tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/technology/articlesScience + Tech – The Conversation2024-03-19T00:12:59Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2229872024-03-19T00:12:59Z2024-03-19T00:12:59ZThe ‘digital divide’ is already hurting people’s quality of life. Will AI make it better or worse?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579788/original/file-20240305-18-nir9gs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C22%2C2775%2C1971&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/road-closed-sign-outback-red-center-1438599635">ChameleonsEye/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Today, <a href="https://www.digitalinclusionindex.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/ADII-2023-Summary_FINAL-Remediated.pdf">almost a quarter of Australians</a> are digitally excluded. This means they miss out on the social, educational and economic benefits <a href="https://ctu.ieee.org/benefits-of-closing-the-global-digital-divide/">online connectivity provides</a>.</p>
<p>In the face of this ongoing “digital divide”, countries are now talking about a future of inclusive artificial intelligence (AI).</p>
<p>However, if we don’t learn from current problems with digital exclusion, it will likely spill over into people’s future experiences with AI. That’s the conclusion from our <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s43681-024-00452-3">new research</a> published in the journal AI and Ethics.</p>
<h2>What is the digital divide?</h2>
<p>The digital divide is a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162521007903#bib0030">well-documented social schism</a>. People on the wrong side of it face difficulties when it comes to accessing, affording, or using digital services. These disadvantages significantly reduce their quality of life.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.digitalinclusionindex.org.au/">Decades of research</a> have provided us with a rich understanding of who is most at risk. In Australia, older people, those living in remote areas, people on lower incomes and First Nations peoples are most likely to find themselves digitally excluded.</p>
<p>Zooming out, <a href="https://www.itu.int/itu-d/reports/statistics/facts-figures-2023/">reports</a> show that one-third of the world’s population – representing the poorest countries – remains offline. Globally, the <a href="https://gddindex.com/#:%7E:text=The%20Gender%20Digital%20Divide%20Index%20(GDDI)%20is%20a%20pilot%20benchmarking,gender%20divides%20in%20digital%20development.">digital gender divide</a> also still exists: women, particularly in low and middle-income countries, face substantially more barriers to digital connectivity.</p>
<p>During the COVID pandemic, the impacts of digital inequity became much more obvious. As large swathes of the world’s population had to “shelter in place” – unable to go outside, visit shops, or seek face-to-face contact – anyone without digital access was severely at risk.</p>
<p>Consequences ranged from social isolation to reduced employment opportunities, as well as a lack of access to vital health information. <a href="https://press.un.org/en/2020/sgsm20118.doc.htm">The UN Secretary-General stated in 2020</a> that “the digital divide is now a matter of life and death”. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A lonely older woman looking out a window while wearing a medical mask." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579789/original/file-20240305-22-cqzgoc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People without digital access were severely impacted during the COVID pandemic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/lonely-senior-woman-surgical-mask-sitting-1688780245">Miriam Doerr Martin Frommherz/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/digital-inclusion-and-closing-the-gap-how-first-nations-leadership-is-key-to-getting-remote-communities-online-216085">‘Digital inclusion’ and closing the gap: how First Nations leadership is key to getting remote communities online</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Not just a question of access</h2>
<p>As with most forms of exclusion, the digital divide functions in multiple ways. It was originally defined as a gap between those who have access to computers and the internet and those who do not. But research now shows it’s <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/tesg.12047">not just an issue of access</a>. </p>
<p>Having little or no access leads to reduced familiarity with digital technology, which then erodes confidence, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/global-agenda-for-social-justice/tackling-digital-exclusion-counter-social-inequalities-through-digital-inclusion/C9171EE3C4C944FC7712306280EAABDC">fuels disengagement</a>, and ultimately sets in motion <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0144929X.2021.1882577">an intrinsic sense of not being “digitally capable</a>”.</p>
<p>As AI tools increasingly reshape our workplaces, classrooms and everyday lives, there is a risk AI could deepen, rather than narrow, the digital divide.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/artificial-intelligence-holds-great-potential-for-both-students-and-teachers-but-only-if-used-wisely-81024">Artificial intelligence holds great potential for both students and teachers – but only if used wisely</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The role of digital confidence</h2>
<p>To assess the impact of digital exclusion on people’s experiences with AI, in late 2023 we surveyed a representative selection of hundreds of Australian adults. We began by asking them to rate their confidence with digital technology. </p>
<p>We found digital confidence was lower for women, older people, those with reduced salaries, and those with less digital access.</p>
<p>We then asked these same people to comment on their hopes, fears and expectations of AI. Across the board, the data showed that people’s perceptions, attitudes and experiences with AI were linked to how they felt about digital technology in general. </p>
<p>In other words, the more digitally confident people felt, the more positive they were about AI. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/giving-ai-direct-control-over-anything-is-a-bad-idea-heres-how-it-could-do-us-real-harm-210168">Giving AI direct control over anything is a bad idea – here's how it could do us real harm</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>To build truly inclusive AI, these findings are important to consider for several reasons. First, they confirm that digital confidence is not a privilege shared by all. </p>
<p>Second, they show us digital inclusion is about more than just access, or even someone’s digital skills. How confident a person feels in their ability to interact with technology is important too. </p>
<p>Third, they show that if we don’t contend with existing forms of digital exclusion, they are likely to spill over into perceptions, attitudes and experiences with AI. </p>
<p>Currently, <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/09/digital-quality-life-internet-affordability-cybersecurity/">many countries are making headway</a> in their efforts to reduce the digital divide. So we must make sure the rise of AI doesn’t slow these efforts, or worse still, exacerbate the divide.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person working on a laptop with the ChatGPT loading screen displayed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577249/original/file-20240222-22-7cjal0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">AI tools are already transforming lives – but only if you’re on the right side of the ‘digital divide’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/a-person-is-using-a-laptop-computer-on-a-table-16094056/">Matheus Bertelli/Pexels</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What should we hope for AI?</h2>
<p>While there <a href="https://theconversation.com/forget-dystopian-scenarios-ai-is-pervasive-today-and-the-risks-are-often-hidden-218222">is a slew of associated risks</a>, when deployed responsibly, AI can make significant positive impacts on society. Some of these can directly target issues of inclusivity.</p>
<p>For example, computer vision can <a href="https://www.monash.edu/news/articles/monash-university-and-tennis-australia-serve-up-world-first-accessible-audio-stream-for-fans-with-blindness-or-low-vision">track the trajectory of a tennis ball</a> during a match, making it audible for blind or low-vision spectators.</p>
<p>AI has been used to analyse <a href="https://www.niaa.gov.au/indigenous-affairs/closing-gap/implementation-measures/csiro-indigenous-jobs-map">online job postings</a> to help boost employment outcomes in under-represented populations such as First Nations peoples. And, while they’re still in the early stages of development, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41746-022-00560-6">AI-powered chatbots</a> could increase accessibility and affordability of medical services. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-boost-indigenous-employment-we-need-to-map-job-opportunities-to-skills-and-qualifications-our-new-project-does-just-that-212440">To boost Indigenous employment, we need to map job opportunities to skills and qualifications. Our new project does just that</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But this responsible AI future can only be delivered if we also address what keeps us digitally divided. To develop and use truly inclusive AI tools, we first have to ensure the feelings of digital exclusion don’t spill over. </p>
<p>This means not only tackling pragmatic issues of access and infrastructure, but also the knock-on effects on people’s levels of engagement, aptitude and confidence with technology.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222987/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Bentley works for CSIRO, which receives funding from the Australian Government.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Claire Naughtin works for CSIRO, which receives funding from the Australian Government.</span></em></p>The benefits of AI are transforming modern life — but disparities in digital confidence are leaving some behind.Sarah Vivienne Bentley, Research Scientist, Responsible Innovation, Data61, CSIROClaire Naughtin, Principal Research Consultant in Strategic Foresight, Data61Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2251812024-03-18T19:21:34Z2024-03-18T19:21:34ZDo you have 7,513 unread emails in your inbox? Research suggests that’s unwise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581813/original/file-20240314-18-q0ect0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=60%2C13%2C2965%2C2018&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/email-inbox-phone-outdoors-list-new-2135776669">Tero Vesalainen/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>How do you manage your emails? Are you an “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2021/oct/04/email-is-a-zombie-that-keeps-rising-from-the-dead-the-endless-pursuit-of-inbox-zero">inbox zero</a>” kind of person, or do you just leave thousands of them unread?</p>
<p>Our new study, published today in the journal <a href="https://informationr.net/infres">Information Research</a>, suggests that leaving all your emails in the inbox is likely to leave you dissatisfied with your personal records management. </p>
<p>In an exploratory survey, we asked participants how they dealt with their personal records such as bills, online subscriptions and similar items. Many of these <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2204.13282">arrive by email</a>.</p>
<p>We found that most respondents left their electronic records in their email. Only half saved items such as bills and other documents to other locations, like their computer or the cloud. But having a disorganised inbox also led to problems, including missing bills and losing track of important correspondence.</p>
<h2>The risk of losing track of your emails</h2>
<p>Receiving bills, insurance renewals and other household documents by email <a href="https://www.questline.com/blog/top-reasons-customers-choose-paperless-billing">saves time and money</a>, and reduces unnecessary paper use.</p>
<p>However, there are risks involved if you don’t stay on top of your electronic records. Respondents in our research reported issues such as <a href="https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/drivers-fined-millions-since-new-no-vehicle-registration-sticker-system-introduced-in-nsw/news-story/040a82526edc73eb8c23bce47fd1b8f9">lapsed vehicle registration</a>, failing to cancel <a href="https://newsroom.ing.com.au/unused-subscriptions-and-forgotten-outgoings-could-cost-each-aussie-up-to-1261-a-year/">unwanted subscriptions</a>, and overlooking tax deductions because it was too much trouble finding the receipts. </p>
<p>This suggests late fines and other email oversights could be costing people hundreds of dollars each year.</p>
<p>In addition to the financial costs, research suggests that not sorting and managing electronic records makes it more difficult to put together the information needed at tax time, or for other high-stakes situations, such as loan applications.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-i-get-so-much-spam-and-unwanted-email-in-my-inbox-and-how-can-i-get-rid-of-it-208665">Why do I get so much spam and unwanted email in my inbox? And how can I get rid of it?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What did we find?</h2>
<p>We surveyed over 300 diverse respondents on their personal electronic records management. Most of them were from Australia, but we also received responses from other countries, such as the United Kingdom, United States, Switzerland, Portugal and elsewhere.</p>
<p>Two-thirds of the respondents used their email to manage personal records, such as bills, receipts, subscriptions and more. Of those, we found that once respondents had dealt with their email, about half of them would sort the emails into folders, while the other half would leave everything in the inbox.</p>
