tag:theconversation.com,2011:/africa/topics/numeracy-2441/articlesNumeracy – The Conversation2024-02-13T01:16:56Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2185162024-02-13T01:16:56Z2024-02-13T01:16:56ZWhat are ‘multiplication facts’? Why are they essential to your child’s success in maths?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574826/original/file-20240212-25-kdfbw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C110%2C6689%2C4325&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/colorful-plastic-numbers-for-kids-to-learn-from-5412109/">Karolina Grabowska/ Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of the essential skills students need to master in primary school mathematics are “multiplication facts”. </p>
<p>What are they? What are they so important? And how can you help your child master them? </p>
<h2>What are multiplication facts?</h2>
<p>Multiplication facts typically describe the answers to multiplication sums up to 10x10. Sums up to 10x10 are called “facts” as it is expected they can be easily and quickly recalled. You may recall learning multiplication facts in school from a list of times tables. </p>
<p>The shift from “times tables” to “multiplication facts” is not just about language. It stems from teachers wanting children to see how multiplication facts can be used to solve a variety of problems beyond the finite times table format. </p>
<p>For example, if you learned your times tables in school (which typically went up to 12x12 and no further), you might be stumped by being asked to solve 15x8 off the top of your head. In contrast, we hope today’s students can use their multiplication facts knowledge to quickly see how 15x8 is equivalent to 10x8 plus 5x8. </p>
<p>The shift in terminology also means we are encouraging students to think about the connections between facts. For example, when presented only in separate tables, it is tricky to see how 4x3 and 3x4 are directly connected. </p>
<h2>Maths education has changed</h2>
<p>In a previous piece, we talked about how <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-would-they-change-maths-how-your-childs-maths-education-might-be-very-different-from-yours-207030">mathematics education has changed</a> over the past 30 years. </p>
<p>In today’s mathematics classrooms, <a href="https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/mathematics-proficiencies">teachers still focus</a> on developing students’ mathematical accuracy and fast recall of essential facts, including multiplication facts. </p>
<p>But we also focus on developing essential problem-solving skills. This helps students form connections between concepts, and learn how to reason through a variety of real-world mathematical tasks. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-would-they-change-maths-how-your-childs-maths-education-might-be-very-different-from-yours-207030">'Why would they change maths?' How your child's maths education might be very different from yours</a>
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<h2>Why are multiplication facts so important?</h2>
<p>By the end of primary school, it is expected students will know multiplication facts up to 10x10 and can recall the related division fact (for example, 10x9=90, therefore 90÷10=9). </p>
<p>Learning multiplication facts is also essential for developing “multiplicative thinking”. This is an understanding of the relationships between quantities, and is something we need to know how to do on a daily basis. </p>
<p>When we are deciding whether it is better to purchase a 100g product for $3 or a 200g product for $4.50, we use multiplicative thinking to consider that 100g for $3 is equivalent to 200g for $6 – not the best deal! </p>
<p>Multiplicative thinking is needed in nearly all maths topics in high school and beyond. It is used in many topics across algebra, geometry, statistics and probability.</p>
<p>This kind of thinking is profoundly important. Research <a href="https://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/maths/teaching-with-the-big-ideas-in-mathematics.pdf">shows</a> students who are more proficient in multiplicative thinking perform significantly better in mathematics overall.</p>
<p>In 2001, an <a href="https://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/maths/mynumfreport.pdf">extensive RMIT study</a> found there can be as much as a seven-year difference in student ability within one mathematics class due to differences in students’ ability to access multiplicative thinking. </p>
<p>These findings have been confirmed in more recent studies, including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0732312320301012?casa_token=k2Q1Fm2-7ekAAAAA:QWRso-ioRmtsx45VlrncevZd8fX5jc0V8nDbbiPCBWAjE_2OGaAC0O_VBStlGxalI1fbgPFV#sec0025">a 2021 paper</a>. </p>
<p>So, supporting your child to develop their confidence and proficiency with multiplication is key to their success in high school mathematics. How can you help? </p>
<p>Below are three <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED520252">research-based</a> tips to help support children from Year 2 and beyond to learn their multiplication facts. </p>
<h2>1. Discuss strategies</h2>
<p>One way to help your child’s confidence is to discuss strategies for when they encounter new multiplication facts. </p>
<p>Prompt them to think of facts they already and how they can be used for the new fact. </p>
<p>For example, once your child has mastered the x2 multiplication facts, you can discuss how 3x6 (3 sixes) can be calculated by doubling 6 (2x6) and adding one more 6. We’ve now realised that x3 facts are just x2 facts “and one more”!</p>
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<img alt="Dots representing 3 times 5, 3 times 6 and 3 times 7" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574915/original/file-20240212-24-3jkw1c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574915/original/file-20240212-24-3jkw1c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=188&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574915/original/file-20240212-24-3jkw1c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=188&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574915/original/file-20240212-24-3jkw1c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=188&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574915/original/file-20240212-24-3jkw1c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=237&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574915/original/file-20240212-24-3jkw1c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=237&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574915/original/file-20240212-24-3jkw1c.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=237&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>Strategies can be individual: students should be using the strategy that makes the most sense to them. So you could ask a questions such as “if you’ve forgotten 6x7, how could you work it out?” (we might personally think of 6x6=36 and add one more 6, but your child might do something different and equally valid). </p>
<p>This is a great activity for any quiet car trip. It can also be a great drawing activity where you both have a go at drawing your strategy and then compare. Identifying multiple strategies develops flexible thinking. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/maths-anxiety-is-a-real-thing-here-are-3-ways-to-help-your-child-cope-200822">'Maths anxiety' is a real thing. Here are 3 ways to help your child cope</a>
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<h2>2. Help them practise</h2>
<p>Practising recalling facts under a friendly time crunch can be helpful in achieving what teachers call “fluency” (that is, answering quickly and easily). </p>
<p>A great game you could play with your children is “<a href="https://www.pta.org/docs/default-source/uploadedfiles/required-handout-activity-sheet-math-night-multiplication-heads-up#:%7E:text=One%20card%20is%20placed%20face%20up%20so%20that%20everyone%20can%20see%20it.&text=The%20player%20places%20a%20card%20on%20their%20forehead.&text=The%20facilitator%20says%20out%20loud,card%20and%20the%20forehead%20card.&text=The%20player%20identifies%20the%20card%20on%20their%20forehead%20as%20quickly%20as%20possible">multiplication heads up</a>” .
Using a deck of cards, your child places a card to their forehead where you can see but they cannot. You then flip over the top card on the deck and reveal it to your child. Using the revealed card and the card on your child’s head you tell them the result of the multiplication (for example, if you flip a 2 and they have a 3 card, then you tell them “6!”). </p>
<p>Based on knowing the result, your child then guesses what their card was. </p>
<p>If it is challenging to organise time to pull out cards, you can make an easier game by simply quizzing your child. Try to mix it up and ask questions that include a range of things they know well with and ones they are learning.</p>
<p>Repetition and rehearsal will mean things become stored in long-term memory. </p>
<h2>3. Find patterns</h2>
<p>Another great activity to do at home is print some multiplication grids and explore patterns with your child. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575154/original/file-20240212-16-92wlnn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Multiplication tables for 0 to 10, with colour columns to show connections between numbers" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575154/original/file-20240212-16-92wlnn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575154/original/file-20240212-16-92wlnn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575154/original/file-20240212-16-92wlnn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575154/original/file-20240212-16-92wlnn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575154/original/file-20240212-16-92wlnn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575154/original/file-20240212-16-92wlnn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575154/original/file-20240212-16-92wlnn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=523&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>A first start might be to give your child <a href="https://www.scholastic.com/content/dam/teachers/blogs/alycia-zimmerman/migrated-files/blank_multiplication_table.pdf">a blank</a> or <a href="https://www.math-salamanders.com/times-table-grid.html">partially blank</a> multiplication grid which they can practise completing. </p>
<p>Then, using coloured pencils, they can colour in patterns they notice. For example, the x6 column is always double the answer in the x3 column. Another pattern they might see is all the even answers are products of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10. They can also notice half of the grid is repeated along the diagonal. </p>
<p>This also helps your child become a mathematical thinker, not just a calculator. </p>
<p>The importance of multiplication for developing your child’s success and confidence in mathematics cannot be understated. We believe these ideas will give you the tools you need to help your child develop these essential skills.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218516/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Multiplication facts typically describe the answers to multiplication sums up to 10x10. They are called “facts” as it is expected they can be easily and quickly recalled.Bronwyn Reid O'Connor, Lecturer in Mathematics Education, University of SydneyBen Zunica, Lecturer in Secondary Maths Education, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2136642023-09-21T13:27:45Z2023-09-21T13:27:45ZHow well you do at school depends on how much your teachers know: insights from 14 French-speaking countries in Africa<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548527/original/file-20230915-27043-8dgaeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Almost half of all sixth-grade students in Niger struggle to read a simple sentence.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Olympia De Maismont/AFP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Countries in sub-Saharan Africa have made remarkable progress towards reaching universal school enrolment in the past 25 years. Across the region, <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.TENR?locations=ZG">8 in 10 children</a> of primary school age are now enrolled in school, and in countries such as <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.TENR?locations=ZG-BJ">Benin</a> and <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.TENR?locations=ZG-MG">Madagascar</a> this figure stands at almost 10 in 10 children. </p>
<p>However, it is becoming increasingly clear that many children in the region are <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2018">learning very little in school</a>. This <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2017/09/26/world-bank-warns-of-learning-crisis-in-global-education">“learning crisis”</a> means that it will be difficult to reach the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal4">United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal</a> of quality education for all by 2030.</p>
<p>Importantly, the learning crisis does not affect all countries equally. For example, a <a href="https://pasecconfemen.lmc-dev.fr/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2022/08/RapportPasec2019_Rev2022_WebOK.pdf">recent study</a> found that whereas almost half of all sixth-grade students (who are on average about 13 years old) in Niger have difficulties reading a simple sentence, only one in 10 sixth-grade students in neighbouring Burkina Faso has such problems. This raises the question of what explains these international learning gaps.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272775723000845">recent study</a>, my co-authors Natalie Irmert, Mohammad H. Sepahvand and I tried to answer this question. We hypothesised that differences in teacher quality between countries play a role. Using comparable data from 14 countries in French-speaking sub-Saharan Africa, we found that differences in teachers’ subject knowledge – that is, teachers’ mastery of the material they are expected to teach in a given subject – explain more than a third of the international variation in student learning. </p>
<p>This implies that the very low levels of learning in some countries’ schools are to a large extent due to a lack of knowledgeable teachers.</p>
<h2>The research</h2>
<p>Our study was made possible by the recent release of data from the <a href="https://pasec.confemen.org/en/">PASEC 2019 assessment</a>. The assessment measured sixth-grade students’ reading and maths skills in 14 French-speaking African countries in a comparable way. Importantly for our purposes, it also measured the knowledge of these students’ teachers in the same two subjects. The assessment revealed very large differences in the average reading and maths skills of students between countries. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/collaboration-is-helping-teachers-in-rural-cameroon-fill-knowledge-gaps-101920">Collaboration is helping teachers in rural Cameroon fill knowledge gaps</a>
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<p>In our study, we examined whether these international differences in student skills were driven by gaps in teachers’ subject knowledge. We hypothesised that this might be the case based on <a href="https://economics.ucr.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/4-15-22-Smith.pdf">previous research</a> from individual countries which shows that teacher quality is a key driver of learning.</p>
<p>Our results showed student skills and teachers’ subject knowledge were indeed positively correlated: better teacher knowledge tended to go hand in hand with better student skills. </p>
<p>However, this did not necessarily mean that teachers’ subject knowledge caused learning. For example, countries with more knowledgeable teachers might also invest more into school buildings. In this case, the positive correlation between teacher knowledge and student skills could simply reflect the better learning conditions due to improved school buildings.</p>
<h2>Explaining the differences</h2>
<p>To be sure that our correlation reflected a causal effect of teacher knowledge, we used a statistical trick: we compared each country’s student skills and teacher knowledge in reading to its student skills and teacher knowledge in maths. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/girls-thrive-with-women-teachers-a-study-in-francophone-africa-95297">Girls thrive with women teachers: a study in Francophone Africa</a>
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<p>This meant that we could keep all factors that did not differ between the two subjects, such as the quality of school buildings, constant. If better teachers’ knowledge in reading relative to maths tended to go hand in hand with better student skills in reading relative to maths, we could be certain that the effect of teacher knowledge was causal.</p>
<p>The figure below shows that this was indeed the case: for example, Burundi’s teachers scored relatively low on the reading test relative to the maths test, and consequently its students did worse in the reading assessment than in the maths assessment. In contrast, Gabon’s teachers were relatively more knowledgeable in reading, and therefore its students also performed better in the reading test. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548809/original/file-20230918-27-uajxga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548809/original/file-20230918-27-uajxga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/548809/original/file-20230918-27-uajxga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548809/original/file-20230918-27-uajxga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548809/original/file-20230918-27-uajxga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548809/original/file-20230918-27-uajxga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548809/original/file-20230918-27-uajxga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/548809/original/file-20230918-27-uajxga.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Teachers’ subject knowledge boosts student skills.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272775723000845">Authors supplied</a></span>
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<p>Overall, differences in teachers’ subject knowledge could explain a third of the differences in student learning between the 14 countries. Our data did not allow us to conclude which factors explain the remaining two thirds of these differences.</p>
<h2>Implications for policy</h2>
<p>Our results show that teacher quality, and especially teacher subject knowledge, is a crucial driver of cross-country differences in learning. This is an important insight for policymakers in sub-Saharan Africa who are trying to solve the “learning crisis”: it shows that there is a large payoff to recruiting more knowledgeable teachers.</p>
<p>Additionally, in-service training that improves the knowledge of already employed teachers could lead to large gains in student learning.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213664/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jan Bietenbeck receives funding from Jan Wallanders och Tom Hedelius stiftelse samt Tore Browaldhs stiftelse. </span></em></p>Overall, differences in teachers’ subject knowledge could explain a third of the differences in student learning between the 14 countries.Jan Bietenbeck, Associate Professor of Economics, Lund UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2121012023-08-23T05:44:30Z2023-08-23T05:44:30ZThe latest NAPLAN results don’t look great but we need to go beyond the headline figures<p>This year’s national NAPLAN <a href="https://www.acara.edu.au/reporting/national-report-on-schooling-in-australia/naplan-national-results">results are out</a>, with the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-23/one-in-three-students-not-meeting-naplan-standards/102756262">news only two-thirds</a> of Australian students met <a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/naplan/results-and-reports/proficiency-level-descriptions">minimum achievement levels</a> in literacy and numeracy. </p>
<p>The headlines are everything we would expect them to be – full of panic. Most reporting is focused on the number of Australian students not meeting the new proficiency standards, with talk of “<a href="https://www.skynews.com.au/australia-news/politics/albanese-government-under-pressure-following-failed-naplan-expectations/video/121439875cd205797ed7a27122a1135b">failure</a>” and “<a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/subscribe/news/1/?sourceCode=TAWEB_WRE170_a_GGL&dest=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fnation%2Fpolitics%2F662bn-debacle-one-in-three-kids-fails-naplan-literacy-numeracy%2Fnews-story%2Ffdb0cde16efe5262ffe08024d5a7bc2c&memtype=anonymous&mode=premium&v21=dynamic-low-test-score&V21spcbehaviour=append">debacles</a>”. </p>
<p>The numbers certainly don’t look great, but should we be worried?</p>
<h2>Changes to NAPLAN</h2>
<p>NAPLAN was introduced in 2008 and is an annual test of all Australian students in years 3, 5, 7 and 9. It aims to see whether students are developing basic skills in literacy and numeracy.</p>
<p>On Wednesday, we saw the overall results released. Individual student reports will go home during term 3, via schools. </p>
<p>Earlier this year, NAPLAN <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-do-the-naplan-test-changes-mean-for-schools-and-students-199764">underwent significant changes</a>. These changes included a shift to online testing, moving the testing dates forward and new proficiency standards. </p>
<p>At the time of the announcement, many education experts <a href="https://www.afr.com/politics/federal/naplan-changes-aim-to-fix-the-underachievement-problem-20230210-p5cjhr">warned</a> that 2023 results might be lower than usual. </p>
<p>Many pointed to the shift from ten proficiency bands to four achievement levels (“needs additional support,” “developing,” “strong” and “exceeding”). This likely explains a lot of what we’re seeing today. It also means we cannot compare this year’s results with previous results.</p>
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<h2>The shift to online testing</h2>
<p>The shift to online testing may also have had a significant <a href="https://www.future-ed.org/paper-vs-online-testing-whats-the-impact-on-test-scores/">impact</a> on results. </p>
<p>Disparities in access to technology <a href="https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/even-pandemic-students-limited-technology-access-lagged-behind-their-peers">can impact</a> how students perform on the test. Students who regularly use computers and the internet at home are likely to feel more confident while taking an online test. Students without might struggle with basic computer skills. This can lead to more mistakes that have nothing to do with numeracy and literacy.</p>
<p>Changes to the testing window from May to March also means schools had less time to prepare students for NAPLAN in 2023. Theoretically, this might have a positive impact on education in the long run. Less time can be devoted to “test prep” or “teaching to the test”. This can free up time to spend on more authentic learning activities. But for this year, the change caught schools off guard, which may have impacted student performance.</p>
<p>We also shouldn’t forget about the impact of COVID. It is hard to estimate all the ways students have been affected by the pandemic. We can assume these effects will be felt for years to come, and we should continue to interpret NAPLAN results with this in mind.</p>
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<h2>Disparities and funding</h2>
<p>What we should be worried about is the clear disparity between Australia’s most vulnerable students and their peers. </p>
<p>Like every other year, NAPLAN results <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/aug/23/australia-naplan-results-literacy-numeracy-nsw-qld-vic-sa-nt-tas-wa">show</a> significant gaps between Indigenous students and their peers. About one-third of Indigenous students “need additional support”, compared to one-tenth of students overall. Some 50% of students in the most remote regions of Australia also “need additional support”. </p>
<p>This is not a new concern, and one experts have been <a href="https://www.afr.com/policy/health-and-education/an-inquisition-into-australia-s-great-school-funding-rort-20220913-p5bhtj">worried</a> about for many years. While politicians often blame schools and teachers, the real problem is with equitable funding. Public schools are responsible for teaching most students who require additional support, yet they are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/education/2023/jul/17/gonski-review-government-funding-private-public-schools">not adequately funded</a> to do so. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fewer-than-1-in-5-students-who-are-behind-in-year-3-catch-up-and-stay-caught-up-211516">Fewer than 1 in 5 students who are behind in Year 3 catch up and stay caught up</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Proceed with caution</h2>
<p>We must interpret this year’s NAPLAN results with caution. Our instinct might be to panic, but the reality is significant changes to the test have led to these results. It might take a few years before we can make any meaningful sense about overall progress and change.</p>
<p>We can also look to some experts’ <a href="https://www.afr.com/policy/health-and-education/rebooted-naplan-may-be-the-wake-up-call-australia-needs-20230315-p5cs9w#:%7E:text=NAPLAN%20is%20a%20cornerstone%20of,ammunition%20to%20drive%20important%20improvements.&text=The%20annual%20tests%20of%20school,numeracy%20are%20in%20full%20swing.">optimism</a> about the changes. They say the new achievement levels and earlier testing dates will eventually lead to simpler and more useful results. They hope this means better communication between schools and families, as well as more time for schools to act.</p>
<p>Importantly, we should not interpret this year’s results as an indictment on schools. Rather, we should force governments to <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-new-report-proposes-full-public-funding-for-private-schools-but-theres-a-catch-203840">fully fund schools</a> to the level they have said is necessary. This year’s results leave no question about the urgency of equitable funding.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-type-of-school-does-matter-when-it-comes-to-a-childs-academic-performance-199886">The type of school does matter when it comes to a child's academic performance</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212101/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica Holloway receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>According to this year’s NAPLAN results, one third of Australian students do not meet minimum achievement levels in literacy and numeracy.Jessica Holloway, Senior Research DECRA Fellow, Institute for Learning Sciences and Teacher Education, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2115162023-08-20T20:03:56Z2023-08-20T20:03:56ZFewer than 1 in 5 students who are behind in Year 3 catch up and stay caught up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543124/original/file-20230817-17-vud45n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C9%2C3258%2C2155&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We want all students to finish school with the literacy and numeracy skills they need to take advantage of post-school opportunities and to <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/alice-springs-mparntwe-education-declaration">participate fully in society</a>. Currently, in Australia, <a href="https://www.acara.edu.au/reporting/national-report-on-schooling-in-australia/naplan-national-report">many students don’t</a>. </p>
<p>The problem of not meeting learning standards starts early, with some students behind in Year 3. An important question is whether these students eventually catch up to their peers. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.edresearch.edu.au/resources/learning-outcomes-students-early-low-naplan-performance">new research</a>, published today by the Australian Education Research Organisation (AER0), indicates this is very difficult to do. </p>
<p>We found less than one in five students who are behind in Year 3 catch up and stay caught up. In fact, most students with early low performance are at risk of not meeting learning standards throughout their schooling with the support they currently get. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/naplan-results-inform-schools-parents-and-policy-but-too-many-kids-miss-the-tests-altogether-201371">NAPLAN results inform schools, parents and policy. But too many kids miss the tests altogether</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>It’s hard to catch up</h2>
<p>Our research looked at what happens to students who perform at or below the national minimum standards in literacy and numeracy in the Year 3 NAPLAN tests.</p>
<p>We chose “at or below the the national minimum standards” as a cut off point for not meeting learning standards because there is widespread agreement the standards for NAPLAN tests before 2023 were set <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/news/why-the-new-naplan-report-card-is-better-than-the-old/">too low</a>.</p>
<p>Using a <a href="https://www.edresearch.edu.au/resources/longitudinal-literacy-and-numeracy-australia-llania-dataset-technical-report">new longitudinal NAPLAN data set</a>, we tracked the performance of about 190,000 students who performed at or below the national minimum standards in Year 3 through to Year 9. These students were in Year 3 between 2009 and 2015. </p>
