockets amid different climatic zones, reminiscent of islands in a vast ocean of other diverse climates. Consider tropical climates: They cover vast expanses cumulatively, despite being broken up into smaller, unconnected bits, even on different continents.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06577-5">Our findings were illuminating</a>. Climate, of course, was an important factor in how many species flourished in a location. But we were intrigued to find that about a third of the variation we found in species diversity across the globe can be attributed solely to the size and degree of isolation of all the instances of a particular climate. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550772/original/file-20230927-27-d71col.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="lush green forest scene" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550772/original/file-20230927-27-d71col.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550772/original/file-20230927-27-d71col.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550772/original/file-20230927-27-d71col.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550772/original/file-20230927-27-d71col.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550772/original/file-20230927-27-d71col.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550772/original/file-20230927-27-d71col.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550772/original/file-20230927-27-d71col.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The warm, resource-rich Costa Rican tropical forest bursts with biodiversity − partly because it’s a unique climate island amid a vast ocean of varying conditions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/cloud-forest-from-costa-rica-royalty-free-image/532812903">bogdanhoria/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Biodiversity responds not just to the type of climate but its <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02937-3">spatial distribution</a>. Beyond the known effects of warmth and moisture, we found that larger and more isolated climates foster greater species diversity. Moreover, these expansive, broken-up climates not only housed a greater number of species but also nurtured a more unique combination of species.</p>
<p>By leveraging but transcending traditional methodologies, our approach unearthed novel insights about the geographical characteristics of climates. We discovered that the larger a climatic zone is, the more fragmented and scattered it tends to be across the landscape.</p>
<h2>Isolation spurs diversity</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550245/original/file-20230926-29-50omss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="sea of snowy pine trees on mountainous terrain" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550245/original/file-20230926-29-50omss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550245/original/file-20230926-29-50omss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550245/original/file-20230926-29-50omss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550245/original/file-20230926-29-50omss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550245/original/file-20230926-29-50omss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550245/original/file-20230926-29-50omss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550245/original/file-20230926-29-50omss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cooler extra-tropical climates connect more cohesively around the globe.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/kKadFByUqEo">Ciprian Boiciuc/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Traditionally, scientists have thought of tropical climates as cohesive expanses, standing as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.012103.144032">barriers between the distinct extra-tropical climates</a> of our planet’s poles. Our analysis confirmed that cooler extra-tropical climates are relatively well connected across much of the planet.</p>
<p>Yet, our findings reveal a different narrative for the tropics: Tropical climates appear more as fragmented islands amid a sea of diverse climates, rather than expansive, interconnected realms. Our revelation underscores that tropical climates, while abundant, are dispersed and disjointed across the Earth’s surface.</p>
<p>Drawing a parallel, consider how mountainous regions harbor <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-so-many-languages-spoken-in-some-places-and-so-few-in-others-116573">isolated valleys where people speak distinct dialects</a> shaped by their seclusion. Nature mirrors this: Species in isolated climatic niches evolve distinctly, creating a diverse and unique tableau of life.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-could-cause-abrupt-biodiversity-losses-this-century-135968">specter of climate change</a>, however, casts a long shadow over these insights. A world undergoing rapid warming might witness once vast climates fragmenting further. Such shifts could challenge species, compelling them to traverse daunting landscapes to find suitable habitats. If these once expansive climates recede, it could disrupt the entire balance of species interactions.</p>
<p>Understanding the interplay between biodiversity and climate is not merely an intellectual pursuit. It provides direction in helping people protect and appreciate the diverse symphony of life in our evolving world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214343/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Graham receives funding from Swiss National Fund, European Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dave Roberts received a stipend from WSL when he was a Fellow there during his stay in Switzerland when this work was initiated.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marco Túlio Pacheco Coelho does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
A new study reveals how the geography of global climates influences the rich patterns of species diversity in an ever-changing world.
Marco Túlio Pacheco Coelho, Postdoctoral research associate, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL)
Catherine Graham, Senior Researcher at Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research and Adjunct Associate Professor of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University (The State University of New York)
Dave Roberts, Professor Emeritus of Ecology, Montana State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/201615
2023-05-31T15:54:22Z
2023-05-31T15:54:22Z
Beavers are the undiscovered engineers of the boreal forest
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516413/original/file-20230320-14-qaiu4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C5%2C992%2C631&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The beaver lives at the intersection of the aquatic and forest environments, so its presence increases interactions between these two ecosystems.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>While hiking near a river, chances are you’ve seen the tell-tale tree stumps with cone-shaped tips. Who carves these? A large, flat-tailed rodent called the Canadian beaver (<em>Castor canadensis</em>), who also happens to be the emblem of our country. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong>This article is part of <em>La Conversation Canada’s</em> series <a href="https://theconversation.com/ca-fr/topics/foret-boreale-138017">The boreal forest: A thousand secrets, a thousand dangers</a></strong></p>
<p><br><em>La Conversation Canada invites you to take a virtual walk in the heart of the boreal forest. In this series, our experts focus on management and sustainable development issues, natural disturbances, the ecology of terrestrial wildlife and aquatic ecosystems, northern agriculture and the cultural and economic importance of the boreal forest for Indigenous peoples. We hope you have a pleasant — and informative — walk through the forest!</em></p>
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<p>The beaver is the only animal species, other than humans, that is capable of felling a mature tree. In the boreal forest, it plays the role of an ecosystem engineer. In other words, beavers create new habitats by building dams that raise the water level. The impacts of these dams on the land can create headaches for many industries and owners of infrastructure. </p>
<p>We think we understand the disruptive presence of beavers on the forest quite well. But when it comes to handling the conflicts that beavers provoke in an ethical and sustainable way, we actually have a poor understanding of the dynamics of beavers’ occupation of the territory. </p>
<p>In order to delve deeper into these dynamics, we decided to conduct a study in Abitibi-Témiscamingue. The region has the highest density of beaver colonies in Québec, a province where the species abounds. </p>
<p>The goal of this master’s project in ecology, carried out as part of the work of the <a href="https://www.uqat.ca/recherche/grema/">GRÉMA</a> research group at the Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT), is to demystify the secrets of beavers, one of the key species of boreal forests.</p>
<h2>Disruptive agents who make their presence known</h2>
<p>The beaver lives at the intersection of the aquatic and forest environments, so its presence increases interactions between these two ecosystems. The beaver is also part and parcel of the natural disturbances that take place in the boreal forest. Beaver constructions influence the structure of plant stands and shape the heterogeneity of the landscape. The ponds that beavers create on rivers trap water, slow the current, fill groundwater reservoirs, protect the land from forest fires and increase biodiversity by creating new habitats that are suitable for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1494">many species</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510408/original/file-20230215-6125-wmvqwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="three beavers on the ice" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510408/original/file-20230215-6125-wmvqwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510408/original/file-20230215-6125-wmvqwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510408/original/file-20230215-6125-wmvqwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510408/original/file-20230215-6125-wmvqwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510408/original/file-20230215-6125-wmvqwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510408/original/file-20230215-6125-wmvqwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510408/original/file-20230215-6125-wmvqwn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Beavers live in colonies of two to eight individuals from the same family.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Much of the composition of the boreal forest today is the result of a succession of plant species that thrived in the gaps (openings) in the canopy beavers left behind. Recently, land managers have been advocating in favour of a more ecosystem-based approach to forest management. This would involve incorporating simulations of disturbances, such as those created by beavers, into silviculture (forest management) plans. </p>
<p>When beavers are naturally present in an area, this approach makes it possible to take into account the history of local disturbances, which increase the resilience of forest stands to future disturbances. </p>
<h2>Highly developed lodging</h2>
<p>The beaver builds a lodge to protect itself from predators, for use as cover and to store food. It prefers gently sloping land with a soft substrate where the water level is stable and the flow rate low. Beavers live indoors in colonies of two to eight individuals of the same family. </p>
<p>Recent studies have shown that beaver colonies will occupy a single lodge for an average of two and a half years, and often have more than one lodge in their <a href="https://doi.org/10.2981/0909-6396(2008)14%5B302:Hdobcc%5D2.0.Co;2">territory</a>. Beavers use their different lodges according to their needs. For example, they will choose their lodge according to the location of seasonal resources present during the summer, such as aquatic plants, which they love.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510407/original/file-20230215-6125-9vcxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="beaver lodge" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510407/original/file-20230215-6125-9vcxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510407/original/file-20230215-6125-9vcxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510407/original/file-20230215-6125-9vcxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510407/original/file-20230215-6125-9vcxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510407/original/file-20230215-6125-9vcxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510407/original/file-20230215-6125-9vcxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510407/original/file-20230215-6125-9vcxg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The beaver builds a lodge to protect itself from predators, to use as cover and to store food.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>We need to cut deeper</h2>
<p>We know that this rodent feeds mainly on deciduous trees such as aspen, willow or oak. Since these trees are not always dominant in the boreal forest (which is populated by conifers such as black spruce, balsam fir and jack pine), it makes sense to ask questions about the rodent’s supply strategies in this type of forest. </p>
<p>Spatial use of the territory (called the area of influence) could vary according to the food resources available. It is also limited by the mobility of the animal and the threat of predators. In order to study this use, we will attempt to reconstruct the pattern of occupation and alternation of lodges of several beaver colonies.</p>
<p>Lack of knowledge on this subject owes partly to the fact that it is difficult to study an animal that is nocturnal, half-terrestrial and half-aquatic. Because of the beaver’s neck and tail shape, researchers cannot use telemetric collars to track their movements with antennae. We have therefore opted to observe them in the wild and use dendroecological data collection and stable isotope analysis, which we will be doing in the summer of 2023. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15988-6_2">Dendroecology</a> will provide us with temporal information about beaver lodges. This science, described as the study of annual plant growth rings in an ecological context, will be used to construct an <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/f11020221">occupancy profile</a> of beaver lodges over time. </p>
<p>Using a sample of huts, we will cut all regenerated stump sprouts at the base of the hut following grazing of the main stem, also known as coppice, and count the number of annual rings. This will make it possible to date when these resources were consumed and thus, to define the period of occupation of the territory by a given colony, in one or several huts. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514265/original/file-20230308-28-vf0p8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514265/original/file-20230308-28-vf0p8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514265/original/file-20230308-28-vf0p8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514265/original/file-20230308-28-vf0p8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514265/original/file-20230308-28-vf0p8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514265/original/file-20230308-28-vf0p8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514265/original/file-20230308-28-vf0p8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514265/original/file-20230308-28-vf0p8v.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=597&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many species, including aspen, regenerate by coppicing, following grazing of the main stem by beavers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Melanie Arsenault), Provided by author</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our research will also use stable isotopes in a hundred or so carcasses recovered from trappers in the Abitibi region. Isotopes are widely used in ecology and can make it possible for researchers to reconstruct an animal’s diet. An isotope is an atom of a certain element that has a different number of neutrons than the atom found in its pure state, without altering its nature. The methods used are based on comparing the level of a given isotope found in the body to a reference level. </p>
<p>Carbon and nitrogen will be the focus of this study. Since each plant and organism has a unique isotopic signature (a ratio of carbon¹³ and nitrogen¹⁵), this method will allow us to identify the diet of the beaver. Specifically, we will be able to determine the different components of the beaver’s diet, their proportion and their general origin (i.e. whether they come from the terrestrial or aquatic environment). The isotopes also renew themselves at different rates depending on the tissue. We will therefore be able to match the diet to a certain time frame by testing different organs (liver, hair and muscles in this case).</p>
<h2>An ally we shouldn’t scorn</h2>
<p>Climate change shows us that the temperate forest is migrating <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14332">northwards</a>, leading to an increase in beaver habitats. We can therefore expect an increase in beaver populations. Since this phenomenon coincides with an expanding network of forest roads and human development, we need to arm ourselves with the knowledge necessary to be able to deal with the increased human-animal conflicts that could result. </p>
<p>The beaver provides important services to its ecosystem. It is a serious ally in the fight against climate change, providing us with a more stable water supply over time. Its habitat provides a refuge for many species. We have everything to gain by learning more about the beaver’s habitat selection strategies so that we can learn to co-exist with them in harmony. </p>
<p>The development of this knowledge will be a great asset when it comes to planning different types of infrastructure in boreal territory, where this rodent abounds. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510134/original/file-20230214-22-ka8so1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510134/original/file-20230214-22-ka8so1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510134/original/file-20230214-22-ka8so1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510134/original/file-20230214-22-ka8so1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510134/original/file-20230214-22-ka8so1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510134/original/file-20230214-22-ka8so1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510134/original/file-20230214-22-ka8so1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The beaver is the only animal species, other than humans, that is capable of cutting down a mature tree.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Melanie Arsenault), Provided by the author</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201615/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Miguel Montoro Girona received funding from the MRC-Abitibi and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) - Discovery Grant to conduct this research.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Guillaume Grosbois is a member of the Groupe de Recherche en Écologie of the MRC-Abitibi (GREMA) and the Institut de Recherche sur les Forêts (IRF) of the Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT). He received funding from the MRC-Abitibi.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mélanie Arsenault is the recipient of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) 2022 Canada Graduate Scholarship at the Master's level.</span></em></p>
Beavers are an important ecosystem engineer in the boreal forest and researchers are demystifying their secrets.
Miguel Montoro Girona, Professeur d'écologie forestière, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT)
Guillaume Grosbois, Professeur Écologie Aquatique, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT)
Mélanie Arsenault, Étudiante à la maîtrise en écologie, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue (UQAT)
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/205230
2023-05-22T10:59:03Z
2023-05-22T10:59:03Z
Butterfly behaviour shows ways to protect natural habitats in a rapidly changing world
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525078/original/file-20230509-19-kh5sk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C417%2C1807%2C1004&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Sooty blue butterfly (_Zizeeria knysna_), a common yet easily missed resident species in grassland habitats.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Charl Deacon</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Natural landscapes are continually transformed to make room for agricultural and urban developments – often at the expense of important habitats and species.</p>
<p>That’s why, to avoid unnecessary species extinctions, it’s crucial to know which habitats to protect. In a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320723001775">recent paper</a> we studied how changes to the landscape affected butterflies in a grassland area of South Africa’s KwaZulu-Natal province.</p>
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<p>The sheer speed at which landscapes are being transformed by human activity means that conservationists simply don’t have the time to gather detailed information on all the species in a particular region. That slows down conservation responses. It’s also not always possible to conserve entire landscapes and doing so is not always economically feasible.</p>
<p>Butterflies are icons in the sky. On warm summer days we can watch them dance elegantly from flower to flower. But they aren’t just beautiful to look at. They are <a href="https://www.entomoljournal.com/archives/2016/vol4issue2/PartB/4-2-36.1.pdf">important pollinators</a>, and are important in natural food chains. For scientists, they are sentinel species. By identifying how they interact with landscapes we gain a better understanding of how other insect species do, too.</p>
<p>Our research offers a closer look at how butterflies interact with the landscapes they roam. This, in turn, allows us to delve into how conservation measures can be adopted to better protect butterfly communities against the effects of people changing natural habitats.</p>
<p>We found that a variety of different grassland types, in addition to flower diversity, is important for butterflies. When it’s not possible to conserve whole grassland areas, a variety of smaller grassland patches can help protect butterflies and other insects against environmental transformation. This means that effective insect conservation is possible in areas earmarked for large-scale transformation – without sacrificing economic gain.</p>
<h2>The landscape</h2>
<p>Timber estates occupy a large proportion of the grassland landscape in the KwaZulu-Natal province, where we conducted our study. This leaves little habitat for grassland butterflies in some areas. </p>
<p>To ensure that the biological impact of plantation forestry is minimised, forestry practitioners have moved towards leaving at least a third of natural grasslands untouched among timber plantations. This provides butterflies and other insects with enough habitat to roam the landscape while timber production continues in other sections.</p>
<p>But this approach raises an important question: does it matter which grasslands are set aside for conservation? Or is one grassland much the same as another?</p>
<h2>The butterflies</h2>
<p>Many butterfly species roam in high elevation habitats, like the Mistbelt Grasslands of KwaZulu-Natal province. The area also forms part of one of the world’s <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books/about/Hotspots_Revisited.html?id=kD1iSgAACAAJ&redir_esc=y">biodiversity hotspots</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525843/original/file-20230512-15-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525843/original/file-20230512-15-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525843/original/file-20230512-15-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525843/original/file-20230512-15-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525843/original/file-20230512-15-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525843/original/file-20230512-15-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525843/original/file-20230512-15-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525843/original/file-20230512-15-skp3ru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Geranium bronze butterfly settles on some flowers in the study area.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Charl Deacon</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Inconspicuous species such as the Natal spotted blue (<em>Azanus natalensis</em>) and the Meadow blue (<em>Cupidopsis cissus cissus</em>), along with large and showy species such as the Mountain pride (<em>Aeropetes tulbaghia</em>), frequent grasslands in the region. A keen eye might even spot some magisterial species briefly darting over, like the Flying handkerchief (<em>Papilio dardanus cenea</em>). Strikingly, these species and their counterparts rarely enter timber plantation compartments; they rely on grassland habitats.</p>
<p>We recorded and counted as many butterfly species as we could, allowing us to determine just how important natural grassland habitats are among plantation compartments. The results were clear – butterflies need grassland habitats to outlive human transformation.</p>
<h2>Not that simple</h2>
<p>There is a catch. Conserving only one or a few feature grassland types won’t protect all butterfly species. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320723001775">Our results</a> show that grasslands of similar types vary considerably. Each grassland has a set of characteristics that defines them such as availability of sunlight during the day, resistance to fire outbreaks and richness of flowering plants. These characteristics are important for attracting particular butterfly species that would avoid another type of grassland.</p>
<p>Butterflies are highly mobile insects. Many species rely on small elevation variations to complete their day-to-day tasks. In particular, butterflies move up and down the elevation gradient to avoid, or catch, more sun. This means it’s important for butterflies to have access to habitats at various elevations throughout the day.</p>
<p>Butterfly population levels are also highly variable between seasons and from one year to the next. During times when feeding and breeding resources are scarce, butterfly populations may be more concentrated in areas where resources are more reliable. Resources are often more reliable in nature reserves, meaning that butterflies need to access them. </p>
<p>When grassland patches among plantations are connected to nature reserves at the landscape level, they are more accessible to moving butterflies. This means that butterfly diversity is higher in grasslands that are close to, and connected to, neighbouring protected areas.</p>
<p>All of this is important information because it can help in guiding decisions about where to focus grassland conservation efforts in the region.</p>
<h2>Next steps</h2>
<p>Our study shows that landscape variety is best and that taking this landscape-scale variety into consideration in conservation practices can greatly counteract human impact on natural systems. </p>
<p>In viewing butterflies as sentinels in conservation, we can use this information to decide which grasslands to conserve, or restore, to better protect all their insect residents.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205230/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charl Deacon is a post-doctoral researcher affiliated with the Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University. His research is funded by the Foundational Biodiversity Information Programme (FBIP) and Mondi Group International.</span></em></p>
Butterflies are sentinel species – their interactions with landscapes help scientists understand other insects better.