<p>While most sorted their workplace email into folders, they were much less likely to sort their personal email in the same way.</p>
<p>The results also showed that only half (52%) of respondents who left all their email in the inbox were satisfied with their records management, compared to 71% of respondents who sorted their email into folders.</p>
<p>Of the respondents who saved their paperwork in the cloud (Google Drive, iCloud, Dropbox and similar), 83% reported being satisfied with their home records management.</p>
<p>The study was exploratory, so further research will be needed to see if our findings apply more universally. However, our statistical analysis did reveal practices associated with more satisfactory outcomes, and ones that might be better to avoid.</p>
<h2>What can go wrong with an inbox-only approach?</h2>
<p>Based on the responses, we have identified three main problems with leaving all your email in the inbox.</p>
<p>First, users can lose track of the tasks that need to be done. For example, a bill that needs to be paid could slip down the line unnoticed, drowned by other emails.</p>
<p>Second, relying on search to re-find emails means you need to know exactly what you’re looking for. For example, at tax time searching for charity donation receipts depends on remembering what to search for, as well as the exact wording in the email containing the receipt.</p>
<p>Third, many bills and statements are not sent as attachments to emails, <a href="https://publications.archivists.org.au/index.php/asa/article/view/10421">but rather as hyperlinks</a>. If you change your bank or another service provider, those hyperlinks may not be accessible at a later date. Not being able to access missing payslips from a former employer can also cause issues, as shown by the <a href="https://ia.acs.org.au/article/2019/court-finds-robodebt-unlawful.html">Robodebt scandal</a> or the recent case of the Australian Tax Office <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-03-14/ato-reignites-old-debts-individuals-businesses-struggle/103578746">reviving old debts</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=270%2C779%2C3168%2C2001&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up of a mouse cursor selecting an inbox link with one unread email." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=270%2C779%2C3168%2C2001&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581489/original/file-20240313-24-614jwk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You can apply a few simple practices to your email management to minimise stress and financial losses.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/email-menu-on-monitor-screen-127894817">kpatyhka/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4 tips for better records management</h2>
<p>When we asked respondents to nominate a preferred location for keeping their personal records, they tended to choose a more organised format than their current behaviour. Ideally, only 8% of the respondents would leave everything in their email inbox, unsorted. </p>
<p>Our findings suggest a set of practices that can help you get on top of your electronic records and prevent stress or financial losses:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>sort your email into category folders, or save records in folders in the cloud or on a computer</p></li>
<li><p>download documents that are not attached to emails or sent to you – such as utility bills and all your payslips</p></li>
<li><p>put important renewals in your calendar as reminders, and</p></li>
<li><p>delete junk mail and unsubscribe, so that your inbox can be turned into a to-do list.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-you-answer-emails-outside-work-hours-do-you-send-them-new-research-shows-how-dangerous-this-can-be-160187">Do you answer emails outside work hours? Do you send them? New research shows how dangerous this can be</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225181/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matt Balogh previously received funding from an Australian Government Research Training Stipend Scholarship.</span></em></p>Managing our electronic records is a big task. But using a few simple tips to turn your inbox into a to-do list can save a lot of problems down the line.Matt Balogh, Adjunct Lecturer, University of New EnglandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2257892024-03-18T00:27:02Z2024-03-18T00:27:02ZHow safe are Australia’s mines? New analysis shows reform has been stalled for a decade<p>On Sunday August 7 1994, an <a href="https://www.publications.qld.gov.au/dataset/moura-mining-disaster-inquiry-reports/resource/a8e96409-52a3-4075-b4a6-b1224ecc8e63">explosion at the Moura No 2 underground coal mine</a> in Queensland led to the deaths of 11 miners. This tragedy was the catalyst for a major shakeup in the approach to safety in all kinds of mines around Australia over the late 1990s and early 2000s.</p>
<p>Since that time, we have seen <a href="https://data.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/interactive-data/industry/mining">major improvements in safety performance</a>. In 2003, there were 12.4 fatalities per 100,000 workers; a decade later the figure was down to 3.4.</p>
<p><iframe id="A44hw" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/A44hw/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>However, since then progress has slowed if not stalled. Despite the industry’s adoption of risk management systems, competency training, and a shift away from prescriptive regulation in the years following Moura, the rate of deaths and serious injuries has barely changed over the past decade.</p>
<p>Given the huge size and variety of Australia’s mining industry, and the inherent dangers of the work, we may never reach a time when there are no deaths. But zero fatalities must still be the goal.</p>
<p><iframe id="QlKQp" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/QlKQp/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>A rise in ‘one-off’ incidents</h2>
<p>In the past, most deaths were due to what are called “principal hazards”. These are major incidents such as fires, explosions and mine flooding that can kill or injure many people. </p>
<p>Most safety work has, for good reason, focused on these hazards, and by my count they are today involved in fewer than 20% of deaths. What this means is that today’s tragedy landscape is more diffuse, with fatalities scattered across a range of different scenarios.</p>
<p><iframe id="f2JHI" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/f2JHI/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Now, most deaths are the result of “one-off” events such as being struck by objects, caught in machinery, falling from heights, or vehicle collisions. Addressing all these possibilities is more complex.</p>
<h2>Mental health, fatigue, staff turnover</h2>
<p>Human factors also loom large. Despite a huge increase in mine automation and remote operation technologies that reduce workers’ exposure to hazards, there are indications of <a href="https://www.ecu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/1060080/Michael-Quinlan-Presentation.pdf">worsening mental health</a>, rising fatigue and <a href="https://www.aigroup.com.au/news/reports/2023-economics/factsheet-labour-turnover-in-2023/">high staff turnover</a>, which can erode corporate knowledge.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mine-workers-and-their-families-suffer-the-toll-of-shift-work-10897">Mine workers and their families suffer the toll of shift work</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Psychological and social problems such as these affect an <a href="https://minerals.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/MCA_Mental_Health_Blueprint.pdf">estimated 20%</a> of the modern mining workforce. Although there are fewer workers on site, they are often under huge production pressures and the rosters can be very tough on family life. </p>
<p>Poor mental health can compromise decision-making and reduce vigilance, leading to safety problems.</p>
<h2>Slow, steady improvement</h2>
<p>There are some promising developments. The “<a href="https://www.icmm.com/en-gb/guidance/health-safety/2015/ccm-good-practice-guide">critical control management</a>” approach already adopted by <a href="https://www.riotinto.com/en/invest/reports/sustainability-report">Rio Tinto</a> and <a href="https://s24.q4cdn.com/382246808/files/doc_financials/2022/ar/%E2%80%8CNewmont-2022-Annual-Report.pdf">Newmont</a>, among others, has been highly effective. This is a method that identifies a relatively small number of vital controls that can prevent serious incidents, and directs resources towards rigorously designing, implementing and maintaining them.</p>
<p>We are also likely to see future safety gains from <a href="https://www.acarp.com.au/abstracts.aspx?repId=C29001">better equipment design</a>, further advances in automation and remote operation, and mental health initiatives, such as Western Australia’s <a href="https://www.wa.gov.au/organisation/department-of-energy-mines-industry-regulation-and-safety/mental-awareness-respect-and-safety-mars-program">Mental Awareness, Respect and Safety</a> program.</p>
<p>But in an industry that has still averaged <a href="https://data.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/interactive-data/industry/mining">eight fatalities per year</a> over the past decade, more safety reform is overdue. While new technologies and initiatives may be helpful, none will be a “silver bullet”.</p>
<p>Queensland alone has staged three “<a href="https://www.rshq.qld.gov.au/about-us/resources/safety-reset">safety resets</a>” in the past five years, with little result. Real safety improvement will be slow and steady, and will come from diligently and consistently applying proven safety management techniques.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225789/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Cliff has received funding from many different sources including various major mining companies and government regulatory agencies such as Resources Safety And Health Queensland, research funding from various independent and industry funded agencies such as the Australian Coal Association Research Program. He is a member of the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, the Mine Managers Association of Australia and various professional bodies such as the Australian Institute of Occupational Health and Safety, and the Royal Australian Chemical Institute.</span></em></p>Mining’s high-tech transformation has dramatically increased safety – but there is plenty more work to be done.David Cliff, Professor of Occupational Health and Safety in Mining, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2255552024-03-17T19:01:36Z2024-03-17T19:01:36ZSomething felt ‘off’ – how AI messed with our human research, and what we learned<p>All levels of research are being changed by the rise of artificial intelligence (AI). Don’t have time to read that journal article? AI-powered tools such as <a href="https://www.tldrthis.com/">TLDRthis</a> will summarise it for you. </p>
<p>Struggling to find relevant sources for your review? <a href="https://inciteful.xyz/">Inciteful</a> will list suitable articles with just the click of a button. Are your human research participants too expensive or complicated to manage? Not a problem – try <a href="https://www.syntheticusers.com/">synthetic participants</a> instead. </p>
<p>Each of these tools suggests AI could be superior to humans in outlining and explaining concepts or ideas. But can humans be replaced when it comes to qualitative research?</p>
<p>This is something we recently had to grapple with while carrying out unrelated research into <a href="https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/spc3.12643">mobile dating during the COVID-19 pandemic</a>. And what we found should temper enthusiasm for artificial responses over the words of human participants.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1768426948638675367"}"></div></p>
<h2>Encountering AI in our research</h2>
<p>Our research is looking at how people might navigate mobile dating during the pandemic in Aotearoa New Zealand. Our aim was to explore broader social responses to mobile dating as the pandemic progressed and as public health mandates changed over time.</p>
<p>As part of this ongoing research, we prompt participants to develop stories in response to hypothetical scenarios. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-happens-when-we-outsource-boring-but-important-work-to-ai-research-shows-we-forget-how-to-do-it-ourselves-223981">What happens when we outsource boring but important work to AI? Research shows we forget how to do it ourselves</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In 2021 and 2022 we received a wide range of intriguing and quirky responses from 110 New Zealanders recruited through Facebook. Each participant received a gift voucher for their time.</p>
<p>Participants described characters navigating the challenges of “Zoom dates” and clashing over vaccination statuses or wearing masks. Others wrote passionate love stories with eyebrow-raising details. Some even broke the fourth wall and wrote directly to us, complaining about the mandatory word length of their stories or the quality of our prompts. </p>
<p>These responses captured the highs and lows of online dating, the boredom and loneliness of lockdown, and the thrills and despair of finding love during the time of COVID-19. </p>
<p>But, perhaps most of all, these responses reminded us of the idiosyncratic and irreverent aspects of human participation in research – the unexpected directions participants go in, or even the unsolicited feedback you can receive when doing research. </p>
<p>But in the latest round of our study in late 2023, something had clearly changed across the 60 stories we received.</p>
<p>This time many of the stories felt “off”. Word choices were quite stilted or overly formal. And each story was quite moralistic in terms of what one “should” do in a situation. </p>