<p>The performance pathways these Year 3 students experience in NAPLAN reading tests is shown in the diagram below. The picture is similar for numeracy.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542979/original/file-20230816-27-bq1qrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram with coloured pathways showing the movement of students at/below NMS in reading in Year 3 as they progress through Year 5, Year 7 and Year 9 relative to whether they again perform at/below NMS or above NMS." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542979/original/file-20230816-27-bq1qrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542979/original/file-20230816-27-bq1qrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542979/original/file-20230816-27-bq1qrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542979/original/file-20230816-27-bq1qrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=265&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542979/original/file-20230816-27-bq1qrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542979/original/file-20230816-27-bq1qrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542979/original/file-20230816-27-bq1qrf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our research shows the pathways for students who were at or below the national minimum standards for reading in Year 3 (2008–2015, excluding 2014).</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As the diagram shows, we found a little over a third of the Year 3 students with low performance continued to perform below standards through to Year 9. Almost half of the group performed inconsistently through to Year 9. </p>
<p>This shows Year 3 students who perform below learning standards are at a high risk of continuing to perform at that level throughout their schooling. </p>
<p>We also found less than one fifth of students (17% in reading and 19% in numeracy) went on to perform consistently at expected levels. This means fewer than one in five students were supported to catch up to their peers. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/too-many-school-students-are-falling-behind-how-do-we-help-those-most-at-risk-210886">Too many school students are falling behind: how do we help those most at risk?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Many Year 3 kids need more support</h2>
<p>Our analysis also shows learning gains are hard to maintain. </p>
<p>When students with low Year 3 performance reached learning standards in Year 5, only half of that group continued to perform that well until Year 9. The other half fell below learning standards in secondary school.</p>
<p>This suggests students who perform below standards in Year 3 require more support to catch up to their peers than they currently receive.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543154/original/file-20230817-23-746mvg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543154/original/file-20230817-23-746mvg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543154/original/file-20230817-23-746mvg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543154/original/file-20230817-23-746mvg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543154/original/file-20230817-23-746mvg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543154/original/file-20230817-23-746mvg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543154/original/file-20230817-23-746mvg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">About 36% of students who are at or below the national minimum standards (NMS) in Year 3 perform above these standards in Year 5 in reading and numeracy. But only about half of this group remain above the standards consistently from Year 5 on.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A golden opportunity early on</h2>
<p>These patterns highlight how important it is to assess student progress early. </p>
<p>By knowing exactly where students are versus where they are expected to be in their learning, we can intervene with teaching and learning programs.</p>
<p>Of the group of students with early low performance in Year 3, the best opportunity we saw for improvement was between Year 3 and Year 5. </p>
<p>This is because 36.1% of the initial group of students moved to performing above national minimum standards in reading between Years 3 and 5. </p>
<p>This is a much higher proportion than the 28.3% that made the same change between Years 5 and 7, and the 21.2% that made this move between Years 7 and 9. There is a similar pattern for numeracy.</p>
<p>This suggests the best time to intervene to catch students up is as soon as they have been identified as not meeting learning expectations.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543125/original/file-20230817-25-gwy2p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Children in uniform sit on the ground." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543125/original/file-20230817-25-gwy2p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543125/original/file-20230817-25-gwy2p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543125/original/file-20230817-25-gwy2p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543125/original/file-20230817-25-gwy2p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543125/original/file-20230817-25-gwy2p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543125/original/file-20230817-25-gwy2p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543125/original/file-20230817-25-gwy2p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We want all students to finish school with the literacy and numeracy skills they need.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-research-shows-australian-students-who-are-behind-in-primary-school-can-catch-up-by-high-school-208364">Our research shows Australian students who are behind in primary school can catch up by high school</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Small-group tutoring can help</h2>
<p>Students who perform below expectations are not likely to catch up without extra support. These students need the best teachers, schools and education systems can offer to help them to achieve learning standards. </p>
<p>There is strong evidence <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/tackling-under-achievement/">small-group tutoring</a> within a <a href="https://www.edresearch.edu.au/our-work/current-projects/tiered-interventions">multi-tiered system of supports</a> can help students who have fallen behind. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-students-return-to-school-small-group-tutoring-can-help-those-who-are-falling-behind-198388">As students return to school, small-group tutoring can help those who are falling behind</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This system involves assessment of student learning gaps and the delivery of frequent, small-group or one-on-one interventions within the school environment, led by trained school staff. </p>
<p>Any student learning interventions, of course, must also be monitored and assessed to see if they’re effective.</p>
<p>Our findings offer an opportunity to investigate the impact of interventions on students’ literacy and numeracy performance. </p>
<p>This can help identify the best ways to improve outcomes for those least likely to finish school with the literacy and numeracy skills they need.</p>
<p><em>Our research also involved AERO’s Dr Lisa Williams, Dr Wai Yin Wan and Dr Eunro Lee.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211516/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Olivia Groves is a Principal Researcher for the Australian Education Research Organisation (AERO).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lucy Lu is the Senior Manager, Analytics and Strategic Projects for the Australian Education Research Organisation (AERO).</span></em></p>Students who perform below standards in Year 3 require more support to catch up to their peers.Olivia Groves, Adjunct Research Fellow, Curtin UniversityLucy Lu, Adjunct Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2070302023-08-07T20:02:07Z2023-08-07T20:02:07Z‘Why would they change maths?’ How your child’s maths education might be very different from yours<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540939/original/file-20230803-27-rfc6b9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C10%2C6709%2C4426&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Karolina Grabowska/Pexels</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3QtRK7Y2pPU">scene</a> in the film Incredibles 2 where young Dash asks his dad Bob for help with his maths homework. Bob obliges and begins to scribble on a notepad. But Dash quickly points to his textbook and says, “that’s not the way you’re supposed to do it, Dad”.</p>
<p>Frustrated, Bob exclaims</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I don’t know that way! Why would they change math? Math is math!</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Many parents trying to help their children with maths may be asking the same sort of question. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Pythagorean-theorem">Pythagoras’ Theorem</a> is as accurate today as it was when it was discovered millennia ago, and it will continue to remain so. But teachers today also teach maths very differently from when parents were at school. </p>
<h2>Mental connections not procedures</h2>
<p>The teaching and learning of maths has undergone a transformation in past 30 years.</p>
<p>In the past there has been a focus on teaching students <a href="https://gargicollege.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Skemp-article.pdf">procedures</a>, such as times tables and how to work out the circumference of a circle or solve an equation.</p>
<p>We now appreciate the importance of forming mental <a href="https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/397449">connections between concepts</a>. For example, when students understand the connection between similar triangles and trigonometry they understand the definition of <a href="https://www.cuemath.com/trigonometry/trigonometric-ratios/">trigonometric ratios</a> at a much deeper level. </p>
<p>This is because we know <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/0013189X19890600?journalCode=edra">today’s learners</a> need to be able to transfer their mathematical understanding to complex, unfamiliar situations. </p>
<p>This means they need to be able to do more than apply a formula and get an answer right. They need to be able to <a href="https://www.monash.edu/education/teachspace/articles/seven-reasons-why-maths-is-important-for-21st-century-thinking">solve problems</a> as they arise. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/3QtRK7Y2pPU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">‘Math is math!’ From the Incredibles 2.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Problem solving and reasoning</h2>
<p>Today, the shift in mathematics education is reflected in <a href="https://v9.australiancurriculum.edu.au/teacher-resources/understand-this-learning-area/mathematics">key mathematical proficiencies</a> in the Australian school curriculum. These include: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>understanding mathematical concepts and procedures </p></li>
<li><p>being fluent in applying mathematical concepts efficiently and accurately </p></li>
<li><p>drawing on mathematical skills and knowledge to solve challenging questions where solutions are not immediately obvious, and </p></li>
<li><p>developing skills in logical thought, and justifying the use of strategies and conclusions reached.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/will-i-ever-need-math-a-mathematician-explains-how-math-is-everywhere-from-soap-bubbles-to-pixar-movies-204609">Will I ever need math? A mathematician explains how math is everywhere – from soap bubbles to Pixar movies</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Encouraging inventiveness</h2>
<p>One practical way teachers are developing students’ mathematical proficiency is by encouraging students to be inventive in the way they solve mathematical problems. </p>
<p>They are deliberately showing students different and multiple ways to represent mathematics problems to give students the space to develop understanding. This also give them an opportunity to reason, model and engage in mathematical thinking. </p>
<p>For example, your child might bring home problems to solve using the <a href="https://calculate.org.au/wp-content/uploads/sites/15/2020/05/year-5-multiplication-using-the-area-model.pdf">area model</a> for multiplication, which looks quite different to a traditional method. For example, we teach how 8x27 can be modelled in parts – 8x20 and 8x7. </p>
<p>When adding numbers, we teach students to deeply understand the place value of each number. Doing so makes our calculations efficient and supports the development of mental strategies for computation. </p>
<p>For example, to add 27 and 5, we can consider that 27 is made of 20 and 7.
Now 7 and 5 can be easily added to get to 12, and the final 20 can be added to obtain an answer of 32. </p>
<h2>The world is changing</h2>
<p>Maths teaching has also shifted to keep pace with the development of computer technology. This is influencing maths instruction from early childhood, right through to Year 12. </p>
<p>Apart from anything, we know proficiency in <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563217301590">information and communications technology</a> is key to educating students for the world they will live and work in. </p>
<p>As an example, the use of dynamic geometry software means teachers can quickly show <a href="https://teacher.desmos.com/activitybuilder/custom/562de119ea7a4dc71545d46e#preview/83062beb-71d5-4269-9fc5-61f4f6a65442">transformations of graphs</a>, giving students a deeper understanding of how variables work, allowing students to apply these concepts to a wide range of graphs. </p>
<p>Animation is also helping in maths classrooms. The video below shows how the formula for solids of revolution – which are formed by taking an enclosed area and rotating that area about an axis to form a solid – is derived more clearly than could be done using pens and a whiteboard. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/HHCK9iweK6U?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A video explains how to use calculus to find the volume of solids of revolution. Casey Machen.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How can parents help?</h2>
<p>For parents, resist the temptation to react like Bob and get angry about how maths has changed. Instead expect the way children are taught today will be different to how you were taught and that is completely OK. </p>
<p>Knowing this, ask questions of your child, such as can you tell me about the thinking behind this method? Or, how do you know that gets the correct answer? </p>
<p>This will allow your child to show their understanding, reasoning, and communication skills. It will also help you find areas that need addressing, which you can investigate together. Who knows, you might learn some new maths and enhance your own skills!</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/maths-anxiety-is-a-real-thing-here-are-3-ways-to-help-your-child-cope-200822">'Maths anxiety' is a real thing. Here are 3 ways to help your child cope</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207030/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In the past, maths teaching has focussed on procedures and right answers. Today, teachers want students to form connections between concepts and solve problems.Ben Zunica, Lecturer in Secondary Maths Education, University of SydneyBronwyn Reid O'Connor, Lecturer in Mathematics Education, University of SydneyEddie Woo, Professor of Practice, Mathematics Education, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2108862023-08-06T20:00:43Z2023-08-06T20:00:43ZToo many school students are falling behind: how do we help those most at risk?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540919/original/file-20230802-25888-om8m1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C36%2C5988%2C3962&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Anastasia Shuraeva/Pexels</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is increasing concern about Australian students falling behind in numeracy and literacy.</p>
<p>NAPLAN <a href="https://www.acara.edu.au/reporting/national-report-on-schooling-in-australia/naplan-national-report">results</a> show 16.2% of Year 3 students are at or below the national minimum standards in numeracy and 12.9% are at or below the minimum standards in reading. By Year 9, this climbs to 20.4% and 25.1% respectively. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/early-childhood/announcements/report-now-available-2021-australian-early-development-census">2021 early development census</a> also found 22% of Australian children were developmentally vulnerable in their first year of school. </p>
<p>Federal and state governments are currently working on the next <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/quality-schools-package/national-school-reform-agreement">National School Reform Agreement</a>, which ties funding to school reforms and starts in 2025. The <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/review-inform-better-and-fairer-education-system/consultations/review-inform-better-and-fairer-education-system-consultation">consultation paper</a> released last month notes with concern: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>too many students are starting school behind or are falling behind in minimum literacy and numeracy standards. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>It also asks, what can schools do to help those most at risk of falling behind? </p>
<h2>Why do students fall behind?</h2>
<p>Students can fall behind for a many reasons and these can be complex. </p>
<p>This may be due to a student’s abilities or perhaps they have a developmental issue or impairment. A student may have missed essential concepts through illness or changing schools. Or they may not have a home environment that helps them learn, such as as healthy food, access to books and adequate sleep. </p>
<p>As the <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/review-inform-better-and-fairer-education-system/announcements/national-school-reform-agreement-consultation-paper">consultation paper</a> notes, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, students in regional, rural and remote locations, students with disability and students whose parents have low levels of educational attainment are three times more likely to fall below minimum standards.</p>
<p>The learning gap can also increase over time. Early difficulties with learning can <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/review-inform-better-and-fairer-education-system/resources/better-and-fairer-education-system-consultation-paper">quickly become compounded</a> if they are not addressed.</p>
<p>Students who are behind can lose motivation to learn because they have missed essential concepts and find lessons frustrating. They can also start to exhibit challenging behaviours. </p>
<p>However, learning gaps do not necessarily increase. <a href="https://theconversation.com/our-research-shows-australian-students-who-are-behind-in-primary-school-can-catch-up-by-high-school-208364">Australian research</a> published this year shows effective teaching can compensate for early learning difficulties.</p>
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<h2>How do schools identify students?</h2>
<p>Identifying students can happen informally and may occur at any age. At preschool a teacher may notice a student has indistinct speech and recommend hearing testing, language support or both. The assessment of cognitive skills – such as literacy and numeracy – will usually happen when students begin school. </p>
<p>At school teachers might observe children playing counting games and sharing out counters to identify which students have difficultly counting up to five. </p>
<p>More formal assessments might involve a young student reading a short list of real and made-up words. They can also include work samples or individual tests for older students. The results can be compared with others of their age or year level. </p>
<p>Teachers also look at students’ engagement in educational activities and school attendance. Pre-COVID figures from 2019 showed <a href="https://www.aitsl.edu.au/docs/default-source/research-evidence/spotlight/attendance-matters.pdf">at least 25%</a> of Australian students missed at least one month of school per year. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/school-attendance-rates-are-dropping-we-need-to-ask-students-why-200537">School attendance rates are dropping. We need to ask students why</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How can students catch up?</h2>
<p>How a student catches up will depend on a number of factors. For those with disability, an inclusion plan can make sure students have the right adjustments and supports to learn. This needs to be updated regularly. </p>
<p>For other students, the process of catching up might begin with meeting their basic needs through providing meals, uniforms and communication in home languages. </p>
<p>More generally, catching students up starts with the <a href="https://www.aitsl.edu.au/docs/default-source/national-policy-framework/australian-professional-standards-for-teachers.pdf">principle</a> “know students and how they learn”. Teachers aim for a strength-based approach, which values the knowledge and skills students bring to school. </p>
<p>This draws from home knowledge, interests, and learning preferences to make the curriculum more engaging. For example, if a student has a great interest in sport, maths problems can incorporate data from games. </p>
<p>Students will not learn effectively if they do not feel valued, comfortable and safe. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A child writes in a workbook at a desk." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540920/original/file-20230802-15-s4kern.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540920/original/file-20230802-15-s4kern.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540920/original/file-20230802-15-s4kern.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540920/original/file-20230802-15-s4kern.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540920/original/file-20230802-15-s4kern.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540920/original/file-20230802-15-s4kern.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540920/original/file-20230802-15-s4kern.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some 16% of Australian Year 3 students are at or below the national minimum standards in maths, according to NAPLAN.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Katerina Holmes/Pexels</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Literacy and numeracy help</h2>
<p>Approximately <a href="https://www.edresearch.edu.au/resources/supporting-students-significantly-behind-literacy-and-numeracy">20% of students</a> require some additional teaching and support to acquire fundamental language, literacy and numeracy skills.</p>
<p>This may involve classroom, small group or individual support. It is easier and more effective to provide extra support early in students’ schooling, but older students can also benefit from intervention. </p>
<p>Due to teacher shortages, there has been an increase in teachers teaching <a href="https://www.acer.org/au/discover/article/report-highlights-need-for-more-data-to-tackle-out-of-field-teaching">out of their field</a> of specialisation. We don’t yet know what impact this has had on intervention programs. </p>
<h2>Most students can catch up</h2>
<p>A 2023 study by the Australian Education Research Organisation and Monash University found approximately <a href="https://www.edresearch.edu.au/resources/supporting-students-significantly-behind-literacy-and-numeracy">95% of students</a> should be able to meet academic benchmarks with quality classroom programs and research-supported interventions. But students with a history of learning difficulties should be carefully monitored as they may require additional support in the future. </p>
<p>About 5% students will need more nuanced interventions and different teaching approaches. For example, a student with a physical disability might be disadvantaged when asked to write by hand. Working on a laptop instead of persisting with hand writing can help. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-students-return-to-school-small-group-tutoring-can-help-those-who-are-falling-behind-198388">As students return to school, small-group tutoring can help those who are falling behind</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>We need a more consistent approach</h2>
<p>Australia has a national curriculum but there are differences between what is taught and how it is taught across the states and territories. There are also considerable differences between schools. </p>
<p>This means students who move schools can be disadvantaged. Figures from 2016 show in New South Wales, 7% of all school children <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/education/students-who-change-schools-do-worse-in-naplan-20160301-gn7kh8.html">changed school</a> at least once during a year. </p>
<p>We need a more nationally consistent approach to the national curriculum. Jurisdictions’ and schools’ have varied philosophies, priorities and needs. But core standards around appropriate teaching approaches and effective interventions are possible.</p>
<p>There is also a need for increased sharing of information with parents and between schools. National student numbers could be used to track enrolment and core national assessment data. </p>
<p>Some parents and schools may be opposed to this idea for reasons of student privacy. Parents may want their children to have a “fresh start” if they change schools.</p>
<p>We acknowledge these concerns, but sharing key assessment data would reduce time re-assessing students in their new school and support strong teaching from day one.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210886/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanne Quick is a member of Learning Difficulties Australia and the Dyslexia Association Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melissa Cain does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>School students can fall behind for many reasons. From missing school to learning difficulties and problems at home.Melissa Cain, Senior Lecturer in Inclusive Education and Arts Education, Australian Catholic UniversityJoanne Quick, Senior Lecturer in Literacy, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2093262023-07-20T02:28:56Z2023-07-20T02:28:56ZCurriculum changes must tackle the lifelong consequences of NZ’s alarming literacy and numeracy declines<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538176/original/file-20230719-21-rrwrbn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=37%2C61%2C8206%2C5425&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Literacy and numeracy are under the spotlight as Aotearoa New Zealand grapples with how to improve student performance in these basic skills. </p>
<p>At the beginning of 2023, the government rolled out its <a href="https://www.newsroom.co.nz/ideasroom/nz-schools-move-away-from-goodies-and-baddies-history">new history curriculum</a>. But further <a href="https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/politics/2023/04/education-government-makes-changes-to-new-ncea-curriculum-timeline-as-jan-tinetti-puts-focus-on-maths-literacy.html">changes to the curriculum</a> were deferred to put the focus on maths and literacy.</p>
<p>This decision followed a <a href="https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/new-zealand/2022/03/damning-new-report-finds-two-in-five-new-zealand-children-failing-or-only-just-meeting-literacy-standards.html">damning report</a> revealed that by the age of 15, two out of five children are either only just meeting or failing to meet literacy standards. </p>
<p>It is clear the warning bells are ringing over student learning – maybe just not loud or urgently enough.</p>
<p><a href="https://workresearch.aut.ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/689938/PISA-trajectories-Nov-2022.pdf">Our research</a> shows just how essential it is that education policy addresses these basic skills now. If we don’t, struggling students – particularly in already disadvantaged groups – face lifelong consequences that reach well beyond educational success.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1648507189970239489"}"></div></p>
<h2>The state of New Zealand education</h2>
<p>There is a growing sense something is wrong with New Zealand’s education system. </p>
<p>Level 1 National Certificates of Educational Achievement (NCEA) results have been <a href="https://www2.nzqa.govt.nz/about-us/news/ncea-and-ue-2022-attainment-data-now-available/">steadily decreasing since 2017</a>. A 2022 trial of new NCEA literacy and numeracy tests – due to become compulsory in 2024 – produced abysmal results and caused <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/474261/low-pass-rates-in-trial-of-ncea-literacy-and-numeracy-tests-alarm-principals">alarm for a number of principals</a>.</p>
<p>Against international benchmarks, New Zealand’s trends in literacy and numeracy paint a gloomy picture.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-always-have-trouble-with-forms-homeless-people-on-how-poor-literacy-affects-them-and-what-would-help-180784">'I always have trouble with forms': homeless people on how poor literacy affects them – and what would help</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A <a href="https://www.oecd.org/education/pisa-2018-results-volume-i-5f07c754-en.htm">global study</a> found a sharp decline in New Zealand students’ proficiency in reading and mathematics. </p>
<p>In 2009, 14% of students fell below the baseline threshold for literacy proficiency and 15% fell below in maths. In 2018, those falling below the baseline climbed to 19% and 22% respectively. </p>
<p>The OECD considers the baseline level to be one that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264091450-en">enables students</a> “to participate effectively and productively in life”. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/196629/PISA-2018-NZ-Summary-Report.pdf">For Māori students</a>, the decline in basic literacy and numeracy is even more significant. In 2009, 24% of Māori students fell below the literacy baseline. This increased to 30% in 2018. Over the decade, the number of Māori students who fell below the baseline in maths went from 27% to 37%. </p>