Charl Deacon, Post-doctoral Research Fellow in Entomology, Stellenbosch University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/201366
2023-05-03T14:31:01Z
2023-05-03T14:31:01Z
How to move without legs or wings: Helping trees migrate to new regions
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514723/original/file-20230310-29-l0lox6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C2%2C991%2C658&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Trees are rooted to the ground — but they move into new areas as the wind carries their seeds or seedlings are planted.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>While it is true that individual trees are immobile, as a species they can actually move and migrate as well as birds do! However, this takes place over a much different time frame. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524152/original/file-20230503-20-rp105s.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong>This article is part of <em>La Conversation Canada’s</em> series <a href="https://theconversation.com/ca-fr/topics/foret-boreale-138017">The boreal forest: A thousand secrets, a thousand dangers</a></strong></p>
<p><br><em>La Conversation Canada invites you to take a virtual walk in the heart of the boreal forest. In this series, our experts focus on management and sustainable development issues, natural disturbances, the ecology of terrestrial wildlife and aquatic ecosystems, northern agriculture and the cultural and economic importance of the boreal forest for Indigenous peoples. We hope you have a pleasant — and informative — walk through the forest!</em></p>
<hr>
<p>This is what we will explore in this article, the first in our new summer series. As researchers in forest ecophysiology, we study basic tree physical functions and relate them to broader ecological dynamics. Rapid climate change is challenging the sustainability of forest ecosystems in many ways. To deal with the new problems associated with climate change, we need new tools: “assisted tree migration” is one of these. </p>
<p>And to inspire us, this excerpt from a song by Québec poet Gilles Vigneault:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I planted an oak tree at the end of my field, </p>
<p>will I lose my sorrow?</p>
<p>Will I lose my time?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Let’s get the definitions out of the way first: assisted migration refers to the “<a href="https://pubs.cif-ifc.org/doi/10.5558/tfc2011-089">human-assisted movement of species in response to climate change</a>.” We usually associate the term ‘migration’ with the movement of people or the seasonal flights of birds. </p>
<p>We don’t typically think about forest migration, however, and it may even seem weird to associate these two terms. After all, trees are typically rooted to the ground and don’t move. Or do they?</p>
<h2>The moving forest</h2>
<p>Tree migration occurs through seed dispersal, and the germination and establishment of new seedlings. After some time, these seedlings will start producing new seeds and contribute to this slow geographical expansion.</p>
<p>Migration strategies may differ among tree species. For example, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262953744_Mechanism_of_autorotation_flight_of_maple_samaras_Acer_palmatum">maple samaras</a> are wind-carried seeds that can travel faster and further than the acorns of an oak tree, limited by their heavy weight. However, new seedlings require years, often decades to grow and produce seeds that can migrate further than their parents.</p>
<p>This movement, which takes place over a period of centuries — generally too slow for our conception of time — can <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1752-4571.2007.00013.x">become limiting</a> in the face of rapid human-induced changes in climate systems.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510181/original/file-20230214-1870-o5vnke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="oak acorns" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510181/original/file-20230214-1870-o5vnke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510181/original/file-20230214-1870-o5vnke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510181/original/file-20230214-1870-o5vnke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510181/original/file-20230214-1870-o5vnke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510181/original/file-20230214-1870-o5vnke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510181/original/file-20230214-1870-o5vnke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510181/original/file-20230214-1870-o5vnke.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Maple samaras, carried by the wind, can travel faster and farther than the acorns of an oak tree, which are limited by their imposing weight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Fast changes, slow trees</h2>
<p>Current climate change is quickly <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-ii/">modifying environmental conditions</a>. No natural warming event in the past has occurred at a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2681">comparable rate</a>. Such rapid changes are putting great pressure on forest ecosystems, particularly by modifying habitat conditions.</p>
<p>The migration speeds of the vast majority of tree species <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ddi.13630">are slower than the shift of favourable habitats</a>. This means that their migration to new favourable habitats (e.g. cold regions in the north becoming warmer) will not compensate for the loss of habitats in other areas (e.g. warm regions in the south becoming drier).</p>
<p>This mismatch between changing habitat conditions and natural tree migration entails a loss of forest vigour. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/57/11/939/234280">A decline</a> is predicted for many tree species, which may in turn jeopardize local forest ecosystems.</p>
<h2>Helping trees migrate</h2>
<p>We are being called upon to find strategies to help forests adapt to new climatic conditions. This motivates researchers and forest managers to consider new approaches to solving this problem, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.5849/jof.13-016">assisted migration</a>. </p>
<p>Artificial seed transfer and planting can accelerate the natural migration process and help overcome geographical barriers, such as mountain ranges or large water surfaces. Assisted migration could therefore be used to help maintain functional forest ecosystems in the future. This is not only important for the conservation of species, but also for the maintenance of all the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780080983493000244">services</a> forests provide, from wood production to carbon sequestration from the atmosphere.</p>
<p>In general, short-distance relocation is easier to achieve, while longer-distance migration requires careful planning. Since the latter presents higher ecological risks, it is generally only considered <a href="https://pubs.cif-ifc.org/doi/10.5558/tfc2011-089">for the conservation of endangered species</a>. </p>
<p>But enough theory, let’s move on to concrete examples.</p>
<h2>A Canadian example</h2>
<p>The sugar maple (<em>Acer saccharum</em>) is an iconic tree species in Canada. As climate change intensifies, sugar maples in the southern portion of the range <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1890/ES15-00238.1">are suffering from increased competition</a> from trees that are more tolerant to warmer, drier conditions, such as American beech (<em>Fagus grandifolia</em>).</p>
<p>At the same time, researchers have found that areas near the northern limit of maple’s range are becoming <a href="https://academic.oup.com/forestscience/article/67/4/446/6270781">increasingly suitable for this species</a>. In this case, assisted migration could help northern forests adapt faster to new conditions, and provide valuable services such as maple syrup production. So why not just go ahead with the technique?</p>
<h2>Pioneers</h2>
<p>In 2019, the University of Québec in Chicoutimi (UQAC) established an experimental sugar maple plantation at the northern edge of its range, in the Saguenay region of Québec. The experiment is being conducted in partnership with a local family farm, which has chosen to dedicate part of its land to scientific research and the vision of a productive sugar bush for future generations.</p>
<p>The plantation, counting 500 young trees issued from several populations in Québec and the United States, will celebrate its fourth year of life in the spring of 2024. In a few decades, excellent maple syrup may be produced here, in addition to all the valuable scientific data collected up to that point.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510184/original/file-20230214-14-v0cnk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="sugar maple" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510184/original/file-20230214-14-v0cnk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510184/original/file-20230214-14-v0cnk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510184/original/file-20230214-14-v0cnk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510184/original/file-20230214-14-v0cnk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510184/original/file-20230214-14-v0cnk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510184/original/file-20230214-14-v0cnk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510184/original/file-20230214-14-v0cnk3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">As climate change intensifies, southern sugar maple forests are suffering from increased competition from trees that are more tolerant to warmer, drier conditions, such as American beech.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Trials on migration</h2>
<p>Similar studies have been conducted by the <a href="https://dream-forests.org/membres/">DREAM-Québec research network</a>, a project of the Québec government (Ministry of Natural Resources and Forests), the U.S. Forest Service and Laval University. The experiments consist of mixed plantations of a dozen tree species, located in the Portneuf region of Québec and in Wisconsin in the United States. Here, the effects of factors such as microclimate, herbivore browsing and plant competition on tree establishment and growth can be tested. In addition, the performance of trees from southern populations — adapted to conditions similar to the predicted future climate — can be compared with that of local populations.</p>
<p>This type of experimental study provides valuable information on the characteristics that can help or hinder the success of assisted migration projects. For example, we can understand which species or populations are more sensitive to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/58/3/253/230872">late frost events</a> or <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40725-021-00148-5">browsing by herbivores</a>.</p>
<p>Implementing scientific trials today can help us fully understand the dynamics and risks of assisted migration, so that we can make the best forest management choices for future years and generations. </p>
<p>Climate change is progressing rapidly and forests don’t move at the same rate, so it is important to begin planting tomorrow’s forests. </p>
<p><em>The authors would like to thank Emilie Champagne of the Direction de la recherche forestière du Québec (Ministry of Natural Resources and Forests) for her contributions and comments on the article, and Jardins Gobeil for their collaboration and assistance in maintaining the experimental site.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201366/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Claudio Mura received funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) as part of the Alliance-Érable project, in partnership with the Government of Québec (Ministère des Ressources naturelles et des Forêts), the Centre Acer, the Productrices et Producteurs acéricoles du Québec, the Syndicat des Producteurs de bois du Saguenay Lac-Saint-Jean and the Université du Québec en Outaouais.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patricia Raymond is a member of the Ordre des ingénieurs forestiers du Québec (QC, Canada). She has received funding from the Green Economy Plan of the Ministry of Environment, Climate Change, Wildlife and Parks of the Government of Quebec.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sergio Rossi is a member of the Ordre des ingénieurs forestiers du Québec (QC, Canada) and the Ordine dei Dottori Agronomi e Forestali di Padova (Italy). He has received funding from public programs: the Fonds de recherche du Québec - Nature et technologie (FRQNT) and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC).</span></em></p>
The rapidly changing climate presents many challenges for the sustainability of forest ecosystems. Assisting the migration of trees is a tool to address these challenges.
Claudio Mura, PhD student in Forest Ecophysiology, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)
Patricia Raymond, Chercheuse scientifique et professeure associée, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)
Sergio Rossi, Professor, Département des Sciences Fondamentales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/203052
2023-04-18T13:18:15Z
2023-04-18T13:18:15Z
We found out when the Nullarbor Plain dried out, splitting Australia’s ecosystems in half
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519476/original/file-20230405-26-3ws3in.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A typical view on the Nullarbor Plain: an expansive, treeless landscape that captures the relentless dryness of Australia's interior.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matej Lipar</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s western and eastern ecosystems are <a href="https://theconversation.com/forests-of-eastern-australia-are-the-worlds-newest-biodiversity-hotspot-3935">biodiversity hotspots</a>, separated by a dry desert interior. Yet millions of years ago, many species roamed more freely between connected habitats across the continent.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL102928">new research</a>, published in Geophysical Research Letters, provides insights into ancient climate change that shaped our modern landscapes and ecosystems.</p>
<p>We have developed a new way to reconstruct the timing of great drying episodes on the continents of our planet. This work helps to gain knowledge about drylands that are <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-window-of-opportunity-to-address-increasing-drought-and-expanding-drylands-is-vanishing-176731">particularly impacted by current climatic stresses</a>. </p>
<h2>Billions of people live in drylands</h2>
<p>Drylands cover almost half of Earth’s land surface and are home to around 3 billion people. Dramatic, record-breaking droughts are increasingly occurring <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/08/drought-water-climate-un/">around the globe</a>.</p>
<p>As the driest inhabited continent, Australia (<a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/rangelands">70% is considered arid or semi-arid</a>) also faces many challenges, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-land-of-more-extreme-droughts-and-flooding-rains-5184">droughts</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-black-summer-of-fire-was-not-normal-and-we-can-prove-it-172506">bushfires</a>. Understanding the history of dry regions and their response to past climate change is important to mitigate the impact of our warming planet’s future.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519741/original/file-20230406-26-fvmk90.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519741/original/file-20230406-26-fvmk90.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519741/original/file-20230406-26-fvmk90.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519741/original/file-20230406-26-fvmk90.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519741/original/file-20230406-26-fvmk90.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519741/original/file-20230406-26-fvmk90.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519741/original/file-20230406-26-fvmk90.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hidden beneath the ‘rusty’ Nullarbor Plain, in ancient patterned beach sands, lie clues to past climatic disturbances that shaped our modern world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Iluka Resources, Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Southern Australia’s Nullarbor Plain covers an area about the size of Great Britain (roughly 200,000 square kilometres). However, it is starkly different in almost every other aspect: extremely flat, very little rain, and almost no trees. These conditions and its size make the Nullarbor Plain a natural “<a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095506957;jsessionid=40291BB54C4A3B3CC5A5D56FC0F0BC03">biogeographic barrier</a>”, separating rich and diverse ecosystems in west and east Australia.</p>
<p>Today, the dusty Nullarbor Plain bears little resemblance to its vibrant past. Before roughly 14 million years ago it was <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-giant-bullseye-on-the-nullarbor-plain-was-created-by-ancient-sea-life-189125">covered by ocean and host to reefs</a>. More recently, it would have been a lush home to an exotic menagerie, including the world’s biggest cuckoos.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-worlds-biggest-cuckoos-once-roamed-the-nullarbor-plain-54050">The world's biggest cuckoos once roamed the Nullarbor Plain</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The drying of the Nullarbor</h2>
<p>We know Earth is constantly evolving, but often have a poor idea of exactly when environmental changes occurred in the distant past. Fortunately, some minerals that record past climatic events can be dated.</p>
<p>For most people, rust is something they want to avoid, as it damages our cars, fences, and steel appliances. But rust can be useful in understanding climate change. In our work, we used an iron-bearing mineral called <a href="https://www.mindat.org/min-1719.html">goethite</a> – the main part of rust – to unlock the timing of drying on the Nullarbor.</p>
<p>We found goethite in rocks some 25 metres below the Nullarbor Plain. These rocks mark the past level of groundwater. By dating the age of the goethite minerals, we can understand how past groundwater levels shifted in response to climate change.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519761/original/file-20230406-217-b9coo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519761/original/file-20230406-217-b9coo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519761/original/file-20230406-217-b9coo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519761/original/file-20230406-217-b9coo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=227&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519761/original/file-20230406-217-b9coo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519761/original/file-20230406-217-b9coo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519761/original/file-20230406-217-b9coo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Scanning electron microscope images of iron-rich rocks used for our new research. The chemical and textural features of these rocks contain much information about the complex climatic history of the Nullarbor Plain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maximilian Dröllner, Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We fired a laser beam into tiny pieces of goethite, roughly the size of a grain of salt, to release their atomic building blocks. We then measured the helium isotopes – variants of helium – that had accumulated since mineral formation. This provided us with <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/%7Eucfbpve/geotopes/indexch7.html">a type of “clock</a>”.</p>
<p>We calculated groundwater drastically declined on the Nullarbor Plain between 2.4 and 2.7 million years ago – at the same time as a period of global cooling.</p>
<p>As the climate shifted, the drying changed the local ecosystems, effectively creating a wall for many species. As large swathes of Australia changed from forest to dry grassland, habitat and food availability shrunk for many species.</p>
<p>Significantly, this barrier cut the once continuous link between the species of southwest and southeast Australia.</p>
<h2>Splitting of the species</h2>
<p>The evolution of many familiar species was influenced by this separation. There is the <a href="https://birdlife.org.au/bird-profiles/yellow-tailed-black-cockatoo/">yellow-tailed black cockatoo</a> from southeast Australia with yellow cheeks, and <a href="https://birdlife.org.au/bird-profiles/carnabys-black-cockatoo/">Carnaby’s black cockatoo</a> with white cheeks in the southwest. Genetically, these two cockatoos <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790311001503#f0010">are close relatives</a>, but today live thousands of kilometres apart.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520486/original/file-20230412-14-ys57ae.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520486/original/file-20230412-14-ys57ae.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520486/original/file-20230412-14-ys57ae.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520486/original/file-20230412-14-ys57ae.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=287&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520486/original/file-20230412-14-ys57ae.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520486/original/file-20230412-14-ys57ae.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520486/original/file-20230412-14-ys57ae.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=361&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A separated duo with a shared ancestry. Left, the Carnaby’s cockatoo (<em>Calyptorhynchus latirostris</em>) and right, the yellow-tailed cockatoo (<em>Calyptorhynchus funereus</em>).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Modified after kookr/flickr and jean_hort/flickr. CC BY-NC</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Through isolation, the drying of the Nullarbor played a key role in creating the species richness of southwest Australia. This region is <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-south-west-a-hotspot-for-wildlife-and-plants-that-deserves-world-heritage-status-54885">one of only 35 biodiversity hotspots</a> on Earth and home to <a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-south-west-a-hotspot-for-wildlife-and-plants-that-deserves-world-heritage-status-54885">more than 6,000 native species</a>, with many found nowhere else.</p>
<p>Measuring the timescales of drying landscapes is important for conservation biology. Many native species are already facing or will <a href="https://theconversation.com/this-is-australias-most-important-report-on-the-environments-deteriorating-health-we-present-its-grim-findings-186131">face existential problems</a> due to climate change and habitat degradation – <a href="https://theconversation.com/cocky-count-how-perths-green-growth-plan-could-wipe-out-was-best-loved-bird-56442">including the iconic Carnaby’s cockatoo</a>.</p>
<h2>A history locked in minerals</h2>
<p>By studying minerals formed during groundwater decline, we improve our understanding of our continent’s past and its biosphere. These minerals form as a direct result of continental drying, often in sediment with fossils of interest. </p>
<p>Previously, we often relied on indirect information like the chemistry of <a href="https://theconversation.com/digging-deep-into-the-past-to-see-the-future-of-climate-change-43544">marine sediments</a> to date continental landscape processes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520459/original/file-20230412-22-6lk30.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520459/original/file-20230412-22-6lk30.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520459/original/file-20230412-22-6lk30.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520459/original/file-20230412-22-6lk30.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=271&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520459/original/file-20230412-22-6lk30.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520459/original/file-20230412-22-6lk30.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520459/original/file-20230412-22-6lk30.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=340&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Throughout its history, the Nullarbor Plain has undergone remarkable transformations: once an ocean, later a lush landscape, and now a dusty expanse where numerous species have dramatically separated.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maximilian Dröllner, Author provided.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More broadly, having information on the timing of past drying events could help test theories about human evolution too. <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-a-changing-landscape-and-climate-shaped-early-humans-19862">Changing landscapes and extreme drying</a> were likely important for our own species development.</p>
<p>Determining the timing of environmental change lets scientists see how these events have impacted biodiversity and species evolution over time. Studying the past is also vital to understand how Earth responds to climate change. If we understand how ecosystems dry out, we can develop strategies to limit the damage.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203052/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maximilian Dröllner receives funding from Minerals Research Institute Of Western Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Kirkland receives funding from Australian Research Council and the Minerals Research Institute of Western Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Milo Barham receives funding from the Minerals Research Institute of Western Australia, collaborating with Iluka Resources Ltd. to investigate mineral sands, including on the margins of the Nullarbor Plain.</span></em></p>
New research on the Nullarbor Plain reveals the ancient climate change that separated Australia’s east and west ecosystems, shaping today’s biodiversity.