<p>Using AI detection tools, such as ZeroGPT, we concluded participants – or even bots – were using AI to generate story answers for them, possibly to receive the gift voucher for minimal effort.</p>
<p>Contrary to claims that AI can sufficiently replicate human participants in research, we found AI-generated stories to be woeful. </p>
<p>We were reminded that an essential ingredient of any social research is for the data to be based on lived experience. </p>
<h2>Is AI the problem?</h2>
<p>Perhap the biggest threat to human research is not AI, but rather the philosophy that underscores it. </p>
<p>It is worth noting the majority of claims about AI’s capabilities to replace humans come from computer scientists or quantitative social scientists. In these types of studies, human reasoning or behaviour is often measured through scorecards or yes/no statements. </p>
<p>This approach necessarily fits human experience into a framework that can be more easily analysed through computational or artificial interpretation. </p>
<p>In contrast, we are qualitative researchers who are interested in the messy, emotional, lived experience of people’s perspectives on dating. We were drawn to the thrills and disappointments participants originally pointed to with online dating, the frustrations and challenges of trying to use dating apps, as well as the opportunities they might create for intimacy during a time of lockdowns and evolving health mandates. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ai-is-in-danger-of-becoming-too-male-new-research-121229">AI is in danger of becoming too male – new research</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In general, we found AI poorly simulated these experiences. </p>
<p>Some might accept generative AI is here to stay, or that AI should be viewed as offering various tools to researchers. Other researchers might retreat to forms of data collection, such as surveys, that might minimise the interference of unwanted AI participation. </p>
<p>But, based on <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14780887.2024.2311427">our recent research experience</a>, we believe theoretically-driven, qualitative social research is best equipped to detect and protect against AI interference. </p>
<p>There are additional implications for research. The threat of AI as an unwanted participant means researchers will have to work longer or harder to spot imposter participants. </p>
<p>Academic institutions need to start developing policies and practices to reduce the burden on individual researchers trying to carry out research in the changing AI environment. </p>
<p>Regardless of researchers’ theoretical orientation, how we work to limit the involvement of AI is a question for anyone interested in understanding human perspectives or experiences. If anything, the limitations of AI reemphasise the importance of being human in social research.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225555/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexandra Gibson receives funding from Te Apārangi - Royal Society of New Zealand.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alex Beattie does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Responses to our qualitative survey suggested artificial intelligence was at play. The results were woeful, and researchers will need to work harder to prevent contaminated outcomes.Alexandra Gibson, Senior Lecturer in Health Psychology, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonAlex Beattie, Research Fellow, School of Health, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2240642024-03-14T19:24:44Z2024-03-14T19:24:44ZWhat washing machine settings can I use to make my clothes last longer?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581554/original/file-20240313-30-b0w0se.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=194%2C310%2C4780%2C3135&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-accidentally-dyeing-laundry-inside-washing-236885413">Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Orbiting 400 kilometres above Earth’s surface, the astronauts on the International Space Station live a pretty normal social life, if not for one thing: they happily wear their unwashed clothes <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/glenn/nasa-glenn-interns-take-space-washing-machine-designs-for-a-spin/">for days and weeks at a time</a>. They can’t do their laundry <a href="https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Engineering_Technology/Keeping_your_underwear_clean_on_the_Moon">just yet</a> because water is scarce up there.</p>
<p>But down here on Earth, washing clothes is a large part of our lives. <a href="https://bigee.net/media/filer_public/2013/03/28/bigee_domestic_washing_machines_worldwide_potential_20130328.pdf">It’s estimated</a> that a volume of water equivalent to 21,000 Olympic swimming pools is used every day for domestic laundry worldwide.</p>
<p>Fibres from our clothes make their way into the environment via the air (during use or in the dryer), water (washing) and soil (lint rubbish in landfill). Most of this fibre loss is invisible – we often only notice our favourite clothing is “disappearing” when it’s too late.</p>
<p>How can you ensure your favourite outfit will outlast your wish to wear it? Simple question, complex answer.</p>
<h2>Washing machines are not gentle</h2>
<p>When you clean the filters in your washing machine and dryer, how often do you stop to think that the lint you’re holding <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk-laundry-releases-microfibres-weighing-the-equivalent-of-1-500-buses-each-year-199712"><em>was</em>, in fact, your clothes</a>?</p>
<p>Laundering is harsh on our clothes, and <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0250346">research confirms this</a>. Several factors play a role: the type of washing machine, the washing cycle, detergents, temperature, time, and the type of fabric and yarn construction. </p>
<p>There are two types of domestic washing machines: top-loader and front-loader. Mechanical agitation (the way the machine moves the clothes around) is one of the things that helps ease dirt off the fabric.</p>
<p>Top-loaders have a vertical, bucket-like basket with a paddle, which sloshes clothes around in a large volume of water. Front-loaders have a horizontal bucket which rotates, exposing the clothes to a smaller volume of water – it takes advantage of gravity, not paddles.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person selecting a program on a front loader washing machine panel with buttons." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581556/original/file-20240313-26-zgawjl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Washing machine programs tend to be carefully programmed to ensure minimal damage to the garments.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/person-using-washing-machine-5591460/">RDNE Stock Project/Pexels</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Top-loading machines <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12541-010-0047-7">tend to be more aggressive</a> towards fabrics than front-loaders due to the different mechanical action and larger volumes of water. </p>
<p>Washing machine panels also present many choices. Shorter, low-temperature programs <a href="https://clevercare.info/more-eco-temperature-tips">are usually sufficient for everyday stains</a>. Choose longer or <a href="https://iprefer30.eu/animations/UK/wash-brochure-uk.pdf">high-temperature programs</a> only for clothing you have concerns about (healthcare uniforms, washable nappies, etc.).</p>
<p>Generally, washing machine programs are carefully selected combinations of water volume, agitation intensity and temperature recommended by the manufacturer. They take into consideration the type of fabric and its level of cleanliness.</p>
<p>Select the wrong program and you can say goodbye to your favourite top. For example, high temperatures or harsh agitation may cause some fibres to weaken and break, causing holes in the garment.</p>
<h2>Some fabrics lose fibres more easily than others</h2>
<p>At a microscopic level, the fabric in our clothes is made of yarns – individual fibres twisted together. The nature and length of the fibres, the way they are twisted and the way the yarns form the fabric can determine how many fibres will be lost during a wash.</p>
<p>In general, if you want to lose fewer fibres, you should wash less frequently, but some fabrics are affected more than others. </p>
<p>Open fabric structures (knits) with loose yarns <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-98836-6">can lose more fibres</a> than tighter ones. Some sports clothing, like running shirts, are made of continuous filament yarn. These fibres are less likely to come loose in the wash. </p>
<p>Cotton fibres are only a few centimetres long. Twisted tightly together into a yarn, they can still escape.</p>
<p>Wool fibres are also short, but have an additional feature: scales, which make wool clothes much more delicate. Wool fibres can come loose like cotton ones, but also tangle with each other during the wash due to their scales. This last aspect is what causes wool garments to shrink when <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/004051756403400303">exposed to heat</a> and agitation.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tangle of white fibres in a loose web." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581557/original/file-20240313-22-s1rv88.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cotton fibres under a microscope, magnified 100 times.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fibres-under-microscope-100x-1013172277">Dr. Norbert Lange/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/laundry-is-a-top-source-of-microplastic-pollution-heres-how-to-clean-your-clothes-more-sustainably-217072">Laundry is a top source of microplastic pollution – here's how to clean your clothes more sustainably</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Go easy on the chemicals</h2>
<p>The type of detergent and other products you use also makes a difference.</p>
<p>Detergents contain a soap component, enzymes to make stains easier to remove at low temperature, and fragrances. Some contain harsher compounds, such as bleaching or whitening agents.</p>
<p>Modern detergents are very effective at <a href="https://www.choice.com.au/home-and-living/laundry-and-cleaning/laundry-detergents/review-and-compare/laundry-detergents">removing stains such as food</a>, and you don’t need to use much.</p>
<p>An incorrect choice of wash cycles, laundry detergent and bleaching additives could cause disaster. Certain products, like bleach, can <a href="https://site.extension.uga.edu/textiles/textile-basics/understand-your-fibers/">damage some fibres like wool and silk</a>.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, research on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749120366872?via%3Dihub">fabric softeners and other treatments</a> <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0233332&type=printable">continues</a> – there’s no one-size-fits-all answer about their potential impact on our clothes.</p>
<h2>Just skip laundry day</h2>
<p>So, how to ensure your clothes last longer? The main tip is to wash them less often.</p>
<p>When it’s time for a wash, carefully read and follow the care labels. In the future, our washing machines will <a href="https://www.teknoscienze.com/tks_article/trends-in-laundry-by-2030/">recognise fabrics and select the wash cycle</a>. For now, that’s our responsibility.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-make-your-clothes-last-longer-its-good-for-your-bank-account-and-the-environment-too-201823">How to make your clothes last longer – it's good for your bank account and the environment too</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>And the next time you throw your shirt into the dirty laundry basket, stop. Think of the astronauts orbiting above Earth and ask yourself: if they can go without clean laundry for a few days, maybe I can too? (Although we don’t recommend just burning your dirty undies, either.)</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/C1j6KLP492E?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224064/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alessandra Sutti has received research funding from the Australian Research Council, the Marine Bioproducts Cooperative Research Centre, the Innovative Manufacturing Cooperative Research Centre and by companies participating in associated projects such as the ARC Research Hub for Functional and Sustainable Fibres and the ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Green Chemistry, as well as from industry partners associated with these grants, such as HeiQ Pty Ltd, Xefco Pty Ltd, C. Sea Solutions Pty Ltd (trading as ULUU) and Simba Global Pty/Ltd. Alessandra is a paid member of the HeiQ Innovation Advisory Board, is a member of the American Chemical Society and serves as a volunteer member on Standards Australia ME-009 Committee (Microplastics). She collaborates closely with The GLOBE Program (through GLOBE Italy), The University of California Berkeley and San Francisco State University, co-developing microplastics monitoring protocols and is involved in environmental education programmes.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amol Patil is engaged at the ARC Research Hub for Functional and Sustainable Fibres, a collaboration between Deakin University, the Australian Research Council and industry partners such as Simba Global Pty Ltd, Xefco Pty Ltd, HeiQ Pty Ltd, and Sea Solutions P/L (trading as ULUU). He is also working on a joint project sponsored by HeiQ-Marine bioproducts (MBCRC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maryam Naebe is the recipient of Discover Natural Fibre Initiative Innovation Award. She has received funding through competitive grants and industry projects including Australian Research Council ARC Research Hub, ARC Discovery Project, Australian Wool Innovation, Cotton Research and Development Corporation, Cotton Incorporated (USA), Ford Motor Company (USA).