<p>The decline was smaller for Pacific students, although their starting point was less favourable. More than a third fell below the literacy baseline in 2009, with this share increasing only slightly to 36% in 2018. For maths, 40% of Pacific students fell below the baseline in 2009, increasing to 44% in 2018.</p>
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<h2>Why literacy and numeracy matter</h2>
<p><a href="https://workresearch.aut.ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/689938/PISA-trajectories-Nov-2022.pdf">Our research</a> found literacy and numeracy skills correlate to the wellbeing of individuals. As such, they significantly influence life choices and outcomes. </p>
<p>Our ten-year study followed a cohort of rangatahi (young people) who were 15 years old in 2009. We found those with low reading and maths skills have poorer outcomes across a range of wellbeing measures including education, employment, income, and health and justice.</p>
<p>That those with low literacy and numeracy skills have poorer educational outcomes, particularly in attaining bachelor’s degrees and tertiary qualifications, is unsurprising. They are also less likely to be employed and have lower earnings. The difference is particularly stark among women.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-lift-literacy-levels-among-indigenous-children-their-parents-literacy-skills-must-be-improved-first-78827">To lift literacy levels among Indigenous children, their parents' literacy skills must be improved first</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But the impact of these low skills goes beyond education and employment – it also affects wider areas of wellbeing such as health and justice. </p>
<p>For example, those with lower literacy and numeracy skills have higher hospitalisation rates – 59% had at least one hospitalisation between the ages of 15 and 25, compared to 46% of those with higher core competencies. </p>
<p>They were also more likely to engage in criminal activity: just over a quarter of this group had a conviction by time they were 25, compared to just 8% of the group with above-baseline skills.</p>
<p>Importantly, while life outcomes are influenced by literacy and numeracy skills, we also found that higher core skills alone do not necessarily lead to positive wellbeing outcomes. </p>
<p>Ethnicity also plays a powerful role. For example, we found that at age 25, Māori with above-baseline literacy and numeracy skills have about the same average earnings as Pākehā with low skill levels.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537572/original/file-20230715-26-gzw5vq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537572/original/file-20230715-26-gzw5vq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537572/original/file-20230715-26-gzw5vq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537572/original/file-20230715-26-gzw5vq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537572/original/file-20230715-26-gzw5vq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537572/original/file-20230715-26-gzw5vq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537572/original/file-20230715-26-gzw5vq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Average annual earnings at age 25.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Using education to address systematic inequalities</h2>
<p>There are myriad reasons why New Zealand needs a curriculum that ensures our future generations are equipped with the skills necessary to succeed and thrive in our fast-changing global economy. </p>
<p>Future generations need and deserve tools that will help them navigate the complexities of life within and beyond our shores. Failure to deliver on the government’s literacy and numeracy goals for the new curriculum will merely perpetuate the existing inequities.</p>
<p>Most of all, failure will undermine the yet-to-be-realised potential in our individual rangatahi and across our collective communities of Aotearoa.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209326/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This research was funded by a Ministry of Business, Innovation & Employment Endeavour grant.</span></em></p>The effect of NZ’s abysmal literacy and numeracy rates can be seen in employment, health and justice outcomes. Education policy must address improving in these basic skills.Gail Pacheco, Professor of Economics, Director of the NZ Work Research Institute, Auckland University of TechnologyLisa Meehan, Associate Director (Economics & Research), NZ Work Research Institute, Auckland University of TechnologyThomas Schober, Senior Research Fellow, NZ Work Research Institute, Auckland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2083642023-06-29T20:01:33Z2023-06-29T20:01:33ZOur research shows Australian students who are behind in primary school can catch up by high school<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533947/original/file-20230626-183624-7zqiy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C35%2C5982%2C3880&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mary Taylor/Pexels </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If students have poor academic results early in school, do they continue to fall further and further behind as they move through their education? </p>
<p>The intuitive answer to this question is yes. This perception is fuelled by relentless <a href="https://www.aare.edu.au/blog/?p=14804">media reporting</a> about <a href="https://www.primaryfocus.org.au/media/lessons-in-failure-on-education-need-to-be-learnt">falling standards</a> in Australia, and claims about “<a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/widening-gaps/">widening gaps</a>” between advantaged and disadvantaged groups of students. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/no-wonder-no-one-wants-to-be-a-teacher-world-first-study-looks-at-65-000-news-articles-about-australian-teachers-186210">No wonder no one wants to be a teacher: world-first study looks at 65,000 news articles about Australian teachers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The ‘Matthew effect’</h2>
<p>If achievement gaps do widen as children develop, this would be evidence for what researchers call the “Matthew effect”. This <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1987-15181-001">theory</a>, first described by Canadian psychologist Keith Stanovich, proposes students who start with poor academic skills early in school make less progress over time compared with their higher-achieving peers.</p>
<p>Referencing a verse from the Bible’s <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2025%3A29&version=NIV">Book of Matthew</a>, Stanovich argued children who initially had strong skills should become even stronger over time, because academic skills build on each other. (Or, as Matthew put it, “For whoever has will be given more, and they will have an abundance. Whoever does not have, even what they have will be taken from them.”).</p>
<p>According to this argument, higher-achieving students have an extra advantage over time because their skills, knowledge and ability will snowball, allowing their progress to accelerate relative to less able students. </p>
<p>But is this phenomenon universally true? Not necessarily, according to our latest research on Australian students. </p>
<h2>Our research</h2>
<p>We have a unique advantage in Australia because our national NAPLAN tests are designed to track students’ progress over time. So results on one test can be directly compared to the next or the previous one. This is rare internationally, and very powerful for answering questions about development.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2023.102201">research</a>
examined patterns growth in literacy and numeracy in two states. We looked at 88,958 New South Wales students (who were in Year 3 in 2012), and 65,984 students in Victoria (who were in Year 3 in 2011). </p>
<p>We matched NAPLAN reading comprehension and numeracy results for each student from Year 3 through to Year 9. We examined reading and numeracy, as these two skills form the basis of learning in many other areas of the curriculum.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-year-4-students-have-not-lost-ground-on-reading-despite-pandemic-disruptions-205644">Australia’s Year 4 students have not lost ground on reading, despite pandemic disruptions</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Our findings</h2>
<p>Contrary to expectations, we found no evidence of the Matthew effect in either reading or numeracy amongst students sitting NAPLAN tests in NSW or Victoria. </p>
<p>Instead, we found the reverse pattern, called “<a href="https://ila.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1598/RRQ.39.1.5">compensatory growth</a>”.</p>
<p>That is, students starting with below average NAPLAN results are making more progress from Year 3 to Year 9 compared with students starting above average. This compensatory growth pattern was seen in both reading and numeracy, but was particularly strong in reading. </p>
<p>This pattern can be seen in the figure below which plots trajectories for 100 randomly-selected students sitting NAPLAN reading tests in NSW. </p>
<p>While surprising, our research aligns with findings from a 2014 <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/0034654313509492">meta-analysis of Matthew effects</a> research in reading. </p>
<p>This earlier study examined all longitudinal research on reading development across primary school. Studies were drawn from the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Finland, Greece, Canada, Austria, Sweden, and the Netherlands, and the combined sample included 425,685 students. Matthew effects were only observed in a quarter of the included samples.</p>
<p>Our research is the first in Australia to build on these findings and examine reading and numeracy development in state-wide data using individual student scores across the NAPLAN years. </p>
<p>Given the widespread beliefs about widening gaps, our results should be reassuring. Although, our findings also indicate the highest achieving students do not make as much growth in NAPLAN as their lower performing peers. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A graph showing NSW reading scores between years 3 and 9." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534737/original/file-20230629-15-m4el0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534737/original/file-20230629-15-m4el0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=659&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534737/original/file-20230629-15-m4el0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=659&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534737/original/file-20230629-15-m4el0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=659&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534737/original/file-20230629-15-m4el0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534737/original/file-20230629-15-m4el0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534737/original/file-20230629-15-m4el0o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This chart plots the progress of a random sample of the 88,958 NSW students in our study across all their NAPLAN reading tests. It shows students starting with below average NAPLAN results are making more progress from Year 3 to Year 9 compared with students who start above average.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author supplied</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>But what does this mean for high achievers?</h2>
<p>There is a popular perception teachers are not effectively teaching students basic skills. But our research suggests students who begin with poorer literacy and numeracy skills are supported by classroom teachers, and do make progress over time.</p>
<p>However, while our results indicate poorly performing Year 3 students do “catch up” somewhat, a small proportion of students still <a href="https://naplanreview.com.au/pdfs/2020_NAPLAN_review_final_report.pdf">fail to meet minimum standards</a> for literacy and numeracy by Year 9. Ongoing efforts to identify and support these students in secondary school is vitally important. </p>
<p>On the other hand, our results also suggest students who begin with high achievement in NAPLAN reading and numeracy tests in Year 3 are not making the amount of progress to Year 9 they are capable of. </p>
<p>While both NSW and Victoria have clear <a href="https://education.nsw.gov.au/teaching-and-learning/high-potential-and-gifted-education/HPGE-policy-information">policies</a> and <a href="https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/high-ability-toolkit/Pages/high-ability-toolkit.aspx?Redirect=1">resources</a> for teaching high-ability students, it is difficult for teachers to enact them if the majority of classroom time is focused on struggling students. </p>
<p>Perhaps the progress of high-ability students <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED501703.pdf">is not a high priority</a> for schools once these students have attained the basic skills expected of their age group. Further research in Australian schools is needed to identify the reasons for underachievement relative to potential for high-ability students.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, our finding that struggling students can make good progress over time rather than falling further behind should be a cause for optimism among educators and the community.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-pandemic-silver-lining-how-kids-in-some-disadvantaged-schools-improved-their-results-during-covid-203047">A pandemic silver lining: how kids in some disadvantaged schools improved their results during COVID</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208364/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sally Larsen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A new study looked at NAPLAN results in reading and numeracy and tracked the same students all the way from from Year 3 to Year 9.Sally Larsen, Lecturer, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2030592023-05-30T20:08:02Z2023-05-30T20:08:02ZFrom whiteboard work to random groups, these simple fixes could get students thinking more in maths lessons<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528977/original/file-20230530-26-76hf1v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C26%2C5946%2C3961&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian students’ performance and engagement in mathematics is an ongoing issue.</p>
<p>International studies show Australian students’ mean performance in <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results.htm">maths</a> has steadily declined since 2003. The latest <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results.htm">Program for International Student Assessment</a> (PISA) in 2018 showed only 10% of Australian teenagers scored in the top two levels, compared to 44% in China and 37% in Singapore.</p>
<p>Despite attempts to reform how we <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/feb/13/cracking-the-formula-how-should-australia-be-teaching-maths-under-the-national-curriculum">teach maths</a>, it is unlikely students’ performance will improve if they are not engaging with their lessons. </p>
<p>What teachers, parents, and policymakers may not be aware of is <a href="https://www.peterliljedahl.com/wp-content/uploads/PME-NA-2013-Studenting.pdf">research shows</a> students are using “non-thinking behaviours” to avoid engaging with maths. </p>
<p>That is, when your child says they didn’t do anything in maths today, our research shows they’re probably right.</p>
<h2>What are non-thinking behaviours?</h2>
<p>There are four main non-thinking behaviours. These are: </p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>slacking</strong>: where there is no attempt at a task. The student may talk or do nothing</p></li>
<li><p><strong>stalling</strong>: where there is no real attempt at a task. This may involve legitimate off-task behaviours, such as sharpening a pencil</p></li>
<li><p><strong>faking</strong>: where a student pretends to do a task, but achieves nothing. This may involve legitimate on-task behaviours such as drawing pictures or writing numbers</p></li>
<li><p><strong>mimicking</strong>: this includes attempts to complete a task and can often involve completing it. It involves referring to others or previous examples.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Peter Liljedahl studied <a href="https://peterliljedahl.com/wp-content/uploads/Building-Thinking-Classrooms-for-teachers.pdf">Canadian maths lessons</a> in all years of school, over 15 years. This research found up to 80% of students exhibit non-thinking behaviours for 100% of the time in a typical hour-long lesson. </p>
<p>The most common behaviour was mimicking (53%), reflecting a trend of the teacher doing all the thinking, rather than the students. </p>
<p>It also found when students were given “now you try one” tasks (a teacher demonstrates something, then asks students to try it), the majority of students engaged in non-thinking behaviours.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1635466241497235458"}"></div></p>
<h2>Australian students are ‘non-thinking’ too</h2>
<p>Tracey Muir conducted a smaller-scale study in 2021 with a Year ¾ class. </p>
<p>Some 63% of students were observed engaged in non-thinking behaviours, with slacking and stalling (54%) being the most common. These behaviours included rubbing out, sharpening pencils, and playing with counters, and were especially prevalent in unsupervised small groups. </p>
<p>One explanation for students slacking and stalling is teachers are doing most of the talking and directing, and not providing enough opportunities for students to think.</p>
<p>How can we build “thinking” maths classrooms and reduce the prevalence of non-thinking behaviours? </p>
<p>Here are two research-based ideas. </p>
<h2>Form random groups</h2>
<p>Often students are placed in groups to work through new skills or lessons. Sometimes these are arranged by the teacher or by the students themselves.</p>
<p>Students know why they have been placed in groups with certain individuals (even if this is not explicitly stated). Here they tend to “live down” to expectations.<br>
If they are with their friends they also tend to distract each other. </p>
<p>Our studies found random groupings improved students’ willingness to collaborate, reduced social stress often caused by self-selecting groups, and increased enthusiasm for mathematics learning.</p>
<p>As one student told us:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I’m starting to like maths now, and working with random people is better for me so I don’t get off track. </p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-how-was-maths-discovered-who-made-up-the-numbers-and-rules-121509">Curious Kids: how was maths discovered? Who made up the numbers and rules?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Get kids to stand up</h2>
<p>Classroom learning is often done at desks or sitting on the floor. This encourages passive behaviour and we know from physiology that <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/the-truth-behind-standing-desks-2016092310264">standing is better than sitting</a> </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A young girl works at a whiteboard." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529030/original/file-20230530-24-kiwa1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529030/original/file-20230530-24-kiwa1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529030/original/file-20230530-24-kiwa1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529030/original/file-20230530-24-kiwa1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529030/original/file-20230530-24-kiwa1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529030/original/file-20230530-24-kiwa1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529030/original/file-20230530-24-kiwa1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our research found students work better if they are standing in maths lessons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But we found groups of about three students standing together and working on a whiteboard can promote thinking behaviours. Just the physical act of standing can eliminate slacking, stalling, and faking behaviours. As one student said:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>standing helps me concentrate more because if I’m sitting down I’m just fiddling with stuff, but if I’m standing up, the only thing you can do is write and do maths. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The additional strategy of only allowing the student with the pen to record others’ thinking and not their own, has shown to be especially beneficial. As one teacher told us: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>the people that don’t have the pen have to do the thinking […] so it’s a real group effort and they don’t have the ability to slack off as much.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Simple changes can work</h2>
<p>While our studies were conducted in maths classrooms, our strategies would be transferable to other discipline areas.</p>
<p>So, while parents and educators may feel concerned about Australia’s declining maths results, by introducing simple changes to the classroom, we can ensure students are not only learning and thinking deeply about mathematics, but hopefully, enjoying it, too.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203059/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>From ‘slacking’ to ‘stalling’, ‘faking’ and ‘mimicking’, students use a wide variety of behaviours to avoid doing their maths lessons.Tracey Muir, Professor in Education (STEM), Australian Catholic UniversityPeter Liljedahl, Professor, Simon Fraser UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2027142023-03-29T02:54:33Z2023-03-29T02:54:33ZTeaching the ‘basics’ is critical – but what teachers really want are clear guidelines and expectations<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518052/original/file-20230328-24-s4t4vt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C0%2C8230%2C5495&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Anyone watching the debate over the National Party’s recent curriculum policy announcement could be forgiven for thinking there is a deep divide in education philosophy and best practice in New Zealand. The truth isn’t quite that simple.</p>
<p>In fact, most (if not all) interested parties would agree that teaching and learning the basics of literacy and numeracy are vital. As one <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/ninetonoon/audio/2018883129/literacy-expert-dissects-new-literacy-numeracy-model-and-national-s-education-policy">expert observer noted</a>, the policies of the major political parties actually have much in common. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.national.org.nz/teaching_the_basics_brilliantly">National Party policy</a> promises a curriculum focused on “teaching the basics brilliantly”. The government says much of this work is already under way with its current curriculum “refresh”. So where exactly is the issue?</p>
<p>The idea of mandated testing checkpoints clearly has some worried that the National Party’s policy is a return to a “<a href="https://www.aare.edu.au/blog/?p=7020">back to basics</a>” mentality that ignores or minimises other vital areas of teaching. As <a href="https://thespinoff.co.nz/politics/24-03-2023/kpis-are-for-businesses-and-boardrooms-not-children-and-schools">one headline</a> had it, “KPIs are for businesses and boardrooms, not children and schools”.</p>
<p>While the basics are important, the argument goes, there are other things schools should focus on. That may be true, but it need not be so binary. Basic early literacy and numeracy skills are the foundation on which much other success is built. </p>
<p>Perhaps a better way to frame the discussion might be: a wider view of learning is important – <em>and</em> the basics are necessary.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518053/original/file-20230328-14-50spm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518053/original/file-20230328-14-50spm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518053/original/file-20230328-14-50spm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518053/original/file-20230328-14-50spm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518053/original/file-20230328-14-50spm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518053/original/file-20230328-14-50spm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518053/original/file-20230328-14-50spm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Learning literacy is a complex process: handwriting skill is the best predictor of writing success.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Learning to read and write is hard</h2>
<p>Foundations take time to put in place, however. With reading and writing, for example, it’s common for capable adults to assume that many of the foundational skills are easily achieved. </p>
<p>In fact, <a href="https://blog.learnfasthq.com/how-the-brain-learns-to-read-professor-stanislaus-dehaene">neuroscience shows</a> literacy learning is a remarkably complex process. Learning to identify letters and the sounds associated with them, and learning to read and retain words, involves a kind of repurposing of the brain’s architecture.</p>
<p>Learning to correctly spell words is even more complex than reading them. Successful teaching of spelling requires clear and systematic guidelines. Mastery cannot be left to chance or done through rote learning lists of words.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/has-a-gap-in-old-school-handwriting-and-spelling-tuition-contributed-to-nzs-declining-literacy-scores-155371">Has a gap in old-school handwriting and spelling tuition contributed to NZ's declining literacy scores?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Another often undervalued basic skill is handwriting. It can be seen as purely a presentation technique and simply about neatness. But research shows handwriting skill contributes directly to writing achievement and is the <a href="https://www.ldatschool.ca/literacy-skills-handwriting/#:%7E:text=Studies%20have%20shown%20that%20handwriting,et%20al.%2C%202000">best predictor of writing success</a> in younger students.</p>
<p>Reading and writing also rely on a foundation of oral language skill, including understanding sentence structure and having a strong vocabulary. Being proficient with sentences is the building block for paragraph formation, essential to more advanced writing tasks. Vocabulary knowledge is a <a href="https://theeducationhub.org.nz/effective-vocabulary-instruction/#:%7E:text=Vocabulary%20knowledge%20is%20a%20strong,to%20support%20accurate%20word%20recognition">strong predictor of academic achievement</a>, connected to both reading and writing success.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518056/original/file-20230328-16-3koz90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518056/original/file-20230328-16-3koz90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518056/original/file-20230328-16-3koz90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518056/original/file-20230328-16-3koz90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518056/original/file-20230328-16-3koz90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518056/original/file-20230328-16-3koz90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518056/original/file-20230328-16-3koz90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Clear guidelines and specifics: teachers want to know what denotes progress, and when they should be concerned.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What teachers want</h2>
<p>None of these skills develop by chance. So the question becomes, how can a curriculum best support teachers to teach literacy from its foundations upwards, with as many students as possible succeeding?</p>
<p>In my work as a literacy facilitator, I find teachers want specifics. They want to know what to teach at each stage. They want to know what the children in their classes should be able to do within that year. They want to know what denotes progress, and when they should be concerned.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/teachers-need-a-lot-of-things-right-now-but-another-curriculum-rewrite-isnt-one-of-them-202438">Teachers need a lot of things right now, but another curriculum 'rewrite' isn't one of them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But the curriculum as a whole is necessarily broad and all-encompassing, to reflect the complex needs of society. The <a href="https://curriculumrefresh.education.govt.nz/why-new-zealand-curriculum-changing">curriculum refresh</a> groups learning in broad bands – and this presents problems for specific guidance and benchmarks.</p>
<p>In the <a href="https://curriculumrefresh-live-assetstorages3bucket-l5w0dsj7zmbm.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-03/CO3101_MOE_English-A3_008-DRAFT.pdf?VersionId=chGkn5jpuCHH7wQVHHD17VnDR1X.5Q.I">English curriculum</a>, one of the literacy goals for learners in the year 1-3 band is to “use decoding strategies with texts to make meaning”. This is far too broad to be helpful in teaching or assessment in any specific way.</p>
<p>More nuanced progress indicators are still being developed, but the draft examples suggest there will be more guidance in more specific age bands.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/education-expert-john-hatties-new-book-draws-on-more-than-130-000-studies-to-find-out-what-helps-students-learn-201952">Education expert John Hattie's new book draws on more than 130,000 studies to find out what helps students learn</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Guidelines and benchmarks</h2>