Maximilian Dröllner, Research associate, Curtin University
Chris Kirkland, Professor of Geochronology, Curtin University
Milo Barham, Associate Professor, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Curtin University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/201886
2023-03-27T16:02:01Z
2023-03-27T16:02:01Z
Roadkill: vehicle collisions may be threatening the survival of some mammal populations
<p>It’s almost impossible to take your car for a drive without seeing some of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/10-million-animals-are-hit-on-our-roads-each-year-heres-how-you-can-help-them-and-steer-clear-of-them-these-holidays-149733">millions of animals</a> that are killed on roads each year.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26268057">Such deaths, commonly referred to by researchers as roadkill, negatively affect</a> wildlife populations. But exactly how it does so remains unclear. Raw roadkill counts are not enough to determine how roadkill can disrupt a population’s survival. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/brv.12942">recent study</a>, my colleagues and I gathered published data on 150 mammal populations from 69 species around the world. We then compared mammal deaths on roads to key biological parameters including population size to determine the effect of roadkill on different animal species. </p>
<p>We found that roadkill was the most common cause of death in almost a third (28%) of the populations studied – ahead of causes like disease and hunting. In some animal populations, up to 80% of all deaths were due to collisions with vehicles. </p>
<p>Across the species studied, roadkill affected the structure of populations, reproduction and even a population’s survival. In some species, particularly those that are rare or listed as threatened with extinction by the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a>, even low rates of roadkill can be damaging. If road deaths force overall death rates above rates of reproduction, then populations may struggle to replace the individuals killed on roads.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517181/original/file-20230323-14-2ws45a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of the world showing the location of the roadkill studies." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517181/original/file-20230323-14-2ws45a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517181/original/file-20230323-14-2ws45a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517181/original/file-20230323-14-2ws45a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517181/original/file-20230323-14-2ws45a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517181/original/file-20230323-14-2ws45a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517181/original/file-20230323-14-2ws45a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517181/original/file-20230323-14-2ws45a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Locations of studies on mammals killed on roads.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/brv.12942">Lauren Moore et al. (2023)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Which species is most at risk?</h2>
<p>The species most vulnerable to vehicle collisions included the endangered <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/lynx-mammal/Eurasian-lynx#ref33476">Iberian lynx</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/Tasmanian-devil">Tasmanian devils</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/African-hunting-dog">African wild dogs</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/anteater">giant anteaters</a> and the near-threatened <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_fox">San Clemente island fox</a>. </p>
<p>Vehicle collisions <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2530064420300213">halved the growth rate</a> in giant anteater populations in Cerrado, Brazil. At current roadkill rates, some giant anteater populations may become extinct in about ten years. Giant anteater populations are particularly sensitive to road deaths as the species live for a long time and are slow to reproduce. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517199/original/file-20230323-26-zu9i3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A giant anteater walking through a field." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517199/original/file-20230323-26-zu9i3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517199/original/file-20230323-26-zu9i3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517199/original/file-20230323-26-zu9i3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517199/original/file-20230323-26-zu9i3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517199/original/file-20230323-26-zu9i3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517199/original/file-20230323-26-zu9i3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517199/original/file-20230323-26-zu9i3n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vehicle collisions halved the growth rate in giant anteater populations (<em>Myrmecophaga tridactyla</em>).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/anteater-cute-animal-brazil-giant-myrmecophaga-1104708503">Ondrej Prosicky/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Surprisingly, we found that the impacts of roadkill vary for different populations of the same species. The proportion of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/marten">beech martens</a> that were killed on roads each year ranged from 1.11% of their population to 33%. While there was a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.2981/10-080">20-fold difference</a> in the contribution of road deaths to total deaths across <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/elk-mammal">elk</a> populations in North America.</p>
<p>These differences probably arise because populations are subject to multiple threats simultaneously. For example, many deer species, including elk, are hunted at varying levels throughout the year. The degree to which a population is hunted can influence how it is affected by additional road deaths.</p>
<p>But roadkill figures cannot be taken at face value. We found that a large amount of roadkill does not necessarily cause wild animal populations to decline. </p>
<p>High rates of roadkill sometimes highlight that a population is large and healthy – more individuals simply leads to a greater risk of collision. If a population has high reproductive rates, it can maintain stable population numbers despite vehicle collisions. </p>
<p>In the US state of Michigan, 12.5% of an American marten population died due to vehicle collisions between 2001 and 2005. But the researchers considered this death rate to be sustainable as their <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/natural-areas-journal/volume-27/issue-2/0885-8608(2007)27%5b155%3aHMAPTO%5d2.0.CO%3b2/Human-Caused-Mortality-and-Population-Trends-of-American-Marten-and/10.3375/0885-8608(2007)27%5B155:HMAPTO%5D2.0.CO;2.short">population increased</a> at a rate of 16% each year for the following three years.</p>
<h2>Vulnerable females</h2>
<p>However, our study revealed that road deaths for female animals is more common and severe than identified by previous research. This means that for some populations, females are killed on roads more frequently than expected based on their numbers in the surrounding population. This is a concern because females often have the main role in rearing young so tend to be more important for population survival than males. </p>
<p>Female road mortality also has several indirect effects. </p>
<p>Another study, from 2011, found that when a mother San Clemente island fox (a species found exclusively on the Californian Channel Islands) was killed by a vehicle, its <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jwmg.247">young starved to death</a>. And following the death of puma mothers on the road, research has also found that <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wmon.1061">puma cubs were killed</a> by unrelated adult males. The killing of young animals of the same species – known as <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-some-mammals-kill-babies-own-kind-180953318/">infanticide</a> – is more common in mammal species where just a few males compete to reproduce with several females.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A puma club playing with a larger puma." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517207/original/file-20230323-26-mugbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517207/original/file-20230323-26-mugbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517207/original/file-20230323-26-mugbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517207/original/file-20230323-26-mugbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517207/original/file-20230323-26-mugbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517207/original/file-20230323-26-mugbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517207/original/file-20230323-26-mugbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Puma (<em>Puma concolor</em>) cubs whose mother had died on the road are vulnerable to infanticide.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/next-oauth/callback?landing_page=%2Fimage-photo%2Fpumas-torres-del-paina-national-park-2098166653&realm=customer&redirect_loop_count=14&code=d2e6b0e8dcbe6deecbb3e783e573f588&state=5abf146331e584f7ad33c70c501d7113">Risto Raunio/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>Road networks are increasing and remain a pressing issue for conservation. In the UK alone, <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/873929/road-traffic-forecasts-2018-document.pdf">traffic volume is expected to increase</a> by up to 51% by 2050. </p>
<p>Measuring the effect of roadkill in the way we have will help design conservation work in the future that identifies and targets the most at-risk populations. This is particularly important in countries that host threatened species and the world’s last remaining wilderness areas. </p>
<p>Maintaining “roadless” habitats in areas that are home to species threatened by roadkill - an approach known as <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/public_lands/forests/roadless_area_conservation/index.html">roadless area conservation</a> - is one option. In the US, over 58 million acres are designated as roadless areas across 38 states.</p>
<p>When driving, the sight of animals laying dead on the road is a familiar one. Our study suggests that these deaths affect all species differently. By understanding which animal populations are most threatened by roadkill, we can limit its impact.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201886/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Moore receives funding from Nottingham Trent University and People's Trust for Endangered Species.</span></em></p>
Exactly how animal populations are affected by roadkill has remained unclear – until now.
Lauren Moore, PhD Candidate in Road Ecology, Nottingham Trent University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/191545
2022-09-30T12:37:15Z
2022-09-30T12:37:15Z
Liz Truss’s ‘destructive’ plans have angered environmental groups – here’s why
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487318/original/file-20220929-14-ejhhxm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The RSPB, National Trust and Wildlife Trust have a combined 8 million members.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bempton-uk-24-may-2022-people-2162172607">Chedko/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Several leading conservation charities including the RSPB, National Trust and Wildlife Trust have <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/our-work/rspb-news/rspb-news-stories/uk-government-attack-on-nature/">voiced anger</a> over the new government’s “destructive” approach to nature. The groups have urged their 8 million members to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/sep/27/green-charities-urge-millions-of-members-to-oppose-tories-attack-on-nature">write to MPs</a> demanding that key nature protections are not weakened and that environmental commitments made in the Conservative’s election manifesto are not abandoned. </p>
<p>The UK is already one of the most <a href="https://www.wwf.org.uk/future-of-UK-nature#:%7E:text=The%20UK%20is%20one%20of,nature%20that%20protects%20and%20restores.">nature-depleted countries</a> in the world and Liz Truss’s government threatens to worsen this. The new government has <a href="https://bills.parliament.uk/bills/3340/publications">given itself the power</a> to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/sep/23/uk-environment-laws-under-threat-in-deregulatory-free-for-all">revoke or amend</a> the 570 environmental laws inherited from the EU following Brexit. </p>
<p>This includes the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.htm">Habitats Directive</a>, which protects natural sites from damaging development, and which is now set to be weakened. At the same time, a plan to pay farmers subsidies based on their protection of nature instead of how much land they own is at risk of being delayed or scrapped altogether. </p>
<p>Under the Habitats Directive, development on a protected site will only be permitted if the proposed work will not damage its wildlife. In 2015, there were <a href="https://consult.defra.gov.uk/natural-england/crouch-roach-estuaries/supporting_documents/European%20leaflet%20Natura%202000.pdf">900 protected sites in the UK</a>, with 320 in England. Many are situated on privately owned land. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Pink heather looking over a hilly rural landscape against a deep cloudy sunset." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487309/original/file-20220929-20-b3998t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The North Yorkshire Moors are one of 900 protected areas in the UK under the Habitats Directive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sun-sets-roseberry-topping-786578980">Jez Campbell/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The protection of these sites can often be crucial. Two Welsh peatland areas have recently benefited from a <a href="https://naturalresources.wales/about-us/our-projects/nature-projects/new-life-for-welsh-raised-bogs/?lang=en">restoration project</a>. This has created over 12 miles of low mounds that retain water in peat bogs, which are a vital store of carbon.</p>
<p>To a government devoid of an appreciation for nature, these strict regulations may be considered a barrier to development. The recent renouncement of environmental laws has led to speculation that some of these protected areas may be situated within <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/investment-zones-in-england/investment-zones-in-england">investment zones</a>. Planning regulations within these zones are set to be relaxed to accelerate the construction of housing and infrastructure.</p>
<p>The Environment Act sets out rules that restrict how far environmental legislation can be amended. However, they will not come into force before <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2021/30/section/112/enacted">February 2023</a>, permitting unregulated urban sprawl until then. </p>
<p>Despite this, the initial guidance on investment zones does note that local consent will be a factor when identifying zones. Local activism may become a powerful tool for future habitat protection.</p>
<h2>The ‘Brexit bonus’ for farmers</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/environmental-land-management-schemes-overview">Environment Land Management Scheme (Elms)</a> was constructed to replace the farming subsidies of the controversial EU Common Agricultural Policy. While the current scheme pays farmers for maintaining land in “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/oct/10/brexit-leaving-eu-farming-agriculture">agricultural condition</a>”, the Elms instead plans to compensate farmers for efforts to protect nature. The scheme will encourage farming practices that enhance biodiversity, protect watercourses, support woodland creation and store carbon. </p>
<p>Although in their <a href="https://defrafarming.blog.gov.uk/2022/05/26/6-months-on-how-the-pilot-is-shaping-the-sustainable-farming-incentive/">infancy</a>, there are several promising pilot schemes. The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/case-studies/environmental-land-management-tests-and-trials-23-burns-farmer-group#:%7E:text=The%2023%20Burns%20Farmer%20Group%20is%20on%20the%20north%2Deast,they%20will%20provide%20under%20ELM%20.">23 Burns Farmer Group</a> involves the cooperation of farmers in Britain’s northeast to promote farmland conservation. This will see the development of wildlife corridors on agricultural land, which will provide crucial habitats in the process.</p>
<p>However, the future of the Elms has been thrown into doubt following <a href="https://deframedia.blog.gov.uk/2022/09/28/government-reiterates-commitment-to-environmental-protections/">confirmation</a> that the government was launching a review of its plans. The Welsh government has since maintained its <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-63028483">commitment</a> to plans similar to the Elms.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A field bordering a wilded area of forest against a blue sky." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487316/original/file-20220929-13-l5s8a4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Elms will encourage the adoption of farming practices that enhance biodiversity, protect watercourses, support woodland creation and store carbon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/native-trees-planted-around-waterways-along-2002834007">Cheryl Watson/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even delaying the scheme will have consequences. A <a href="https://green-alliance.org.uk/briefing/delaying-elm-would-halve-its-carbon-savings-by-2035/">Green Alliance</a> report shows pausing the Elms by two years will halve its carbon savings by 2035.</p>
<p>Yet a reversal of the scheme is strongly rumoured. The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) is instead considering an unconditional yearly payment made to farmers based on the area of land owned. Representing little more than a transfer of wealth, this will not do much to incentivise conservation.</p>
<p>Despite some internal opposition, the National Farmers’ Union has supported the continuation of an area-based payments scheme. It has long called for a <a href="https://www.nfuonline.com/updates-and-information/efra-elms-inquiry-nfu-response/">reconsideration of the timescale</a> of the Elms’ rollout as higher fertiliser, feed and energy prices, driven by the war in Ukraine, have <a href="https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/rising-cost-of-agricultural-fertiliser-and-feed-causes-impacts-and-government-policy/#:%7E:text=High%20energy%20costs%3A%20Rises%20in,energy%20source%20in%20fertiliser%20production.">increased farming costs</a>.</p>
<p>In response to the backlash, Defra <a href="https://twitter.com/ranil/status/1574781513106968579">cited</a> its Environment Act as evidence of a continued commitment to UK nature. <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2021/30/contents/enacted">The Environment Act</a>, which was established in 2021, holds the government to several environmental improvement and protection measures.</p>
<p>It demands the establishment of an <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2021/30/section/8/enacted">environmental improvement plan</a>, requiring all local authorities in England to create <a href="https://consult.defra.gov.uk/land-use/local-nature-recovery-strategies/">local nature recovery strategies</a>. It also states that a species abundance target must be set by 2030. While it commits the government to action, the Environment Act alone will not be sufficient to stimulate broader nature recovery.</p>
<p>Compensation schemes such as the Elms are an essential component in encouraging the participation of landowners in nature recovery. The Environment Act does not include a mechanism to deliver this. </p>
<p>This lack of incentive could be addressed by holding landowners accountable for failing to protect nature. Local authorities across England are now, for the first time, <a href="https://consult.defra.gov.uk/land-use/local-nature-recovery-strategies/">bound by law</a> to identify areas for habitat restoration. But the law does not yet hold landowners accountable for failing to implement restoration on the ground.</p>
<p>The early signs suggest that the new government poses a serious threat to UK nature and so urgent action must be taken to preserve it. Defra’s approach to conservation has been slowly moving in the right direction over the past decade, it would be a shame to reverse it now.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191545/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Caitlin Lewis receives funding from Scenario NERC Doctoral Training Partnership grant NE/S007261/1.</span></em></p>
Environmental groups have criticised the government’s approach to nature – but what is this approach and why is it concerning?
Caitlin Lewis, PhD Student in Ecology and Agri-Environmental Research, University of Reading
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/187616
2022-08-04T20:19:35Z
2022-08-04T20:19:35Z
Curious Kids: what is the apex predator of the world?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477371/original/file-20220803-12-xf40rd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C29%2C3220%2C2106&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>What is the apex predator of the world? – Mahmood, age 11, Brisbane</p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291898/original/file-20190911-190031-enlxbk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=1" width="100%"></a></p>
<p>Hi Mahmood, thanks for this interesting question!</p>
<p>Well, what sorts of animals do you typically imagine when you think about apex predators? Great white sharks, polar bears, killer whales, crocodiles, African lions, anacondas … perhaps a wedge-tailed eagle? </p>
<p>To determine what the apex predator of the world is, we first need to understand what types of “predators” there are, and what we mean by “apex”. </p>
<h2>Different types of predators</h2>
<p>Contrary to popular belief, predators aren’t just species with large sharp teeth or fangs, hooked beaks, or razor-sharp claws. A “predator” is any species that eats part of, or all of, another living species – or in some cases its own species (which is called “cannibalism”). </p>
<p>Predators can be: </p>
<h4><a href="https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-carnivore/">Carnivores</a></h4>
<p>These animals eat the flesh of other animals. <a href="https://www.wired.com/2015/01/animal-cannibalism/">Cannibalism</a> is a special form of carnivory, and is widespread across the animal world. It has been recorded in several hundred species, including spiders, insects, fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians and mammals (including humans). </p>
<h4><a href="https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-herbivore/">Herbivores</a></h4>
<p>These are animals that eat plants, but they’re still considered predators. So yes, kangaroos are predators too, but they simply eat plants rather than animals. Although it appears this wasn’t always the case in Australia – beware <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/science/nature/article/2016/06/10/carnivorous-kangaroo-and-4-other-animals-were-almost-glad-are-fossils"><em>Balbaroo fangaroo</em></a>! </p>
<h4><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CfqO1U6lfDs">Parasites</a></h4>
<p>These are animals or other organisms that live on (ectoparasites) or in (endoparasites) another species. They feed on this “host” for nutrients. Ticks, leeches and hookworms are all examples of parasites.</p>
<h4><a href="https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-parasitoid/">Parasitoids</a></h4>
<p>These are organisms whose young develop on or inside another host organism, feed on it, and end up killing the host as a result. The iconic movie Alien features such a scenario, albeit fictional (although you might want to wait a few years before watching it). This group includes species of wasps, flies, beetles and worms.</p>
<h2>It all depends on the environment</h2>
<p>Apex predators are often referred to as “top predators” because they sit at the top of their <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/food-chain">food chain</a> and are typically considered to be dominant and without predators of their own. </p>
<p>It’s important to note apex predators don’t have to be particularly large. Although they often are, it’s more about how their size compares with the species they interact with, and how they behave within their own ecological community.</p>
<p>Imagine a terrarium in your home with some plants and various insects, including a praying mantis; the praying mantis is most certainly the apex predator here. </p>
<p>Now imagine letting them all loose in a field somewhere. The praying mantis is now potentially on the menu for a spider, frog, bird, or other larger predator.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A praying mantis raises its arms while standing on a branch, facing towards the camera lens." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Praying mantises eat many different types of other insects, including crickets, grasshoppers, butterflies, moths, spiders and beetles. They may even eat other praying mantises, which is called cannibalism.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A predator that is below other predators in the “pecking order” can be referred to as a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01347.x">mesopredator</a>. For example, wolves are often considered apex predators, and are known to compete with and even kill coyotes (mesopredators).</p>
<p>In areas without wolves, however, coyotes might ascend to the apex position. They are known to kill cats, which can indirectly <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/23028">benefit songbirds</a>. </p>
<p>In Australia, dingoes are considered apex predators. They hunt and eat a wide <a href="https://theconversation.com/dingo-dinners-whats-on-the-menu-for-australias-top-predator-103846">range of animals</a> including kangaroos, emus, feral goats and feral deer. </p>
<p>But dingoes, similar to many predators <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1241484">around the world</a>, are frequently <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/superpredator-humans-are-hunting-other-animals-out-existence">killed by humans</a>. </p>
<h2>Danger in numbers</h2>
<p>Because our question is concerned with determining the <em>world’s</em> main apex predator, we’ll need to consider how widespread a species is. </p>
<p>There are some “apex” predators that are found throughout much of the world, including grey wolves, blue whales, killer whales and great white sharks.</p>
<p>In my mind, however, humans are clearly the overall apex predator of the world. We’ve even been called the <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/superpredator-humans-are-hunting-other-animals-out-existence">super-predator</a>! </p>
<p>Human impact <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/jul/08/climate-crisis-biodiversity-decline-overexploited-planet-change-to-survive-aoe">spans the entire globe</a> – from the land to sea, and the south pole to the north pole. </p>
<p>Compared to other predators, we use a much larger percentage of the world’s food resources, as well as water and other natural materials. In doing so, we cause widespread environmental harm. </p>
<p>Humans are having a devastating effect on some other <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-worlds-top-predators-are-in-decline-and-its-hurting-us-too-21830">apex predator populations</a>, threatening their chances of long-term survival.</p>
<p>For instance, although there are situations where large sharks have killed humans, it’s estimated humans kill more than 100 million sharks <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/100-million-sharks-killed-every-year-study-shows-on-eve-of-international-conference-on-shark-protection">per year</a>. Many shark species are at <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/shark">risk of extinction</a> as a result. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Person stands in front of a large net with a shark caught inside, as it's lifted into a boat" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Humans kill millions of sharks each year, often to eat them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The good news is we can all make <a href="https://wwf.panda.org/act/live_green/">choices</a> to help reduce our environmental footprints and help protect other species – predator or otherwise.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-dont-whales-have-teeth-like-we-do-186727">Curious kids: why don’t whales have teeth like we do?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187616/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Euan G. Ritchie is the Chair of the Media Working Group of the Ecological Society of Australia, Deputy Convenor (Communication and Outreach) for the Deakin Science and Society Network, and a member of the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p>
A species that is an “apex” predator in one environment won’t necessarily remain so in another.