</span></em></p>Next time you do your laundry, think like an astronaut – wash your clothes as little as possible.Alessandra Sutti, Associate Professor, Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin UniversityAmol Patil, Reseach Engineer, Deakin UniversityMaryam Naebe, Associate professor, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256752024-03-14T05:47:43Z2024-03-14T05:47:43ZShould you be concerned about flying on Boeing planes?<p>The American aerospace giant Boeing has been synonymous with safe air travel for decades. Since the 1990s, Boeing and its European competitor Airbus have dominated the market for large passenger jets. </p>
<p>But this year, Boeing has been in the news for all the wrong reasons. In January, an emergency door plug <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/business/boeing-aerospace/alaska-airlines-let-boeing-max-fly-despite-warning-signals">blew off a Boeing 737 MAX</a> in mid flight, triggering an investigation from United States federal regulators. </p>
<p>More recently, we have seen a Boeing plane lose a tyre while taking off, another flight turned back as the plane was leaking fluid, an apparent engine fire, a landing gear collapse, a stuck rudder pedal, and a plane “dropping” in flight and <a href="https://theconversation.com/latam-flight-800-just-dropped-in-mid-flight-injuring-dozens-an-expert-explores-what-happened-and-how-to-keep-yourself-safe-225554">injuring dozens of passengers</a>. A Boeing engineer who had raised concerns regarding quality control during the manufacturing process on the company’s 787 and 737 MAX planes also <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-68534703">died earlier this week</a>, apparently of a self-inflicted gunshot wound. </p>
<p>As members of the travelling public, should we be concerned? Well, yes and no.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/boeing-door-plug-blowout-highlights-a-possible-crisis-of-competence-an-aircraft-safety-expert-explains-221069">Boeing door plug blowout highlights a possible crisis of competence − an aircraft safety expert explains</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Many problems, but not all can be blamed on Boeing</h2>
<p>The recent parade of events has certainly been dramatic – but not all of them can be blamed on Boeing. Five incidents occurred on aircraft owned and operated by United Airlines and were related to factors outside the manufacturer’s control, like maintenance issues, potential foreign object debris, and possible human error. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/united-airlines-plane-tire-blowout-boeing-b2509241.html">United Airlines 777</a> flying from San Francisco to Japan lost a tyre on takeoff, a maintenance issue not related to Boeing. The aircraft landed safely in Los Angeles. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1767636549288824990"}"></div></p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.mercurynews.com/2024/03/12/united-airlines-reports-fifth-flight-incident-in-a-week-as-jet-turns-back-due-to-maintenance-issue/">United Airlines flight from Sydney</a> to Los Angeles had to return to Sydney due to a “maintenance issue” after a fluid was seen leaking from the aircraft on departure. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/passenger-video-shows-flames-shoot-united-airlines-engine-midflight-rcna142217">United Airlines 737-900</a> flying from Texas to Florida ended up with some plastic bubble wrap in the engine, causing a suspected <a href="https://skybrary.aero/articles/compressor-stall#:%7E:text=Compressor%20stalls%20cause%20the%20air,dirty%20or%20contaminated%20compressor%20components">compressor stall</a>. This is a disruption of air flow to an operating engine, making it “backfire” and emit flames. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://simpleflying.com/united-boeing-737-max-houston-runway-incident/">United Airlines 737 Max</a> flying from Tennessee to Texas suffered a gear collapse after a normal landing. The pilot continued to the end of the runway before exiting onto a taxiway – possibly at too high a speed – and the aircraft ended up in the grass and the left main landing gear collapsed. </p>
<p>The fifth event occurred on a <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/another-boeing-max-mishap-ntsb-probes-stuck-rudder-pedals-united-airli-rcna142286">United Airlines 737-8</a> flight from the Bahamas to New Jersey. The pilots reported that the rudder pedals, which control the left and right movement of the aircraft in flight, were stuck in the neutral position during landing.</p>
<h2>Manufacturing quality concerns</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/business/boeing-aerospace/alaska-airlines-let-boeing-max-fly-despite-warning-signals">exit door plug failure in January</a> occurred on an Alaska Airlines flight. US regulators are currently investigating Boeing’s <a href="https://www.vox.com/money/24052245/boeing-corporate-culture-737-airplane-safety-door-plug">manufacturing quality assurance</a> as a result. </p>
<p>The door plug was installed by a Boeing subcontractor called Spirit AeroSystem. The door plug bolts were not properly secured and the plug door fell off in flight. The same aircraft had a series of pressurisation alarms on two previous flights, and was scheduled for a maintenance inspection at the completion of the flight. </p>
<p>Spirit got its start after Boeing shut down its own manufacturing operations in Kansas and Oklahoma, and Boeing is now in the process of <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2024/03/01/spirit-aerosystems-boeing.html">buying the company</a> to improve quality oversight. Spirit currently works with Airbus, as well, though that may change.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-did-alaska-airlines-flight-1282-have-a-sealed-off-emergency-exit-in-the-first-place-the-answer-comes-down-to-money-221263">Why did Alaska Airlines Flight 1282 have a sealed-off emergency exit in the first place? The answer comes down to money</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What changed at Boeing</h2>
<p>Critics say the <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2024/03/12/boeing-whistleblower-death-plane-issues/">culture at Boeing has changed</a> since Airbus became a major competitor in the early 2000s. The company has been accused of shifting its focus to profit at the expense of quality engineering. </p>
<p>Former staff have raised concerns over tight production schedules, which increased the pressure on employees to finish the aircraft. This caused many engineers to question the process, and the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to fine Boeing for lapses in quality oversight after tools and debris were found on aircraft being inspected. </p>
<p>Several employees have testified before US Congress on the production issues regarding quality control. Based on the congressional findings, the FAA began to inspect Boeing’s processes more closely.</p>
<p>Several Boeing employees noted there was a high staff turnover rate during the COVID pandemic. This is not unique to Boeing, as all manufacturing processes and airline maintenance facilities around the globe were also hit with high turnover. </p>
<p>As a result, there is an acute shortage of qualified maintenance engineers, as well as pilots. These shortages have created several issues with the airline industry successfully returning to the <a href="https://www.aviationbusinessnews.com/mro/critical-shortage-of-engineers-means-looming-crisis-for-aviation-warns-aeroprofessional/">pre-pandemic levels</a> of 2019. Airlines and maintenance training centres around the globe are working hard to train replacements, but this takes time as one cannot become a qualified engineer or airline pilot overnight.</p>
<p>So, is it still safe to fly on Boeing planes? Yes it is. Despite dramatic incidents in the news and social media posts <a href="https://twitter.com/DaveMcNamee3000/status/1767636549288824990">poking fun at the company</a>, air travel is still extremely safe, and that includes Boeing.</p>
<p>We can expect these issues with Boeing planes now will be corrected. The financial impact has been significant – so even a profit-driven company will demand change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225675/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Doug Drury does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The American aerospace company Boeing has been synonymous with safe air travel for decades, but recent weeks have seen it plagued by a series of issues.Doug Drury, Professor/Head of Aviation, CQUniversity AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2251772024-03-13T19:15:03Z2024-03-13T19:15:03ZVinegar and baking soda: a cleaning hack or just a bunch of fizz?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581208/original/file-20240312-20-t421p3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=270%2C48%2C3915%2C2868&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/caucasian-man-green-sponge-his-hand-2020591898">Daniele De Vivo/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Vinegar and baking soda are staples in the kitchen. Many of us have combined them in childhood scientific experiments: think fizzy volcanoes and geysers. </p>
<p>But people also frequently mix vinegar and baking soda to produce a reportedly effective household cleaner. Unfortunately, the chemistry behind the bubbly reaction doesn’t support the cleaning hype. The fizzy action is essentially <a href="https://theconversation.com/six-surprising-things-about-placebos-everyone-should-know-220829">a visual “placebo</a>”, formed by the combination of an acid and a base. </p>
<p>So, how does it work, and is it worth using these chemicals for cleaning? To understand all this, it helps to know a little more about chemistry. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-new-tiktok-trend-has-people-drinking-toxic-borax-an-expert-explains-the-risks-and-how-to-read-product-labels-210278">A new TikTok trend has people drinking toxic borax. An expert explains the risks – and how to read product labels</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What’s an acid?</h2>
<p>Foods with a sour taste typically contain acids. These include citric acid in lemon juice, malic acid in apples, lactic acid in yoghurt and <a href="https://theconversation.com/kitchen-science-everything-you-eat-is-made-of-chemicals-56583">phosphoric acids in soft drinks</a>. Most vinegars contain around 4–10% acetic acid, the rest is water and small amounts of flavour chemicals.</p>
<p>There are other naturally occurring acids, such as formic acid in ant bites and hydrochloric acid in our stomachs. Industrially, sulfuric acid is used in mineral processing, nitric acid for <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-ammonium-nitrate-the-chemical-that-exploded-in-beirut-143979">fertiliser manufacturing</a> and the highly potent hydrofluoric acid is used to etch glass.</p>
<p>All of these acids share similar properties. They can all release hydrogen ions (positively charged atoms) into water. Depending on their potency, acids can also dissolve minerals and metals through various chemical reactions.</p>
<p>This is why vinegar is an excellent cleaner for showers or kettles – it can react with and dissolve mineral deposits like limescale. </p>
<p>Other common acidic cleaning ingredients are oxalic acid, used for revitalising timber decks, hydrochloric acid in concrete and masonry cleaners, and sulfamic acid in potent toilet cleaners.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A hand in a yellow glove cleaning the inside of a shower screen with a squeegee." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581224/original/file-20240312-18-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adding some vinegar to your shower cleaning routine can help to dissolve away the limescale deposits on the glass.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/crop-person-cleaning-glass-shower-unit-4239091/">Karolina Grabowska/Pexels</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s a base?</h2>
<p>In chemistry, bases – the opposite of acids in many ways – can bind, rather than release hydrogen ions. This can help lift and dissolve insoluble grime into water. Bases can also break apart fat molecules. </p>
<p>Baking soda (also known as sodium hydrogen carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, or bicarb) is a relatively weak base. Stronger common bases include sodium carbonate (washing soda), sodium hydroxide (lye) and ammonia.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/spill-at-a-nuclear-facility-shows-potential-burn-risks-from-a-household-chemical-112763">Sodium hydroxide</a> is a potent drain cleaner – its strong base properties can dissolve fats and hair. This allows blockages to be broken down and easily flushed away.</p>
<h2>Mixing a base and an acid</h2>
<p>Mixing vinegar and baking soda causes an immediate chemical reaction. This reaction forms water, sodium acetate (a salt) and carbon dioxide – the fizzy part. </p>
<p>The amount of carbon dioxide gas that is produced from baking soda is remarkable – one tablespoon (around 18 grams) can release over <a href="https://www.chemedx.org/JCESoft/jcesoftSubscriber/CCA/CCA8/MAIN/8/06/2/4/movie.html">five litres of gas</a>! But only if you add enough acid.</p>
<p>Reactions in chemistry often use equal quantities of chemical reagents. A perfect balance of acetic acid and baking soda would give you just water, carbon dioxide and sodium acetate. </p>
<p>But the majority of vinegar and bicarb cleaner recipes use a large excess of one or the other components. An example from TikTok for a DIY oven cleaner calls for one and a half cups of baking soda and one quarter cup of vinegar. </p>
<p>Crunching the numbers behind the chemical reaction shows that after the fizz subsides, over 99% of the added baking soda remains. So the active cleaning agent here is actually the baking soda (and the “elbow grease” of scrubbing).</p>