<p>As well as through the curriculum, teaching will be supported by the <a href="https://www.education.govt.nz/our-work/changes-in-education/curriculum-and-assessment-changes/literacy-and-communication-and-maths-strategy/">Literacy & Communication and Maths Strategy</a> and the <a href="https://www.education.govt.nz/our-work/changes-in-education/curriculum-and-assessment-changes/common-practice-model/">Common Practice Model</a>. As an educator, I hope the final versions of these documents will offer clear guidelines for both teaching and assessment.</p>
<p>And there are new resources recently provided to schools that contribute usefully to a systematic and successful approach to literacy teaching. These are based on current evidence of how reading is best taught. They include a <a href="https://literacyonline.tki.org.nz/Literacy-Online/Planning-for-my-students-needs/Instructional-Series/Ready-to-Read/Ready-to-Read-Phonics-Plus">progression of word learning</a> framework, and <a href="https://instructionalseries.tki.org.nz/content/search/(offset)/10?SearchText=&SubTreeArray%5b%5d=29181&Scope=all&Phase=K%C4%81kano%20%7C%20Seed">decodable readers with lesson plans</a>.</p>
<p>All of these resources should provide useful direction for schools in their literacy teaching. While we can never make the task of teaching literacy simple, specific guidelines can make the pathway for teaching more straightforward. </p>
<p>More focus on the basics need not be boring for learners, either. I recently observed a lesson where the children were learning to decode new words. At the end, a six-year-old said “that was fun, can we do more?” The act of laying foundations for literacy is anything but dull.</p>
<p>The National Party’s call for guidelines around “teaching the basics brilliantly” speaks to a vital part of a rounded education. More detail is now needed about what “brilliance” will mean in practice, just as we need more detail on the current curriculum refresh. Making foundation skills a key component of the curriculum may not be the whole answer, but it is absolutely necessary for overall success.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202714/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christine Braid has been involved with the MoE NZC refresh as an advisor on the literacy indicators; and had worked on the scope and sequence, and decodable text resources for the MoE.</span></em></p>The ‘back to basics’ debate over curriculum policy obscures what teachers say they really need: clear guidelines and benchmarks of progress.Christine Braid, Professional Learning and Development Facilitator in Literacy Education, Massey UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1997642023-02-13T04:24:17Z2023-02-13T04:24:17ZWhat do the NAPLAN test changes mean for schools and students?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509615/original/file-20230212-14-gvz0ar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C22%2C2980%2C1992&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dan Peled/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s education ministers have <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/collections/communiques-education-ministers-meeting-2023">just announced</a> changes to NAPLAN that will start right away. These include bringing the testing date forward and changing the way results are reported. According to the ministers: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>These new standards will give teachers and parents better information about what a student can do.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>What will the changes mean for schools and students? </p>
<h2>Remind me, what is NAPLAN?</h2>
<p>NAPLAN was introduced in 2008 and is an annual test of all Australian students in years 3, 5, 7 and 9. </p>
<p>It aims to see whether students are developing basic skills in literacy and numeracy. </p>
<h2>Earlier testing date</h2>
<p>NAPLAN is done by schools in a specific testing window. As of this year, the window <a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/what's-changed.pdf">will move</a> from May to March. </p>
<p>This year’s test will also be administered entirely online for the first time (with the exception of the Year 3 writing test). </p>
<p>Because it will be done online and completed in term one, results can be made available faster. Parents and schools are due to receive students’ individual reports in July 2023. </p>
<p>Experts have long <a href="https://www.theeducatoronline.com/k12/news/how-to-make-naplan-more-useful/203723">criticised</a> the late reporting of NAPLAN scores, arguing it did not allow enough time to actually use the results in a given school year. The new approach gives schools more of a chance to work with and respond to NAPLAN data. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1624272014885154816"}"></div></p>
<h2>What about test prep?</h2>
<p>The earlier testing date will mean schools have less time for test preparation. This is not necessarily a negative thing. “Teaching to the test” has always been a significant <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/education/naplan-out-of-control-teachers-say-test-eats-into-curriculum-20190130-p50ul5.html">concern</a> for parents, teachers and researchers because it takes away from more authentic learning opportunities.</p>
<p>With NAPLAN in March, schools have little time to explicitly teach for the test and more of the school year to focus on other content. However, there is a risk it could lead to more intensive test preparation in the first months of the school year for students in years 3, 5, 7 and 9. Or it could see teachers in earlier grades spend more time on test preparation for subsequent years. </p>
<h2>New standards</h2>
<p>Another key change to NAPLAN is students’ results will now be reported against four levels of achievement instead of the existing ten “<a href="https://www.acara.edu.au/assessment/naplan/naplan-score-equivalence-tables">proficiency bands</a>”. These new levels are “exceeding”, “strong”, “developing” and “needs additional support”. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-parents-should-and-shouldnt-say-when-talking-to-their-child-about-naplan-results-189636">What parents should and shouldn't say when talking to their child about NAPLAN results</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>Some <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/nation/politically-correct-naplan-to-drop-minimum-standards/news-story/c46d7fbc3907cc2d6ea298f9bf7384b8">media commentary</a> has suggested the new standards will “water down” existing expectations. However, there will actually be a higher threshold for students to meet the new minimum standard. </p>
<p>For students to be deemed “proficient”, they will have to meet either the “exceeding” or “strong” level, which is designed to <a href="https://www.acara.edu.au/docs/default-source/media-releases/naplan-proficiency-standards-media-release-2023-02-10.pdf">“support higher expectations for student achievement”</a>. As such, the changes could actually mean more students (not fewer) are identified as <a href="https://www.afr.com/politics/federal/naplan-changes-aim-to-fix-the-underachievement-problem-20230210-p5cjhr">performing below minimum standards</a>. </p>
<p>It is also hoped the new <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/education-ministers-meeting/resources/education-ministers-meeting-communique-10-february-2023">easy-to-read</a> standards will make the results more accessible for students and parents. </p>
<p>However, schools will likely need more resources, such as teacher aides and professional learning, to ensure that students actually receive the extra help they need. </p>
<h2>What isn’t being proposed?</h2>
<p>The proposed changes are primarily targeted at how NAPLAN data is reported, with a particular focus on more user-friendly forms for teachers, parents and students. </p>
<p>They do not tackle deeper inequalities and achievement disparities in the education system. For example, <a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/school-agreement/report/school-agreement.pdf">a recent Productivity Commission report</a> showed 5% to 9% of Australian students in 2021 did not meet NAPLAN minimum standards in reading or numeracy, which translates to “tens of thousands of students” each year.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Blurred image of school students walking over a bridge." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509671/original/file-20230213-14-mc1pbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509671/original/file-20230213-14-mc1pbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509671/original/file-20230213-14-mc1pbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509671/original/file-20230213-14-mc1pbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509671/original/file-20230213-14-mc1pbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509671/original/file-20230213-14-mc1pbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509671/original/file-20230213-14-mc1pbu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tens of thousands of Australian students do not meet minimum basic skills standards each year.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dean Lewins/AAP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The report raised important questions about whether minimum standards are set too low and whether systems and schools are doing enough to identify and support students who are falling behind. </p>
<p>For example, students who are below minimum standards at Year 3 struggle to catch up in later years. Also, more than half of all struggling students are not in identified <a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/school-agreement/report/school-agreement.pdf">priority equity cohorts</a> (such as Indigenous or rural students). This could mean they are less likely to be identified as needing additional support.</p>
<h2>Will this make a difference?</h2>
<p>While the new changes are intended to produce positive impacts, it remains to be seen how meaningful they will be. Theoretically, making it easier to receive and understand results will make it easier to improve student performance. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-things-we-wouldnt-know-without-naplan-94286">Five things we wouldn't know without NAPLAN</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But measuring student learning and achievement is a very complex process and requires nuanced interpretations. All measurement is prone to errors and blind spots. While the new changes might offer schools and parents simpler reports, we must not assume this automatically means cleaner or more useful data. </p>
<p>The changes will certainly be welcomed by many who have argued for earlier and simpler NAPLAN reporting. Hopefully, they will also lead to better outcomes for students and more fruitful conversations about the purpose and importance of NAPLAN for Australian schools.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199764/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica Holloway receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Glenn C. Savage receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven Lewis receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>NAPLAN testing has been brought forward from May to March and results will be reported against just four levels of achievement.Jessica Holloway, Senior Research DECRA Fellow, Institute for Learning Sciences and Teacher Education, Australian Catholic UniversityGlenn C Savage, Associate Professor of Education Policy and the Future of Schooling, The University of MelbourneSteven Lewis, Senior Research Fellow, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1983882023-01-29T19:10:18Z2023-01-29T19:10:18ZAs students return to school, small-group tutoring can help those who are falling behind<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506711/original/file-20230127-25-xdim6o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C11%2C7360%2C4759&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>More than <a href="https://ministers.education.gov.au/clare/more-four-million-students-head-school-week">four million students around Australia</a> are heading back to school. While this will be a year of achievement and learning growth for many students, others will struggle to keep up. </p>
<p>A major <a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/school-agreement/report/school-agreement-overview.pdf">Productivity Commission report</a> earlier this month found too many Australian school students are behind in reading and maths. Each year tens of thousands of students fail to meet minimum literacy and numeracy standards, as measured in NAPLAN assessments. </p>
<p>But even this likely underestimates the proportion of struggling students, as NAPLAN’s minimum standards set a very low bar. </p>
<p>When children struggle to keep up with classroom learning, it can spark a vicious cycle. Lack of understanding can lead to frustration, and disengagement can set in, which makes further learning harder.</p>
<p>The good news is that the opportunity to boost learning and bridge
these gaps is in plain sight. As our <a href="https://protect-au.mimecast.com/s/HiLPCANZ0oh99Mkwzs93LSm?domain=na01.safelinks.protection.outlook.com">new research finds</a>, small-group tutoring is an effective way to help students catch up. </p>
<h2>Australia has a significant underachievement problem</h2>
<p>Many students in Australia fail to develop essential skills in literacy and numeracy. And once children fall behind, they often struggle to catch up. Successful academic learning involves layering new knowledge and skills on a solid foundation of learning.</p>
<p>Studies estimate <a href="https://www.ldaustralia.org/app/uploads/2021/12/1156-LDA-Bulletin-December-2021_WEB.pdf">about 20%</a> of students need additional intensive learning support, on top of universal classroom instruction, to develop foundational literacy and numeracy skills.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-was-astonished-at-how-quickly-they-made-gains-online-tutoring-helps-struggling-students-catch-up-165821">'I was astonished at how quickly they made gains': online tutoring helps struggling students catch up</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Grattan Institute analysis of <a href="https://protect-au.mimecast.com/s/HiLPCANZ0oh99Mkwzs93LSm?domain=na01.safelinks.protection.outlook.com">2022 NAPLAN data</a> shows disadvantaged children tend to start school well behind their advantaged peers, and the gap only grows wider with every year of schooling. </p>
<p>The learning gap between disadvantaged and advantaged students more than doubles in reading and numeracy between year 3 and year 9. </p>
<p>In numeracy, for example, year 3 students whose parents did not finish school are one year and seven months behind students whose parents have a university degree. By year 9, this gap has grown to four years. </p>
<p>But small-group tutoring can help struggling students catch up, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds.</p>
<hr>
<p><iframe id="nM1yc" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/nM1yc/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<hr>
<h2>What is small-group tutoring?</h2>
<p>This is where teachers or other educators work with just a few students at a time. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Student writing on a whiteboard with teacher looking on." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506710/original/file-20230126-25-341ewi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=57%2C65%2C5378%2C3553&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/506710/original/file-20230126-25-341ewi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506710/original/file-20230126-25-341ewi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506710/original/file-20230126-25-341ewi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506710/original/file-20230126-25-341ewi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506710/original/file-20230126-25-341ewi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/506710/original/file-20230126-25-341ewi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tutoring would be done at school, during school hours.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The sessions are short, lasting up to an hour each and held about three times a week over one or two school terms. Sessions are highly focused: for example, they may concentrate on helping students recognise particular spelling patterns, or working with fractions. </p>
<p>Small-group tuition tends to be conducted during school hours, and there is close collaboration between the teacher and tutor. This means the content is closely aligned to classroom content and monitored by the teacher.</p>
<p>This is a key point of difference to the tutoring that parents might organise for their children out of school hours.</p>
<h2>Small-group tuition works</h2>
<p>A 2021 review of international evidence by Australian-based organisation <a href="https://evidenceforlearning.org.au/education-evidence/teaching-learning-toolkit/small-group-tuition">Evidence for Learning</a> showed small-group tuition can boost student learning by as much as four months, on average, over the course of a year. </p>
<p>And a 2020 systematic review by the <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w27476">US National Bureau of Economic Research</a> of 96 randomised controlled trials (<a href="https://adc.bmj.com/content/90/8/840">the “gold standard” for evidence</a>) found consistently large, positive results from catch-up tuition on maths and reading across grade levels. </p>
<p>Small-group tuition works because the tutor can focus exclusively on a small number of students, identify their precise learning needs, and work closely with them to get them back on track. A student’s personal relationship with their tutor can also boost their confidence and help them feel better about going to school. </p>
<h2>But we need to do it well</h2>
<p>The big challenge is to deliver high-quality small-group tuition in every school. It will take time and effort to get right. </p>
<p>We need to know more about which small-group tuition models are most cost-effective – because tutoring is moderately expensive. </p>
<p>We also need to ensure there are enough high-quality tutors, given concerns about teacher supply. </p>
<p>Tutors could be drawn from retired teachers and part-time teachers. Employing teaching assistants, trainee teachers and other university students as tutors should be considered. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/victoria-and-nsw-are-funding-extra-tutors-to-help-struggling-students-heres-what-parents-need-to-know-about-the-schemes-153450">Victoria and NSW are funding extra tutors to help struggling students. Here's what parents need to know about the schemes</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>Evidence shows these groups can deliver good results if they are <a href="https://evidenceforlearning.org.au/education-evidence/teaching-learning-toolkit/one-to-one-tuition">given the right support and training</a>, including the use of a structured literacy or numeracy program.</p>
<p>There are still important gaps in the evidence about which program delivery methods work best, and for whom. </p>
<p>Schools also need to be able embed small-group tuition systematically. Schools should boost the quality of whole-class instruction to limit learning gaps in the first place, regularly screen students to identify gaps that do arise and then step in with tutoring to close gaps quickly. </p>
<h2>What should governments do?</h2>
<p>In response to COVID-19 school disruptions, Australian governments have invested about A$1.5 billion in catch-up learning programs in NSW and Victoria.</p>
<p>Governments should now do more to learn the lessons from these programs. The big challenge is to ensure high-quality small-group tuition is achieved not in a few schools, but every school. </p>
<p>Federal and state governments, along with Catholic and independent school sector leaders, should commit to a five-year plan to embed high-quality small-group tuition in every school. Five years will give governments time to test and refine the best ways to deliver small-group tuition cost-effectively, and put the right supports for schools in place.</p>
<p>Governments and the Catholic and independent school sectors should now take four steps to make this happen: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>improve guidelines for schools on how to have high-quality small-group tuition, with a focus on the prevention and early identification of learning gaps.</p></li>
<li><p>review schools’ capacity to implement best-practice guidelines, and provide the support and training school leaders and tutors need. </p></li>
<li><p>invest $10 million across the country in rigorous trials to identify the best ways to deliver high-quality small-group tuition. </p></li>
<li><p>make sure there is a commitment to have small-group tuition in all schools in the next National Schools Reform Agreement (NSRA) due by December 2024. The NSRA is an agreement between the federal, state, and territory governments that sets out agreed strategic reforms in areas of national interest. The next version of the NSRA is currently under negotiation.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>As quality and standards in Australian education <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/education/call-for-focus-on-teaching-as-academic-results-slide-despite-300b-school-funding-deal-20230119-p5cdwu.html">once more make headlines</a>, small-group tutoring offers us a clear, practical path to helping teachers and students alike. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Principals and teachers can refer to the Grattan Institute’s short guide to small-group tuition <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/How-to-embed-small-group-tuition-in-schools-School-leader-guide.pdf">here</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198388/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grattan Institute has been supported by the Origin Energy Foundation for this report. </span></em></p>A new report from the Grattan Institute calls for tutoring at school, in school hours to be rolled out across Australia.Julie Sonnemann, Principal Advisor Education, Grattan InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1890502022-10-24T20:00:48Z2022-10-24T20:00:48ZWhat’s in your future? ‘Fortune tellers’ paper game helps children acquire fine motor and language skills<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489651/original/file-20221013-12242-zilxpw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C46%2C5184%2C2491&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The folded paper decorated with messages, numbers and fortunes printed under the flaps can spark conversation at gatherings or be given as a birthday card. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/what-s-in-your-future--fortune-tellers--paper-game-helps-children-acquire-fine-motor-and-language-skills" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Making <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/culture/books/whether-you-call-it-a-chatterbox-or-fortune-teller-this-playground-game-has-stood-the-test-of-time-20220425-p5afwc.html">“fortune tellers” — a folded paper game children hold on their fingers and thumbs and practice counting and “telling fortunes”</a> with — has been a time-treasured craft and play activity for generations across cultures. </p>
<p>One of the earliest known paper-folding <a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/origami/History-of-origami">instruction books is Japanese, dated to 1797; German educators also encouraged paper folding</a> in 19th-century kindergarten curricula. In English, “fortune tellers” are sometimes called <a href="https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/67389/brief-history-cootie-catchers">salt cellars</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dtm0WlsVMt0">chatterboxes</a> or <a href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poetrymagazine/poems/157106/cootie-catcher">cootie catchers</a>;
in my own family heritage language, Dutch, they are <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hh6Dup06kfs"><em>happertje</em></a> (meaning “bite”). </p>
<p>This single activity integrates and provides a context for children to acquire and apply key concepts and skills <a href="https://www.ednet.ns.ca/edi">from important domains of early development</a>. These include physical health and well-being, including fine motor manipulative skills; language and cognitive development, which includes word knowledge; and social competence.</p>
<p>The activity promotes connected, accelerated and robust understanding through guided, engaged play.</p>
<h2>Experiential learning in a game</h2>
<p>It is important to underscore that different domains of children’s early development <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK310550/">are interrelated and interdependent</a>.</p>
<p>Orchestrating activities that exploit interaction among the domains supports young children in their quest to unite disparate or discrete “bits and pieces” of concept and skill understanding. In this way children have practice bringing different tasks <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.156">and embodied knowledge</a> into a coherent conceptual system. </p>
<p>In children, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2016.1223064">experiential learning that</a> engages <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/191866/the-hand-by-frank-r-wilson">neurocircuity connecting the brain and hands</a> and is mediated through adult talk is key to learning language for making meaning in the brain. </p>
<p>The psychologist Jean Piaget describes the early <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457">development needs of children as concrete learners</a>, meaning direct contact with objects and materials in real time. The importance of the “<a href="https://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html">more knowledgeable other</a>” and the role of language interactions in supporting ongoing learning was underscored by the psychologist Lev Vygotsky.</p>
<h2>Different learning goals</h2>
<p>Let’s isolate some important learning goals that a fortune teller task supports. </p>
<p>Fine motor manipulative and fine motor literacy skills are developed through scissor work to cut a square. Working on <a href="https://theconversation.com/summer-play-that-enriches-kids-reading-skills-8-fine-motor-activities-for-little-fingers-118673">a good pincer grip</a> through handling crayons and pencils happens when children print messages and numbers. </p>
<p>Folding, creasing, cutting, colouring, drawing and writing/printing supported <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/talking-with-mdash-not-just-to-mdash-kids-powers-how-they-learn-language">by adults talking with children helps children learn</a> procedural language and specialized vocabulary connected to numeracy and visual spatial concepts like diagonal, triangle, half. </p>
<p>And concepts <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02643290802425914">of shape are foundational to children’s ability to recognize letters</a> that underpin literacy learning. When children play with their fortune tellers, they practice counting out loud connected to finger movement. </p>
<h2>As a birthday greeting</h2>
<p>The social and emotional domain can be developed when children write thoughtful wishes for birthdays. Young children can start with drawing balloons, cake and candles to go under the flaps of a birthday greeting fortune teller card. Such activities promote emotional well-being for both recipient and sender.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/handwritten-valentines-create-a-legacy-of-love-and-literacy-130365">Handwritten valentines create a legacy of love and literacy</a>
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<p>Children could also write many other messages related to affirmations, random acts of kindness, mindfulness and ideas for behaviour and stress management. </p>
<p>Cognitive development can be nurtured with playful practice of times tables, jokes and riddles that encourage solving a problem, retelling and <a href="https://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/story_sequence">narrating a sequence of</a> events. </p>
<p>Children reveal important information about their developmental readiness and progress, and their learning needs are visible in completing small projects such as making fortune tellers. A weak pincer grip, for example, might signal the need for <a href="https://www.ot-mom-learning-activities.com/finger-exercises-for-kids.html">more focused finger exercises</a> with clothes pegs, games with chop sticks or pick up sticks. </p>
<h2>Making the fortune teller</h2>
<p>Making fortune tellers involves about 11 folds — a multi-step task that will involve step-by-step help for young learners.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/rbA29zfEAZk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">‘How to make a fortune teller’ video.</span></figcaption>
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<p>You could use one of <a href="https://www.easypeasyandfun.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Fortune-Teller-Origami-Diagram.pdf">many diagrams available online</a>. Or, on YouTube, a video from “Maflingus” (or Miami Flip, as he introduces himself) on how to make a fortune teller explains the folding technique in straightforward language. I was drawn to give this youngster the opportunity to explain the process as I worked with two children in completing the task. He did not disappoint! </p>
<p>Children benefit from adults offering them input in multiple ways. As an adult leading the task, you can talk and give hands-on support when making the diagonal folds. </p>
<p>Break tasks into manageable chunks or steps. This might involve first creating a model of the final product. Offer specific feedback and encouragement at each step and backing up to review if necessary.</p>
<p>Completing this one-shot project was motivating, fun and purposeful for the children who decided to make this into a birthday wish for their father for later that day. </p>
<h2>Not just for little kids</h2>
<p>Older students can benefit from using the fortune teller as a study strategy.