Euan Ritchie, Professor in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/172827
2022-01-02T10:53:44Z
2022-01-02T10:53:44Z
Chalk streams: why ‘England’s rainforests’ are so rare and precious
<p>The world has fewer than 300 chalk streams – and England has most of them. These streams occur only where chalk bedrock meets the Earth’s surface, making them globally rare. </p>
<p>Their stable, cool, nutrient-rich waters allow chalk streams to support an exceptionally high number of species – so much so that these habitats are sometimes described as “<a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/chalk-stream-strategy-launched-to-protect-englands-rainforests">England’s rainforests</a>”.</p>
<p>Sadly, although some teem with life, the health of England’s chalk streams is threatened by a wide range of human activities. As a result, many of the country’s – and thus the world’s – chalk streams are not reaching their ecological potential. </p>
<p>In their flowing reaches, wild trout and grayling can patrol oxygen-rich riffles and pools, hunting for the aquatic juveniles of mayflies and other insects. Kingfishers loom on branches above, occasionally diving beneath the surface in blue-and-orange bolts to snatch unsuspecting minnows. Elusive mammals, including otters and water voles, sometimes swim alongside lush beds of submerged plants, such as water crowfoot, whose flowers are held expectantly above the water’s surface, attracting bees and other pollinating insects in summer.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A freshwater stream with green beds of plants with white flowers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437259/original/file-20211213-23-pa8ndj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437259/original/file-20211213-23-pa8ndj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=586&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437259/original/file-20211213-23-pa8ndj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=586&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437259/original/file-20211213-23-pa8ndj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=586&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437259/original/file-20211213-23-pa8ndj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=736&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437259/original/file-20211213-23-pa8ndj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=736&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437259/original/file-20211213-23-pa8ndj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=736&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Water crowfoot blooms in the Bourne Rivulet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tim Sykes</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In their headwaters, these streams can naturally disappear during the summer, leaving their channels dry. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/wej.12621">Our research</a> has shown that dry channels are often bustling with land-based insects, including some species which are nationally rare. Their waters reappear in winter, and so the streams are known locally as winterbournes. As these streams naturally shift between wet and dry conditions, they allow aquatic and terrestrial species to share one habitat at different times. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A large brown beetle climbing over pebbles." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437258/original/file-20211213-21-vz0fyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437258/original/file-20211213-21-vz0fyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437258/original/file-20211213-21-vz0fyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437258/original/file-20211213-21-vz0fyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437258/original/file-20211213-21-vz0fyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437258/original/file-20211213-21-vz0fyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437258/original/file-20211213-21-vz0fyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The dry channels of winterbourne chalk streams support species such as this ground beetle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Roy Anderson</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Specialists including the winterbourne stonefly are rarely found in perennial streams but are <a href="https://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/44941/1/1498745_Gething.pdf">common</a> in winterbourne chalk streams. Their different life stages are carefully timed to coincide with the stream’s fluctuations between wet and dry. Juvenile insects develop in water then emerge as flying adults before the dry phase starts. </p>
<p>Beneath the chalk stream itself, in the cold darkness of the underlying aquifers, blind, colourless crustaceans live hidden away, quietly contributing to the ecosystem’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-015-1334-2">biodiversity</a>. Their subterranean lifestyle has enabled these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12664">ancient Britons</a> to survive for tens of millions of years through successive periods of glaciation that have caused the extinction of other freshwater animals. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A translucent shrimp suspended in water on a black background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437770/original/file-20211215-17-5g16ab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437770/original/file-20211215-17-5g16ab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437770/original/file-20211215-17-5g16ab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437770/original/file-20211215-17-5g16ab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437770/original/file-20211215-17-5g16ab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437770/original/file-20211215-17-5g16ab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437770/original/file-20211215-17-5g16ab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An eyeless, colourless shrimp captured beneath a winterbourne chalk stream.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Proctor</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Blue mood</h2>
<p>What makes chalk streams so special? It all begins beneath our feet. Rainwater drains deep into the chalk landscape of southern and eastern England, forming underground aquifers. Filtered by the chalk, the groundwater springs forth in gin-clear, nutrient-rich streams which support photosynthetic plants and microorganisms – the fuel for food webs that feed everything from grazing insects to predatory fish, birds and mammals. </p>
<p>Chalk streams benefit people, too. To catch a wild brown trout from an English chalk stream is the dream of many a discerning fly fisher. In addition, your <a href="https://theconversation.com/living-near-water-can-be-beneficial-to-your-mental-health-heres-how-to-have-more-blue-spaces-in-cities-150486">physical and mental wellbeing</a> can be enhanced simply by spending time near rivers and streams. </p>
<p>Winterbourne chalk streams are special. <a href="https://queerriver.com/2021/06/16/walking-with-ecologist-and-researcher-tim-sykes/">Our research</a> reveals the deep emotional connection that people can have with these unique environments. Some report experiencing changes in their mood, shifting from sadness to hope and joy, which align with the stream’s seasonal transitions between dry and wet phases. </p>
<h2>The threat from pollution</h2>
<p>Many chalk aquifers – the source of chalk streams – are sadly polluted by nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilisers spread on farmland. The seemingly clear waters of chalk streams are often tainted with invisible contaminants as a result. As they flow downstream, water running off urban and rural areas adds other pollutants, including fine sediments and pesticides. <a href="https://theconversation.com/sewage-pollution-our-research-reveals-the-scale-of-englands-growing-problem-170763">Sewage</a> also affects the quality of water in <a href="https://www.wwf.org.uk/sites/default/files/2017-12/Flushed%20Away__Nov2017.pdf">many chalk streams</a>.</p>
<p>The natural courses taken by many, perhaps even most, chalk streams in England have been straightened and rerouted to make space for agricultural, urban and industrial land uses. Many are <a href="http://assets.wwf.org.uk/downloads/wwf_chalkstreamreport_final_lr.pdf">dwindling to a trickle</a> as water companies take water from both streams and the aquifers beneath them.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A shallow, green valley with buildings on either side." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437253/original/file-20211213-25-sfm9pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/437253/original/file-20211213-25-sfm9pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437253/original/file-20211213-25-sfm9pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437253/original/file-20211213-25-sfm9pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437253/original/file-20211213-25-sfm9pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=638&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437253/original/file-20211213-25-sfm9pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=638&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/437253/original/file-20211213-25-sfm9pr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=638&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An urban chalk stream whose natural form has been heavily modified.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chloe Hayes</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These effects add up and are compounded by climate change. As a result, <a href="https://environment.data.gov.uk/catchment-planning/England/classifications">the Environment Agency reports</a> that not one of England’s rivers – chalk or otherwise – is in <a href="https://www.theriverstrust.org/about-us/news/new-ea-water-quality-statistics-show-failure-at-a-national-scale">good overall health</a>.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://catchmentbasedapproach.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/CaBA-CSRG-Strategy-MAIN-REPORT-FINAL-12.10.21-Low-Res.pdf">strategy</a> for restoring England’s chalk streams was published in October 2021. <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/chalk-stream-strategy-launched-to-protect-englands-rainforests">Welcomed by the Environment Agency</a> and Natural England, it recommends granting chalk streams new statutory protection that reflects their globally unique value to ecology and culture. Radical action is needed to better protect our chalk streams and ensure these ecosystems remain worthy of their iconic status.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172827/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel Stubbington has received funding from the Environment Agency. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kieran J. Gething has received funding from the Environment Agency. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Sykes has received funding from the Environment Agency.</span></em></p>
A staggering 85% of the world’s chalk streams are found in England.
Rachel Stubbington, Professor in River Ecology, Nottingham Trent University
Kieran J. Gething, PhD Candidate in Ecology, Nottingham Trent University
Tim Sykes, PhD Candidate in Environmental Biosciences, University of Southampton
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/168178
2021-10-18T20:52:53Z
2021-10-18T20:52:53Z
To be resilient, the Canadian Prairie needs lots of wetlands
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423874/original/file-20210929-19363-1w9t2lo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=146%2C0%2C7388%2C2880&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pothole wetlands play important roles in prairie ecosystems.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>When many Canadians think of the Prairies, they envision beautiful endless landscapes of agricultural fields stretching across the horizon, perfect for a photo-op on a cross-country road trip. But what is missing from this imagery are the once-ubiquitous <a href="https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Wild-Places/Prairie-Potholes">pothole wetlands</a>, a defining feature of the region.</p>
<p>In the Canadian Prairies, wetland drainage has resulted in the loss of <a href="https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2018/eccc/cw69-5/CW69-5-493-eng.pdf">more than 40 percent of natural wetlands</a>. The impacts associated with this drainage are largely unmitigated.</p>
<p>Wetlands are key ecosystem features that provide numerous services, like water purification, that are integral to social and ecological systems. Because wetlands occur largely in depressions, they regulate stream flow by acting as reservoirs for snow and rain, and many are places where groundwater can be replenished. </p>
<p>In the prairie climate, the presence of water lends these systems to being a crucial habitat for many organisms.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/warmer-wetter-climate-benefits-some-birds-as-wetlands-vanish-124222">Warmer, wetter climate benefits some birds as wetlands vanish</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Drainage and agriculture</h2>
<p>Wetland drainage is a long-standing practice that takes many forms. Wetlands are drained during road building and urban expansion, but on the Canadian Prairies, wetland drainage is most widely used as part of a suite of agricultural practices to manage surface water. </p>
<p>Beginning in the late 19th century, provincial governments played a key role in using <a href="https://www.ubcpress.ca/wet-prairie">drainage as a tool to increase the land available</a> for agricultural production. Today, individual values along with social and economic pressures can drive decisions to drain wetlands. </p>
<p>Notably, crop producers have faced increasing economic pressure to drain wetlands, in part due to the increasing size of farm equipment that makes it difficult to work around “nuisance” wetlands, but also because of policy goals to <a href="https://www.saskatchewan.ca/government/budget-planning-and-reporting/plan-for-growth/30-goals-for-2030">increase crop production</a>. Wetland drainage is ongoing, but this comes at a cost.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423695/original/file-20210928-26-hjadlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a drainage stream in a prairie landscape" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423695/original/file-20210928-26-hjadlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423695/original/file-20210928-26-hjadlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423695/original/file-20210928-26-hjadlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423695/original/file-20210928-26-hjadlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423695/original/file-20210928-26-hjadlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423695/original/file-20210928-26-hjadlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423695/original/file-20210928-26-hjadlb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In Saskatchewan, wetlands are drained for agricultural purposes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(C. Whitfield)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Drainage impacts</h2>
<p>Our research presents the most <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07011784.2021.1973911">current and comprehensive synthesis of western scientific understanding of impacts of wetland drainage in the Canadian Prairies</a>. Our findings show that impacts are numerous and widespread, but also dependent on local context.</p>
<p>The removal of wetlands through drainage reduces the capacity for water storage on the land, and can increase the magnitude and frequency of downstream flooding. These impacts may be exacerbated in the future, as <a href="https://www.parc.ca/saskadapt/cc-research-highlights/ccia-research-prairies.html">more intense weather events become increasingly common</a>.</p>
<p>Perhaps equally important in this region are the impacts to groundwater — many residents rely on shallow groundwater supplies for potable drinking water for human consumption or animal husbandry. Draining wetlands, particularly small ones where water collects temporarily in the spring, <a href="https://www.crops.org/news/science-news/do-depressions-canadian-prairies-hold-key-groundwater-recharge/">breaks the connections by which groundwater reserves are replenished</a>. </p>
<p>Wetland drainage effectively short-circuits the biophysical system, quickly routing water that would be returned to the atmosphere by evaporation or stored in groundwater, to downstream bodies of water. This increases nutrient export to these downstream systems. </p>
<p>Loss of nutrient retention capacity provided by wetlands exacerbates water quality challenges, and algal blooms resulting from <a href="https://www.globalnature.org/37072/HOME/Press/Press-Archives/resindex.aspx?newsid=1573">nutrient enrichment in lakes and reservoirs are on the rise</a>. Ultimately this impairs drinking water treatment, can lead to fish kills and reduces opportunities for recreational enjoyment, <a href="https://www.producer.com/daily/sask-takes-steps-to-fix-buffalo-pound-water-problems/">among other effects on these water bodies</a>.</p>
<h2>Biodiversity and wetlands</h2>
<p>Loss of wetlands from the prairie landscape also has severe impacts on biodiversity, as these features are biodiversity hotspots. Pollinator habitat loss is an important consideration in light of evidence that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40823-021-00066-z">habitat for key pollinators can increase crop yields</a>. </p>
<p>Loss of biodiversity is likely the largest impact of wetland drainage. The habitat provided by wetlands, particularly vegetation at wetland margins, provides an important refuge that can mitigate against the extremes in climate possible in the region.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/warmer-wetter-climate-benefits-some-birds-as-wetlands-vanish-124222">Warmer, wetter climate benefits some birds as wetlands vanish</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The costs and benefits of wetland drainage are many, and vary based on both the land’s characteristics and local agricultural practices. Society loses valuable ecosystem services when wetlands are drained, and shares the cost, including increased flooding, aquatic nutrient pollution and loss of biodiversity. </p>
<p>The choice to drain or not rests with individual agricultural producers who can benefit economically from wetland drainage. At present, there is insufficient incentive provided for individual landowners to conserve wetlands, despite the societal benefits of wetland conservation.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423696/original/file-20210928-20-1cxorvz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a dried out pothole in the prairies" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423696/original/file-20210928-20-1cxorvz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/423696/original/file-20210928-20-1cxorvz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423696/original/file-20210928-20-1cxorvz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423696/original/file-20210928-20-1cxorvz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423696/original/file-20210928-20-1cxorvz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423696/original/file-20210928-20-1cxorvz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/423696/original/file-20210928-20-1cxorvz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pothole wetlands in 2021, during a multiple year dry period. The wetland in the foreground does not have ponded water for the first time since 2004.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(A. Ireson)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Towards resilience</h2>
<p>Stewardship of social-ecological systems <a href="https://tbtiglobal.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Toward-a-new-social-contract_F.Berkes_TBTI-Global_2021_s.pdf">requires acknowledging that they are rarely static</a>. This is especially true in the Prairies, where the last 10 years have seen the wettest period on record and, more recently, some of the <a href="https://www.manitobacooperator.ca/daily/drought-maps-show-little-change-at-end-of-august/">worst drought conditions</a>.</p>
<p>Resilient social-ecological systems have a high capacity to respond to diverse disturbances and a wide range in conditions associated with natural climate cycles. Diversity is a prerequisite to this ability to respond to stress, and it has been argued that a move towards more sustainable systems should <a href="http://www.conservationofchange.org/entropy">embody these natural cycles</a>. </p>
<p>Homogenous landscapes have <a href="https://sesmad.dartmouth.edu/theories/59">less ability to adapt during inevitable periods of stress</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/drought-farmers-saskatchewan-1.6140472">threatening the resilience of natural prairie systems</a>. Continued wetland drainage in favour of landscape homogenization is a pitfall. </p>
<p>In this region, where agriculture has transformed the landscape into one of the most heavily managed in the world and the impacts of wetland drainage are widespread, there has been a push from decision-makers to answer the question: “Which wetlands must we keep?”</p>
<p>Answering the question above is a complex one and inevitably involves value judgements. With <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07011784.2021.1973911">impacts of wetland drainage</a> and associated costs to society well-documented, and a large proportion of wetlands lost to date, it is important to conserve wetlands of all sizes and types, and in sufficient number.</p>
<p>The precautionary principle, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHg3enCCyCM">seven-generation thinking</a> practised by Indigenous people and the need for resilient social-ecological systems prompt us to instead ask: “Which wetlands can we possibly afford to lose, while maintaining critical food production, biodiversity, water, water quality and limiting the risk of floods?”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/168178/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Colin Whitfield receives federal funding from NSERC and CFREF granting programs to conduct research on Prairie wetlands and water resources.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Spence is a research scientist with Environment and Climate Change Canada. His research of the water cycle is used in environmental prediction systems and to inform beneficial management practices to improve water quality in Canadian lakes and streams and is funded by Environment and Climate Change Canada as well as CFREF programs. </span></em></p>
More than 40 per cent of natural wetlands in the Canadian Prairies have been lost due to drainage, and the impacts associated with this are largely unmitigated.
Colin Whitfield, Assistant Professor, Environment and Sustainability, University of Saskatchewan
Christopher Spence, Adjunct professor, Water Security, University of Saskatchewan
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/166999
2021-09-26T08:33:42Z
2021-09-26T08:33:42Z
Mali’s elephants show how people and nature can share space in a complex world
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421950/original/file-20210918-27-14cfalo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A herd of elephants in Mali.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Carlton Ward Jr</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The challenge of conserving wildlife while meeting the many needs of humans is a complex one. Some policymakers don’t see how economies can grow while still making space for wildlife. Others understand that conservation must make space for people, but it’s difficult to do in practice. </p>
<p>The issues involved in the coexistence of humans and wildlife are interconnected and can’t be broken down into small, predictable, manageable parts.</p>
<p>Recognising the uncertainty that arises from multiple relationships could help to make conservation more effective.</p>
<p>An example is provided by the “desert-adapted” elephants of Mali. These 250 to 300 animals are among the last of an elephant population that once stretched across the Sahel. They’re now reduced to tiny refuges due to the intrusion of human activities. </p>
<p>The Mali elephants have been excluded, since the 1970s, from the rich resources of the <a href="https://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/library/wwd2004_rpt_mali_press_e.pdf">inner delta</a> by increasing human pressure. And their numbers have almost been halved by the poaching that accompanied the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mali/2012-coup-and-warfare-in-the-north">lawlessness</a> of the 2012 coup. These animals have adapted by migrating annually over a vast, arid area to follow the availability of water and food, and to avoid human activity.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00139157.2021.1871292">Our work</a> as the Mali Elephant Project began with three years (2003-2006) of studying the elephants and their migration to understand the threats. We did this using GPS collar data provided by Save the Elephants. But it was difficult to see how a small organisation with no resources could intervene over such a large area (about 32,000km2) which was inhabited by people. </p>
<p>A better understanding of local attitudes and livelihoods helped us see the problem as part of a complex social-ecological system. In turn, that suggested ways to promote sustainable change. The results have continued to surprise. And the insights gleaned may be of use in delivering the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/conferences/post2020">Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework</a> and supporting the achievement of the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a>. </p>
<h2>Developing the intervention model</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00139157.2021.1871292">Our work</a> understood the threat to elephants to be as a result of a system of relationships between people and their living and non-living environments. </p>
<p>We looked for points in the complex system of relationships where a small action might make a big impact. The idea was to identify “assets” – aspects of the system that favoured the elephants – and link these to reinforce each other. Assets ranged from individuals, organisations, and features of the environment to laws and traditions. At the same time we wanted to diminish aspects that were a threat.</p>
<p>This broader view provided more “pathways”, more scope for discovering solutions and compromises.</p>
<p>The human environment was complex. Multiple ethnicities and livelihoods coexisted. Nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists shared space and water with settled farmers.<br>
Clearing land for agriculture removed elephant habitat and obstructed access to water. This made crops vulnerable to trampling and hungry elephants. Ever-increasing numbers of cattle put pressure on water sources, soils and vegetation.</p>
<p>We found that local people valued Mali’s elephants for multiple reasons – most strikingly because “if elephants disappear it means the environment is no longer good for us”. </p>
<p>People also understood that human activity needed to respect environmental limits. Yet despite this, the environment was clearly degraded and over-exploited.</p>
<p>Further in-depth studies found that 96% of the cattle in the study area belonged to distant wealthy urbanites. They invested in cattle and sent them into more remote areas to find pasture and water. Many other natural resources (such as firewood, charcoal, game and wild foods) were also harvested by urban commercial interests. </p>
<p>And although each ethnic group sharing the area had its own systems to manage natural resources sustainably, they were reluctant to respect the enforcement systems of other groups. The result was shared resources such as pasture and forest being depleted by individual users for their immediate benefit. </p>
<h2>Searching for solutions</h2>
<p>In 2010 <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4DuL6Zj2cc">the project</a> brought together the local communities to discuss these findings. Once unified around a shared understanding of the problems, they proposed a solution that also respected the needs of elephants. Their solution was modelled on traditional governance systems. A committee of elders set the rules of resource use and teams of young “ecoguards” would patrol to ensure the rules were respected. The ecoguards also conducted activities such as building firebreaks and planting trees.</p>
<p>The protection of an area of pasture with firebreaks meant, for example, that abundant pasture was available close by. People could sell fodder and grazing or water access rights. Their own animals were healthier and more productive and valuable. The protection of forest from exploitation by outsiders meant wood, forage, wild foods, medicines and other forest products could generate income from schemes managed by women’s associations. This approach was possible because Mali’s <a href="https://dgct.gouv.ml/la-region-de-tombouctou-a/">decentralisation legislation</a> puts natural resource management in the hands of local communities.</p>
<p>The conflict and lawlessness that have afflicted the area since 2012 presented huge challenges. The combination of a resurgence of Tuareg separatism, a military coup and a jihadist insurgency caused government to retreat from the north and centre of Mali. </p>
<p>Despite these challenges, applying a complexity perspective to a problem of elephant conservation helped address several problems simultaneously. </p>
<p>Elephants avoided areas where they were poached and where armed groups were present. This pushed them into more populated areas where we could use the model to mitigate conflict. </p>
<h2>Results</h2>
<p>The approach helps elephants and humans to live together peaceably. It has also improved local livelihoods through more abundant natural resources. The collective nature of the solutions improved social cohesion because people had to work together to realise the benefits. </p>
<p>As one community ecoguard observed during a recent survey, “when you sit around the fire talking, having worked together all day, you realise that we all have the same problems”. It has also countered youth unemployment by providing socially respected occupations in the restoration of ecosystems and biodiversity. </p>
<p>The resilience of the project in the face of insecurity seems to have been achieved because it was rooted in local and inclusive systems to solve local problems. </p>
<p>The approach has relevance for the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/conferences/post2020">Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework</a> to be agreed at the next Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 2022, and its aim for a shared vision of living in harmony with nature by 2050.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166999/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Canney receives funding from the European Union, the Global Environment Facility, the Canadian and UK governments through the UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA), the International Conservation Fund of Canada, Tusk Trust. She is a member of the IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group, a Trustee of Tusk Trust, a member of the Tusk conservation awards judging panel, and a member of the Sahara Conservation Fund's science committee.</span></em></p>
Elephants avoided areas where others were poached.