<p><div data-react-class="TiktokEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.tiktok.com/@carmsssdi/video/6846229758724885765"}"></div></p>
<p>Ovens can be cleaned much more rigorously with stronger, sodium hydroxide based cleaners (although these are also more caustic). Many modern ovens also have a self-cleaning feature, so read your product manual before reaching for a chemical cleaner of any sort.</p>
<h2>What about the sodium acetate?</h2>
<p>Devotees of vinegar and baking soda mixtures might be wondering if the product of the fizzy reaction, sodium acetate, is the undercover cleaning agent. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, sodium acetate is an even weaker base than baking soda, so it doesn’t do much to clean the surface you’re trying to scrub.</p>
<p>Sodium acetate is used in <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vABpel-11Nc">crystallisation-based heating packs</a> and as a concrete sealant, but not typically as a cleaner. </p>
<p>Fun fact: sodium acetate can be combined with acetic acid to make a crystalline <a href="https://theconversation.com/busting-the-myth-that-all-food-additives-are-bad-a-quick-guide-for-label-readers-82883">food additive</a> called sodium diacetate. These crystals give the vinegar flavour to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N0hEutu_goY">salt and vinegar chips</a> without making them soggy.</p>
<h2>Sorry to burst your bubbles</h2>
<p>There are a few rare cases where mixing vinegar and baking soda may be useful for cleaning. This is where the bubbling has a mechanical effect, such as in a blocked drain. </p>
<p>But in most cases you’ll want to use either vinegar or baking soda by itself, depending on what you’re trying to clean. It will be less <a href="https://theconversation.com/visually-striking-science-experiments-at-school-can-be-fun-inspiring-and-safe-banning-is-not-the-answer-195362">visually exciting</a>, but it should get the job done.</p>
<p>Lastly, remember that mixing cleaning chemicals at home can be risky. Always carefully read the product label and directions before engaging in DIY concoctions. And, to be extra sure, you can find out more safety information by reading the product’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-new-tiktok-trend-has-people-drinking-toxic-borax-an-expert-explains-the-risks-and-how-to-read-product-labels-210278">safety data sheet</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225177/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nathan Kilah does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A mix of vinegar and baking soda is a popular DIY cleaner – but it’s really inefficient. A chemist explains why you should reconsider using this fizzy mixture.Nathan Kilah, Senior Lecturer in Chemistry, University of TasmaniaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256542024-03-13T04:10:22Z2024-03-13T04:10:22ZThe surprising key to magpie intelligence: it’s not genetic<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581509/original/file-20240313-18-hcxhmo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C3426%2C2001&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Elizabeth Speechley</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve ever had the pleasure of encountering Australia’s iconic magpies, you know these birds are intelligent creatures. With their striking black and white plumage, loud warbling voices and complex social behaviours, magpies possess a level of avian brilliance that fascinates birders and scientists alike. </p>
<p>But what enables these clever birds to thrive? Are their sharp cognitive abilities innate – something coded into their genetic makeup? Or are magpie smarts more a product of their environment and social experiences? </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.231399">new study</a>, we shed light on the “nature versus nurture” debate – at least when it comes to avian intelligence. </p>
<h2>Bigger social groups, smarter birds</h2>
<p>Our study focused on Western Australian magpies, which unlike their eastern counterparts live in large, cooperative social groups all year round. We put young fledglings – and their mothers – through a test of their learning abilities. </p>
<p>We made wooden “puzzle boards” with holes covered by different-coloured lids. For each bird, we hid a tasty food reward under the lid of one particular colour. We also tested each bird alone, so it couldn’t copy the answer from its friends.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A mother magpie and a fledgling standing side by side." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581510/original/file-20240313-20-o5qszi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Do fledgling magpies get their smarts from their mothers?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lizzie Speechley</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Through trial and error, the magpies had to figure out which colour was associated with the food prize. We knew the birds had mastered the puzzle when they picked the rewarded colour in 10 out of 12 consecutive attempts.</p>
<p>We tested fledglings at 100, 200 and 300 days after leaving the nest. While they improved at solving the puzzle as they developed, the cognitive performance of the young magpies showed little connection to the problem-solving prowess of their mothers. </p>
<p>Instead, the key factor influencing how quickly the fledglings learned to pick the correct colour was the size of their social group. Birds raised in larger groups solved the test significantly faster than those growing up in smaller social groups.</p>
<p>Fledglings living in groups of ten or more birds needed only about a dozen tries to consistently pick the rewarded colour. But a youngster growing up in a group of three took more than 30 attempts to learn the link between colour and food.</p>
<h2>How the social environment shapes cognition</h2>
<p>Why would living in a larger social group boost cognitive abilities? We think it probably comes down to the mental demands that social animals face on a daily basis, such as recognising and remembering group members, and keeping track of different relationships within a complex group.</p>
<p>Magpies can learn to recognise and remember humans, too. The bird populations we work with live in the wild, but they recognise us by our appearance and a specific whistle we make.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of Lizzie Speechley sitting on the grass next to a fledgling magpie." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=272&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=272&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=272&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581512/original/file-20240313-22-4oq51f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=342&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Magpies recognise researchers and come looking for food.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sarah Woodiss-Field</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A young magpie living in a group gets plenty of mental exercise recognising and remembering numerous individuals and relationships. Working to make sense of this stream of social information may boost their ability to learn and solve problems. </p>
<p>Our findings go against the idea that intelligence is something innately “set” within an animal at birth, based solely on genetic inheritance. Instead, we show how cognition can be shaped by the environment, especially in the first year after leaving the nest when young magpies’ minds are still developing.</p>
<p>While we focused specifically on Australian magpies, the implications of our research could extend to other highly social and intelligent species.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225654/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lizzie Speechley does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Magpies are expert problem-solvers – but just how good they are seems to depend on the size of the social group they grow up in.Lizzie Speechley, Behavioural Ecologist, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2254542024-03-12T19:14:54Z2024-03-12T19:14:54ZNew evidence for an unexpected player in Earth’s multimillion-year climate cycles: the planet Mars<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580914/original/file-20240311-30-ef6q0e.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C6000%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dietmar Muller</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our existence is governed by natural cycles, from the daily rhythms of sleeping and eating, to longer patterns such as the turn of the seasons and the quadrennial round of <a href="https://theconversation.com/leap-of-imagination-how-february-29-reminds-us-of-our-mysterious-relationship-with-time-and-space-224503">leap years</a>. </p>
<p>After looking at seabed sediment stretching back 65 million years, we have found a previously undetected cycle to add to the list: an ebb and flow in deep sea currents, tied to a 2.4-million-year swell of global warming and cooling driven by a gravitational tug of war between Earth and Mars. Our research is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46171-5">published in Nature Communications</a>.</p>
<h2>Milankovitch cycles and ice ages</h2>
<p>Most of the natural cycles we know are determined one way or another by Earth’s movement around the Sun. </p>
<p>As the German astronomer <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/the-history-of-johannes-kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> first realised four centuries ago, the orbits of Earth and the other planets are not quite circular, but rather slightly squashed ellipses. And over time, the gravitational jostling of the planets changes the shape of these orbits in a predictable pattern.</p>
<p>These alterations affect our long-term climate, influencing the coming and going of ice ages. In 1941, Serbian astrophysicist <a href="https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/earth-inside-and-out/milutin-milankovitch-seeking-the-cause-of-the-ice-ages">Milutin Milankovitch</a> recognised that changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit, the tilt of its axis, and the wobbling of its poles all affect the amount of sunlight we receive. </p>
<p>Known as “<a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/milankovitch-cycles-paleoclimatic-change-and-hominin-evolution-68244581/">Milankovitch cycles</a>”, these patterns occur with periods of 405,000, 100,000, 41,000 and 23,000 years. Geologists have found traces of them throughout Earth’s deep past, even in <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/milankovitch-cycles-paleoclimatic-change-and-hominin-evolution-68244581/">2.5-billion-year old rocks</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo shows rocky pillars and cliffs in the ocean." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580915/original/file-20240311-17800-u3fw0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fine layering in the Port Campbell Limestone by the Great Ocean Road in Victoria is the product of Earth’s orbital eccentricity and obliquity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adriana Dutkiewicz</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Earth and Mars</h2>
<p>There are also slower rhythms, called astronomical “grand cycles”, which cause fluctuations over millions of years. One such cycle, related to the slow rotation of the orbits of Earth and Mars, recurs every 2.4 million years. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram showing the orbits of Earth and Mars around the Sun." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580907/original/file-20240311-22-m3lfms.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The orbits of Earth and Mars exert a subtle influence on each other in a cycle that repeats every 2.4 million years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The cycle is predicted by <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2011/08/aa16836-11/aa16836-11.html">astronomical models</a>, but is <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1714342115">rarely detected</a> in geological records. The easiest way to find it would be in sediment samples that continuously cover a period of many millions of years, but these are rare.</p>
<p>Much like the shorter Milankovitch cycles, this grand cycle affects the amount of sunlight Earth receives and has an impact on climate. </p>
<h2>Gaps in the record</h2>
<p>When we went hunting for signs of these multimillion-year climate cycles in the rock record, we used a “big data” approach. <a href="https://www.iodp.org/about-iodp/history">Scientific ocean drilling</a> data collected since the 1960s have generated a treasure trove of information on deep-sea sediments through time across the global ocean. </p>
<p>In our study, published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46171-5">Nature Communications</a>, we used sedimentary sequences from more than 200 drill sites to discover a previously unknown connection between the changing orbits of Earth and Mars, past global warming cycles, and the speeding up of deep-ocean currents. </p>
<p>Most studies focus on complete, high-resolution records to detect climate cycles. Instead, we concentrated on the parts of the sedimentary record that are missing — breaks in sedimentation called hiatuses. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-plate-tectonics-mountains-and-deep-sea-sediments-have-maintained-earths-goldilocks-climate-183725">How plate tectonics, mountains and deep-sea sediments have maintained Earth's 'Goldilocks' climate</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A deep-sea hiatus indicates the action of vigorous bottom currents that eroded seafloor sediment. In contrast, continuous sediment accumulation indicates calmer conditions. </p>