Under the flaps, students might generate handwritten notes and summaries. Reviewing key concepts and vocabulary or definitions and formulas all promote deep processing and learning. </p>
<p>Handwriting creates embodied cognition and memory in the neurocircuitry that we know works as a key study technique. It produces the added bonus of having a handy, permanent <a href="https://theconversation.com/note-taking-by-hand-a-powerful-tool-to-support-memory-144049">external memory support</a> and storage space that can be revisited for quick review. </p>
<h2>All the boxes</h2>
<p>Though there are <a href="https://www.pbs.org/parents/printables/fortune-teller-game">endless free</a> and commercially available resources for making fortune tellers, <a href="https://www.thesuburbanmom.com/2018/05/14/harry-potter-fortune-teller-printable/">tailored to different themes</a> including printouts or colouring pages available online. I prefer a heartfelt hand-printed message, joke and a bit of art work, and as this article explains, the many benefits of starting from scratch. </p>
<p>Few learning tasks are able to integrate and target many developmental domains at once … fortune tellers tick all the boxes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189050/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hetty Roessingh receives funding from SSHRC </span></em></p>How to make a ‘fortune teller’ or ‘chatterbox’ with children, and why the paper activity targets many developmental domains at once.Hetty Roessingh, Professor, Werklund School of Education, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1906462022-09-14T06:10:14Z2022-09-14T06:10:14ZThe Productivity Commission says Australian schools ‘fall short’ on quality and equity. What happens now?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484460/original/file-20220914-4942-sonkk7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C13%2C4542%2C2978&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Taylor Flowe/Unsplash</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Productivity Commission has just released a <a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/current/school-agreement/interim">review</a> of school standards in Australia. It finds we “persistently fall short” when it comes to providing a high quality and equitable education for all students. </p>
<p>Coming in at 253 pages, there is a lot to read. And a lot we already know. </p>
<p>But this report comes at a crucial time for Australian education. Outcomes are slipping, despite repeated attempts to improve them. And teacher shortages mean we need urgent measures as well as long-term changes. </p>
<h2>Why do we have this review?</h2>
<p>In April this year, former treasurer Josh Frydenberg asked the Productivity Commission to review the <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/quality-schools-package/national-school-reform-agreement">National School Reform Agreement</a>. This sets out nationally agreed initiatives for the next five years between the federal government, states and territories. </p>
<p>It is focused on three main areas: supporting students, supporting teaching and improving the data we have on schools in Australia. The next agreement is due to be signed in late 2023.</p>
<p>On Wednesday, the commission released its interim findings ahead of the final report to be delivered in December, when education ministers will begin hashing out a new agreement for the next five years.</p>
<h2>What’s in the report?</h2>
<p>There is little in this report we have not seen before. But the interim report certainly raises many key issues. </p>
<p>The report found too many students are falling behind. Every year, between 5% and 9% of Australian students do not meet year-level expectations in literacy or numeracy.</p>
<p>Student wellbeing is of significant concern, with one in five young people aged 11-17 reporting high levels of psychological distress, even before the pandemic.</p>
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<p>Despite talk about improving results for Aboriginal students and those in rural and remote areas, and students with disabilities, it says, “governments are yet to demonstrate results in improving equity”. It calls for new strategies, developed with students, parents and communities, to support students from disadvantaged backgrounds. </p>
<p>We already know teacher shortages are an issue – and state and federal governments are working separately on a new workforce plan for teachers, also due in December. </p>
<p>Additionally, the report found teachers are overworked with “<a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/current/school-agreement/interim">low-value tasks</a>” and burned out. Work-life balance and wellbeing were the key reasons why teachers wanted to leave the profession. </p>
<h2>What can we do?</h2>
<p>There are no quick or easy fixes. But here are three practical solutions government can adopt now to improve the school system for teachers and students. </p>
<p><strong>1. Quality teaching rounds</strong></p>
<p>The commission’s report says quality teaching is key to improving student outcomes. It recommends teachers are given more time for planning and professional development.</p>
<p>The report also highlighted my work with colleagues on “<a href="https://qtacademy.edu.au/what-is-qtr/">quality teaching rounds</a>” professional development. This approach brings teachers together to learn from each other, improve their teaching and lift student outcomes.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-parents-should-and-shouldnt-say-when-talking-to-their-child-about-naplan-results-189636">What parents should and shouldn't say when talking to their child about NAPLAN results</a>
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<p>It is centred on three big ideas: a deep understanding of important knowledge, positive classrooms that boost learning, and connecting learning to students’ lives and the wider world. </p>
<p>Our evidence shows this approach has positive effects on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.08.007">teaching quality</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-020-09386-z">teacher morale</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0742051X21000214?via%3Dihub">student achievement</a>, with greater impact in disadvantaged schools. This shows clear potential to narrow equity gaps and genuinely support teachers.</p>
<p><strong>2. Support throughout teaching careers</strong></p>
<p>The report acknowledges that school leadership roles are becoming more complex and demanding. It calls for the creation of a specific stream for aspiring school leaders. </p>
<p>This would see potential principals and other leaders (such as year-level and subject leaders) identified early in their careers and given specific support. </p>
<p>We also need a clear pathway from teaching degrees at university to induction in schools and ongoing development throughout teachers’ careers. This would mean teachers and school leaders are better equipped to do their jobs – and want to stay in the profession. </p>
<p><strong>3. More funding for research</strong></p>
<p>The report highlights the need for more evidence about what is working and what is not. It points out that previously agreed reforms for national data systems have stalled.</p>
<p>More than just creating systems of data, true reform requires rigorous research into all aspects of education.</p>
<p>Yet education does not receive the research dollars it deserves. For example, in the most recent round of the Australian Research Council’s <a href="https://rms.arc.gov.au/RMS/Report/Download/Report/a3f6be6e-33f7-4fb5-98a6-7526aaa184cf/230">discovery project grants</a>, education received less than 1% of approved funds – some A$2.5 million of the A$258 million allocated.</p>
<p>If the government wants change, investing in educational research must be part of the next agreement.</p>
<h2>What happens now?</h2>
<p>Education in Australia has a history of reviews, reports, plans and great intentions. </p>
<p>But we are constantly let down by implementation of recommendations. Partly it’s due to organisational complexity. Not only do the federal and state governments have different responsibilities in education, but there is a gap between policy and what happens on the ground in classrooms. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-spends-5-billion-a-year-on-teaching-assistants-in-schools-but-we-dont-know-what-they-do-187918">Australia spends $5 billion a year on teaching assistants in schools but we don't know what they do</a>
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<p>But with a new government and universal attention to the problem of teacher shortages, there is a rare opportunity now for Australian schools. We have a chance to make changes that genuinely support teachers and lift student outcomes. </p>
<p>The commission is now asking for comments on its interim report by October 21.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190646/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jenny Gore receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Paul Ramsay Foundation and NSW Department of Education. </span></em></p>A new report comes at a critical time. Every year, between 5% and 9% of Australian students do not meet year-level expectations in literacy or numeracy.Jenny Gore, Laureate Professor of Education, Director Teachers and Teaching Research Centre, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1893392022-08-25T20:03:39Z2022-08-25T20:03:39ZCounting from left to right feels ‘natural’ – but new research shows our brains count faster from bottom to top<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481018/original/file-20220825-21-gs7h42.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4000%2C6000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/4wF66_KWJxA">Gayatri Malhotra / Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When asked to write the numbers from one to ten in a sequence, how do you order them? Horizontally? Vertically? Left to right? Top to bottom? Would you place them randomly?</p>
<p>It has been often been assumed, and taught in schools in Western countries, that the “correct” ordering of numbers is from left to right (1, 2, 3, 4…) rather than right to left (10, 9, 8, 7…). The ordering of numbers along a horizontal dimension is known as a “mental number line” and describes an important way we represent number and quantity in space. </p>
<p>Studies show humans prefer to position larger numbers to the right and smaller numbers to the left. People are usually <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-00781-003">faster and more accurate</a> at comparing numbers when larger ones are to the right and smaller ones are to the left, and people with brain damage that disrupts their spatial processing also show <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/417138a">similar disruptions</a> in number processing.</p>
<p>But so far, there has been little research testing whether the horizontal dimension is the most important one we associate with numbers. In <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0262559">new research</a> published in PLOS ONE, we found that humans actually process numbers faster when they are displayed vertically – with smaller numbers at the bottom and larger numbers at the top.</p>
<h2>Not just humans</h2>
<p>Our associations between number and space are influenced by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.122.3.371">language and culture</a>, but these links are not unique to humans.</p>
<p>Tests on three-day-old chicks show they
<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.aaa1379?casa_token=Ej3SBcsh9zYAAAAA%3AMlxxpmoCsCUzSwuM19VWSzwf2EZ1b6alxcVtfjYiPxNRpTkyznaFR3u2HslD2UHVwc7mCSPDfAxGwkA">seek smaller numbers</a> with a leftwards bias and larger numbers with a rightwards one. <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2019-41901-001">Pigeons and blue jays</a> seem to have a left-to-right or right-to-left mental number line, depending on the individual. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481025/original/file-20220825-25-6rnapv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photograph of baby chicks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481025/original/file-20220825-25-6rnapv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481025/original/file-20220825-25-6rnapv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481025/original/file-20220825-25-6rnapv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481025/original/file-20220825-25-6rnapv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481025/original/file-20220825-25-6rnapv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481025/original/file-20220825-25-6rnapv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481025/original/file-20220825-25-6rnapv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Even three-day-old chicks have something like a mental number line.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/Gky4wYp9mvg">Jason Leung / Unsplash</a></span>
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<p>These findings suggest associations between space and numbers may be wired into the brains of humans and other animals. </p>
<p>However, while many studies have examined left-to-right and right-to-left horizontal mental number lines, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698916301511">few</a> have explored whether our dominant mental number line is even horizontal at all. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-bees-do-maths-yes-new-research-shows-they-can-add-and-subtract-108074">Can bees do maths? Yes – new research shows they can add and subtract</a>
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<h2>How we test for these spatial-numerical associations</h2>
<p>To test how quickly people can process numbers in different arrangements, we set up an experiment where people were shown pairs of numbers from 1 to 9 on a monitor and used a joystick to indicate where the larger number was located. </p>
<p>If the 6 and 8 were shown on the screen, for example, the correct answer would be 8. A participant would indicate this by moving the joystick towards the 8 as fast as possible.</p>
<p>To measure participant response times as accurately as possible, we used fast-refresh 120 Hertz monitors and high-performance zero-lag arcade joysticks.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480866/original/file-20220824-4813-jiebyn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/480866/original/file-20220824-4813-jiebyn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480866/original/file-20220824-4813-jiebyn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480866/original/file-20220824-4813-jiebyn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480866/original/file-20220824-4813-jiebyn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480866/original/file-20220824-4813-jiebyn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/480866/original/file-20220824-4813-jiebyn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Testing how participants show preferences for either horizontal or vertical mental number lines by indicating the larger number with a computer gaming joy stick.</span>
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<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>When the numbers were separated both vertically and horizontally, we found only the vertical arrangement affected response time. This suggests that, given the opportunity to use either a horizontal or vertical mental representation of numbers in space, participants only used the vertical representation.</p>
<p>When the larger number was above the smaller number, people responded much more quickly than in any other arrangement of numbers.</p>
<p>This suggests our mental number line actually goes from bottom (small numbers) to top (large numbers). </p>
<h2>Why is this important?</h2>
<p>Numbers affect almost every part of our lives (and our safety). Pharmacists need to correctly measure doses of medicine, engineers need to determine stresses on buildings and structures, pilots need to know their speed and altitude, and all of us need to know what button to press on an elevator. </p>
<p>The way we learn to use numbers, and how designers choose to display numerical information to us, can have important implications for how we make fast and accurate decisions. In fact, in some time-critical decision-making environments, such as aeroplane cockpits and stock market floors, numbers are often displayed vertically. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/numbers-on-the-mind-how-maths-can-help-explain-the-workings-of-our-brain-44405">Numbers on the mind: how maths can help explain the workings of our brain</a>
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<p>Our findings, and another recent <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00172/full">study</a>, may have implications for designers seeking to help users quickly understand and use numerical information. Modern devices enable very innovative number display options, which could help people use technology more efficiently and safely.</p>
<p>There are also implications for education, suggesting we should teach children using vertical bottom-to-top mental number lines as well as the familiar left-to-right ones. Bottom-to-top appears to be how our brains are wired to be most efficient at using numbers – and that might help getting our heads around how numbers work a little easier.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189339/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Luke Greenacre receives funding from the NHMRC. He is affiliated with Monash University and the University of South Australia. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrian Dyer receives funding from The Australian Research Council and The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scarlett Howard receives funding from Monash University and the Hermon Slade Foundation. She is affiliated with Pint of Science Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jair Garcia does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Horizontal number lines are often the default option – but our brains may process numbers more quickly in a vertical arrangement.Luke Greenacre, Senior lecturer in marketing, Monash UniversityAdrian Dyer, Associate Professor, Monash UniversityJair Garcia, Researcher and analyst, Monash UniversityScarlett Howard, Lecturer, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1843132022-06-15T20:01:56Z2022-06-15T20:01:56ZTime in hospital sets back tens of thousands of children’s learning each year, but targeted support can help them catch up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468635/original/file-20220614-18-r7p1do.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4718%2C3147&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/">NAPLAN</a> scores can tell us about a child’s learning, but can they also help us to support learners who have had a serious injury or a long-term chronic illness like asthma or epilepsy? </p>
<p>Children who spend time in hospital for these reasons miss out on time in class and are at risk of performing below the <a href="https://www.nap.edu.au/results-and-reports/how-to-interpret/standards">national minimum standard</a> (NMS) in numeracy and literacy as measured by NAPLAN. A serious injury or chronic illness can have a cumulative effect, resulting in lower educational performance, non-completion of high school, and potentially limiting their social, educational and later employment opportunities. </p>
<p>Knowing these risks in advance means parents and educators can plan to support children before the shock of poor school or NAPLAN results. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/every-teacher-needs-to-be-a-literacy-teacher-but-thats-not-happening-in-most-australian-schools-184557">Every teacher needs to be a literacy teacher – but that's not happening in most Australian schools</a>
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<p>Serious injury, asthma, mental health, epilepsy and diabetes impact more than a million children each year. More than 100,000 end up in hospital. </p>
<p>We compared their NAPLAN results with kids of the same age and gender who lived in the same area but who had not been hospitalised for those conditions. We found spending time in hospital for these conditions did set back learning, with the exception of type 1 diabetes. </p>
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<h2>What did the study find?</h2>
<p><strong>Injury</strong></p>
<p>About <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-021-02891-x">70,000 people</a> under the age of 16 are hospitalised with an injury each year in Australia. This can disrupt their ability to attend school or concentrate and learn. </p>
<p>Recovery from injury can be unpredictable. Some young people may fully recover. Others experience ongoing difficulties at school.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-021-02891-x">Compared to matched peers</a>, students who had been hospitalised with an injury had a 12% higher risk of not achieving the NMS in numeracy on NAPLAN and a 9% higher risk of not achieving the NMS in reading.</p>
<p><strong>Asthma</strong></p>
<p>Around <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/children-youth/australias-children/contents/health/asthma-prevalence-children">460,000 young people</a> have asthma in Australia. If asthma is not adequately controlled, it can have a wide-ranging impact on their lives, including on their performance at school.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.14022">analysis</a> of 28,114 young people hospitalised with asthma showed a difference between the sexes. Young males’ risk of not achieving the NMS was 13% higher for numeracy and 15% higher for reading compared to matched peers. In contrast, females hospitalised with asthma showed no difference.</p>
<p><strong>Mental illness</strong></p>
<p>Around 14% of young people experience a mental illness in Australia that can affect their health, relationships and school life. In our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00048674211061684">study</a> of 7,069 young people hospitalised with a mental illness, young males had almost twice the risk of not achieving the NMS on NAPLAN for both numeracy and reading compared to their peers. Young females had a 1.5 times higher risk of not achieving the NMS for numeracy and those with diagnosed <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/conduct-disorder">conduct disorder</a> had twice the risk of not achieving the NMS for reading.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-transition-into-adolescence-can-be-brutal-for-kids-mental-health-but-parents-can-help-reduce-the-risk-180487">The transition into adolescence can be brutal for kids' mental health – but parents can help reduce the risk</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><strong>Epilepsy</strong></p>
<p>Across the country, about <a href="https://epilepsyfoundation.org.au/about-us/media-room/#:%7E:text=1%20in%20200%20Australian%20children%20live%20with%20epilepsy.">one in 200 children</a> are living with epilepsy. Epilepsy can affect attention, concentration and memory, all which can be a barrier to performing well at school. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2022.05.014">study</a> of 2,383 young people hospitalised with epilepsy found young males and females had a three times higher risk of not achieving the NMS on NAPLAN for both numeracy and reading compared to peers.</p>
<p><strong>Type 1 diabetes</strong></p>
<p>Type 1 diabetes was the exception and showed no adverse impact on school performance. In Australia, an estimated 6,500 young people have type 1 diabetes. Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/pedi.13317">analysis</a> of 833 young people hospitalised with type 1 diabetes did not find any difference in achieving the NMS in numeracy or reading on NAPLAN compared to matched peers.</p>
<p>This finding is likely explained by improved glucose control and type 1 diabetes management. It is also possible that school assessments, such as NAPLAN, do not capture everyday difficulties that students with diabetes experience.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-parents-can-do-to-make-a-childs-chronic-illness-easier-41359">What parents can do to make a child's chronic illness easier</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How can we support these students’ learning?</h2>
<p>It is essential that we identify students who are likely to need learning support because of an injury or chronic illness. Supports can include online learning options, flexible programming or mobilising peer support to enable sharing of class notes and homework activities. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1361455225442295808"}"></div></p>
<p>Monitoring students’ progress when they return to school will help to identify ongoing learning support needs.</p>
<p>There are also ways to manage symptoms and enhance performance at school. With asthma, for example, a comprehensive asthma management plan, using medication to manage symptoms, and <a href="https://www.schn.health.nsw.gov.au/find-a-service/health-medical-services/asthma-improvement">healthcare co-ordination</a> between GPs, hospitals and community services can all reduce the chance of ending up in hospital. For epilepsy, learning to identify seizure triggers, lifestyle and medication management are <a href="https://www.epilepsy.org.au/strong-foundations/overview/">key</a>.</p>
<p>Improving teachers’ understanding of symptom management for chronically ill or injured students is important too. For example, a New South Wales program, <a href="https://education.nsw.gov.au/early-childhood-education/whats-happening-in-the-early-childhood-education-sector/resource-library/asthma">Aiming for Asthma Improvement in Children</a>, encourages self-paced training for school staff on asthma management and first aid, along with resources for managing asthma in schools. For epilepsy, Strong Foundations provides <a href="https://www.epilepsy.org.au/strong-foundations/learning-and-participation/">advice</a> on the skills children with epilepsy need to manage in the classroom and playground.</p>
<p>Early identification and recognition that an injured or chronically ill student may need learning support at school and at home are critical to ensure they are not left behind academically.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article is part of The Conversation’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/topics/breaking-the-cycle-119149">Breaking the Cycle</a> series, which is supported by a philanthropic grant from the Paul Ramsay Foundation.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184313/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Mitchell has received funding from the NHMRC, the MRFF, the ARC, and various state and federal government departments for past projects. This research was funded by a philanthropic donor to Macquarie University. This article is part of The Conversation's Breaking the Cycle series, which is about escaping cycles of disadvantage. The series is supported by a philanthropic grant from the Paul Ramsay Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anne McMaugh has received funding from the Australian Research Council for past projects. This research was funded by a philanthropic donor to Macquarie University</span></em></p>A study of thousands of students hospitalised with an injury or illness confirms they are likely to fall behind their classmates. But good management and targeted help with learning cut the risk.Rebecca Mitchell, Associate Professor Health and Societal Outcomes, Macquarie UniversityAnne McMaugh, Senior Lecturer in Educational Psychology, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1790812022-03-31T12:44:17Z2022-03-31T12:44:17ZBrains are bad at big numbers, making it impossible to grasp what a million COVID-19 deaths really means<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455044/original/file-20220329-13-xqeqii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C335%2C7000%2C6371&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The human brain isn't built to understand large numbers.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/digital-binary-code-human-head-illustration-royalty-free-image/1324553121?adppopup=true">OsakaWayne Studios/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On May 12, 2022, President Joe Biden marked the grim milestone of <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/covid-deaths-1-million-biden/">1 million confirmed COVID-19 deaths</a> in the U.S. For most people, visualizing what a million of anything looks like is an impossible task. The human brain just isn’t built to comprehend such large numbers.</p>