Susan Canney, Research Associate & Director Mali Elephant Project (WILD Foundation/ICFC), University of Oxford
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/164401
2021-07-27T19:54:46Z
2021-07-27T19:54:46Z
Artificial refuges are a popular stopgap for habitat destruction, but the science isn’t up to scratch
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413227/original/file-20210727-17-1v1c0mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=41%2C52%2C6907%2C4574&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Wildlife worldwide is facing a housing crisis. When land is cleared for agriculture, mining, and urbanisation, habitats and natural refuges go with it, such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880905004287">tree hollows</a>, <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/csp2.204">rock piles</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112711007055">large logs</a>.</p>
<p>The ideal solution is to tackle the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/536143a">threats</a> that cause habitat loss. But some refuges take hundreds of years to recover once destroyed, and some <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2008.00476.x">may never recover</a> without help. Tree hollows, for example, can take <a href="https://www.proquest.com/openview/c4edc69f01e5b4f6785eafbc529a1c7c/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=55013">180 years</a> to develop. </p>
<p>As a result, conservationists have increasingly looked to human-made solutions as a stopgap. That’s where artificial refuges come in.</p>
<p>If the goal of artificial refuges is to replace lost or degraded habitat, then it is important we have a good understanding of how well they perform. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/brv.12776">Our new research</a> reviewed artificial refuges worldwide — and we found the science underpinning them is often not up to scratch. </p>
<h2>What are artificial refuges?</h2>
<p>Artificial refuges provide wildlife places to shelter, breed, hibernate, or nest, helping them survive in disturbed environments, whether degraded forests, deserts or urban and agricultural landscapes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411404/original/file-20210715-32923-14k79fw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411404/original/file-20210715-32923-14k79fw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411404/original/file-20210715-32923-14k79fw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411404/original/file-20210715-32923-14k79fw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411404/original/file-20210715-32923-14k79fw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411404/original/file-20210715-32923-14k79fw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411404/original/file-20210715-32923-14k79fw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nest boxes are a commonly used artificial refuge for tree-dwelling animals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ed Reinsel/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>You’re probably already familiar with some. <a href="https://theconversation.com/bandbs-for-birds-and-bees-transform-your-garden-or-balcony-into-a-wildlife-haven-129907">Nest boxes</a> for birds and mammals are one example found in many urban and rural areas. They provide a substitute for tree hollows when land is cleared. </p>
<p>Other examples include <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/10/3/56/htm">artificial stone cavities</a> used in Norway to provide places for newts to hibernate in urban and agricultural environments, and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281107697_SUCCESS_OF_BRANDENBARK_AN_ARTIFICIAL_ROOST_STRUCTURE_DESIGNED_FOR_USE_BY_INDIANA_BATS_MYOTIS_SODALIS">artificial bark</a> used in the USA to allow bats to roost in the absence of trees. And in France, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-010-9824-y">artificial burrows</a> provide refuge for lizards in lieu of their favoured rabbit burrows.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412569/original/file-20210722-15-rka84g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412569/original/file-20210722-15-rka84g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412569/original/file-20210722-15-rka84g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412569/original/file-20210722-15-rka84g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412569/original/file-20210722-15-rka84g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412569/original/file-20210722-15-rka84g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412569/original/file-20210722-15-rka84g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An artificial burrow created for a burrowing owl.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AZ Outdoor Photography/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>But do we know if they work?</h2>
<p>Artificial refuges can be highly effective. In central Europe, for example, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0036028">nest boxes</a> allowed isolated populations of a colourful bird, the hoopoe, to reconnect — boosting the local genetic diversity.</p>
<p>Still, they are far from a sure thing, having at times <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000632071730349X">fallen short</a> of their promise to provide suitable homes for wildlife.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/diy-habitat-my-photos-show-chainsaw-carved-tree-hollows-make-perfect-new-homes-for-this-mysterious-marsupial-159639">DIY habitat: my photos show chainsaw-carved tree hollows make perfect new homes for this mysterious marsupial</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="http://secemu.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Flaquer_2014.pdf">One study</a> from Catalonia found 42 soprano pipistrelles (a type of bat) had died from dehydration within wooden bat boxes, due to a lack of ventilation and high sun exposure.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/wr11155">Another study</a> from Australia found artificial burrows for the endangered pygmy blue tongue lizard had a design flaw that forced lizards to enter backwards. This increased their risk of predation from snakes and birds.</p>
<p>And the video below from Czech conservation project <a href="https://www.birdsonline.cz/en/about-the-project">Birds Online</a> shows a pine marten (a forest-dwelling mammal) and tree sparrow infiltrating next boxes to steal the eggs of Tengmalm’s owls and common starlings.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/iJVcIxcgjr0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The effects of predation should be considered when using artificial refuges.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So why is this happening?</h2>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/brv.12776">Our research</a> investigated the state of the science regarding artificial refuges worldwide.</p>
<p>We looked at more than 220 studies, and we found they often lacked the rigour to justify their widespread use as a conservation tool. Important factors were often overlooked, such as how temperatures inside artifical refuges compare to natural refuges, and the local abundance of food or predators. </p>
<p>Alarmingly, just under 40% of studies compared artificial refuges to a control, making it impossible to determine the impacts artificial refuges have on the target species, positive or negative. </p>
<p>This is a big problem, because artificial refuges are increasingly incorporated into programs that seek to “offset” <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716300366">habitat destruction</a>. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/biodiversity-offsets-in-theory-and-practice/EDBF70717C273662B6D8EE0876370095">Offsetting</a> involves protecting or creating habitat to compensate for ecological harm caused by land clearing from, for instance, mining or urbanisation.</p>
<p>For example, one project in Australia relied heavily on nest boxes to offset the loss of old, hollow-bearing trees. </p>
<p>But a <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-plan-to-protect-wildlife-displaced-by-the-hume-highway-has-failed-78087">scientific review</a> of the project showed it to be a failure, due to low rates of uptake by target species (such as the superb parrot) and the rapid deterioration of the nest boxes from falling trees. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-plan-to-protect-wildlife-displaced-by-the-hume-highway-has-failed-78087">The plan to protect wildlife displaced by the Hume Highway has failed</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The future of artificial refuges</h2>
<p>There is little doubt artificial refuges will continue to play a role in confronting Earth’s biodiversity crisis, but their limitations need to be recognised, and the science underpinning them must improve. Our <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/brv.12776">new review</a> points out areas of improvement that spans design, implementation, and monitoring, so take a look if you’re involved in these sorts of projects. </p>
<p>We also urge for more partnerships between <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405872621000381">ecologists, engineers, designers and the broader community</a>. This is because interdisciplinary collaboration brings together different ways of thinking and helps to shed new light on complex problems.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412593/original/file-20210722-19-sf6evl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412593/original/file-20210722-19-sf6evl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=297&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412593/original/file-20210722-19-sf6evl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=297&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412593/original/file-20210722-19-sf6evl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=297&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412593/original/file-20210722-19-sf6evl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412593/original/file-20210722-19-sf6evl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412593/original/file-20210722-19-sf6evl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some key steps arising from our research which suggest a way forward for artificial refuge science and implementation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s clear improving the science around artificial refuges is well worth the investment, as they can give struggling wildlife worldwide a fighting chance against further habitat destruction and climate change.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-save-these-threatened-seahorses-we-built-them-5-star-underwater-hotels-130056">To save these threatened seahorses, we built them 5-star underwater hotels</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164401/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Darcy Watchorn receives funding from the Hermon Slade Foundation, Parks Victoria, the Conservation and Wildlife Research Trust, the Ecological Society of Australia, the Victorian Environmental Assessment Council, and the Geelong Naturalists Field Club. He is a member of the Ecological Society of Australia and the Society for Conservation Biology Oceania. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dale Nimmo receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning, the Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, the World Wildlife Fund, Consolidated Minerals, the Hermon Slade Foundation, and the National Environmental Science Program (Threatened Species Hub)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mitchell Cowan receives funding from the Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, and Consolidated Minerals. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Doherty receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Hermon Slade Foundation, NSW Environmental Trust, Australian Academy of Science and WWF Australia. He is Chair of the Policy Committee for the Society for Conservation Biology Oceania and a member of the Ecological Society of Australia.
</span></em></p>
New research reviewed more than 200 studies, and found the science underpinning artificial refuges — think nest boxes and artificial burrows — must be improved.
Darcy Watchorn, PhD Candidate, Deakin University
Dale Nimmo, Associate Professor in Ecology, Charles Sturt University
Mitchell Cowan, PhD Candidate, Charles Sturt University
Tim Doherty, ARC DECRA Fellow, University of Sydney
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/160664
2021-06-29T13:42:59Z
2021-06-29T13:42:59Z
Ecomimicry: the nature-inspired approach to design that could be the antidote to urban ‘blandscapes’
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408889/original/file-20210629-22-110g5m7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1920%2C1276&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cookie-cutter urban designs don't do justice to cities' natural biodiversity.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/architecture-single-family-home-3383067/">Michael Gaida/Pixabay</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With skyscrapers climbing ever higher and unoccupied city areas increasingly scarce, demands on urban space are increasing. Making the most out of this space requires a careful balancing act between short-term human needs and long-term planetary benefits.</p>
<p>All too often, attempting this balancing act ends up in “<a href="https://www.thenatureofcities.com/2018/01/09/blandscaping-erases-local-ecological-diversity/">blandscaping</a>”. Blandscaping is the practice of creating virtually uniform green spaces that are devoid of local character or distinctiveness. These bland landscapes arise when urban green spaces are designed with an entirely human focus: making them attractive to look at and easy to manage, but containing almost none of the valuable biodiversity that would otherwise have occupied the space. </p>
<p>Rather than tailoring the built environment to the local landscape, blandscaping uses what might politely be called a “copy and paste” approach. Globally, similarly generic designs abound, often using the same materials – and the same species – across vast geographical areas.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Red and grey buildings are dotted around a grassy area" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402145/original/file-20210521-15-9hg202.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402145/original/file-20210521-15-9hg202.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402145/original/file-20210521-15-9hg202.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402145/original/file-20210521-15-9hg202.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402145/original/file-20210521-15-9hg202.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402145/original/file-20210521-15-9hg202.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402145/original/file-20210521-15-9hg202.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Generic blandscaped areas provide a wash of green, but little of true value in the face of a global biodiversity crisis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Like a tidal wave of uniformity, this approach sweeps biodiversity aside. Just as the monocultures created by intensive <a href="https://theconversation.com/single-crop-farming-is-leaving-wildlife-with-no-room-to-turn-38991">single-crop farming</a> have threatened a huge range of plant and animal species, blandscapes render formerly diverse ecosystems identical by removing the variety of habitat features – including different soil types, complex plant structures, and unique hydrological patterns – that allow nature to flourish. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A field of identical crops under a pale sky" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408903/original/file-20210629-16-9gbs76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408903/original/file-20210629-16-9gbs76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408903/original/file-20210629-16-9gbs76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408903/original/file-20210629-16-9gbs76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408903/original/file-20210629-16-9gbs76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408903/original/file-20210629-16-9gbs76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408903/original/file-20210629-16-9gbs76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Crop monocultures threaten local biodiversity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/agriculture-wheat-field-plant-4261639/">GoranH/Pixabay</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The creatures that blandscaping benefits most are “urban generalists”: the kind of hardy animals that thrive almost anywhere, such as feral pigeons and house mice. These species prosper at the expense of others that require more specific habitats, including hedgehogs and rarer <a href="https://theconversation.com/these-3-tips-will-help-you-create-a-thriving-pollinator-friendly-garden-this-winter-157880">pollinators</a> like the <a href="https://www.bumblebeeconservation.org/pantaloon-bee/">pantaloon bee</a>. </p>
<h2>The danger of blandscaping</h2>
<p>Blandscapes are often celebrated for increasing biodiversity simply because they’ve replaced slabs of tarmac or concrete with something green. Typically focusing on evergreen hedges, exotic and complex flowering plants, lots of grassy areas to sit or walk, and a covering of woodchippings to suppress undesirable plant species, blandscapes can at first glance appear to provide a home for nature.</p>
<p>When the starting point is a square of sterile grey, adding any greenery might seem to be the best option. But the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/jan/08/green-space-combat-depression-mental-health">“any green is good”</a> mantra misses opportunities to <a href="https://www.rewildingbritain.org.uk/explore-rewilding/what-is-rewilding">rewild</a> our urban landscapes with the complex mosaics of nooks and crannies that help nature proliferate.</p>
<p>Far from being praised, blandscaping should be seen as the ecological equivalent of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2009.00860.x">gentrification</a>. Resident communities are being displaced under the guise of revitalising the area, and what remains is a habitat suitable only for the elite few rather than the many.</p>
<p>Throwing generic plants and soil into a landscape design is a form of <a href="http://max2.ese.u-psud.fr/epc/conservation/PDFs/HIPE/MacArthur1961.pdf">ecological cleansing</a>. Local species face little chance of survival when natural habitat diversity, which provides the range of resources needed to support all kinds of non-human communities, is removed.</p>
<p>The irony is that many of the post-industrial “wastelands” being blandscaped, such as the rapidly regenerating landscape of the <a href="https://royaldocks.london/media/210108-Landscape-Design-Guide.pdf">Royal Docks</a>, were much richer in the very biodiversity that we need to be protecting pre-development. In fact, some of the UK’s most biodiverse habitats can be found on unmanaged post-industrial sites like <a href="https://thelandtrust.org.uk/space/canvey-wick/">Canvey Wick</a>, in Essex, where nature has been allowed to thrive by itself. Sites like these offer a far better blueprint for urban design than the cookie-cutter approaches typical of many city spaces. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Wildflowers grow in a field" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402329/original/file-20210524-19-zq3880.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402329/original/file-20210524-19-zq3880.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402329/original/file-20210524-19-zq3880.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402329/original/file-20210524-19-zq3880.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402329/original/file-20210524-19-zq3880.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402329/original/file-20210524-19-zq3880.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402329/original/file-20210524-19-zq3880.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The brownfield ‘wasteland’ at Canvey Wick, Essex, represents one of the most biodiverse sites in the UK.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When we confine ourselves to blandscapes, we miss out too. From birdsong to butterflies, proximity to nature carries a <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-radical-nature-based-agenda-would-help-society-overcome-the-psychological-effects-of-coronavirus-147324">host of benefits</a>. Why should we settle for unimaginative and exclusory urban environments, when the natural world has so much more to offer?</p>
<h2>Ecomimicry: design inspired by nature</h2>
<p>An emerging approach to urban design – <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306399880_The_Theory_and_Practice_of_Ecomimicry">ecomimicry</a> – recognises the many lessons we can learn from the self-organising systems of the natural world. In the words of designer <a href="http://theartoftheroom.com/2013/07/truex-provence/">Van Day Truex</a>, when it comes to design, Mother Nature is our best teacher. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A bee sits on a purple flower" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408892/original/file-20210629-14-6pouke.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408892/original/file-20210629-14-6pouke.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408892/original/file-20210629-14-6pouke.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408892/original/file-20210629-14-6pouke.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408892/original/file-20210629-14-6pouke.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408892/original/file-20210629-14-6pouke.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408892/original/file-20210629-14-6pouke.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The brown-banded carder bee is just one of the species supported by ecomimicry approaches to design.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stuart Connop</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An ecomimicry approach starts with <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5feb6d2cab06677bba637eba/t/606c6cbc5b9912666a7ff978/1617718461045/JLIV+An+ecomimicry+design+approach+for+extensive+green+roofs+final+updated.pdf">reading the local landscape</a> like a book. By getting to know how different parts of a regional ecosystem intertwine, urban designers can integrate the ecological functionality that already exists in the landscape – like an abundance of pollinators, natural flood defences and food – into what they build. </p>
<p>Examples include <a href="https://theconversation.com/green-roofs-improve-the-urban-environment-so-why-dont-all-buildings-have-them-123420">covering roofs</a> in locally typical vegetation that can feed animals and humans, or building around, not over, coastal treasures like dunes and mangrove forests, and incorporating habitat features of these landscapes into the new surrounding landscaping to increase habitat connectivity, ecosystem service provision, and resilience.</p>
<p>With an awareness of nature’s importance <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/environment-secretary-to-set-out-plans-to-restore-nature-and-build-back-greener-from-the-pandemic">gaining momentum</a>, increasing numbers of <a href="https://www.grassroofcompany.co.uk/">entrepreneurs</a> are developing <a href="https://uelsri.wordpress.com/2020/05/29/a-surveying-surprise/">nature-based designs</a> with ecomimicry at their core. Welcoming biodiversity back into our urban areas can reconnect communities with nature, supporting equal access to the social, physical and psychological <a href="https://theconversation.com/spending-time-in-nature-has-always-been-important-but-now-its-an-essential-part-of-coping-with-the-pandemic-153073">benefits</a> nature provides us for free.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Wildflowers grow in a field" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402321/original/file-20210524-17-sjm4d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402321/original/file-20210524-17-sjm4d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402321/original/file-20210524-17-sjm4d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402321/original/file-20210524-17-sjm4d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402321/original/file-20210524-17-sjm4d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402321/original/file-20210524-17-sjm4d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402321/original/file-20210524-17-sjm4d0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ecomimicry is used to create a biodiverse and colourful landscape. Image by John Little.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our project, EU Horizon 2020 <a href="https://connectingnature.eu/">Connecting Nature</a>, is working with cities worldwide to explore how to bring nature back into urban landscapes. We’re helping tease out the trade-off process between human and environmental needs that city planners face when trying to integrate nature. In doing so, we hope to introduce ecomimicry approaches to the mainstream and to restore cities to the biodiverse glory of the landscapes in which they lie. </p>
<p>If ecomimicry is to gain a foothold in our landscapes, three things are necessary: We must involve local ecologists who understand the unique complexities of the habitats being altered. We must ensure that the inherent value of all creatures is reflected in our approach to urban design. And we must embed this approach into policy, so it lasts for years to come.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160664/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Drs Stuart Connop and Caroline Nash are currently working on the project Connecting Nature. The project is funded from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 730222.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Caroline Nash does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Generic urban landscape design is damaging for people and nature: an ecomimicry approach instead encourages nature to flourish even in cities.