<p>Analysing the timing of hiatus periods across the global ocean, we identified hiatus cycles over the past 65 million years. The results show that the vigour of deep-sea currents waxes and wanes in 2.4 million year cycles coinciding with changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit.</p>
<p>Astronomical models suggest the interaction of Earth and Mars drives a 2.4 million year cycle of more sunlight and warmer climate alternating with less sunlight and cooler climate. The warmer periods correlate with more deep-sea hiatuses, related to more vigorous deep-ocean currents. </p>
<h2>Warming and deep currents</h2>
<p>Our results fit with recent <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01006-9">satellite data</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01212-5">ocean models</a> mapping short-term ocean circulation changes. Some of these suggest that ocean mixing has become more intense over the last decades of global warming. </p>
<p>Deep-ocean <a href="https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/ocean-mesoscale-eddies/">eddies</a> are predicted to intensify in a warming, more energetic climate system, particularly at <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-023-01908-w#:%7E:text=Satellite%20altimetry%20records%20reveal%20that,from%201993%20to%2020209">high latitudes</a>, as major storms become more frequent. This makes deep ocean mixing more vigorous. </p>
<p>Deep-ocean eddies are like giant wind-driven whirlpools and often reach the deep sea floor. They result in seafloor erosion and large sediment accumulations called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0070457108100140">contourite drifts</a>, akin to snowdrifts.</p>
<h2>Can Mars keep the oceans alive?</h2>
<p>Our findings extend these insights over much longer timescales. Our deep-sea data spanning 65 million years suggest that warmer oceans have more vigorous eddy-driven circulation. </p>
<p>This process may play an important role in a warmer future. In a warming world the difference in temperature between the equator and poles diminishes. This leads to a <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/09022024/climate-impacts-from-collapse-of-atlantic-meridional-overturning-current-could-be-worse-than-expected/">weakening</a> of the world’s <a href="https://www.worldatlas.com/oceans/what-is-the-ocean-conveyor-belt.html">ocean conveyor belt</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/even-temporary-global-warming-above-2-will-affect-life-in-the-oceans-for-centuries-214251">Even temporary global warming above 2℃ will affect life in the oceans for centuries</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In such a scenario, oxygen-rich surface waters would no longer mix well with deeper waters, potentially resulting in a <a href="https://johnmenadue.com/humanity-sinking-into-a-stagnant-ocean/#:%7E:text=%E2%80%93%20as%20the%20difference%20in%20temperature,waters%2C%20which%20then%20become%20stagnant">stagnant ocean</a>. Our results and <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.050802.122121">analyses of deep ocean mixing</a> suggest that more intense deep-ocean eddies may counteract such ocean stagnation. </p>
<p>How the Earth-Mars astronomical influence will interact with shorter Milankovitch cycles and current human-driven global warming will largely depend on the future trajectory of our greenhouse gas emissions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225454/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adriana Dutkiewicz receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dietmar Müller and Slah Boulila do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Deep-sea sediments show how the changing orbits of Earth and Mars are linked to past global warming and the speeding up of deep-ocean eddies.Adriana Dutkiewicz, ARC Future Fellow, University of SydneyDietmar Müller, Professor of Geophysics, University of SydneySlah Boulila, Associate lecturer, Sorbonne UniversitéLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2255532024-03-12T03:25:40Z2024-03-12T03:25:40ZYes, Kate Middleton’s photo was doctored. But so are a lot of images we see today<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581154/original/file-20240312-26-tb4sa3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=425%2C221%2C2598%2C1694&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Conversation/Instagram/X</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rumours and conspiracies have been <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/28/style/princess-kate-middleton-health.html">swirling</a> following the abdominal surgery and long recovery period of Catherine, Princess of Wales, earlier this year. They intensified on Monday when Kensington Palace released a photo of the princess with her three children.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/C4U_IqTNaqU","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>The photo had clear signs of tampering, and international wire services <a href="https://apnews.com/article/kate-princess-photo-surgery-ca91acf667c87c6c70a7838347d6d4fb">withdrew the image</a> amid concerns around manipulation. The princess later <a href="https://twitter.com/KensingtonRoyal/status/1767135566645092616">apologised for any confusion</a> and said she had “experimented with editing” as many amateur photographers do.</p>
<p>Image editing is extremely common these days, and not all of it is for nefarious purposes. However, in an age of rampant misinformation, how can we stay vigilant around suspicious images?</p>
<h2>What happened with the royal photo?</h2>
<p>A close look reveals at least eight inconsistencies with the image. </p>
<p>Two of these relate to unnatural blur. Catherine’s right hand is unnaturally blurred, even though her left hand is sharp and at the same distance from the camera. The left side of Catherine’s hair is also unnaturally blurred, while the right side of her hair is sharp.</p>
<p>These types of edits are usually made with a blur tool that softens pixels. It is often used to make the background of an image less distracting or to smooth rough patches of texture.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581145/original/file-20240312-26-rhmkk1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At least eight logical inconsistencies exist in the doctored image the Prince and Princess of Wales posted on social media.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/C4U_IqTNaqU/">Photo by the Prince of Wales/Chart by T.J. Thomson</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Five of the edits appear to use the “clone stamp” tool. This is a Photoshop tool that takes part of the same or a different image and “stamps” it onto another part.</p>
<p>You can see this with the repeated pattern on Louis’s (on the left) sweater and the tile on the ground. You can also see it with the step behind Louis’s legs and on Charlotte’s hair and sleeve. The zipper on Catherine’s jacket also doesn’t line up.</p>
<p>The most charitable interpretation is that the princess was trying to remove distracting or unflattering elements. But the artefacts could also point to multiple images being blended together. This could either be to try to show the best version of each person (for example, with a smiling face and open eyes), or for another purpose.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1767135566645092616"}"></div></p>
<h2>How common are image edits?</h2>
<p>Image editing is increasingly common as both photography and editing are increasingly becoming more automated.</p>
<p>This sometimes happens without you even knowing.</p>
<p>Take HDR (high dynamic range) images, for example. Point your iPhone or equivalent at a beautiful sunset and watch it capture the scene from the brightest highlights to the darkest shadows. What happens here is your camera makes multiple images and automatically stitches them together to make an image <a href="https://www.adobe.com/creativecloud/photography/hub/guides/what-is-hdr-photography.html">with a wider range of contrast</a>.</p>
<p>While face-smoothing or teeth-whitening filters are nothing new, some smartphone camera apps apply them without being prompted. Newer technology like Google’s “Best Take” <a href="https://blog.google/products/photos/how-google-photos-best-take-works/">feature</a> can even combine the best attributes of multiple images to ensure everyone’s eyes are open and faces are smiling in group shots.</p>
<p>On social media, it seems everyone tries to show themselves in their best light, which is partially why so few of the photos on our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15551393.2020.1862663">camera rolls</a> make it onto our social media feeds. It is also why we often edit our photos to show our best sides.</p>
<p>But in other contexts, such as press photography, the <a href="https://www.ap.org/about/news-values-and-principles/telling-the-story/visuals">rules are much stricter</a>. The Associated Press, for example, bans all edits beyond simple crops, colour adjustments, and “minor adjustments” that “restore the authentic nature of the photograph”.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-images-that-show-wartime-photographs-can-have-greater-impact-than-the-written-word-216508">Three images that show wartime photographs can have greater impact than the written word</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Professional photojournalists haven’t always gotten it right, though. While the majority of lens-based news workers adhere to ethical guidelines like those published by the <a href="https://nppa.org/resources/code-ethics">National Press Photographers Association</a>, others have let deadline pressures, competition and the desire for exceptional imagery cloud their judgement.</p>
<p>One such example was in 2017, when British photojournalist Souvid Datta admitted to <a href="https://time.com/4766312/souvid-datta/">visually plagiarising</a> another photographer’s work within his own composition. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"859824132258537472"}"></div></p>
<p>Concerns around false or misleading visual information are at an all-time high, given advances in <a href="https://theconversation.com/nine-was-slammed-for-ai-editing-a-victorian-mps-dress-how-can-news-media-use-ai-responsibly-222382">generative artificial intelligence (AI)</a>. In fact, this year the World Economic Forum named the risk of misinformation and disinformation as the world’s greatest <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2024/01/ai-disinformation-global-risks/">short-term threat</a>. It placed this above armed conflict and natural disasters.</p>
<h2>What to do if you’re unsure about an image you’ve found online</h2>
<p>It can be hard to keep up with the more than <a href="https://theconversation.com/3-2-billion-images-and-720-000-hours-of-video-are-shared-online-daily-can-you-sort-real-from-fake-148630">3 billion photos</a> that are shared each day.</p>
<p>But, for the ones that matter, we owe it to ourselves to slow down, zoom in and ask ourselves a few simple <a href="https://www.aap.com.au/factcheck-resources/how-we-check-the-facts/">questions</a>:</p>
<p>1. Who made or shared the image? This can give clues about reliability and the purpose of making or sharing the image.</p>
<p>2. What’s the evidence? Can you find another version of the image, for example, using a <a href="https://tineye.com/">reverse-image search engine</a>?</p>
<p>3. What do trusted sources say? Consult resources like <a href="https://www.aap.com.au/factcheck/">AAP FactCheck</a> or <a href="https://factcheck.afp.com/">AFP Fact Check</a> to see if authoritative sources have already weighed in.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/deepfakes-how-to-empower-youth-to-fight-the-threat-of-misinformation-and-disinformation-221171">Deepfakes: How to empower youth to fight the threat of misinformation and disinformation</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225553/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>T.J. Thomson receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He is an affiliate with the ARC Centre of Excellence for Automated Decision Making & Society. Thomson collaborated with the Australian Associated Press in 2021 to produce fact-checking resources for its "Check the Facts" campaign.</span></em></p>The Princess of Wales is caught in a social media storm after the release of a clearly edited photo. But image editing is increasingly common, and your phone can even do it without you knowing.T.J. Thomson, Senior Lecturer in Visual Communication & Digital Media, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2255542024-03-12T02:18:16Z2024-03-12T02:18:16ZLATAM flight 800 ‘just dropped’ in mid-flight, injuring dozens. An expert explores what happened, and how to keep yourself safe<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581149/original/file-20240312-18-cpokru.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C38%2C4224%2C2776&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/los-angelescalifornia-january-14-2017-latam-558269083">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On Monday, LATAM Airlines flight 800 from Sydney to Auckland experienced what officials are describing as a “technical fault” that meant the <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2024/03/11/australia/new-zealand-latam-airlines-intl-hnk/index.html">Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner</a> “<a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/24-injured-after-technical-problem-latam-sydney-auckland-flight-nz-herald-2024-03-11/">just dropped</a>” without any warning. </p>