<p>We are two neuroscientists who study the processes of <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Z54dOfYAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">learning</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=0JIqhZwAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">numerical cognition</a> – how people use and understand numbers. While there is still much to discover about the mathematical abilities of the human brain, one thing is certain: People are <a href="https://nautil.us/how-to-understand-extreme-numbers-5854/">terrible at processing large numbers</a>.</p>
<p>During the peak of the omicron wave, over 3,000 U.S. residents died per day – <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/02/01/science/covid-deaths-united-states.html">a rate faster than in any other large high-income country</a>. A rate of 3,000 deaths per day is already an incomprehensible number; 1 million is unfathomably larger. Modern neuroscience research can shed light on the limitations of the brain in how it deals with large numbers – limitations that have likely factored in to how the American public perceives and responds to COVID-related deaths. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455047/original/file-20220329-19-ubf0jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A balance with a large ball on one side and a small ball on the other side." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455047/original/file-20220329-19-ubf0jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455047/original/file-20220329-19-ubf0jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455047/original/file-20220329-19-ubf0jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455047/original/file-20220329-19-ubf0jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455047/original/file-20220329-19-ubf0jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455047/original/file-20220329-19-ubf0jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455047/original/file-20220329-19-ubf0jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brains are much better at thinking of large numbers in terms of what is bigger or smaller than in assessing absolute values.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/balance-royalty-free-image/1310052459">Daniel Grizelj/Digital Vision via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The brain is built to compare, not to count</h2>
<p>Humans process numbers using networks of interconnected neurons throughout the brain. Many of these pathways involve the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/02643290244000239">parietal cortex</a> – a region of the brain located just above the ears. It’s responsible for processing all different sorts of quantities or magnitudes, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.09.002">time, speed and distance</a>, and <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2009.0028">provides a foundation</a> for other numerical abilities.</p>
<p>While the written symbols and spoken words that humans use to represent numbers are a cultural invention, understanding quantities themselves is not. Humans – as well as many animals including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0511">fish</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.0702">birds</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0097-7403.33.1.32">monkeys</a> – show rudimentary numerical abilities shortly after birth. Infants, adults and even rats find it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2236(98)01263-6">easier to distinguish between relatively small numbers</a> than larger ones. The difference between 2 and 5 is much easier to visualize than the difference between 62 and 65, despite the fact that both number sets differ by only 3. </p>
<p>The brain is optimized to recognize small quantities because smaller numbers are what people tend to interact with most on a daily basis. Research has shown that when presented with different numbers of dots, both <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1995.tb00688.x">children</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.111.1.1">adults</a> can intuitively and rapidly recognize quantities less than three or four. Beyond that, people have to count, and as the numbers get higher, intuitive understanding is replaced by abstract concepts of large, individual numbers.</p>
<p>This bias toward smaller numbers even plays out day to day in the grocery store. When researchers asked shoppers in a checkout line to estimate the total cost of their purchase, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/dec0000089">people reliably named a lower price than the actual amount</a>. And this distortion increased with price – the more expensive the groceries were, the larger the gap between the estimated and actual amounts. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/oN63x7ryR34?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Once you get into large numbers like millions and billions, the brain begins to start thinking of these values as categories rather than actual numbers. J Baikoff via Youtube.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bad at big numbers</h2>
<p>Since anything bigger than 5 is too large a quantity to intuitively recognize, it follows that the brain must rely on different methods of thinking when confronted with much bigger numbers.</p>
<p>One prominent theory proposes that the brain relies on an inexact method whereby it represents <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.05.002">approximate quantities</a> through a sort of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.06.004">mental number line</a>. This line, imagined in our mind’s eye, organizes small to large numbers from left to right (though this orientation depends on <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022022111406251">cultural convention</a>). People tend to make consistent errors when using this internal number line, often <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.06.004">underestimating extremely large quantities and overestimating relatively smaller quantities</a>. For example, research has shown that college students in geology and biology courses commonly underestimate the time <a href="https://doi.org/10.5408/1089-9995-55.5.413">between the appearance of the first life on Earth and the dinosaurs</a> – which is billions of years – but overestimate how long dinosaurs actually lived on Earth – millions of years. </p>
<p>Further research looking at how people estimate the value of large numbers shows that many people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12028">place the number 1 million halfway</a> between 1,000 and 1 billion on a number line. In reality, a million is 1,000 times closer to 1,000 than 1 billion. This number line gaffe may visually represent how people people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12342">use words like “thousand” and “billion” as category markers</a> that represent “big” and “bigger” rather than distinct values.</p>
<p>When grappling with numbers outside of everyday experience, precise values just mean less. </p>
<h2>1,000,000 deaths</h2>
<p>Numbers are a useful, clear and efficient way to summarize the harms of the pandemic, but the truth is that the brain simply can’t understand what it means that a million people have died. By abstracting deaths into impossibly large numbers, people fall prey to the limitations of the mind. In doing so, it’s easy to forget that every single numerical increase represents the entire lived experience of another human being.</p>
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<p>This pandemic has been full of hard-to-comprehend numbers. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.4221">filtration efficiency of various face masks</a>, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-tests-are-pretty-accurate-but-far-from-perfect-136671">accuracy of different COVID-19 tests</a>, statewide case numbers and <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-coronavirus-death-rates-cant-be-summed-up-in-one-simple-number-135758">worldwide death rates</a> are all complicated concepts far beyond the brain’s intuitive number processing abilities. Yet these numbers – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.26.3.741">and how they are presented</a> – matter immensely. </p>
<p>If the brain were built to understand these kinds of numbers, perhaps we would have made <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0884-z">different individual decisions or taken different collective action</a>. Instead, we now mourn for the million people behind the number.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179081/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The brain can count small numbers or compare large ones. But it struggles to understand the value of a single large number. This fact may be influencing how people react to numbers about the pandemic.Lindsey Hasak, Doctoral Candidate in Developmental and Psychological Sciences, Stanford UniversityElizabeth Y. Toomarian, Director, Brainwave Learning Center, Synapse School & Research Associate, Stanford UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1737202022-01-20T13:46:04Z2022-01-20T13:46:04ZThe better you are at math, the more money seems to influence your satisfaction<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441590/original/file-20220119-23-mo0nsn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C139%2C4787%2C3063&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Being better at math increases income but also ties satisfaction more closely to money.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-throwing-dollar-bills-in-the-air-arms-raised-in-royalty-free-image/200381413-001?adppopup=true"> Jonathan Kitchen/Digital Vision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Your grade school math teacher probably told you that being good at math would be very important to your grownup self. But maybe the younger you didn’t believe that at the time. A lot of research, though, has shown that <a href="https://theconversation.com/people-who-are-bad-with-numbers-often-find-it-harder-to-make-ends-meet-even-if-they-are-not-poor-172272">your teacher was right</a>. </p>
<p>We are two researchers who study decision-making and how it relates to wealth and happiness. In a study published in November 2021, we found that, in general, people who are better at math <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259331">make more money and are more satisfied with their lives</a> than people who aren’t as mathematically talented. But being good at math seems to be a double-edged sword. Although math-proficient people are very satisfied when they have high incomes, they are more dissatisfied, compared to those who aren’t as good at math, when they don’t make a lot of money. </p>
<p>Many researchers have suggested that more money only increases <a href="https://qz.com/1503207/a-nobel-prize-winning-psychologist-defines-happiness-versus-satisfaction/">life satisfaction and happiness</a> up to a certain point. Our research modifies this idea by showing that satisfaction derived from income relates strongly to how good a person is at math. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441600/original/file-20220119-27-1kh4idi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person holding a pencil above a sheet of paper." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441600/original/file-20220119-27-1kh4idi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441600/original/file-20220119-27-1kh4idi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441600/original/file-20220119-27-1kh4idi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441600/original/file-20220119-27-1kh4idi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441600/original/file-20220119-27-1kh4idi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441600/original/file-20220119-27-1kh4idi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441600/original/file-20220119-27-1kh4idi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nearly 6,000 people responded to a survey that asked about math skills, income and life satisfaction.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/student-taking-math-quiz-cropped-royalty-free-image/97612935?adppopup=true">PhotoAlto/Odilon Dimier via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A math and happiness test</h2>
<p>We investigated the relationship between math ability, income and life satisfaction, using surveys sent to 5,748 diverse Americans as part of the <a href="https://uasdata.usc.edu/index.php">Understanding America Study</a>.</p>
<p>The study included two questions and one test relevant to our research. One question asked participants about their household yearly income. Another one asked respondents to rate how satisfied they are with their lives on a scale of zero to 10.</p>
<p>Finally, people answered eight math questions that varied in difficulty to get a sense of their math skills. For example, one of the moderately difficult questions was: “Jerry received both the 15th highest and the 15th lowest mark in the class. How many students are in the class?” The correct answer is 29 students.</p>
<p>We then combined the results to see how they all related to one another. </p>
<p>Math skills and income also are tied to <a href="https://theconversation.com/money-buys-even-more-happiness-than-it-used-to-141766">level of education,</a> so, in our analyses, we controlled for education, verbal intelligence, personality traits and other demographics.</p>
<h2>Connecting math skills to income and satisfaction</h2>
<p>On average, the better a person was at math, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259331">more money they made</a>. For every one additional right answer on the eight-question math test, people reported an average of $4,062 more in annual income. </p>
<p>Imagine you have two people with the same level of education, one of whom answered none of the math questions correctly and the other answered all of them correctly. Our research predicts that the person who answered all of the questions correctly will earn about $30,000 more each year.</p>
<p>The survey also showed that people who are better at math were, on average, also more satisfied with their lives than those with lower math ability. This finding agrees with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1257/0002828041464551">a lot of other research</a> and suggests that income influences life satisfaction.</p>
<p>But prior research has shown that the relationship between income and satisfaction is not as straightforward as “more money equals greater happiness.” It turns out that how satisfied a person is with their income often depends on how they feel it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610362671">compares to other people’s incomes</a>.</p>
<p>Other research has also shown that people who are better at math tend to make <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190861094.001.0001">more numerical comparisons</a> in general than those who are worse at math. This led our team to suspect that math-proficient people would compare incomes more, too. Our results seem to show just that. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439268/original/file-20220104-15-15r038f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graph correlating math skills to life satisfaction and income." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439268/original/file-20220104-15-15r038f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/439268/original/file-20220104-15-15r038f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439268/original/file-20220104-15-15r038f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439268/original/file-20220104-15-15r038f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439268/original/file-20220104-15-15r038f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439268/original/file-20220104-15-15r038f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/439268/original/file-20220104-15-15r038f.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This chart shows that people who scored highest on the math test (red line) appear to be happiest when they make a lot of money (top right of graph), but also the least satisfied when they make less money (bottom left of graph). Different color lines correspond to the number of math questions answered correctly.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ellen Peters, Pär Bjälkebring</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Simply put, the better a person was at math, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259331">more they cared about how much money they make</a>. People who are better at math had the highest life satisfaction when they had high incomes. But deriving satisfaction from income goes both ways. These people also had the lowest life satisfaction when they had lower incomes. Among people who aren’t as good at math, income didn’t relate to satisfaction nearly as much. Thus, the same income was valued differently depending on a person’s math skills.</p>
<h2>Money does buy happiness for some</h2>
<p>An often-quoted fact – backed up by research – says that once a person makes around $95,000 a year, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0277-0">earning more money doesn’t dramatically increase satisfaction</a>. This concept is called <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-017-0277-0?mod=article_inline">income satiation</a>. Our research challenges that blanket statement.</p>
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<p>Interestingly, the people who are best at math did not seem to show income satiation. They were more and more satisfied with more income, and there didn’t appear to be an upper limit. This did not hold true for people who weren’t as talented at math. The least math-proficient group gained more satisfaction from income only until about $50,000. After that, earning more money made little difference.</p>
<p>For some, money does seem to buy happiness. While more work needs to be done to really understand why, we think it may be because math-oriented people compare numbers – including incomes – to make sense of the world. And maybe that’s not always a great thing. In comparison, those who are worse at math appear to derive life satisfaction from sources other than income. So if you are feeling dissatisfied with your income, maybe seeing beyond the numbers will be a winning strategy for you.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173720/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pär Bjälkebring receives funding from Swedish Research Council (VR; DNR-2016-00507). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ellen Peters receives funding from the U.S. National Science Foundation and USAFacts.</span></em></p>Compared to people who aren’t as good at math, people who are better at math are more happy when they have high incomes and less happy when they have lower incomes.Pär Bjälkebring, Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of GothenburgEllen Peters, Director, Center for Science Communication Research, University of OregonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1722722021-12-20T13:13:22Z2021-12-20T13:13:22ZPeople who are bad with numbers often find it harder to make ends meet – even if they are not poor<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/436175/original/file-20211207-19-hif25s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=38%2C0%2C6458%2C4334&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Even college-educated adults can still struggle with numbers. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/confusded-lady-in-hijab-and-her-upset-husband-with-royalty-free-image/1313791943?adppopup=true">Prostock-Studio/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>People who are bad with numbers are more likely to experience financial difficulties than people who are good with numbers. That’s according to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260378">our analyses</a> of the <a href="https://wrp.lrfoundation.org.uk/explore-the-poll">Lloyd’s Register Foundation World Risk Poll</a>. </p>
<p>In this World Risk Poll, people from 141 countries were asked if 10% was bigger than, smaller than or the same as 1 out of 10. Participants were said to be bad with numbers if they did not provide the correct answer – which is that 10% is the same as 1 out of 10. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260378">Our analyses</a> found that people who answered incorrectly are often among the poorest in their country. Prior studies in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2010.02394.x">United States</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.2007.00052.x">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2016.02.011">the Netherlands</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/joca.12294">Peru</a> had also found that people who are bad with numbers are financially worse off. But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260378">our analyses of the World Risk Poll</a> further showed that people who are bad with numbers find it harder to make ends meet, even if they are not poor. </p>
<p>When we say that they found it harder to make ends meet, we mean that they reported on the poll that they found it difficult or very difficult to live on their current income, as opposed to living comfortably or getting by on their current income.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260378">Our analyses</a> also indicate that staying in school longer is related to better number ability. People with a high school degree tend to be better with numbers than people without a high school degree. And college graduates do even better. But even among college graduates there are people who are bad with numbers – and they struggle more financially. </p>
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<p>Of course, being good with numbers is not going to help you stretch your budget if you are very poor. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260378">We found</a> that the relationship between number ability and struggling to make ends meet holds across the world, except in low-income countries like Ethiopia, Somalia and Rwanda. </p>
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<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>The ability to understand and use numbers is also called <a href="http://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190861094.001.0001">numeracy</a>. Numeracy is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1787/1f029d8f-en">central to modern adult life</a> because numbers are everywhere. </p>
<p>A lot of well-paying jobs involve working with numbers. People who are bad with numbers often perform worse in these jobs, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ecin.12873">banking</a>. It can therefore be hard for people who are bad with numbers to <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1108/00400919710164125">find employment and progress in their jobs</a>. </p>
<p>People who are bad with numbers are less likely <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/116/39/19386.short">to make good financial decisions</a>. Individuals who can’t compute how interest compounds over time <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.2009.01518.x">save the least and borrow the most</a>. People with poor numerical skills are also more likely <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.3.586">to take on high-cost debt</a>. If you’re bad with numbers, it is hard to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474747215000232">recognize</a> that paying the US$30 minimum payment on a credit card with a $3,000 balance and an annual percentage rate of 12% means it will never be paid off.</p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>It is clear that people who are bad with numbers also tend to struggle financially. But we still need to explore whether teaching people math will help them to avoid financial problems. </p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>In her book “<a href="http://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190861094.001.0001">Innumeracy in the Wild</a>,” Ellen Peters, director of the Center for Science Communication Research at the University of Oregon, suggests that it is important for students to take math classes. American high school students who had to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.51.3.0113-5410R1">take more math courses</a> than were previously required had better financial outcomes later in life, such as avoiding bankruptcy and foreclosures. </p>
<p>Successfully teaching numeracy also means helping students gain confidence in using numbers. People with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1903126116">low numerical confidence</a> experience bad financial outcomes, such as a foreclosure notice, independent of their numeric ability. This is because they may not even try to take on complex financial decisions.</p>
<p>Numerical confidence can be boosted in different ways. Among American <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.3.586">elementary school children</a> who were bad with numbers, setting achievable goals led to better numerical confidence and performance. Among American <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180674">undergraduate students</a>, a writing exercise that affirmed their positive values improved their numerical confidence and performance.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 140,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>Other important next steps are to find out whether training in numeracy can also be provided to adults, and whether training in numeracy improves the financial outcomes of people who do not live in high-income countries.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172272/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wändi Bruine de Bruin receives funding from the Lloyd's Register Foundation and support from USC Dornsife's Public Exchange for a research project entitled "Understanding and informing public perceptions of risk around the world: A behavioral science approach" </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Slovic does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People who struggle with numbers are also likely to struggle in life, new research shows.Wändi Bruine de Bruin, Professor of Public Policy, Psychology and Behavioral Science, USC Sol Price School of Public Policy, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and SciencesPaul Slovic, Professor of Psychology, University of OregonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1731802021-12-19T11:14:55Z2021-12-19T11:14:55ZDo the math when measuring social distancing: two metres is not the same as six feet<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 175px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/do-the-math-when-measuring-social-distancing--two-metres-is-not-the-same-as-six-feet" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the world we live in. Informative signs, designed to limit the virus’s spread are everywhere these days, reminding us: <a href="https://www.toronto.ca/home/covid-19/covid-19-spread-the-word/">Wear a mask, wash your hands, cover your mouth when you cough or sneeze</a>, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/downloads/communication/print-resources/CDC_school_vaccine_clinic_student_athlete2_card.pdf">get vaccinated</a> and of course, maintain social distancing. </p>