Stuart Connop, Senior Research Fellow, University of East London
Caroline Nash, Research Fellow in Biodiversity Conservation, University of East London
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/162083
2021-06-23T03:00:23Z
2021-06-23T03:00:23Z
A lone tree makes it easier for birds and bees to navigate farmland, like a stepping stone between habitats
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407576/original/file-20210622-26-pg9chh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C12%2C4217%2C2797&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Vast, treeless paddocks and fields can be dangerous for wildlife, who encounter them as “roadblocks” between natural areas nearby. But our <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.614362/full?&utm_source=Email_to_authors_&utm_medium=Email&utm_content=T1_11.5e1_author&utm_campaign=Email_publication&field=&journalName=Frontiers_in_Ecology_and_Evolution&id=614362">new research</a> found even one lone tree in an otherwise empty paddock can make a huge difference to an animal’s movement. </p>
<p>We focused on the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/what-is-the-atlantic-forest-and-why-do-we-need-to-save-it">Atlantic Forest</a> in Brazil, a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/35002501">biodiversity hotspot</a> with 1,361 different known species of wildlife, such as jaguars, sloths, tamarins and toucans. Habitat loss from expanding and intensifying farmland, however, increasingly threatens the forest’s rich diversity of species and ecosystems.</p>
<p>We researched the value of paddock trees and hedges for birds and bees, and found small habitat features like these can double how easily they find their way through farmland. </p>
<p>This is important because enabling wildlife to journey across farmlands not only benefits the conservation of species, but also people. It means bees can improve crop pollination, and seed-dispersing birds can help restore ecosystems.</p>
<h2>Connecting habitats</h2>
<p>Lone trees in paddocks, hedges and tree-lined fences are common features of farmlands across the world, from Brazil to Australia. </p>
<p>They may be few and far between, but this scattered vegetation makes important areas of refuge for birds and bees, acting like roads or stepping stones to larger natural habitats nearby. </p>
<p><a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.12943">Scattered paddock trees</a>, for instance, offer shelter, food, and places to land. They’ve also been found to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880917303547?via%3Dihub">create cooler areas</a> within their canopy and right beneath it, providing some relief on scorching summer days. </p>
<p>Hedges and tree-lined fences are also important, as they provide a safe pathway by providing hiding places from predators.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404387/original/file-20210603-15-h0b4ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="White-browed meadowlark perched on a bush in a farm paddock within the Atlantic Forest" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404387/original/file-20210603-15-h0b4ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404387/original/file-20210603-15-h0b4ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404387/original/file-20210603-15-h0b4ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404387/original/file-20210603-15-h0b4ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404387/original/file-20210603-15-h0b4ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404387/original/file-20210603-15-h0b4ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404387/original/file-20210603-15-h0b4ce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">White-browed meadowlark perched on a bush in a farm paddock within the Atlantic Forest.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Milton Andrade Jr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For our research, we used satellite images of the Atlantic Forest and randomly selected 20 landscapes containing different amounts of forest cover. </p>
<p>We then used mathematical models to calculate the habitat connectivity of these landscapes for three groups of species — bees, small birds such as the rufous-bellied thrush, and large birds such as toucans — based on how far they can travel.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-golf-courses-are-biodiversity-oases-opening-them-up-puts-that-at-risk-148634">Urban golf courses are biodiversity oases. Opening them up puts that at risk</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>And we found in areas with low forest cover, wildlife is twice as likely to move from one natural habitat to another if paddock trees and hedges can be used as stepping stones.</p>
<p>We also found vegetation around creeks and waterways are the most prevalent and important type of on-farm habitat for wildlife movement. In Brazil, there are legal protections for these areas preventing them from being cleared, which means vegetation along waterways has become relatively common compared to lone trees and hedges, in places with lower forest cover. </p>
<h2>Insights for Australia</h2>
<p>While the contribution of lone trees, hedges and tree-lined fences towards conservation targets is relatively low, our research shows they’re still important. And we can apply this knowledge more widely. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407577/original/file-20210622-21-q745l8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two koalas sitting on a branch" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407577/original/file-20210622-21-q745l8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407577/original/file-20210622-21-q745l8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407577/original/file-20210622-21-q745l8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407577/original/file-20210622-21-q745l8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407577/original/file-20210622-21-q745l8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407577/original/file-20210622-21-q745l8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407577/original/file-20210622-21-q745l8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Koalas use roadside vegetation for feeding and resting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For example, in Australia, many koala populations depend on scattered trees for movement and habitat. In 2018, <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/am/am18031">CSIRO researchers</a> in Queensland tracked koalas using GPS, and found koalas used roadside vegetation and scattered trees for feeding and resting significantly more than they expected.</p>
<p>Likewise, lone trees, hedges and tree-lined fences can also facilitate the movement of Australian fruit-eating birds such as the olive-backed oriole and the rose-crowned fruit dove. <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cobi.12236">Improving habitat connectivity</a> can help these birds travel across landscapes, feeding and dispersing seeds as they go. </p>
<p>In fragmented landscapes, where larger patches of vegetation are hard to find, dispersing the seeds of native plants encourages natural regeneration of ecosystems. This is a key strategy to help achieve environmental restoration and conservation targets.</p>
<h2>Policies overlook lone trees</h2>
<p>In Brazil, there’s a strong initiative to restore natural areas, known as the <a href="https://www.pactomataatlantica.org.br/the-pact">Brazilian Pact for Restoration</a>. This pact is a commitment from non-government organisations, government, companies and research centres to restore 15 million hectares of native vegetation by 2050. </p>
<p>However, the pact doesn’t recognise the value of lone trees, hedges and tree-lined fences. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/stopping-koala-extinction-is-agonisingly-simple-but-heres-why-im-not-optimistic-141696">Stopping koala extinction is agonisingly simple. But here's why I'm not optimistic</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Likewise, <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/latin-america/brazil/stories-in-brazil/brazils-forest-code/#:%7E:text=in%20the%20Brazilian%20Amazon.&text=In%201965%2C%20Brazil%20created%20and,farm%2020%20percent%20of%20it.">the Brazilian Forest Code</a> has historically provided strong legal protection for forests since it was introduced. While this policy does value vegetation along waterways, it overlooks the value of lone trees, hedges or tree-lined fences. </p>
<p>These oversights could result in poor connectivity between natural areas, seriously hampering conservation efforts. </p>
<p>Australia doesn’t fare much better. For example, in Queensland, the <a href="https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-1999-090">native vegetation management laws</a> protect only intact native vegetation or vegetation of a certain age. This means scattered, but vital, vegetation isn’t protected from land clearing.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404161/original/file-20210603-21-1523xni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404161/original/file-20210603-21-1523xni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404161/original/file-20210603-21-1523xni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404161/original/file-20210603-21-1523xni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404161/original/file-20210603-21-1523xni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404161/original/file-20210603-21-1523xni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404161/original/file-20210603-21-1523xni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404161/original/file-20210603-21-1523xni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Small habitat features scattered across a farm paddock in the Atlantic Forest.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Flávia Freire Siqueira, CC BY.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Helping your local wildlife</h2>
<p>But farmers and other landowners in Australia can make a big difference through land stewardship grant schemes (such as from <a href="http://www.nrm.gov.au/national/continuing-investment/environmental-stewardship">Landcare</a>) and private land conservation programs (such as Land for Wildlife or <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/conservation/covenants">conservation covenants</a>). </p>
<p>These schemes and programs can help landowners finance revegetation and protect native vegetation. Grants and programs vary by state and territory, and local council. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/backyard-gardeners-around-the-world-are-helping-to-save-australias-deeply-ancient-wollemi-pine-138797">Backyard gardeners around the world are helping to save Australia's deeply ancient Wollemi pine</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Restoring natural areas is a <a href="https://www.decadeonrestoration.org/">key goal on the global conservation agenda</a> for the next decade, and it’s clear that lone trees, hedges and tree-lined fences on farms may play a larger role than once thought. </p>
<p>So think twice before you remove a tree or a hedge. It might be a crucial stepping stone for your local birds and bees.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Dr Flávia Freire Siqueira who led this research collaboration, and co-authours Dr Dulcineia de Carvalho and Dr Vanessa Leite Rezende from the Federal University of Lavras.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162083/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carla Archibald receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span><a href="mailto:evandenb@ufla.br">evandenb@ufla.br</a> receives funding from FAPEMIG (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan Rhodes receives funding from the Australian Research Council and the Australian, Queensland, and New South Wales Governments.</span></em></p>
Enabling wildlife to journey across farmlands not only benefits conservation, but also people. It means bees can improve crop pollination, and seed-dispersing birds can help restore ecosystems.
Carla Archibald, Research Fellow, Conservation Science, Deakin University
Eduardo van den Berg, Federal University of Lavras
Jonathan Rhodes, Associate Professor, The University of Queensland
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/157441
2021-05-24T15:13:22Z
2021-05-24T15:13:22Z
Rewilding: four tips to let nature thrive
<p>What would rewilding mean for a country like the UK? Bringing back wolves and bears? Returning the land to how it looked in prehistoric times? How will people fit into this wild and unimaginably different place? Questions like these abound whenever rewilding is in the news. </p>
<hr>
<iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/rewilding-four-tips-to-let-nature-thrive-157441&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>In essence, rewilding involves giving more space and time to nature. Instead of managing ecosystems to preserve particular species, rewilding is intended to reverse environmental decline by letting nature become more self-willed. That means allowing wildlife the freedom to flourish and habitats to regenerate naturally.</p>
<p>But without clear principles to guide these processes, rewilding has become a trendy buzzword that is often used indiscriminately. This has invited wildly different interpretations, sparked debates and caused controversy that has discouraged governments from developing it into policy. </p>
<p>This could be about to change though. </p>
<p>We’ve published <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cobi.13730">a set of guiding principles</a> which specify what rewilding should involve and how it should be done. This is the result of one of the most comprehensive international studies on rewilding to date, reviewing best practices and the latest science, instigated by the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/commissions/commission-ecosystem-management/our-work/cems-thematic-groups/rewilding">International Union for the Conservation of Nature</a> and involving hundreds of experts. Without further ado, here are the dos and don'ts of rewilding.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Three wild horses in a clearing." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402339/original/file-20210524-23-cfy73w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C317%2C3264%2C2125&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402339/original/file-20210524-23-cfy73w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402339/original/file-20210524-23-cfy73w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402339/original/file-20210524-23-cfy73w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402339/original/file-20210524-23-cfy73w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402339/original/file-20210524-23-cfy73w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402339/original/file-20210524-23-cfy73w.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Konik wild horses recreate the natural grazing patterns of extinct species at the Cambrian Wildwood in West Wales.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Coetir Anian/Cambrian Wildwood</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Don’t (always) start with wolves</h2>
<p>The objective of rewilding is boosting the health of an ecosystem by increasing the number of species and how much they can all interact. A fully restored ecosystem would have top predators, but there are a lot of missing parts – the plants, prey animals, fungi – that should be put back first to ensure that larger species have an appropriate food source and habitat to support them. </p>
<p>It might not be appropriate for lots of other reasons to reintroduce wolves to a particular place at the moment, but in the meantime, bringing back <a href="https://www.natureconservation.wales/project/beaver-reintroduction-wales/">beavers</a>, <a href="https://www.arc-trust.org/saving-sand-lizard">lizards</a> and <a href="https://butterfly-conservation.org/news-and-blog/the-science-behind-the-chequered-skipper-re-introduction">butterflies</a> is brilliant too.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402317/original/file-20210524-17-sks2ql.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A view of someone holding a dormouse." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402317/original/file-20210524-17-sks2ql.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402317/original/file-20210524-17-sks2ql.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402317/original/file-20210524-17-sks2ql.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402317/original/file-20210524-17-sks2ql.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402317/original/file-20210524-17-sks2ql.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402317/original/file-20210524-17-sks2ql.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402317/original/file-20210524-17-sks2ql.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dormice need a helping hand too.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Back on our Map/University of Cumbria</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The UK government has the chance to support the reintroduction of species by including funding for it in its new <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/environmental-land-management-schemes-overview">environmental land management schemes</a>. As opposed to the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy, which paid farmers a subsidy based on the size of the land they owned, the new schemes would offer payments to farmers and land managers in return for supporting nature recovery across the landscape. </p>
<p>Within these schemes, funding could be allocated for the <a href="https://www.rewildingbritain.org.uk/support-rewilding/our-campaigns-and-issues/natural-regeneration">natural regeneration</a> of habitats, instead of interventions like tree planting. This would mean moving away from setting fixed targets and managing habitats to suit one species, which might feel risky, but it would let scientists see how natural processes operate when they are given room, and what <a href="https://knepp.co.uk/the-results">unexpected things arrive</a>. This can change our understanding of how ecosystems work and where species can thrive if landscapes become healthier. </p>
<h2>Do reconnect people with nature</h2>
<p>Rewilding involves reducing harmful human pressures and promoting natural processes in ecosystems. This shouldn’t mean excluding people though. Rewilding should actually help people develop a more positive relationship with the natural world that involves compassion for all species and a spirit of learning from nature rather than seeking to dominate it.</p>
<p>This can be done through <a href="https://www.cambrianwildwood.org/people/">school trips</a>, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/travel/2021/03/uk-revolutionary-rewilding-projects">holidays in rewilding sites</a> and voluntary work opportunities like <a href="https://treesforlife.org.uk/into-the-forest/rewilding/">tree planting</a>, wetland restoration and wildlife surveys. A greater emphasis on the natural world in primary and secondary education could also help guarantee the long-term success of rewilding efforts by nurturing enthusiasm from an early age.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-environmental-doom-and-gloom-young-people-draw-alternative-visions-of-natures-future-102004">Forget environmental doom and gloom – young people draw alternative visions of nature's future</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Don’t alienate rural communities</h2>
<p>The prospect of rewilding has made some people in the countryside anxious. Farmers in particular worry that their livestock, land and way of life are under threat, either from reintroduced predators or new directives to manage the land differently.</p>
<p>Including local people at every stage of a rewilding project is very important. To ensure this, staff working on rewilding projects need to be based locally so they are available for a chat or to discuss concerns. They shouldn’t just rely on formal consultation – where communities fill in surveys or participate in organised meetings.</p>
<p>Ideally, rewilding projects should be driven by local people who could organise and set the agenda for how their land is managed. They should also directly benefit from <a href="https://rewildingeurope.com/rewilding-in-action/nature-based-economies/">associated businesses</a>, like wildlife tours. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of people standing in a valley bottom surrounded by trees and hills." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402318/original/file-20210524-13-rao71g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/402318/original/file-20210524-13-rao71g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402318/original/file-20210524-13-rao71g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402318/original/file-20210524-13-rao71g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402318/original/file-20210524-13-rao71g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402318/original/file-20210524-13-rao71g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/402318/original/file-20210524-13-rao71g.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rewilding projects shouldn’t impose ideas from above that were devised elsewhere.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stephen Carver</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Do think about the future</h2>
<p>Some people worry that rewilding harks back to a time before modern man or even earlier – to when woolly mammoths stalked the Earth. Looking back can allow us to see what has been lost and what could be revived, but rewilding isn’t about rewinding the clock. It’s about looking to the future and the challenges nature will face.</p>
<p>By enabling species to move through reconnected habitats and traverse entire landscapes, wildlife populations can be rebuilt. This would ensure the healthy functioning of an ecosystem isn’t dependent on a few isolated creatures, and it’s a practical way to help nature adapt to threats like climate change and new diseases, as species will have more freedom to move if pressures in one place escalate. </p>
<p>The UK government has <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/936567/10_POINT_PLAN_BOOKLET.pdf">committed</a> to protect 30% of UK land by 2030 by creating new national parks and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty. But landowners need commitments from the government and funders so they know that restoring woodland and wetlands won’t cost them money down the line. <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/environment-bill-2020/10-march-2020-nature-and-conservation-covenants-parts-6-and-7">Conservation covenants</a> – introduced in the 2020 Environment Bill – could provide a mechanism for landowners to stipulate how their estate is managed in perpetuity. So land can become, and remain, wild hundreds of years into the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/157441/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sophie Wynne-Jones is a trustee of the Cambrian Wildwood – an advisory and unpaid position.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Convery is a trustee of the not-for-profit Lifescapes Project.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steve Carver receives funding from ESRC and NERC.</span></em></p>
By studying where rewilding has worked well around the world, we’ve worked out the dos and don'ts.
Sophie Wynne-Jones, Lecturer in Human Geography, Bangor University
Ian Convery, Professor of Environment & Society, University of Cumbria
Steve Carver, Senior Lecturer in Geography, University of Leeds
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/158587
2021-04-15T13:48:30Z
2021-04-15T13:48:30Z
Just 3% of Earth’s land ecosystems remain intact – but we can change that
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395248/original/file-20210415-14-160u1nu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1744%2C1148&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cheetahs in the Serengeti in Tanzania.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">A J Plumptre</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Few things excite biologists more than contemplating the parts of the world still relatively free of human damage. For the last 30 years, scientists intent on protecting Earth’s biodiversity have sought to enshrine targets for preserving and expanding these remaining areas of wilderness.</p>
<p>But what actually is wilderness, and how do we know when we’ve found it? Most people would call anywhere that’s remote and with few human inhabitants wilderness, but for scientists, it’s more complicated. Most scientific definitions of wilderness centre on the concept of “intactness”. If the basic structure of a habitat, such as a forest, is intact and there is little evidence of human impact, then it is often considered wilderness. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15109">Studies</a> conducted over the past decade have tried to map how intact ecosystems are on a global scale using satellite imagery. Their estimates suggest that between 20% and 40% of the planet’s land surface could be considered ecologically intact. But what can be detected by satellites is a poor measure of how wild a habitat actually is. Beneath the seemingly intact canopy, the extinction of large mammals and birds through hunting and introducing invasive species and diseases has depleted the biodiversity of the world’s wilderness areas.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aerial view of the Amazon forest and river." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395262/original/file-20210415-23-1x8antx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395262/original/file-20210415-23-1x8antx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395262/original/file-20210415-23-1x8antx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395262/original/file-20210415-23-1x8antx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395262/original/file-20210415-23-1x8antx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395262/original/file-20210415-23-1x8antx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395262/original/file-20210415-23-1x8antx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What lies beneath? Fewer animals and fewer interactions between species compared to several centuries ago.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/top-view-amazon-rainforest-brazil-558184051">Gustavo Frazao/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ffgc.2021.626635/full">new study</a>, my colleagues and I used a different definition of intact ecosystems that considers whether all species known to have occurred in an area are still present and whether they’re sufficiently abundant to play their ecological roles, such as top predators or seed dispersers. We set the benchmark at AD1500, which means that only parts of the world which are as ecologically intact as they were 500 years ago – with the same complement of species at similar levels of abundance – could be considered wilderness.</p>
<p>We discovered that only 2.8% of the planet’s land surface fits this description. These patches, each 10,000 square kilometres or larger, are scattered in various places around the world. They include the Nouabale-Ndoki National Park in the Congo, the Serengeti-Ngorongoro in Tanzania, the Alto Rio Negro indigenous territory in the Amazon forest, the Great Siberian Polynya in northern Russia and Kawésqar National Park in southern Chile. These are very rare and special places that should be conserved, but only 11% of them fall within a protected area.</p>
<h2>The decade of restoration</h2>
<p>Just a tiny fraction of Earth’s land ecosystems are as intact as they were 500 years ago. What might it take to restore them?</p>
<p>Clearly, where a species has gone extinct, the original wilderness cannot be revived. But where species have been locally eradicated but survive elsewhere, there’s hope for restoring an ecosystem’s integrity by reintroducing species. This will take a significant commitment from governments and multinational bodies, as reintroduction can be costly and difficult. The original threats to wildlife have to be eliminated to ensure success.</p>
<p>But we predict that ecosystems with communities of wildlife at historical levels of abundance and activity could be restored on up to 20% of Earth’s land. Focusing on areas of the world where the habitat appears intact from satellite images, we identified places where five or fewer large animal species have been lost and where it might be feasible to return them. </p>
<p>For example, some protected areas in the Congo Basin have lost forest elephants, but these areas are still large and remote enough and with plenty of intact habitat to support this species. Reintroducing elephants here could be successful if hunting can be brought under control.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394008/original/file-20210408-13-11y0nal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A world map highlighting areas where" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394008/original/file-20210408-13-11y0nal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/394008/original/file-20210408-13-11y0nal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394008/original/file-20210408-13-11y0nal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394008/original/file-20210408-13-11y0nal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394008/original/file-20210408-13-11y0nal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394008/original/file-20210408-13-11y0nal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/394008/original/file-20210408-13-11y0nal.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reintroducing between one and five species to many wilderness areas could boost how ecologically intact they are.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">A J Plumptre</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As the world considers <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">a new framework</a> for managing biodiversity, the integrity of ecosystems is emerging as an important goal. The UN has also called the 2020s the “decade of restoration”, when national efforts should turn to restoring degraded habitats.</p>
<p>Repairing the world’s most damaged habitats is undoubtedly important, but there’s an opportunity to restore relatively intact habitats to something resembling their former glory. Instead of just conserving them, let’s be ambitious and try to expand these rare and pristine patches by reintroducing long-lost animals. If successful, these intact sites can serve as an invaluable reminder of what the rest of the world has lost, and a useful benchmark from which to measure what is truly wild.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158587/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Plumptre does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
One-fifth of Earth’s land could be restored to wilderness by reintroducing animals and improving management.