<p>The aircraft pitched downward very quickly, causing some passengers and crew members who were not wearing seatbelts to hit the ceiling, and leaving at least 50 people injured. The flight landed without further incident and the injured passengers and crew were transferred to local hospitals.</p>
<p>So what happened? And should air passengers be concerned?</p>
<p>The short answer is there’s no need to worry – if anything, it seems the plane’s safety systems worked as intended. The real takeaway from the story is you should always wear your seatbelt while seated, just like the cabin crew have been telling you.</p>
<h2>Keep perspective</h2>
<p>When we plan a trip, we usually have adventure or work on our minds as we wing our way to our destination. We think about what types of activities we’ll do, like hiking or water sports, and where we can find great meals. </p>
<p>Most of us never think about what is happening up front in the cockpit as we watch a movie or enjoy the in-flight meal. We generally don’t feel the need to worry about the flights as we feel confident we’ll get to our destination without a problem. Airline incidents are rare when you consider how much travelling is taking place around the globe.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/could-climate-change-have-played-a-role-in-the-airasia-crash-36002">Could climate change have played a role in the AirAsia crash?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>On peak travel days, there can be more than <a href="https://www.travelweek.ca/news/exactly-many-planes-world-today/">16,000 planes in the air</a> at any time. There are around 4 billion air travel passengers each year, and the number is <a href="https://www.airlineratings.com/news/airline-passengers-tipped-to-double-by-2035/">expected to double by 2035</a> by some estimates.</p>
<p>The vast majority of these flights pass without incident. However, when an emergency does occur it receives a lot of attention – a lot more attention than the far more frequent crashes or other accidents that happen on our roads, for example.</p>
<p>So when you do hear about an incident on a plane, the first thing to do is keep it in perspective.</p>
<h2>What happened on LATAM 800?</h2>
<p>Authorities have not released a lot of detail on the cause of the incident, beyond saying it was a “technical fault”. As LATAM Flight 800 originated in Australia, the transportation investigation teams from Australia, New Zealand, Boeing and LATAM will scrutinise the incident to better understand what happened. </p>
<p>Modern airliners have redundant systems for flight-critical controls. If one fails, it can be transferred to the backup automatically or manually by the flight crew. </p>
<p>One passenger stated that one of the <a href="https://www.news.com.au/travel/travel-updates/incidents/fifty-injured-after-pilot-lost-instrumentation-on-latam-flight-from-sydney-to-auckland/news-story/e713c49fd1332b06950d802d57cecb35">pilots said his instruments went blank</a>, he lost control briefly, and the backup system returned the aircraft back to normal operations. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1767346331448742364"}"></div></p>
<p>If the aircraft experienced a sudden loss of electrical power – from a generator failure, for example – it would cause the autopilot to fail as well. This could have caused the aircraft to abruptly change its flight configuration and descend rapidly. </p>
<p>Whatever happened in this case, it seems the redundant systems on the 787, <a href="https://simpleflying.com/united-787-9-generator-failure/">which includes six backup generators</a>, were able to rapidly return all systems to normal. </p>
<h2>Wear your seatbelt</h2>
<p>LATAM 800 is an example of why we should always wear seatbelts when we are seated on an airplane. While technical faults of this kind are rare, turbulence is a much more common occurrence that can lead to injuries for unsecured passengers.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/03/05/1161196591/turbulence-airplanes-injuries-death-safety">US Federal Aviation Administration</a> has reported that, in the United States, 30 passengers and 116 crew members were hospitalised due to in-flight injuries caused by turbulence between 2009 and 2021. </p>
<p>Crew members are most susceptible due to the nature of their job. The <a href="https://www.atsb.gov.au/publications/2014/in-flight-turbulence">Federal Aviation Administration states</a> the annual cost to the global aviation industry due to turbulence injuries is US$100 million.</p>
<h2>Climate change and turbulence</h2>
<p>With climate change heating up our atmosphere every year, we can expect more turbulence. Wind speeds at the altitudes where most aircraft fly are increasing, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/marisagarcia/2023/11/20/more-clear-air-turbulence-from-climate-change-raises-safety-concerns/?sh=18be6a894b39">causing more turbulence</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-air-turbulence-196872">What is air turbulence?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This type of turbulence is known as “clear air turbulence” and is difficult to predict or see with current aircraft technologies. <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/marisagarcia/2023/11/20/more-clear-air-turbulence-from-climate-change-raises-safety-concerns/?sh=18be6a894b39">Researchers have</a> found that severe clear air turbulence over the North Atlantic increased by 55% from 1979 to 2020. </p>
<p>For airlines, more turbulence will mean more wear and tear on aircraft. But for travellers, the bottom line is clear: always follow the safety instructions from the cabin crew, and keep your seatbelt fastened at all times when seated.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225554/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Doug Drury does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s unclear exactly what happened to violently shake up LATAM flight 800, but the moral for passengers is clear: wear your seatbelt.Doug Drury, Professor/Head of Aviation, CQUniversity AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2237182024-03-11T16:59:03Z2024-03-11T16:59:03ZStrange rock formations beneath the Pacific Ocean could change our understanding of the early Earth<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580557/original/file-20240307-18-xfnp9o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=21%2C70%2C922%2C475&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our world may seem fragile, but Earth has been around for a very long time. If we ventured far back into the past, would we reach a time when it looked fundamentally different? </p>
<p>The answer lies in some of the earliest extensive relics of Earth’s surface, found in a remote corner of southern Africa’s highveld – a region known to geologists as the Barberton Greenstone Belt.</p>
<p>The geological formations in this region have proved difficult to decipher, despite many attempts. But our <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/doi/10.1130/G51997.1/635654/Large-scale-submarine-landslides-in-the-Barberton">new research</a> has shown the key to cracking this code lies in geologically young rocks laid down on the seafloor of the Pacific Ocean off the coast of New Zealand.</p>
<p>This has opened up a new perspective on what our planet looked like when it was still young.</p>
<p>Our work began with a new, detailed geological map (by Cornel de Ronde) of part of the Barberton Greenstone Belt. This has revealed a fragment of the ancient deep seafloor, created some 3.3 billion years ago.</p>
<p>There was, however, something very strange about this seafloor, and it has taken our study of rocks laid down in New Zealand, at the other end of the Earth’s long history, to make sense of it. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/earths-early-evolution-fresh-insights-from-rocks-formed-3-5-billion-years-ago-223209">Earth’s early evolution: fresh insights from rocks formed 3.5 billion years ago</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We argue that the widely held view of the early Earth as a hotter place, free of earthquakes and with a surface so weak it was unable to form rigid plates is wrong. </p>
<p>Instead, the young Earth was continually rocked by large earthquakes, triggered as one tectonic plate slid beneath another in a subduction zone as part of plate tectonics – just like New Zealand today.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Landscape of Barberton Makhonjwa mountains in southern Africa" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580285/original/file-20240306-24-1gta3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C41%2C3904%2C1263&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580285/original/file-20240306-24-1gta3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580285/original/file-20240306-24-1gta3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580285/original/file-20240306-24-1gta3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580285/original/file-20240306-24-1gta3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580285/original/file-20240306-24-1gta3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580285/original/file-20240306-24-1gta3e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The geological formations of the Barberton Greenstone Belt have proved difficult to decipher.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/landscape-barberton-makhonjwa-mountains-2100809914">Shutterstock/Instinctively RDH</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Jumbled rocks</h2>
<p>Geologists have long found it hard to interpret the ancient rocks of the Barberton Greenstone Belt.</p>
<p>Layers that formed on land or in shallow water – for example, beautiful crystals of barite that had crystallised as evaporites, or the remains of bubbling mud pools – are found sitting on top of rocks that accumulated on the deep seafloor. Blocks of volcanic rock, chert, sandstone and conglomerate lie topsy turvy and jumbled up. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A block of black chert found in the Barberton Makhonjwa mountains." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580332/original/file-20240307-28-ngeq8t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580332/original/file-20240307-28-ngeq8t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580332/original/file-20240307-28-ngeq8t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580332/original/file-20240307-28-ngeq8t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580332/original/file-20240307-28-ngeq8t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580332/original/file-20240307-28-ngeq8t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580332/original/file-20240307-28-ngeq8t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Blocks of black chert can be found in the Barberton mountains.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/black-chert-ancient-rock-barberton-makhonjwa-1601619364">Shutterstock/Beate Wolter</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We realised this map looked remarkably similar to a geological map (by Simon Lamb) made of the aftermath of much more recent submarine landslides. These were triggered by great earthquakes along New Zealand’s largest fault, the megathrust in the Hikurangi subduction zone.</p>
<p>The bedrock is made of a jumble of sedimentary rocks, originally laid down on the seafloor off the coast of New Zealand some 20 million years ago. This region lay on the edges of the deep oceanic trench, where the Pacific tectonic plate is sliding down in a subduction zone triggering frequent large earthquakes. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A sketch profile through the New Zealand subduction zone" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577706/original/file-20240224-18-ml4f75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577706/original/file-20240224-18-ml4f75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577706/original/file-20240224-18-ml4f75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577706/original/file-20240224-18-ml4f75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577706/original/file-20240224-18-ml4f75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577706/original/file-20240224-18-ml4f75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577706/original/file-20240224-18-ml4f75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=334&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This sketch profile through the New Zealand subduction zone shows how the bedrock in the shallow shelf region is sliding down into deeper water, where huge blocks pile up on top of each other.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Simon Lamb</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>The rocks in New Zealand are the key to reading the geological record in the Barberton Greenstone Belt.</p>
<p>What was once thought to be untranslatable turns out to be a remnant of a gigantic landslide containing sediments deposited both on land or in very shallow water, jumbled with those that accumulated on the deep seafloor. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A detail of a new map by Cornel de Ronde of the Barberton Greenstone Belt shows jumbled rocks with the remains of underwater landslides consisting of huge slide blocks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577704/original/file-20240224-20-tpnf6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577704/original/file-20240224-20-tpnf6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577704/original/file-20240224-20-tpnf6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577704/original/file-20240224-20-tpnf6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577704/original/file-20240224-20-tpnf6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577704/original/file-20240224-20-tpnf6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577704/original/file-20240224-20-tpnf6e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This detail of a new map by Cornel de Ronde of the Barberton Greenstone Belt shows jumbled rocks with the remains of underwater landslides consisting of huge slide blocks. We think it is the inevitable consequence of one tectonic plate sliding beneath another in a subduction zone, periodically rocked by great earthquakes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cornel de Ronde</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The importance of this lies in the fact that New Zealand’s geological record is uniquely created by the profound effects of large earthquakes in a subduction zone. This is still happening today, most recently in November 2016, when the magnitude 7.8 Kaikoura earthquake set off vast submarine landslides and debris avalanches that flowed down into deep water.</p>