<p>Public health awareness resources are helping all of us get through these difficult times. Unfortunately, many social distancing signs are also helping spread an entirely different scourge across our country: Innumeracy. The term was coined by mathematician John Allen Paulos 30 years ago when he wrote <a href="https://www.math.temple.edu/%7Epaulos/innumeracy.html"><em>Innumeracy: Mathematical Illiteracy and its Consequences</em></a>. As the title suggests, innumeracy is the mathematical analog of illiteracy: <a href="https://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/british/innumeracy">a lack of the ability to do basic math</a>.</p>
<p>What I’m referring to is common signage in different parts of the country that suggest two meters is the equivalent of six feet. For the record, two metres is not six feet. Two metres is about 6.56168 feet. This matters for several reasons.</p>
<h2>Metric confusion</h2>
<p>Canada switched to using the metric system from using <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/weights-and-measures">mainly the imperial system</a> for measurement <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/metric-conversion">between 1970 and the early ‘80s</a>. As a result, our social distancing signage should first present the metric measurement (two metres) and then convert it to the imperial system (about 6.5 feet). But I’ve even seen signs that present the imperial system before the metric system, and tell us that six feet is two metres. (To be clear, six feet is not two metres. It’s less than two metres. It’s about 1.8288 metres.) </p>
<p>Instead, I continually see <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s42330-021-00176-0">flippant, dismissive conversion from the imperial to the metric system of measurement</a> presented on social distancing signs everywhere I go. </p>
<p>Don’t even get me started on the signs that completely ignore the metric system, using only the imperial system.</p>
<h2>Innumeracy: socially acceptable?</h2>
<p>About two years into the pandemic, I’m still surprised that nobody cares about the social distancing signage. I haven’t seen any kind of public outcries similar to those we see from grammar enthusiasts who practically fall into fever dreams when they come across <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/gallery/2014/may/13/bad-grammar-rogue-apostrophes-and-bizarre-spelling-in-pictures">a sign showing the possessive form of the pronoun it (its) incorrectly presented</a> as a contraction of “it is.” </p>
<p>Does this mean many believe being innumerate is fine? </p>
<p>As a teacher of future math teachers, on the first day of class each semester, I ask the class: “Who here can’t read?” To date, not a single hand has been raised. The future math teachers look at me with a dusting of disgust. I then ask: “Who here can’t do math?” Unfortunately, every year, a sea of hands, most with a sense of pride, are raised. </p>
<p>The next question I ask future Canadian math teachers is the same question I’ve raised here: “Why do you think it’s OK to be innumerate?”</p>
<h2>Social consequences of a culture of innumeracy</h2>
<p>Students’ answers, which might even be your answer are often: “I don’t see the big deal here.” You might even agree and think it silly to worry about signs that display casual indifference to the metric system. </p>
<p>Yet as Paulos noted, mathematical illiteracy has consequences like belief in pseudoscience, poor risk assessment and much, much more. Move over, Nostradamus. </p>
<p>Metric conversion misinformation points to larger issues with innumeracy: There can be consequences for our health (<a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-28166019">such as when doctors can’t read test results</a>) and finances <a href="https://freakonomics.com/podcast/payday-loans">when people don’t understand the effects of high-interest loans</a>. Statistican Jeffrey Rosenthal explores <a href="http://probability.ca/jeff/ftpdir/probjustice.pdf">how probabilities, whether accurately or inaccurately grasped</a>, inform legal decisions in our justice systems.</p>
<p>If you start looking, you will notice little signs of innumeracy everywhere. For example, many people now carry little super computers in their pockets. I’ve learned to live with people peering through their phones, so they do not have to calculate unit prices, discounts or taxes while shopping.</p>
<p>Should the current COVID-19 social distancing signage be accepted, I am declaring an official moratorium on the phrase, “Damn kids these days, they can’t even make change without a calculator.” We can’t have it both ways.</p>
<h2>Alternative metrics</h2>
<p>Students today also learn <a href="https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/math/framework_k-8/full_doc.pdf">about non-standard units of measurement</a>, and many alternative metrics appear on social distancing signage. I’ve seen hockey sticks, hiking poles and yoga mats, drawn from the world of sports. From the animal world, signs tell us to <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/yukon-one-caribou-apart-campaign-1.5551587">stay a caribou</a>, grizzly bear, elk antlers and a moose apart. </p>
<p>Whether it’s <a href="https://www.narcity.com/tim-hortons-timbits-are-a-way-to-measure-physical-distance-and-someone-tested-it-on-tiktok">Timbits (46 of them)</a>, a bathtub, buckets or shopping carts, alternative metrics are doing their part to help us stay apart. </p>
<h2>A simple fix</h2>
<p>Navigating the world two metres apart is no easy task. Just ask the man from Toronto <a href="https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/toronto-man-creates-social-distancing-machine-to-highlight-pedestrian-woes-1.4893751">who built and wore a social distancing machine</a>. </p>
<p>But keeping a safe distance from each other isn’t made simpler when units of measurement are being butchered. </p>
<p>During these trying times, we should not be fostering innumeracy. The fix isn’t difficult. Any sign that doesn’t embrace alternative metrics should simply read: “Please maintain social distancing: two metres or about six and a half feet. Thank you.” </p>
<p>I’ll take a sign with a moose, a grizzly bear or a bunch of jugs of maple syrup over a sign incorrectly indicating that two metres equals six feet or six feet equals two metres. I’m Canadian, after all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173180/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Egan J Chernoff receives (and has received) funding from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. </span></em></p>Why haven’t people gotten upset about how our social distancing signs are fostering innumeracy?Egan J Chernoff, Professor of Mathematics Education, University of SaskatchewanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1661492021-09-13T16:08:55Z2021-09-13T16:08:55ZHow addressing our young kids’ COVID-19 learning loss is a matter of child’s play<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420280/original/file-20210909-25-15i5gtf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C8%2C976%2C640&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'Purposeful play' could look like children gaining opportunities to develop fine motor skills and cognitive abilities through talking about their inquiry and pursuits.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>COVID-19 disruptions have had a distinct, devastating and potentially enduring impact on our youngest school-aged learners, <a href="https://theconversation.com/fewer-kids-are-enrolled-in-public-kindergarten-that-will-have-a-lasting-impact-on-schools-and-equity-151817">especially those who were already behind in early language, literacy and numeracy understandings</a>. The pandemic has also taken a toll on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-021-01207-z">children’s social and emotional health</a>.</p>
<p>Data from Alberta suggest many children have lost <a href="https://troymedia.com/education/online-learners-falling-behind-in-their-reading-skills/#.YReuFYhKjIW">a year or more in expected progress</a>. There is no question of the urgent need for educational attention that will mitigate COVID-19 learning loss.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-school-closures-could-widen-inequities-for-our-youngest-students-136669">Coronavirus school closures could widen inequities for our youngest students</a>
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<p>Suggestions put forth to help children have included <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/nickmorrison/2021/07/22/uk-parents-say-no-to-longer-school-day-for-covid-catch-up/?sh=de6556554f0d">lengthening the school day</a>, focusing on <a href="https://troymedia.com/education/online-learners-falling-behind-in-their-reading-skills/#.YRWzhIhKiUk">phonics instruction for early reading</a>, <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/education/2020/08/10/how-tutoring-could-key-lifting-kids-out-covid-slide/3319070001/">intensive tutoring</a> and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/education-repeat-year-1.6039920">having children repeat grades</a> to ensure better beginnings and readiness for literacy and numeracy development. </p>
<p>But imposing narrow academic expectations may not align <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858415616358">with children’s readiness to learn, and may produce only short-term learning outcomes</a>. </p>
<p>Guided play — <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12015">play that is guided</a> by teachers at school — can be an important part of children’s learning, especially for children who are entering kindergarten up to about Grade 3. Parents or caregivers could consider ways to adapt such guided play in the home. </p>
<h2>Guided, purposeful play</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.edcan.ca/articles/guided-physical-play-kindergarten">Guided or purposeful play</a> is play that reflects a sense of learning intent. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="An assortment of buttons." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420523/original/file-20210910-14-mco7op.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420523/original/file-20210910-14-mco7op.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420523/original/file-20210910-14-mco7op.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420523/original/file-20210910-14-mco7op.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=521&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420523/original/file-20210910-14-mco7op.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=655&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420523/original/file-20210910-14-mco7op.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=655&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420523/original/file-20210910-14-mco7op.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=655&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Buttons become tools for learning through sorting or categorizing by shape, color and size.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash)</span></span>
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<p>Guided play in the classroom could look like teachers being on hand to explicitly direct children’s gaze to a key idea and explain patterns or sequences when they are manipulating shapes or objects like blocks or a bucket of buttons. Buttons become tools for learning through sorting or categorizing by shape, color and size. Buttons are wonderful for making sequences and patterns — and learning how to quickly recognize: “How many?” Shape and pattern represent the underpinnings for letter recognition, spelling and numeracy understandings. </p>
<p>It could mean encouraging a child to hold their pencil or paint brush <a href="https://connectability.ca/2011/03/21/practical-strategies-for-developing-fine-motor-skills/">to develop a pincer grip</a>. Kids need to develop a good pincer grip and achieve fine motor control for printing, cutting, folding and pasting. </p>
<h2>Five areas of child development</h2>
<p>A growing body of research finds <a href="https://hechingerreport.org/twenty-six-studies-point-to-more-play-for-young-children">that both free imaginative play and guided, purposeful play are associated with stronger early language, literacy and numeracy outcomes</a>, and social and emotional health benefits. Children gain these benefits as they learn the give-and-take of play <strong>with others.</strong> </p>
<p>These five related key areas (or domains) of child development should be targeted through play: numeracy and spatial recognition; fine motor skills; language and word knowledge; cognitive skills and memory; social and emotional learning. Of these, perhaps the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723714535768">fine-motor-language nexus is the most critical</a>.</p>
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<img alt="Chart showing different areas of child development including numeracy and spatial recognition; fine motor skills; language and word knowledge; cognitive skills and memory; social and emotional learning." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418466/original/file-20210830-26-1v3ozim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418466/original/file-20210830-26-1v3ozim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418466/original/file-20210830-26-1v3ozim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418466/original/file-20210830-26-1v3ozim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418466/original/file-20210830-26-1v3ozim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=656&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418466/original/file-20210830-26-1v3ozim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=656&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418466/original/file-20210830-26-1v3ozim.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=656&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The domains of early development can be targeted through forms of guided play.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hetty Roessingh</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Learning through such play <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00506">develops embodied cognition</a> and the foundations for literacy and numeracy understandings. </p>
<h2>Practising with loose parts</h2>
<p>In classrooms, once underlying concepts and skills are taught, children can extend and practice these through centre or station play where child choice, imagination and creativity direct and drive activities like tinkering, taking apart structures and <a href="https://theeducationhub.org.nz/materials-for-play-why-open-ended-loose-parts-are-important/">playing with loose parts</a>. Blocks, puzzles and everyday objects like clothes pegs, tweezers, measuring devices, scissors, pencils and crayons are all <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2014.02.005">part of the teacher’s play toolbox</a> in the early years’ classroom. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/learning-in-the-snow-how-children-develop-through-all-weather-outdoor-play-110736">Learning in the snow: How children develop through all-weather outdoor play</a>
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<p>With some flexibility, these strategies can be adjusted for children in kindergarten up to Grade 2. They can be transferred and extended to imaginative activities like post office (recognizing names and numbers) or grocery store (reading labels and lists) or dress-up and socio-dramatic play. </p>
<p>There will always be a range of children’s readiness for learning. Especially in COVID-19 recovery, teachers will need to adapt and accommodate, and be smart at planning games and play activities through an assessment lens, and planning the instructional cycle accordingly. </p>
<h2>Importance of dialogic talk</h2>
<p>Talking with children is also critical when they are involved in guided play as a way of helping them to develop their language and world knowledge.</p>
<p>Adults can strategically introduce more words relevant to academic learning (“academic words”) when children are involved in guided play: For example, words like “construct” or “structure” versus “build” when playing with blocks. The words can be accompanied by a definition, a synonym and paraphrasing by saying: “In other words …”</p>
<p>Other times, adult talk needs to be more explicit and direct when children are involved in guided play. Some examples could be explaining a learning or memory strategy while playing a card game or dealing with numeracy concepts when playing a linear board game. What researchers <a href="https://kappanonline.org/early-math-play-games-ramani-eason/">call “math talk,” and understanding of the rules of the game matters in transitioning to more independent play and practice</a> with their peers.</p>
<p>Embedding questions that involve making an inference or a prediction, inviting the <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/talking-with-mdash-not-just-to-mdash-kids-powers-how-they-learn-language">back and forth of collaborative and elaborative “ping-pong” conversations</a> further support children’s language development, cognition, understanding of their world and their place in it. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0uwjBRbqlJ8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">‘Guardian’ video of Sir David Attenborough speaking with Prince George and younger siblings.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Listen as British educational broadcaster and writer Sir David Attenborough explains the plight of endangered species to his young listeners. Attenborough pitches his talk to the “just right” level of each child, and introduces words that will be helpful in academic learning — like danger, protect, extinct (and extinction) and precious. </p>
<p>Gradually building enriched <a href="http://www.aft.org/periodical/american-educator/spring-2003/oral-comprehension-sets-ceiling-reading">oral vocabulary knowledge matters in transitioning to the level of academic literacy expected around Grade 4</a>. </p>
<h2>Flexible, playful plans</h2>
<p>A well-rounded, balanced approach to early childhood education through play involves both child-led and adult-led play and allows for both unstructured and structured activity. It targets all five domains of child development that teachers need to assess and monitor for progress, again through simple, playful tasks and games.</p>
<p>Teachers know they are facing a range of readiness for learning in their
classrooms. Let’s welcome our little ones back to school with a flexible, playful plan for learning and interacting with the school community they have been missing for too long. </p>
<p>As for how to spend tens of millions of tax payers’ dollars governments are keen to allocate to closing the COVID-19 learning gap? <a href="https://www.todaysparent.com/kids/school-age/does-class-size-matter">Reducing class size</a> or providing a well-trained teacher’s assistant may provide our best bang for the buck.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166149/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hetty Roessingh receives funding from SSHRC and from the Alberta Teachers' Association. </span></em></p>Encouraging a child to hold their paint brush to develop a pincer grip while the child is involved in painting is one example of guided play.Hetty Roessingh, Professor, Werklund School of Education, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1658212021-08-10T03:43:24Z2021-08-10T03:43:24Z‘I was astonished at how quickly they made gains’: online tutoring helps struggling students catch up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415341/original/file-20210810-15-18oiup3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5750%2C3821&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hispanic-teen-girl-school-college-student-1738498550">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One-on-one online tutoring for disadvantaged students has proved highly effective in helping them overcome their struggles with literacy and numeracy. The Smith Family, the national children’s education charity, recently completed a small pilot of the program, Catch-Up Learning, for students from financially disadvantaged backgrounds. Most made <a href="https://www.thesmithfamily.com.au/-/media/files/research/catch-up-learning/catch-up-learning-research-report-final-low-res.pdf?la=en&hash=3C936AAFFA287C6774DB4E59464AABBE">above-expected progress</a> in assessments of their literacy and numeracy by the end of the program.</p>
<p>About 100 children who participated in the program had one-on-one tutoring, with a qualified teacher, up to three times a week for 20 weeks. Being online, the tutoring could be done in the child’s home at a time that suited the family. </p>
<p>The participants were students in years 4, 5, 7 or 8 who were struggling with literacy and numeracy skills. One in five were of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander backgrounds. Two in five had a health and disability issue.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-quarter-of-australian-11-12-year-olds-dont-have-the-literacy-and-numeracy-skills-they-need-148912">One quarter of Australian 11-12 year olds don't have the literacy and numeracy skills they need</a>
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<p>The program was informed by strong evidence from analysis by the UK’s <a href="https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/evidence-summaries/teaching-learning-toolkit/">Education Endowment Foundation</a> that one-on-one tutoring with a trained teacher is very effective in helping learners catch up. It’s particularly helpful for younger learners who are behind their peers in primary school, and for reading and maths skills. </p>
<h2>What did the program achieve?</h2>
<p>Program attendance was high, including over the summer holidays – an extraordinary achievement given how prized those holidays are! Students were highly engaged and many increased their love of learning over the course of the program. This contributed to the strong improvements in literacy and numeracy they achieved.</p>
<p>Students were <a href="https://www.thesmithfamily.com.au/-/media/files/research/catch-up-learning/catch-up-learning-research-report-final-low-res.pdf?la=en&hash=3C936AAFFA287C6774DB4E59464AABBE">assessed</a> before and after the program. Skills growth was measured, taking into account the length of time the program ran. </p>
<p>The results were highly promising: 86% of students made above-expected progress in literacy or numeracy. Two in five achieved above-expected progress in both subjects. By the end of the program, six in ten students had achieved literacy levels equivalent to or stronger than their year-level peers. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1424855040548872194"}"></div></p>
<p>Insights from the tutors confirm a range of positive changes for students. One tutor of a year 5 student <a href="https://www.thesmithfamily.com.au/-/media/files/research/catch-up-learning/catch-up-learning-research-report-final-low-res.pdf?la=en&hash=3C936AAFFA287C6774DB4E59464AABBE">said</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“[He] is excited to tell me how well he did in a particular lesson […] His attitude toward learning has improved so much as he learnt more during
the sessions and became confident in school as a result.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Another <a href="https://www.thesmithfamily.com.au/-/media/files/research/catch-up-learning/catch-up-learning-research-report-final-low-res.pdf?la=en&hash=3C936AAFFA287C6774DB4E59464AABBE">said</a> of their year 4 student:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“I was astonished at how quickly they made gains in literacy […] their reading galloped from struggling with basic texts to being able to read nine out of 10 words.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Catch-Up Learning confirms what parents and teachers across Australia know – with the right support at the right time, all children can develop a love of learning and in turn develop key literacy and numeracy skills. The Smith Family will use the evaluation to refine the program and move to a second stage pilot with more students. </p>
<p>It is also hoped these findings resonate with education departments and schools during times when students are unable to attend school.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/victoria-and-nsw-are-funding-extra-tutors-to-help-struggling-students-heres-what-parents-need-to-know-about-the-schemes-153450">Victoria and NSW are funding extra tutors to help struggling students. Here's what parents need to know about the schemes</a>
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</em>
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<p>The program is not, however, a panacea for all the educational challenges faced by many students experiencing financial disadvantage. Participants were on average three years behind their peers in numeracy at the start of the program. Unsurprisingly, despite their significant progress over the 20 weeks, they didn’t make up this large gap. There is more to be done.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Young boy prepares to write as he talks with someone on his laptop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415346/original/file-20210810-19-1foxb2n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Giving students the skills they need to re-engage with learning is an essential step in catching up with their peers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-gen-z-school-kid-headphones-2002131674">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why does this skills gap matter?</h2>
<p>In our technology-rich 21st century, strong literacy and numeracy skills are prerequisites for Australians to find a job, access services, participate in e-commerce and keep connected.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-adult-literacy-should-be-improved-but-governments-can-make-their-messages-easier-to-read-right-now-164621">Yes, adult literacy should be improved. But governments can make their messages easier to read right now</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Unfortunately, <a href="https://www.vu.edu.au/sites/default/files/educational-opportunity-in-australia-2020.pdf">research</a> shows a clear and persistent relationship in Australia between socioeconomic background and students’ educational outcomes.