Andrew Plumptre, Key Biodiversity Areas Secretariat, Cambridge Conservation Institute, University of Cambridge
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/155479
2021-02-28T19:06:11Z
2021-02-28T19:06:11Z
Look up! A powerful owl could be sleeping in your backyard after a night surveying kilometres of territory
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386611/original/file-20210226-19-fbdwna.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C29%2C3976%2C2964&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Bradsworth</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Picture this: you’re in your backyard gardening when you get that strange, ominous feeling of being watched. You find a grey oval-shaped ball about the size of a thumb, filled with bones and fur — a pellet, or “owl vomit”. </p>
<p>You look up and see the bright “surprised” eyes of a powerful owl staring back at you, with half a possum in its talons. </p>
<p>This may be becoming a familiar story for many Australians. We strapped tracking devices to 20 powerful owls in Melbourne for our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01494">new research</a>, and learned these apex predators are increasingly choosing to sleep in urban areas, from backyard trees to city parks.</p>
<p>These respite areas are critical for species to survive in challenging urban environments because, just like for humans, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2008.02.001">rest is an essential behaviour</a> to conserve energy for the day (or night) ahead. </p>
<p>Our research highlights the importance of trees on both public and private land for wild animals. Without an understanding of where urban wildlife rests, we risk damaging these urban habitats with encroaching development. </p>
<h2>One owl, one year, 300 possums</h2>
<p>Powerful owls are Australia’s largest, measuring 65 centimetres from head to tail and weighing a hefty 1.6 kilograms. They’re found in Australia’s <a href="https://www.birdlife.org.au/bird-profile/powerful-owl">eastern states</a>, except for Tasmania.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Powerful owl with half a common ringtail possum" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386597/original/file-20210226-15-1w0mjri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386597/original/file-20210226-15-1w0mjri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386597/original/file-20210226-15-1w0mjri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386597/original/file-20210226-15-1w0mjri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386597/original/file-20210226-15-1w0mjri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386597/original/file-20210226-15-1w0mjri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386597/original/file-20210226-15-1w0mjri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Powerful owl at roost with half a common ringtail possum (probably saving it for later).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Bradsworth</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These owls have <a href="https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=US201300483075">traditionally been thought</a> to live only in large old-growth forested areas. However, Victoria has lost over <a href="https://www.environment.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0023/32882/Powerful_Owl_Ninox_strenua.pdf">65% of forest cover</a> since European settlement, and because of this habitat loss, the owls are <a href="https://www.environment.vic.gov.au/conserving-threatened-species/threatened-list">listed as threatened in Victoria</a>.</p>
<p>Their remaining habitat is extremely fragmented. This means we’re finding owls in interesting places — from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/MU06055">dry, open woodland</a> to our major east coast cities. This is likely <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238069344_Conservation_management_and_diets_of_powerful_owls_Ninox_strenua_in_outer_urban_Melbourne_Australia">due to the high numbers of prey</a>, such as possums, that thrive alongside exotic garden trees and house roofs. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-disturb-the-cockatoos-on-your-lawn-theyre-probably-doing-all-your-weeding-for-free-154265">Don't disturb the cockatoos on your lawn, they're probably doing all your weeding for free</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Powerful owls usually eat one possum per night, or 250-300 possums per year — mostly <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/wr/WR05058">common ringtail and brushtail possums</a> in Melbourne. They’re often <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/95/2/284/2701136">seen holding prey at their roosting spots</a>, where they’ll finish eating in the evening for breakfast. </p>
<p>This has <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1241484">ecosystem-wide benefits</a>, as powerful owls can help keep overabundant possums in check. Too many possums can strip away vegetation, causing it to die back, which stops other wildlife from nesting or finding shelter.</p>
<h2>Tracking their nocturnal haunts</h2>
<p>But powerful owls are extremely <a href="http://doi.org/10.1071/WR16185">elusive</a>. With low populations, locating owls and researching their requirements is very difficult. </p>
<p>So, to help narrow down the general areas where powerful owls live in Melbourne, we used <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.06.039">species distribution models</a> and sought help from land management agencies and <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-rise-of-citizen-science-is-great-news-for-our-native-wildlife-63866">citizen scientists</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1288698610473791488"}"></div></p>
<p>Over five years, we deployed GPS devices on 20 Melburnian owls to find how they use urban environments. These devices automatically record where the owls move at night and rest during the day.</p>
<p>We learned they fly, on average, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00532">4.4 kilometers per night</a> through golf courses, farms, reserves and backyards looking for dinner and defending their territory. One owl along the Mornington Peninsula travelled 47 km over two nights (possibly in search of a mate). Another urban owl called several golf courses in the Melbourne suburb of Alphington home.</p>
<h2>Choosing where to sleep</h2>
<p>After their nightly adventures, the owls usually return to a number of regular roosting (resting) spots, sometimes on the exact same branch. The powerful owl chooses roosts that protect them against being mobbed by aggressive daytime birds, such as the noisy miner and pied currawong. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/2zVOLwtvuLc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A powerful owl showing defensive behaviour towards nearby pied currawongs trying to mob it.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We found the owls used 32 different tree species to roost in: 23 were native, and nine were exotic, including pine and willow trees. This shows powerful owls can adapt to use a range of species to fit their roosting requirements, such as thick foliage to hide in during the day. </p>
<p>Owls will <a href="http://dro.deakin.edu.au/view/DU:30001535">generally roost</a> in damp, dark areas during summer, and in open roosts in full or dappled sunlight during winter to help regulate their body temperature.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-owls-are-losing-their-homes-so-were-3d-printing-them-new-ones-133626">Urban owls are losing their homes. So we're 3D printing them new ones</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our research also shows rivers in urban environments are just as important as trees for roosting habitat. </p>
<p><a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.01.006">Rivers are naturally home</a> to a diverse range of wildlife. Using trees near rivers to rest in may be a strategic decision to reduce time and energy when travelling at night to find other resources, such as prey, mates and nests. </p>
<p>Rivers that constantly flow, such as the Yarra River, are a particular favourite for the owls.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A powerful owl surrounded by leaves" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385198/original/file-20210219-18-so6i8j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385198/original/file-20210219-18-so6i8j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385198/original/file-20210219-18-so6i8j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385198/original/file-20210219-18-so6i8j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385198/original/file-20210219-18-so6i8j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385198/original/file-20210219-18-so6i8j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385198/original/file-20210219-18-so6i8j.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Powerful owl at roost among dense <em>Kunzea</em> vegetation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Bradsworth</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The urban roost risk</h2>
<p>These resting habitats, however, are under constant pressure by urban expansion and agriculture. Suitable roosting habitat is either removed, or degraded in quality and converted to housing, roads, grass cover or bare soil.</p>
<p>We found potentially suitable roosting habitat in Melbourne is extremely fragmented, covering just 10% of the landscape because owls are very selective about where they sleep. </p>
<p>Although there might be the odd suitable patch (or tree) to roost in urban environments, what’s often lacking is natural connectivity between patches. While owls are nocturnal, they still need places to rest in the night before they settle down in another spot to sleep for the day. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A pair of powerful owls with beady eyes sitting at their roost" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385197/original/file-20210219-16-1vxiszg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385197/original/file-20210219-16-1vxiszg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385197/original/file-20210219-16-1vxiszg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385197/original/file-20210219-16-1vxiszg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385197/original/file-20210219-16-1vxiszg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385197/original/file-20210219-16-1vxiszg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385197/original/file-20210219-16-1vxiszg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The classic ‘surprised’ powerful owl expression at a roost.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Bradsworth</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Supplementing habitat with more trees on private property and enhancing the quality of habitat along river systems may encourage owls to roost in other areas of Melbourne.</p>
<p>Powerful owls don’t discriminate between private land and reserves for roosting. So conserving and enhancing resting habitats on public and private land will enable urban wildlife to persist alongside expanding and intensifying urbanisation. </p>
<h2>So what can you do to help?</h2>
<p>If you want powerful owls to roost in your backyard, visit your local indigenous nursery and ask about trees local to your area. </p>
<p>Several favourite roost trees in Melbourne include many Eucalyptus species and wattles. If you don’t have the space for a large tree, they will also roost in the shorter, dense <em>Kunzea</em> and swamp paperbark (<em>Melaleuca ericifolia</em>).</p>
<p>Planting them will provide additional habitat and, if you are lucky, your neighbourhood owls may even decide to settle in for the day and have a snooze.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hard-to-spot-but-worth-looking-out-for-8-surprising-tawny-frogmouth-facts-146484">Hard to spot, but worth looking out for: 8 surprising tawny frogmouth facts</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155479/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Bradsworth is a member of BirdLife Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John White and Raylene Cooke do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Researchers strapped tracking devices to 20 powerful owls in Melbourne and learned these apex predators are increasingly choosing to sleep in urban areas, from backyard trees to golf courses.
Nick Bradsworth, PhD Candidate, Deakin University
John White, Associate Professor in Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Deakin University
Raylene Cooke, Associate Professor, Deakin University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/155098
2021-02-22T07:14:44Z
2021-02-22T07:14:44Z
Why urban gardens are crucial for conserving bees and butterflies – and how you can help them
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385077/original/file-20210218-20-9or3f2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C0%2C2998%2C1999&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bumblebee-flies-siberian-blueberry-growing-on-125841353">Maljalen/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As humans have industrialised farming to feed a growing global population, pollinators – animals vital for plant reproduction – have seen their food supply decline. In the UK, intensive agriculture has eroded biological diversity in large portions of the countryside, with vast swathes of cereal crops and ryegrass pastures now replacing flower-rich habitats. </p>
<p>For pollinators such as bees, hoverflies and butterflies, a loss of flowers means a loss of the nectar and pollen that makes up their food. A reduction in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature16532">diversity and quantity</a> of this food is an <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/347/6229/1255957.abstract?casa_token=Ns_zTmGxV1YAAAAA:yxdfT_P9cCGRFKYe0d1vwR6s6hDFyUZBh12n6xNbzPwslwdBEnanAWu5bpYKnbgTPltSWB5EE3GsT_I">important factor</a> in the widespread decline of their population numbers.</p>
<p>However, pollinators may have an unlikely saviour: cities. Although traditionally regarded as ecological wastelands, urban landscapes can support <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2014.2849">diverse pollinator populations</a>. <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2745.13598">Our new research</a>, conducted with colleagues at the universities of Bristol, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Northumbria, Reading and the Royal Horticultural Society, investigated the nectar production in different urban areas to see how they compared with one another and with rural habitats. </p>
<p>We found that urban areas are not so bleak after all. They offer comparable resources to rural habitats, with gardens providing nectar-rich oases to support our pollinating insects.</p>
<h2>Urban potential</h2>
<p>In the UK, <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/rural-population-and-migration/rural-population-201415">83%</a> of the population now live in an urban area. These landscapes are complex <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0769-y?fbclid=IwAR2VofPLO0TQa-jFETk1uNNrdmVPw2GsGX_MPiZ5OGFFF5TMKgElBp5twxQ">patchworks</a> of different land uses, from green spaces like parks and gardens to pavements and car parks.</p>
<p>For our study, we measured how much nectar flower species make, by sampling in a range of urban environments including private and botanical gardens, allotments and road verges. We also made use of other published studies on nectar production in order to compare our findings with the nectar quantity and diversity of rural areas. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Tortoiseshell butterfly feeding on clustered purple buddleia flowers" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385267/original/file-20210219-17-19be474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385267/original/file-20210219-17-19be474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385267/original/file-20210219-17-19be474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385267/original/file-20210219-17-19be474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385267/original/file-20210219-17-19be474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385267/original/file-20210219-17-19be474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385267/original/file-20210219-17-19be474.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Buddleia is a valuable source of nectar for butterflies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/small-tortoiseshell-butterfly-aglais-urticae-feeding-474006373">Linda Bestwick/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Measuring nectar is fiddly work, but it is fascinating to see how flowers have evolved different strategies for supplying insects with their reward. Using a thin glass capillary tube, roughly mimicking a bee’s tongue, we extracted nectar and measured its volume – sometimes less than a hundredth of a raindrop. </p>
<p>Next, we needed to work out the sugar concentration, which we achieved using a refractometer. This clever piece of equipment, commonly used by brewers, measures the amount light bends when passing through a solution and tells you how much sugar is dissolved. Nectar can be 60% sugar by weight – the equivalent of putting 100 spoonfuls in your cup of tea. After repeating this process on more than three thousand flowers, we were able to scale our nectar calculations up to look at entire sampled habitats.</p>
<p>Our findings suggest that urban landscapes are hotspots of nectar diversity. This means that there are more kinds of flowering plant producing nectar in towns and cities than in the farmland and nature reserve sites we measured. Just like in humans, a balanced diet is important for keeping pollinators healthy, helping them to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-78119-2">fight off diseases</a>. </p>
<p>On top of that, flowers have different colours, smells, shapes and sizes, and pollinators vary in their preferences. For example, butterflies like to feed from thin, tubular flowers with a sweet fragrance, like buddleia, but hoverflies need easily-accessible nectar, like that found in carrot flowers. Knowing that urban landscapes provide an especially diverse array of flowering plants is important as it means they have the potential to support a wide range of pollinator species.</p>
<h2>The importance of gardens</h2>
<p>Spaces within towns and cities differ greatly in the amount of energy-rich nectar they produce. For a given area, residential gardens make a similar quantity to allotments, but four times as much as public parks. Overall, because gardens are both nectar-rich and extremely widespread – <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/environmentalaccounts/bulletins/uknaturalcapital/urbanaccounts">covering around 30%</a> of urban land – they produced an average of 85% of all the nectar in the four towns and cities we surveyed (Bristol, Edinburgh, Leeds and Reading). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Pots filled with flowers and plants against garden brick wall." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385268/original/file-20210219-21-hnpbti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385268/original/file-20210219-21-hnpbti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385268/original/file-20210219-21-hnpbti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385268/original/file-20210219-21-hnpbti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385268/original/file-20210219-21-hnpbti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385268/original/file-20210219-21-hnpbti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/385268/original/file-20210219-21-hnpbti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Urban gardens are oases for pollinators.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/flowers-plants-planting-urban-garden-small-1758742448">L. Feddes/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This means that eight or nine out of every ten grams of urban nectar comes from someone’s garden. It is no exaggeration to say that gardens are critical for the food supply of pollinators in our towns and cities. The decisions every gardener makes about their garden matter for the conservation of bees, butterflies and other pollinators.</p>
<p>Here’s how to maximise the benefit of your garden space in a few simple steps: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>Choose pollinator-friendly species, such as thistles, lavender and oregano, for your garden. The <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/science/conservation-biodiversity/wildlife/plants-for-pollinators">RHS Plants for Pollinators</a> lists are a great help.</p></li>
<li><p>Ensure there is always something in flower, from early spring to late autumn and onwards into winter. <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/popular/hellebore">Hellebores</a> and <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/11262/i-Muscari-latifolium-i/Details">grape hyacinths</a> are wonderful for the early spring, while ivy and <a href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/10734/i-Mahonia-japonica-i/Details">mahonia</a> keep the nectar flowing as the cold weather draws in.</p></li>
<li><p>Mow the lawn less often, even just in a small patch, as this allows dandelions, clovers and other plants to flower.</p></li>
<li><p>Avoid pesticides. Pollinators can ingest these poisons when they feed from flowers.</p></li>
<li><p>Cover as much of your garden as possible in flowery borders and natural lawns, rather than paving and decking. Pots, hanging baskets and window boxes can further supplement the food supply.</p></li>
</ol><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155098/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas Tew receives funding from The Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). Nicholas, Katherine and Jane would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of all co-authors to this study, and in particular, Dr. Stephanie Bird (RHS) for her help with this article. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Memmott receives funding from The National Environmental Research Council.. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Katherine Baldock receives funding from the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and is a visiting researcher at the University of Bristol. </span></em></p>
New research suggests that residential gardens are the source of 85% of the nectar produced in towns and cities.
Nicholas Tew, PhD Candidate in Community Ecology, University of Bristol
Jane Memmott, Professor of Ecology, University of Bristol
Katherine Baldock, Senior Lecturer in Ecology, Northumbria University, Newcastle
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/119122
2019-08-20T15:29:14Z
2019-08-20T15:29:14Z
How conserving nature’s ‘umbrella’ species could benefit whole habitats
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/288743/original/file-20190820-170935-fcrd8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C0%2C946%2C765&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Eurasian stone-curlew stands amid short grass.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Indian_Thick-knee_at_Rajkot.jpg">Dhaval Vargiya/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In conservation, charismatic mammals and birds such as the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/black-rhino">black rhinoceros</a> and the <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/wildlife-guides/bird-a-z/capercaillie/">capercaillie</a> get a lot of attention, while others, like invertebrates, are often ignored. One way of addressing this problem is to focus on protecting “umbrella species”. These are species whose conservation can benefit many others, especially those that rely on similar habitats. But does this work in practice?</p>
<p>We had a unique opportunity to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320719306081">test the idea</a> with one of the largest field experiments in Europe. In a region called Breckland in the East of England, we used a tractor to churn tall grassland into bare, sandy plots for Eurasian stone-curlew, a rare summer visitor. The disturbed soil provides excellent camouflage for stone-curlew nests and chicks, and Breckland holds the majority of the UK’s breeding population.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287383/original/file-20190808-144878-68buy5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287383/original/file-20190808-144878-68buy5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287383/original/file-20190808-144878-68buy5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287383/original/file-20190808-144878-68buy5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287383/original/file-20190808-144878-68buy5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287383/original/file-20190808-144878-68buy5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287383/original/file-20190808-144878-68buy5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Eurasian stone-curlew with well-camouflaged chicks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Knights</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00063659909461126">Rabbits used to graze</a> in large numbers to create this habitat for stone-curlews, but <a href="https://naturebftb.co.uk/the-projects/shifting-sands/">numbers have collapsed</a> over the past 50 years due to disease, culling and predation. Without the rabbits, stone-curlew habitat shrinks – and so do the numbers of rare insect and plant species that also thrive in these bare patches of land.</p>
<p>It’s hard getting people to care about beetles and seedlings – especially when there are so many different species. But an <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02174.x">assessment of the region’s biodiversity</a> predicted that managing habitats for stone-curlews could benefit many other rare and threatened plants and invertebrates with no additional effort. </p>
<p>That’s because these priority species need the same bare and open habitats as stone-curlews. Predatory beetles like the open territory to spot and hunt prey, whereas many colonising plants like the clear space to set down roots with little competition.</p>
<p>A programme led by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (<a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk">RSPB</a>) over thirty years has endeared the stone-curlew to many local bird watchers, so people usually don’t need convincing about the value of protecting them. Because stone-curlew breeding habitat is so compatible with many other threatened species, we thought that looking after them would take care of nearly everything else. This includes species like the tiny “<a href="https://www.plantlife.org.uk/uk/discover-wild-plants-nature/plant-fungi-species/fingered-speedwell">fingered speedwell</a>” plant (<em>Veronica triphyllos</em>) and the “<a href="https://www.buglife.org.uk/bugs-and-habitats/wormwood-moonshiner">wormwood moonshiner</a>” beetle (<em>Amara fusca</em>), both of which are endangered in the UK.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287379/original/file-20190808-144878-1usyna2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287379/original/file-20190808-144878-1usyna2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287379/original/file-20190808-144878-1usyna2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287379/original/file-20190808-144878-1usyna2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287379/original/file-20190808-144878-1usyna2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287379/original/file-20190808-144878-1usyna2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287379/original/file-20190808-144878-1usyna2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=470&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Three of the 66 experimental plots where stone-curlews were encouraged.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeff Baker</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Propping up umbrellas for beetles</h2>
<p>Each experimental plot was the size of two football pitches and almost entirely devoid of vegetation. We sampled an incredible 30,000 insects – including 402 species of beetles, bugs and ants – by placing 1,000 small containers within the plots and within grassland that wasn’t being managed as a comparison.</p>
<p>The habitats we created for stone-curlews had more insects, including rare priority species which were found hardly anywhere else in the country, such as the rove beetle (<em>Philonthus lepidus</em>). After the experiment, a bug showed up that’s <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330290692_Arocephalus_languidus_Hemiptera_Cicadellidae_-_a_leafhopper_new_to_Britain">never been recorded in Britain before</a> and is only known by its scientific name, <em>Acrocephalus languidus</em>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287384/original/file-20190808-144851-1pd97s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287384/original/file-20190808-144851-1pd97s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287384/original/file-20190808-144851-1pd97s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287384/original/file-20190808-144851-1pd97s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287384/original/file-20190808-144851-1pd97s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287384/original/file-20190808-144851-1pd97s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287384/original/file-20190808-144851-1pd97s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287384/original/file-20190808-144851-1pd97s3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some of the invertebrates which benefited from stone-curlew management, including <em>Acrocephalus languidus</em> (bottom right) – a species new to Britain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Annabelle Horton</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We knew many rare insects and plants preferred the same kind of habitat as stone-curlews, so we weren’t too surprised with our results. But they do suggest something very useful. Finding and protecting a single umbrella species could achieve the same result as multiple projects targeted at many other species, for a fraction of the cost.</p>
<p>This offers a shortcut for conservation. In places with many rare and threatened species – such as the chalk grassland plains of Southern England or the Caledonian pine forests of the Scottish Highlands – a catalogue of proven umbrella species could help conservationists confidently manage habitats in the knowledge that vast numbers of other species would also benefit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/119122/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Hawkes receives funding from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and Natural England.</span></em></p>
Conservationists have found a shortcut in the race to save Earth’s threatened species.