Foundations for success in literacy and numeracy are laid early on. </p>
<p>Childhood maths skills are predictive of later learning and achievement. Children who enjoy reading, read more. This, in turn, helps them to become strong readers. The converse is also true – poor readers lose motivation, tend to read less, and this leads them to falling further behind.</p>
<p>Data from international assessments show significant numbers of Australian children are not meeting important literacy and numeracy benchmarks. In the latest Trends in International Maths and Science Study (<a href="https://www.acer.org/au/timss">TIMSS</a>), less than half (48%) of Australia’s year 4 students from low socioeconomic backgrounds achieved or exceeded the national proficiency standard in numeracy, compared to 82% of those from high socioeconomic backgrounds.</p>
<p>Similarly, the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (<a href="https://www.acer.org/au/pirls">PIRLS</a>) shows 57% of year 4 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students met the national proficiency standard, compared to 83% of non-Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/1-in-4-australian-year-8s-have-teachers-unqualified-in-maths-this-hits-disadvantaged-schools-even-harder-161100">1 in 4 Australian year 8s have teachers unqualified in maths — this hits disadvantaged schools even harder</a>
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<p>These gaps have persisted despite the efforts of students, parents, teachers and schools over many years. They’re also pre-COVID gaps, with <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/report/covid-catch-up/">concerns</a> that remote learning <a href="https://www.vu.edu.au/sites/default/files/impact-of-learning-from-home-federal-government-brief-mitchell-institute.pdf">may have widened them</a>. These children are in danger of not being able to participate economically and socially in our community. </p>
<h2>Australia must invest in catching up</h2>
<p>We can and must do better. These skills gaps aren’t inevitable. </p>
<p>The Catch-Up Learning program confirms international evidence of the value of tutoring for helping children who are behind in literacy and numeracy. But through its innovations – using online technology so tutoring takes place in the student’s home, with their carer’s engagement a key component – it has gone further. These innovations contributed to the outcomes achieved.</p>
<p>So Catch-Up Learning is helping to build the evidence base of how young Australians can be supported to achieve educationally. Australia should seize the opportunity to build on this work.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165821/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Thomson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The evidence clearly shows one-on-one tutoring improves disadvantaged students’ skills. An Australian pilot program has now shown the benefits of online tutoring that supports students in their homes.Sue Thomson, Deputy CEO (Research), Australian Council for Educational ResearchLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1651212021-07-28T14:58:26Z2021-07-28T14:58:26ZWhy animals recognise numbers but only humans can do maths<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413541/original/file-20210728-25-18i3lz8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1015%2C8%2C4448%2C3628&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/orangutans-posting-thinking-acting-sit-photographer-768691744">Everything I Do/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Counting feels utterly effortless to adults, who are unlikely to even remember when or how they picked up this useful, apparently automatic skill. Yet when you think about it, counting is a remarkable invention. It helped early humans to trade, apportion food and organise fledgling civilisations, laying the foundations for life as we know it today.</p>
<p>But a sensitivity for numbers isn’t uniquely human. Tiny <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0031923">guppies</a> and <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2019.0138">honeybees</a> as well as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347211002843">hyenas</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-002-0140-0">dogs</a> have been found to perceive and act on numerical stimuli. So responding to numbers is an <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(21)00087-5?dgcid=raven_jbs_aip_email#%20">evolved trait</a> we seem to share with some animals, as well as a skill we’re taught in some of our first lessons. </p>
<p>As a researcher in numerical cognition, I’m interested in how brains process numbers. Humans and animals actually share some remarkable numerical abilities – helping them make smart decisions about where to feed and where to take shelter. But as soon as language enters the picture, humans begin outperforming animals, revealing how words and digits underpin our advanced mathematical world.</p>
<h2>Two number systems</h2>
<p>When we think of counting, we think of “one, two, three”. But that of course relies on numerical language, which young humans and animals do not possess. Instead, they use two distinct number systems.</p>
<p>From as young as <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40063857">ten months old</a>, human infants are already getting to grips with numbers. But there’s a limit to their numerical skills: they can only detect number changes between one and three, as when one apple is removed from a group of three apples. This skill is shared by many <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(21)00087-5?dgcid=raven_jbs_aip_email#%20">animals</a> with significantly smaller brains, such as fish and bees.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bees-join-an-elite-group-of-species-that-understands-the-concept-of-zero-as-a-number-97316">Bees join an elite group of species that understands the concept of zero as a number</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This early numerical system, helping infants and animals perceive the number of a small set of objects without having to actually count, <a href="https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2191634">probably relies</a> on an internal <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21679934/">attentional working memory</a> system that is overwhelmed by numbers above around three.</p>
<p>As we grow up, we become able to estimate far higher numbers, again without needing to refer to language. Imagine you’re a hungry hunter-gatherer. You see two bushes, one with 400 redcurrants and the other with 500. It’s preferable to approach the bush with the most fruit, but it’s a big waste of time to count the berries on each bush individually. </p>
<p>So we estimate. And we do this with another internal number system specialised for approximating large numbers imprecisely – the so-called “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/approximate-number-system">approximate number system</a>”. Given that there’s a clear evolutionary advantage for those who can quickly pick the most bountiful food source, it’s unsurprising that <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0015232">fish</a>, <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2016.0083">birds</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31601685/">bees</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635713000284">dolphins</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22692435/">elephants</a> and <a href="https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jocn.2008.21032">primates</a> have all been found to possess an approximate number system.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A crow on a branch" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413543/original/file-20210728-17-1w0piyt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413543/original/file-20210728-17-1w0piyt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413543/original/file-20210728-17-1w0piyt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413543/original/file-20210728-17-1w0piyt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413543/original/file-20210728-17-1w0piyt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413543/original/file-20210728-17-1w0piyt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413543/original/file-20210728-17-1w0piyt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Crows are able to make numerical estimations, studies have shown.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/carrion-crow-corvus-corone-perched-on-1715185915">Sandra Standbridge/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In humans, the precision of this system improves with development. <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/106/25/10382">Newborns</a> can estimate approximate differences in numbers at a ratio of 1:3, so will be able to tell a bush with 300 berries has more berries than one with 100. Come <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/109/28/11116">adulthood</a>, this system is honed to a 9:10 ratio. </p>
<p>Even though these two systems appear in a range of animals, including young humans, this doesn’t necessarily mean that the brain systems behind them are the same across all animals. But seeing as so many animal species can extract numerical information, it does appear that a sensitivity to numbers <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364661321000875">evolved</a> in many species a very long time ago.</p>
<h2>Number symbols</h2>
<p>What sets us apart from non-human animals is our ability to represent numbers with symbols. It’s not entirely clear when humans first started to do this, though it has been suggested that <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-01429-6">marks made on animal bones</a> by our Neanderthal relatives 60,000 years ago are some of the first archaeological examples of symbolic counting.</p>
<p>Externalising the process of counting may have started with our body parts. Fingers are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027712000960?casa_token=MdDbDhlaGNsAAAAA:odJ4ktgkn6mipla3JOUJXN6W1Lj1M_RyePIMDoiouOHoxzoOnVvLeFlo72HesKRcbp6loJYhB64">natural counting tools</a>, but are limited to ten. The traditional counting system of the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0022022194251005?casa_token=Q4OFxrNE-mcAAAAA:nPXowBd-xrtP6YAdWbVAIk38ziVChTpxnCx87DQQMUxfrTsWUhOvGe_9sH0gbLdFNj-JcWYptWETOg">Yupno in Papua New Guinea</a> extended this to 33 by counting on additional body parts, starting with the toes, then the ears, eyes, nose, nostrils, nipples, the navel, the testicles and the penis.</p>
<p>But as our appetite for numbers grew, we began using more advanced symbolic systems to represent them. Today, most humans use the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindu-Arabic-numerals">Hindu-Arabic numeral system</a> to count. An amazing invention, it uses just ten symbols (0-9) in a positional system to represent an infinite set of numbers.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413546/original/file-20210728-17-f58o76.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Early Arabic numerals" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413546/original/file-20210728-17-f58o76.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413546/original/file-20210728-17-f58o76.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413546/original/file-20210728-17-f58o76.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413546/original/file-20210728-17-f58o76.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413546/original/file-20210728-17-f58o76.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=114&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413546/original/file-20210728-17-f58o76.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=114&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413546/original/file-20210728-17-f58o76.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=114&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">These 1,500 year-old Bakhshali numerals prefigured our present-day numerical system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Bakhshali_numerals_2.jpg">Augustus Hoernle/wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When children acquire the meaning of numerical digits, they already know number words. Indeed, the words for small numbers are typically within the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12471971/">first few hundred</a> words that children produce, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/001002859290008P">reciting sequences</a> like “one-two-three-four-five” with ease. </p>
<p>What’s interesting here is that it takes young children some time to grasp the fact that the last word in the counting sequence doesn’t only describe the order of the object in the count list (the fifth object), but also the number of all objects counted so far (five objects). While this is obvious to the numerate adult, the so-called “<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11229-015-0854-6">cardinality principle</a>” is a conceptually difficult and important step for children, and takes months to learn.</p>
<p>Number word learning is also shaped by the language environment. The Munduruku, an indigenous tribe in the Amazon, have very few words for exact numbers, and instead use approximate words to denote other quantities, such as “some” and “many”. Outside their exact number word vocabulary, the Munduruku’s <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/306/5695/499.full">calculation performance</a> is always approximate. This shows how different language environments affect people’s accuracy when it comes to naming large exact numbers.</p>
<h2>Counting to calculating</h2>
<p>Many children and adults struggle with mathematics. But are any of these number systems linked to mathematical ability? In <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2019-63841-001">one study</a>, pre-school children with a more precise approximate number system were found to be more likely to do well in arithmetic in the following year compared to their peers with a less precise approximate number system. But in general, these effects have been <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26768176/">small and controversial</a>. </p>
<p>The ability to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885201420301210">move</a> from spoken number words (twenty-five) to written number symbols (25) is a more reliable predictor of <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797613516471">arithmetic skills</a> in children in primary school. Again, this shows that language plays a central role in how humans calculate as well as how humans count.</p>
<p>So while animals and humans are routinely extracting numerical information from their environment, it’s language that ultimately sets us apart – helping us not only pick the bush most laden with berries, but perform the kind of calculations upon which civilisation rests.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165121/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Silke Goebel has received funding from the Economic and Social Research Council (UK), the British Academy and the Experimental Psychology Society. </span></em></p>A wide range of animals seem to have a grasp of numbers – but humans hold the trump card.Silke Goebel, Reader (Associate Professor) in Psychology, University of YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1639352021-07-12T14:23:04Z2021-07-12T14:23:04ZHow African countries can reform education to get ahead after pandemic school closures<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410162/original/file-20210707-23-1l8j3rv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Without urgent action, short-term learning losses could stunt the next generation of students for a lifetime.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in a historic shock to education, shuttering schools for over <a href="https://en.unesco.org/news/one-year-covid-19-education-disruption-where-do-we-stand">1.6 billion children</a> worldwide. This shock will worsen a pre-existing “learning crisis” in which many students in school were <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03323-7">learning very little</a>. The World Bank estimates that the percentage of children who are unable to read a simple sentence by age 10 could rise <a href="https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/163871606851736436/learning-poverty-in-the-time-of-covid-19-a-crisis-within-a-crisis">from 53% before the pandemic to 63%</a> as a result of school closures.</p>
<p>These learning losses could stem from a combination of things: forgetting what was previously known, and missing what would have been learned if schools hadn’t been closed. These learning losses can accumulate in the long run. Students who re-enter school far behind the curriculum expectations might be too far behind to learn anything from daily instruction and fall even further behind. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S073805932100050X">new paper</a>, we looked at how much learning loss might be experienced in Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Tanzania and Uganda as a result of school closures in the pandemic. We used data from early grade reading assessments in these countries. Our model suggests there could be up to a year’s worth of learning loss in the short run. Our estimates suggest learning losses will be distributed unequally, with students who started at lower learning levels falling the farthest behind. </p>
<p>We <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S073805932100050X">estimate</a> that these short-term learning deficits could accumulate to 2.8 years of lost learning in the long run. This is if the curriculum – often overambitious and not aligned to students’ learning levels – is not adjusted to allow students to catch up.</p>
<h2>Opportunity for reform</h2>
<p>But that doesn’t have to be the outcome.</p>
<p>While COVID-19 has held back learning, bold reform is possible and the pandemic presents a historic opportunity to revamp education systems. It could be a time to institute practices and policies that have been needed to address the underlying learning crisis for decades.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S073805932100050X">Our review of the literature</a> identified two strategies which could help to mitigate learning losses and improve learning even beyond pre-COVID-19 levels. This review builds on a growing evidence base of interventions that have worked at scale in low- and middle-income countries to improve basic numeracy and literacy skills.</p>
<p>The first strategy is to <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.31.4.73">target instruction to a child’s learning level</a>. This can be achieved at little cost by testing the child’s knowledge during the learning process – known as formative assessment – and <a href="https://www.teachingattherightlevel.org/">a menu of activities</a> tailored to each child’s level. This has more potential than teaching prescriptive one-size-fits-all syllabi.</p>
<p>The second strategy is to introduce <a href="https://www.unicef.org/esa/documents/structured-pedagogy">structured pedagogy programmes</a>, which combine <a href="https://scienceofteaching.s3.eu-west-3.amazonaws.com/index.html#/lessons/pw4nS4OM7i8RlNTLi_2HIB1QNz0sRP3f">structured lesson plans</a>, teacher coaching and instructional support. Many teachers in the status quo are often left to fend for themselves and write their own daily lesson plans. By providing some structure and ongoing support, big learning gains are possible.<br>
Both approaches in past reviews have been found to <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/34658">improve learning</a> by three years of high-quality schooling gained per US$100. These learning gains are nearly equivalent to the <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/34658">system-level education gap</a> between Zambia, one of the lowest performers in sub-Saharan Africa, and Kenya, one of the highest performers.</p>
<p>Our model suggests that short-term remediation through these strategies can make a sizeable dent on learning losses. More strikingly, ambitious reforms linked to these strategies, such as aligning instruction with children’s learning levels on a long-term basis, can not only mitigate all learning losses, but also improve on pre-COVID-19 learning levels.</p>
<h2>Signs of progress</h2>
<p>In our study we <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S073805932100050X">describe a few examples</a> of countries which are starting to enact such reforms, including Botswana and Madagascar. In Botswana’s second largest region, the North-East, the Ministry of Basic Education’s regional director called for all schools to conduct simple formative assessments and implement targeted instruction immediately as schools reopened in June 2020 following the first wave of COVID-19 induced school closures. </p>
<p>The region updated staff’s roles and responsibilities to formalise this expectation. Training sessions were held with support from one of the largest youth-serving NGOs in the country, <a href="https://www.young1ove.org">Young 1ove</a>, in partnership with USAID and UNICEF. The ministry expected frequent reporting on progress, and the regional director visited schools directly to monitor implementation. Although no causal evidence is available yet, early data suggest learning levels are improving faster than in other regions.</p>
<p>Madagascar provides another example. The government has strengthened the national catch-up programme, called <a href="https://www.unicef.org/madagascar/en/stories/without-catch-class-i-would-have-had-stop-school">CRAN</a>, which prior to the pandemic had been providing a two-month intensive learning period to children targeted to their level. By the end of 2018, CRAN had been implemented with UNICEF support in seven out of 22 regions of Madagascar. In late 2020, in response to COVID-19 school closures, this approach was accelerated. Although the government and UNICEF are in the early stages of this work, it shows how governments can strengthen existing programmes to shift teaching and learning practices.</p>
<p>These reform efforts are promising. Yet, too few countries have taken bold steps to date. Without urgent action, short-term learning losses could stunt the next generation of students for a lifetime, with potential inter-generational consequences. COVID-19 presents a need to act urgently and an opportunity to think differently. Perhaps some education systems will reform to achieve the long sought-after goal of learning for all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163935/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Noam Angrist is the Executive Director of Young 1ove, an NGO which has supported the government of Botswana to enact reforms mentioned in this article.</span></em></p>While COVID-19 has held back learning, the pandemic presents a historic opportunity to revamp education systems.Noam Angrist, Executive Director, Youth Impact, Senior Fellow, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1584952021-04-27T12:13:47Z2021-04-27T12:13:47ZNumbers can trip you up during the pandemic – here are 4 tips to help you figure out tricky stats<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397201/original/file-20210426-21-1ueg8l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C545%2C5421%2C3069&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Understanding vaccine effectiveness stats can help you weigh the risks of travel.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/AirTravelTSA/70f978c9355240efaf56bf6ca3947434/photo?boardId=d7f2514f50804466b15dfb81ed00d9cd&st=boards&mediaType=audio,photo,video,graphic&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=39&currentItemNo=1">AP Photo/Rick Bowmer</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The COVID-19 pandemic thrust many news consumers into a world of statistics and deep uncertainty. An endless swirl of numbers – case counts, infection rates, vaccine efficacy – can <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/12/opinion/sunday/coronavirus-statistics.html">leave you feeling stressed, anxious</a> and powerless if you’re not confident you know what they really mean.</p>
<p>But when used effectively, statistics can help you know more, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1995.tb00341.x">trust more</a> and avoid surprise and regret when the unexpected occurs. People also tend to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03334162">want them</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.1407276">find them useful</a> when weighing uncertain risks and making decisions. </p>
<p>I’m a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Y5HYFV8AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">decision psychologist</a>. I study how people understand and use numbers as they’re figuring out risks and making choices. I then try to <a href="https://scr.uoregon.edu/">improve how numbers are communicated</a> to help people make better decisions. Here are four ways that stats in the news can confuse you – and my advice on how to understand them.</p>
<h2>1. Look for consistent categories</h2>
<p>Uncertainty and risk are often presented numerically. Rain is 35% likely today; 10% of patients will suffer this side effect. But sometimes how those numbers are presented is confusing.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1254802547719757830"}"></div></p>
<p>For example, early in the pandemic, The New York Times <a href="https://twitter.com/nytimes/status/1254802547719757830?s=20">tweeted</a> that “nearly half of New York City voters know someone who died of Covid-19. 74% of white voters said they did not know someone who died from coronavirus, but 48% of black voters, and 52% of Latino voters, said they did.”</p>
<p>Notice that some statistics referred to knowing someone, and others to not knowing someone.</p>
<p>This difference shouldn’t matter because once you know the proportion of people who knew someone who died, you also know the proportion who didn’t – people either know someone or they don’t. If 74% of white voters didn’t know someone, then 26% did know someone (74% plus 26% = 100%).</p>
<p>But how options are described can be misleading. In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198205273062103">classic example</a>, researchers described cancer treatment options either in terms of survival (that is, 90% of patients survive) or mortality (10% died). The numbers are logically the same in both descriptions. But people, including experts, tend to feel worse when a likelihood is described in the negative mortality frame, and they’re less likely to choose a treatment described in those terms. People who are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01720.x">not great with numbers</a> are even more likely to be swayed by the positive or negative frame.</p>
<p>When you’re reading a tweet like the one above, pay attention to the words as well as the numbers. Are they describing things in a consistent way? If not, consider the flip side. The tweet should have read “26% of white voters said they knew someone who died from the coronavirus, and so did 48% of black voters, and 52% of Latino voters.” With consistency between numbers and words, you can more easily compare across groups.</p>
<h2>2. Convert numbers for easier comparison</h2>
<p>Numbers can be communicated in other ways, too, that make them hard to decipher. One example comes from a list of the proportion of people in the U.S. who died of COVID-19 within several racial categories.</p>
<p><iframe id="E155R" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/E155R/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>It’s challenging to make out which groups have fared worse during the pandemic when you’re looking at a “one in something” format.</p>
<p>That “something” is the denominator of the fraction. It’s far easier to understand the data if you pick a single number you want them all to be out of. This becomes the new denominator. I chose 10,000 because it was bigger than the other denominators.</p>
<p>Then, divide 10,000 by what the original number was “out of” (the original denominator). For example, with the category Indigenous Americans, I divided 10,000 by 390. That equals 25.6, or approximately 26. Therefore, I wrote 26 in 10,000 Indigenous Americans.</p>
<p>So instead of 1 in 390 versus 1 in 665, you can compare 26 in 10,000 versus 15 in 10,000. It’s a lot easier to see that Indigenous Americans died at almost twice the rate of white Americans.</p>
<h2>3. Think about absolute vs. relative percentages</h2>
<p>CNN recently wrote about flying safely, claiming that <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/wr/mm7013e3.htm?s_cid=mm7013e3_w">90% vaccine effectiveness</a> meant that “for every million fully vaccinated people who fly, <a href="https://twitter.com/zeynep/status/1381223370436530176">some 100,000 could still become infected</a>.”</p>
<p>This is grossly incorrect.</p>
<p>Vaccine effectiveness concerns the relative risk of getting infected if you get the vaccine compared with not getting it. To calculate it, you need two groups of people, one vaccinated, one not. You wait and see what infections emerge in both groups. Then you calculate the proportion of people in the vaccinated group who got infected and the proportion of people in the unvaccinated group who did.</p>
<p>Divide the vaccinated proportion by the unvaccinated proportion, and the resulting number is the risk ratio. One minus the risk ratio is vaccine effectiveness, the 90% number from a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7013e3">recent study published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>. </p>
<p>What this number means is that, all else being equal, with vaccination, you are 10 times less likely to get a COVID-19 infection. This is true whether you live in Michigan or Oregon, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.19108">fly on planes or don’t</a>, even wear a mask or don’t. Whatever the average infection rate you face – based on where you live and how you act – you are 10 times less likely to get infected if you get vaccinated. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397153/original/file-20210426-15-1lkeo5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Masked passengers moving through airline terminal" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397153/original/file-20210426-15-1lkeo5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/397153/original/file-20210426-15-1lkeo5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397153/original/file-20210426-15-1lkeo5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397153/original/file-20210426-15-1lkeo5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397153/original/file-20210426-15-1lkeo5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397153/original/file-20210426-15-1lkeo5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/397153/original/file-20210426-15-1lkeo5l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A vaccine with 90% effectiveness does not mean 10% of vaccinated travelers will get COVID-19.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ArizonaDailyLIfe/bdbcda82cbc444deb6929c33061cf643/photo?Query=air%20AND%20passengers&mediaType=photo&sortBy=creationdatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=3653&currentItemNo=4">AP Photo/Sue Ogrocki</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Next time you see a percentage number, stop and think about whether it’s an absolute number, like the percentage who know or don’t know someone who has died from COVID-19. Or is it a relative percentage, like vaccine effectiveness – a comparison of people who get vaccinated to those who do not.</p>
<p>A 90% effective vaccine means that, if in a group of 1 million unvaccinated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101915">people who flew</a>, 100 of them got infected, then among 1 million vaccinated people who flew, only 10 of them would get COVID-19.</p>
<p>These vaccines are imperfect, but they are phenomenally effective in that relative sense.</p>
<h2>4. Don’t let an anecdote displace the data</h2>
<p>News articles often tell a story about an individual that draws readers in. You can be tricked by these compelling stories, though, especially if any accompanying numbers are hard to understand.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/08/us/coronavirus-leilani-jordan-grocery-worker/index.html">Leilani Jordan</a> continued to work as a clerk at a Maryland grocery store so she could help seniors, even though she had cerebral palsy and came in frequent contact with the public. She ultimately died from COVID-19, but her story may have persuaded some people to behave more carefully.</p>
<p>[<em>Understand key political developments, each week.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/politics-weekly-74/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=politics-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s election newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Some celebrity stories may have had the opposite effect. <a href="https://www.vulture.com/article/famous-people-celebrities-with-coronavirus.html">Tom Hanks and Rita Wilson</a> had particularly mild cases of COVID-19. Reading about them may have reduced worry and caused some people to ease off hand-washing and physical distancing.</p>
<p>When you read a story, think carefully about what’s useful. Stories can help you understand experiences – what it feels like to have COVID-19 or become unemployed because of the pandemic. But they leave out other experiences and don’t tell you how common different experiences are.</p>
<p>After being drawn into a good story, think about how relevant it is to you and what is its likelihood. You can even look up statistics to better inform yourself about a situation rather than rely on anecdotes that might leave you with a false impression. </p>
<p>Knowing statistics can help you, but sometimes you need to empower yourself to understand what the numbers are telling you.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/158495/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ellen Peters receives funding from the National Science Foundation and USAFacts. </span></em></p>Understanding numbers in the news or social media can empower you to figure out risks and make good choices. Here’s what to look out for to make sure you aren’t misled by COVID-19 coverage.Ellen Peters, Director, Center for Science Communication Research, University of OregonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.