Robert Hawkes, PhD Researcher in Environmental Science, University of East Anglia
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/116831
2019-07-01T01:34:14Z
2019-07-01T01:34:14Z
Curious Kids: how can penguins stay warm in the freezing cold waters of Antarctica?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276663/original/file-20190528-193522-7w2vy2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4920%2C3280&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Emperor penguins have uniquely adapted to their Antarctic home.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cmichel67/19584432452/in/photostream/">Christopher Michel/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au You might also like the podcast <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/kidslisten/imagine-this/">Imagine This</a>, a co-production between ABC KIDS listen and The Conversation, based on Curious Kids.</em> </p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>How can penguins and polar bears stay warm in the freezing cold waters of Antarctica? - Riley, age 8, Clarksville, Tennessee USA.</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>Thanks for your question, Riley. The first thing I should probably say is that while a lot of people think polar bears and penguins live together, in fact they live at opposite ends of the Earth. Polar bears live in the northern hemisphere and penguins live in the southern hemisphere.</p>
<p>I’m a penguin researcher so I’m going to explain here how penguins can stay warm in Antarctica. </p>
<p>There are four species of penguins that live in Antarctica: emperors, gentoos, chinstraps, and Adélies. </p>
<p>All these penguins have special adaptations to keep them warm, but emperor penguins might be the most extreme birds in the world. These amazing animals dive up to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/condor/article-abstract/97/2/536/5126161">500 metres</a>
below the surface of the ocean to catch their prey, withstanding crushing pressures and water temperatures as low as <a href="https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/seaice/index.html">-1.8°C</a>. </p>
<p>But their most incredible feat takes place not in the ocean, but on the sea ice above it. </p>
<h2>Surviving on the ice</h2>
<p>Emperor penguin chicks must hatch in spring so they can be ready to go to sea during the warmest time of year. For this timing to work, emperors gather in large groups on sea ice to begin their breeding in April, lay their eggs in May, and then the males protect the eggs for four months throughout the harsh Antarctic winter. </p>
<p>It’s dark, windy, and cold. Air temperatures regularly fall below -30°C, and occasionally drop to -60°C during blizzards. These temperatures could easily kill a human in minutes. But emperor penguins endure it, to give their chicks the best start in life. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281716/original/file-20190628-76709-rs172a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281716/original/file-20190628-76709-rs172a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281716/original/file-20190628-76709-rs172a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=237&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281716/original/file-20190628-76709-rs172a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=237&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281716/original/file-20190628-76709-rs172a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=237&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281716/original/file-20190628-76709-rs172a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=298&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281716/original/file-20190628-76709-rs172a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=298&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281716/original/file-20190628-76709-rs172a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=298&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Emperor penguins have special physical and behavioural adaptations to survive temperatures that could easily kill a human in minutes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ianduffy/4322948731/in/photolist-8RQjyS-7hFBku-7hw8BR-7A1f3P">Flickr/Ian Duffy</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A body ‘too big’ for its head</h2>
<p>Emperor penguins have four layers of overlapping feathers that provide excellent protection from wind, and thick layers of fat that trap heat inside the body. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277661/original/file-20190603-69051-1m9e3qr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277661/original/file-20190603-69051-1m9e3qr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=884&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277661/original/file-20190603-69051-1m9e3qr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=884&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277661/original/file-20190603-69051-1m9e3qr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=884&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277661/original/file-20190603-69051-1m9e3qr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1111&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277661/original/file-20190603-69051-1m9e3qr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1111&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/277661/original/file-20190603-69051-1m9e3qr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1111&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Emperor penguins have a small beak, small flippers, and small legs and feet. This way, less heat can be lost from places furthest from their main body.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/21624621@N04/4669015931/in/photolist-87zVLF-ymCfcb-y5VQfS-ymvEpU-xqyduX-7ict6W-9uCw5x-23AHyVe-7hxy4H-y5WFQS-y5PvJq-xqy3cx-ymvDk9-7i7mxn-7i8QuF-aCubNS-y636xH-y5X4WM-vyAySS-7JUFad-8SYNM-8SW25-9ec3xE-4TW3Cc-7hwjnX-8SZfb-8SSAz-8S">Anne Fröhlich/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Have you ever noticed that an emperor penguin’s body looks too big for its head and feet? This is another adaptation to keep them warm. </p>
<p>The first place that you feel cold is your hands and feet, because these parts are furthest from your main body and so lose heat easily. </p>
<p>This is the same for penguins, so they have evolved a <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/653666">small beak</a>, small flippers, and small legs and feet, so that less heat can be lost from these areas. </p>
<p>They also have specially arranged veins and arteries in these body parts, which helps recycle their body warmth. For example, in their <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1975.tb01398.x">nasal passages</a> (inside their noses), blood vessels are arranged so they can regain most of the heat that would be lost by breathing.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-sea-otters-clap-93133">Curious Kids: Why do sea otters clap?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Huddle time</h2>
<p>Male emperor penguins gather close together in big groups called “huddles” to minimise how much of their body surface is exposed to cold air while they are incubating eggs.</p>
<p>This can cut heat loss in half and keep penguins’ core temperature at about <a href="https://www.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/ajpregu.00912.2005">37°C</a> even while the air outside the huddle is below -30°C. </p>
<p>The biggest huddles ever observed had about 5,000 penguins! Penguins take turns to be on the outer edge of the huddle, protecting those on the inside from the wind. </p>
<p>Incredibly, during this four-month period of egg incubation the male penguins don’t eat anything and must rely on their existing fat stores. This long fast would be impossible unless they worked together.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281717/original/file-20190628-76734-3hzw5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281717/original/file-20190628-76734-3hzw5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281717/original/file-20190628-76734-3hzw5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281717/original/file-20190628-76734-3hzw5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281717/original/file-20190628-76734-3hzw5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281717/original/file-20190628-76734-3hzw5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281717/original/file-20190628-76734-3hzw5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281717/original/file-20190628-76734-3hzw5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The biggest huddles ever observed had about 5,000 penguins!</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/arselectronica/13290612864/in/photolist-mfrSaE-qvFt9N-dRVmBx-dTkidD-e1vevK-5YK74D-PWMQa-27vhcXz-223Jbee-Pfhub5-n9QtD-Rei3Zo-28C5haw-ehKmmw-ecQAoh-c7jEn9-W3Z4b6-MChC1r-9y4RgM-5cMyWe-dEZymU-4wdyfd-8fPEDu">Flickr/Ars Electronica</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Changing habitats</h2>
<p>Emperor penguins are uniquely adapted to their Antarctic home. As temperatures rise and sea ice disappears, emperors will face new challenges. If it becomes too warm they will get heat-stressed, and if the sea ice vanishes they will have nowhere to breed. Sadly, these incredible animals may <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2280">face extinction</a> in the future. The best thing we can do for emperor penguins is to <a href="https://theconversation.com/2040-hope-and-action-in-the-climate-crisis-117422">take action</a> on climate change now.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-is-water-blue-or-is-it-just-reflecting-off-the-sky-113199">Curious Kids: is water blue or is it just reflecting off the sky?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Have you got a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to curiouskids@theconversation.edu.au</em> <em>Please tell us your name, age and which city you live in. We won’t be able to answer every question but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116831/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Younger receives funding from the Tawani Foundation, the British Ecological Society, and the National Geographic Society. </span></em></p>
Emperor penguins have a few hidden tricks to stay warm, like blood vessels in the nose arranged so they can regain most of the heat that would be lost by breathing.
Jane Younger, Research Fellow, University of Bath
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/117687
2019-05-30T08:52:08Z
2019-05-30T08:52:08Z
Habitat loss doesn’t just affect species, it impacts networks of ecological relationships
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276787/original/file-20190528-42580-11d23u3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Habitat loss to palm oil plantations in Central Kalimantan, Borneo. The forests of Borneo are home to the few remaining Bornean orangutan _Pongo pygmaeus_, Sumatran rhinoceros _Dicerorhinus sumatrensis harrissoni_, and the Borneo pygmy elephant _Elephas maximus borneensis_, among other endangered species.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.greenpeace.org.uk/press-releases/household-brands-fail-act-dirty-palm-oil-1-football-pitch-rainforest-lost-every-25-seconds/">© Ulet Ifansasti/Greenpeace</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Habitat loss is the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/35002708">leading cause of biodiversity loss worldwide</a>. Depending on their size, animals need a given amount of area to be able to find enough resources to maintain viable populations. But once the area of available habitat goes below a certain threshold, populations are no longer viable and species go locally extinct. </p>
<p>Another consequence of area loss is that the remaining habitat patches – and the populations of species that still live in them – become fragmented. Patches of pristine habitat become isolated by a “matrix” of inhospitable areas, preventing the movement of species between places where they could live.</p>
<p>This loss and fragmentation also affects biodiversity inside remaining patches through “edge effects”. These are changes in natural communities at the boundaries (edges) of distinct habitats in the same ecosystem. For example, there may be abrupt changes in species abundance at the edges, due to drastic changes in environmental conditions such as temperature or humidity. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276234/original/file-20190523-187182-1k3bmwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276234/original/file-20190523-187182-1k3bmwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276234/original/file-20190523-187182-1k3bmwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276234/original/file-20190523-187182-1k3bmwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276234/original/file-20190523-187182-1k3bmwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276234/original/file-20190523-187182-1k3bmwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276234/original/file-20190523-187182-1k3bmwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276234/original/file-20190523-187182-1k3bmwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Golden jackal <em>Canis aureus</em> crossing the road in Keoladeo National Park, India.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=58363634">PJeganathan/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While there is debate over the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12839">relative impacts</a> of loss and fragmentation on biodiversity, we know that it can have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500052">longlasting effects</a> on everything from the amount and persistence of species within different areas, to community composition. And now our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-10370-2">newly published research</a> has shown that loss and fragmentation changes the way species within biological communities actually interact well before extinctions are detected. This has a serious effect on the stability of whole communities.</p>
<h2>Interactions extinction</h2>
<p>As early as 1974, leading ecologist Daniel Janzen identified that habitat destruction brings about “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5025190/">the extinction of ecological interactions</a>”. Janzen observed that these relationships between species (which range from interactions between prey and predator to mutually beneficial ones such as those between plants and the animals that pollinate them) are lost independently, and in a much more concealed way, than loss of species.</p>
<p>For example, when habitat is fragmented, it becomes difficult for large predators to reach distant patches for hunting. This means that predator-prey interactions can weaken in more isolated areas. And this can have <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/the_crucial_role_of_predators_a_new_perspective_on_ecology">secondary effects on the community</a> by enhancing prey species or more local, smaller predators.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276486/original/file-20190526-20851-gb11qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276486/original/file-20190526-20851-gb11qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276486/original/file-20190526-20851-gb11qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276486/original/file-20190526-20851-gb11qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276486/original/file-20190526-20851-gb11qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276486/original/file-20190526-20851-gb11qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276486/original/file-20190526-20851-gb11qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276486/original/file-20190526-20851-gb11qf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An example of a mutual interaction: dwarf honey bee <em>Apis florea</em> worker forages on <em>Zilla spinosa</em>.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Apis_florea_worker_1.jpg">Gideon Pisanty (Gidip) גדעון פיזנטי/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since Janzen’s work, researchers have been looking for recurrent patterns in how networks of ecological interactions respond to habitat destruction. These networks link all species interactions within communities into a single web. For example, in a food web, when a predator eats a prey, this can have consequences for the resources used by the prey. </p>
<p>Studies in this area have revealed that ecological networks react to habitat loss in different ways, depending on the type of interaction. While networks of mutualistic interactions tend to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/13-0977.1">break up into smaller networks</a>, food webs tend to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2011.19671.x">contract into a single smaller network</a>. Mutualistic interactions also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01250.x">tend to become weaker</a> (the species rely on each other less), while feeding relationships are stronger under habitat loss.</p>
<p>But while this research has confirmed that habitat destruction deeply influences the way species interact, until now we have lacked a full understanding of the effects of habitat loss on community stability. Similarly, we have not known to what extent community responses change depending on the nature of habitat loss.</p>
<h2>Modelling habitat loss</h2>
<p>For our study, we looked into these issues of community stability and response using a mathematical representation of an ecological system. This model simulates interactions and changes in species populations through time in a range of different landscapes – from pristine continuous habitats to highly fragmented habitats. These are based on what areas subjected to habitat loss look like in the real world. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276487/original/file-20190526-187182-1etnnn9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276487/original/file-20190526-187182-1etnnn9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276487/original/file-20190526-187182-1etnnn9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=146&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276487/original/file-20190526-187182-1etnnn9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=146&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276487/original/file-20190526-187182-1etnnn9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=146&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276487/original/file-20190526-187182-1etnnn9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=183&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276487/original/file-20190526-187182-1etnnn9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=183&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276487/original/file-20190526-187182-1etnnn9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=183&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Modelled examples of individual movement trajectories under different scenarios of habitat loss. (A. no habitat loss; B. random loss of habitat; C. random loss in clusters; D. contiguous loss of habitat).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nature Communications</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our results suggest that habitat loss affects community stability, through changes in ecological interactions, by altering the abundance and spatial distribution of species through time. And, as noted above, we also found that these ecological interactions change well before species extinctions. Limited animal movement between remaining habitats translates into negative changes in things like eating patterns, which in turn affects the way population sizes change through time and across space.</p>
<p>We also found that the specific way in which habitat is destroyed is a key determinant of the community responses to habitat loss. When habitat becomes more fragmented, it makes communities more stable due to a weakening of ecological interactions. But when habitat is lost in adjacent areas – leading to less fragmentation – this makes populations less stable due to stronger species interactions in the remaining suitable area. In fragmented landscapes, predators have a harder time finding prey, which decreases their interactions. Less fragmented landscapes, on the other hand, make predators interact more often with their prey because they are all confined to a reduced area. </p>
<p>By understanding how habitat loss affects interactions between different species in different environments, we can begin to see the true depth of humans’ impact on the natural world. It is not just loss of single species that should be of concern but rather the way that whole communities are affected by human-induced threats. Our findings suggest that biodiversity strategies need to take into account community interactions, as well as the shape of habitat loss, in order to better preserve future biodiversity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/117687/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Miguel Lurgi was supported by the French ANR, the French Midi-Pyrénées region and by the FRAGCLIM Consolidator Grant, funded by the European Research Council to conduct part of the work presented in this article. He is currently a Lecturer in Biosciences at Swansea University.</span></em></p>
New research has found that different types of habitat loss can change the stability of whole plant and animal communities.
Miguel Lurgi, Lecturer in Biosciences, Swansea University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/95882
2018-07-30T08:23:10Z
2018-07-30T08:23:10Z
How wildlife will keep cool in the face of rising temperatures
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229632/original/file-20180727-106499-kqmn8y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andrew Suggit</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Large numbers of species are <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/348/6234/571">at risk of global extinction</a> from climate change. As a result, some governments are trying include wildlife in <a href="http://www.policyconnect.org.uk/appccg/events/preparing-climate-change-new-national-adaptation-programme">their plans</a> for how to adapt the management of natural landscapes to a warming world. The problem is we still know very little about the sorts of environments that could help wildlife survive adverse climate shifts.</p>
<p>But we do know that, during the Ice Age, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534701023382">pockets of warmer conditions</a> protected species such as red squirrels and even red deer from the extreme cold. So, could modern versions of these “refugia”: locally cool habitats such as bogs, alpine environments or shaded valleys give species what they need to survive today’s warming?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229452/original/file-20180726-106499-1y6i5cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229452/original/file-20180726-106499-1y6i5cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229452/original/file-20180726-106499-1y6i5cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229452/original/file-20180726-106499-1y6i5cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229452/original/file-20180726-106499-1y6i5cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229452/original/file-20180726-106499-1y6i5cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229452/original/file-20180726-106499-1y6i5cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shaded valleys can act as refugia for wildlife.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andrew Suggit</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Using 5m <a href="http://www.npms.org.uk/">records of plants</a> <a href="https://butterfly-conservation.org/butterflies/the-state-of-britains-butterflies">and insects</a> collected by citizen scientists in England, my colleagues and I looked for signs that refugia are protecting species today. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0231-9.epdf?author_access_token=m4tvt2XQeEzzbHMVz05WitRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0NO4sitpLHNJeKBNlQvkYLP4eh61SxtPFD0AglMhznRMyGXqU15U7oTVj4N40peKqGXsS0AlnJmoStUIGPD8wdO3ZJGdlznFiaPEySz8qT7EQ%3D%3D">We found</a> that quite a number of sites around the country are already beginning to act as refugia. This was particularly the case in areas where the landscape is hilly or steep, where the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281840796_British_Wildlife_article-_Microclimate_climate_change_and_wildlife_conservation">local climate conditions</a> (microclimate) vary more often.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229459/original/file-20180726-106511-vuqaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229459/original/file-20180726-106511-vuqaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229459/original/file-20180726-106511-vuqaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229459/original/file-20180726-106511-vuqaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229459/original/file-20180726-106511-vuqaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229459/original/file-20180726-106511-vuqaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229459/original/file-20180726-106511-vuqaux.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1066&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Areas of high refugium potential for England include the Pennines, Cumbria, the Welsh Marches and the south-west.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andrew Suggitt</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We estimate that these areas of variable microclimate have reduced the risk of extinction for insects and plants that are particularly sensitive to warming by an average of 9% and 22% respectively. Incorporating these key wildlife areas into our plans for climate change could help save more species and local populations from extinction.</p>
<p>Our research indicates that inside these refugia the microclimate can vary over very short distances. This can be as little as few hundred metres across a shaded valley. But a variable microclimate can also develop in hummocky terrain, which has lots of slopes facing different ways – both towards and away from the sun. These local differences can be <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18270.x">as much as 7°C</a> during the hottest parts of the day. For some species, that can be the difference between extinction or survival.</p>
<p>A surprising aspect to the work was that the refugia we found weren’t necessarily forming in the coolest parts of the landscape. Instead, they formed in those areas that had the most variable microclimate.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229454/original/file-20180726-106517-kiwaut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229454/original/file-20180726-106517-kiwaut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229454/original/file-20180726-106517-kiwaut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229454/original/file-20180726-106517-kiwaut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229454/original/file-20180726-106517-kiwaut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229454/original/file-20180726-106517-kiwaut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229454/original/file-20180726-106517-kiwaut.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Steep-sided valleys are important refugia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mark Yeldham</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is therefore quite possible that there are lots of alternative habitats for threatened species close to where they already live. This would mean that the species that live in these refugia wouldn’t have to move far to make use of them.</p>
<p>This could be particularly important for plants and, as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534713001055">we already know</a>, they can’t shift their geographical range as quickly as animals in response to warming. But we found that animals also benefit from refugia and, in most cases, animal species will be able to make use of numerous alternative thermal habitats within the lifetime of an individual.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229455/original/file-20180726-106521-ld0xnn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229455/original/file-20180726-106521-ld0xnn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229455/original/file-20180726-106521-ld0xnn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229455/original/file-20180726-106521-ld0xnn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=451&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229455/original/file-20180726-106521-ld0xnn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229455/original/file-20180726-106521-ld0xnn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229455/original/file-20180726-106521-ld0xnn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=567&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Creeping forget-me-nots also benefit from refugia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jose Quiles</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Protecting the protectors</h2>
<p>So how can we protect refugia from climate change, to make sure they are available for wildlife to use in the future? In some ways, the areas we’ve identified are quite different to the expansive, continuous areas of habitat that we currently prioritise for wildlife conservation, such as large areas of moorland or bog.</p>
<p>But there is <a href="http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/6659217335255040">certainly some overlap</a> with areas we have already protected for wildlife. This is particularly the case within the UK’s network of Sites of Specific Scientific Interest (SSSIs), the highest category of legal protection we can give to parts of the landscape. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229456/original/file-20180726-106508-1s0jlh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229456/original/file-20180726-106508-1s0jlh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229456/original/file-20180726-106508-1s0jlh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229456/original/file-20180726-106508-1s0jlh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229456/original/file-20180726-106508-1s0jlh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229456/original/file-20180726-106508-1s0jlh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229456/original/file-20180726-106508-1s0jlh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wood tiger moths are 65% more likely to survive in refugia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Robert Thompson</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So at least we won’t be starting from scratch when we adapt our conservation plans to the huge challenge of climate change. But some important sites for refugia lie outside these networks, and we should aim to protect as many of these as we can.</p>
<p>In regions with fewer, naturally occurring refugia – flatter, often low-lying areas such as the east of England – we might even want to be more radical and consider using mechanical diggers to create hummocky terrain from scratch. This might sound expensive, but becomes far more attractive if it can be done where there is building or engineering work already going on, as the equipment and expertise will already be available and on site. For example, we could add the creation of refugia to plans for new housing developments.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229457/original/file-20180726-106505-3c4em8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229457/original/file-20180726-106505-3c4em8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229457/original/file-20180726-106505-3c4em8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229457/original/file-20180726-106505-3c4em8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229457/original/file-20180726-106505-3c4em8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229457/original/file-20180726-106505-3c4em8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229457/original/file-20180726-106505-3c4em8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Boggy, cool and damp habitats can also act as refugia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marcus Rhodes</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are particular wildlife benefits to be had where digging exposes more alkali minerals such as as chalk to the air. This allows rarer, specialist plants and animals to move in and make use of the unusual soil conditions that arise.</p>
<p>As the world warms up, much of our wildlife is facing a future of warming temperatures in landscapes which, thanks to human activity, are already hostile to many species. Refugia won’t “save” species from climate change, but finding and protecting the sorts of areas that give our flora and fauna the best chance of survival seems like a first and perhaps obvious step towards a more <a href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130402170324/http://archive.defra.gov.uk/environment/biodiversity/documents/201009space-for-nature.pdf">integrated approach</a> to managing our environment. This would help us to safeguard its value as the provider of the food we eat, the water we drink and the natural landscapes we enjoy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95882/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Suggitt was funded by Natural England and the Natural Environment Research Council. </span></em></p>
Shaded valleys and other cool habitats could help save threatened plants and animals from extinction.
Andrew Suggitt, Post-doctoral researcher in Ecology, University of York
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.