<p>We found the oldest record of these earthquakes, hidden in the highveld of southern Africa.</p>
<h2>The key to other mysteries</h2>
<p>Our work may have unlocked other mysteries, too, because subduction zones are also associated with explosive volcanic eruptions. </p>
<p>In January 2022, Tonga’s Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano erupted with the energy of a 60 Megaton atomic bomb, sending a vast cloud of ash into space. Over the next 11 hours, more than 200,000 lightning strikes flashed through this cloud.</p>
<p>In the same volcanic region, underwater volcanoes are erupting an extremely rare type of lava called boninite. This is the closest modern example of a lava that was common in the early Earth. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/origin-of-life-lightning-strikes-may-have-provided-missing-ingredient-for-earths-first-organisms-157343">Origin of life: lightning strikes may have provided missing ingredient for Earth's first organisms</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The vast amounts of volcanic ash found in the Barberton Greenstone Belt may be an ancient record of similar volcanic violence. Perhaps the associated lightning strikes created the crucible for life where the basic organic molecules were forged.</p>
<p>Hidden deep in the south-west Pacific are echoes of our planet not long after it was created. They provide unexpected clues about the origins of the world we know today, and possibly life itself. The key to this turns out to be the subduction of tectonic plates.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223718/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Lamb receives funding from Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cornel de Ronde does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research comparing the geology of southern Africa with the deep seafloor near New Zealand challenges conventional views of how the planet behaved when it was very young.Simon Lamb, Associate Professor in Geophysics, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonCornel de Ronde, Principal Scientist, GNS ScienceLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2251752024-03-08T05:46:43Z2024-03-08T05:46:43Z80% of Australians think AI risk is a global priority. The government needs to step up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580606/original/file-20240308-24-slblqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=332%2C718%2C5407%2C3269&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/neon-metaverse-futuristic-concept-closeup-on-2261355289">Alliance Images/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A new nationally representative survey has revealed Australians are deeply concerned about the risks posed by artificial intelligence (AI). They want the government to take stronger action to ensure its safe development and use.</p>
<p>We <a href="https://aigovernance.org.au/survey/">conducted the survey</a> in early 2024 and found 80% of Australians believe preventing catastrophic risks from advanced AI systems should be a global priority on par with pandemics and nuclear war.</p>
<p>As AI systems become more capable, decisions about how we develop, deploy and use AI are now critical. The promise of powerful technology may tempt companies – and countries – to <a href="https://www.cold-takes.com/racing-through-a-minefield-the-ai-deployment-problem/">race ahead</a> without heeding the risks.</p>
<p>Our findings also reveal a gap between the AI risks that media and government tend to focus on, and the risks Australians think are most important.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/demand-for-computer-chips-fuelled-by-ai-could-reshape-global-politics-and-security-224438">Demand for computer chips fuelled by AI could reshape global politics and security</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Public concern about AI risks is growing</h2>
<p>The development and use of increasingly powerful AI is still on the rise. Recent releases such as <a href="https://blog.google/technology/ai/google-gemini-ai/">Google’s Gemini</a> and <a href="https://www.anthropic.com/news/claude-3-family">Anthropic’s Claude 3</a> have seemingly near-human level capabilities in professional, medical and legal domains.</p>
<p>But the hype has been tempered by rising levels of public and expert concern. Last year, more than 500 people and organisations made submissions to the Australian government’s <a href="https://consult.industry.gov.au/supporting-responsible-ai">Safe and Responsible AI discussion paper</a>.</p>
<p>They described AI-related risks such as biased decision making, erosion of trust in democratic institutions through misinformation, and increasing inequality from AI-caused unemployment.</p>
<p>Some are even worried about a particularly powerful AI causing <a href="https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2024/1/10/24032987/ai-impacts-survey-artificial-intelligence-chatgpt-openai-existential-risk-superintelligence">a global catastrophe</a> or <a href="https://forecastingresearch.org/s/XPT.pdf">human extinction</a>. While this idea is heavily contested, across a series of <a href="https://wiki.aiimpacts.org/doku.php?id=ai_timelines:predictions_of_human-level_ai_timelines:ai_timeline_surveys:2016_expert_survey_on_progress_in_ai">three</a> <a href="https://wiki.aiimpacts.org/ai_timelines/predictions_of_human-level_ai_timelines/ai_timeline_surveys/2022_expert_survey_on_progress_in_ai#population">large</a> <a href="https://aiimpacts.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Thousands_of_AI_authors_on_the_future_of_AI.pdf">surveys</a>, most AI researchers judged there to be at least a 5% chance of superhuman AI being “extremely bad (e.g., human extinction)”.</p>
<p><iframe id="vzx6s" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/vzx6s/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>The potential benefits of AI are considerable. AI is already leading to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03819-2">breakthroughs in biology and medicine</a>, and it’s used to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07024-9">control fusion reactors</a>, which could one day provide zero-carbon energy. Generative AI <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w31161">improves productivity</a>, particularly for learners and students.</p>
<p>However, the speed of progress is raising alarm bells. People worry we aren’t prepared to handle powerful AI systems that could be misused or behave in unintended and harmful ways.</p>
<p>In response to such concerns, the world’s governments are attempting regulation. The European Union <a href="https://theconversation.com/eu-approves-draft-law-to-regulate-ai-heres-how-it-will-work-205672">has approved a draft AI law</a>, the United Kingdom <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ai-safety-institute-overview/introducing-the-ai-safety-institute">has established an AI safety institute</a>, while US President Joe Biden recently signed an executive order to promote <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2023/10/30/executive-order-on-the-safe-secure-and-trustworthy-development-and-use-of-artificial-intelligence/">safer development and governance of advanced AI</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/who-will-write-the-rules-for-ai-how-nations-are-racing-to-regulate-artificial-intelligence-216900">Who will write the rules for AI? How nations are racing to regulate artificial intelligence</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Australians want action to prevent dangerous outcomes from AI</h2>
<p>To understand how Australians feel about AI risks and ways to address them, we surveyed a nationally representative sample of 1,141 Australians in January and February 2024.</p>
<p>We found Australians ranked the prevention of “dangerous and catastrophic outcomes from AI” as the number one priority for government action.</p>
<p><iframe id="yzst1" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/yzst1/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Australians are most concerned about AI systems that are unsafe, untrustworthy and misaligned with human values.</p>
<p>Other top worries include AI being used in cyber attacks and autonomous weapons, AI-related unemployment and AI failures causing damage to critical infrastructure.</p>
<p><iframe id="cg9ds" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/cg9ds/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Strong public support for a new AI regulatory body</h2>
<p>Australians expect the government to take decisive action on their behalf. An overwhelming majority (86%) want a new government body dedicated to AI regulation and governance, akin to the <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/">Therapeutic Goods Administration</a> for medicines.</p>
<p>Nine in ten Australians also believe the country should play a leading role in international efforts to regulate AI development.</p>
<p>Perhaps most strikingly, two-thirds of Australians would support hitting pause on AI development for six months to allow regulators to catch up.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-used-to-work-at-google-and-now-im-an-ai-researcher-heres-why-slowing-down-ai-development-is-wise-202944">I used to work at Google and now I'm an AI researcher. Here's why slowing down AI development is wise</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Government plans should meet public expectations</h2>
<p>In January 2024, the Australian government published an <a href="https://storage.googleapis.com/converlens-au-industry/industry/p/prj2452c8e24d7a400c72429/public_assets/safe-and-responsible-ai-in-australia-governments-interim-response.pdf">interim plan for addressing AI risks</a>. It includes strengthening existing laws on privacy, online safety and disinformation. It also acknowledges our currently regulatory frameworks aren’t sufficient.</p>
<p>The interim plan outlines the development of voluntary AI safety standards, voluntary labels on AI materials, and the establishment of an advisory body.</p>
<p>Our survey shows Australians support a more safety-focused, regulation-first approach. This contrasts with the targeted and voluntary approach outlined in the interim plan.</p>
<p>It is challenging to encourage innovation while preventing accidents or misuse. But Australians would prefer the government prioritise preventing dangerous and catastrophic outcomes over “bringing the benefits of AI to everyone”.</p>
<p><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2307.03718">Some ways to do this include</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>establishing an AI safety lab with the technical capacity to audit and/or monitor the most advanced AI systems</p></li>
<li><p>establishing a dedicated AI regulator</p></li>
<li><p>defining robust standards and guidelines for responsible AI development</p></li>
<li><p>requiring independent auditing of high-risk AI systems</p></li>
<li><p>ensuring corporate liability and redress for AI harms</p></li>
<li><p>increasing public investment in AI safety research</p></li>
<li><p>actively engaging the public in shaping the future of AI governance.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Figuring out how to effectively govern AI is one of <a href="https://theelders.org/news/elders-and-future-life-institute-release-open-letter-calling-long-view-leadership-existential">humanity’s great challenges</a>. Australians are keenly aware of the risks of failure, and want our government to address this challenge without delay.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225175/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Noetel has received funding from the Australian Research Council, the Medical Research Future Fund, Sport Australia, Open Philanthropy, and the National Health and Medical Research Council. He is a director of Effective Altruism Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexander Saeri has received funding from the Effective Altruism Infrastructure Fund and the FTX Future Fund. He is affiliated with Good Ancestors Policy.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jess Graham does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Increasingly powerful AI is everywhere. But the hype is tempered by public and expert concerns – they want stronger regulation before it’s too late.Michael Noetel, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, The University of QueenslandAlexander Saeri, Research Project Manager, The University of QueenslandJess Graham, Research officer, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2230092024-03-07T11:12:21Z2024-03-07T11:12:21ZOur brains take rhythmic snapshots of the world as we walk – and we never knew<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577820/original/file-20240226-16-psaujb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=52%2C9%2C3089%2C2123&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-hiking-mountains-adventure-exercising-legs-105847466">Blazej Lyjak/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For decades, psychology departments around the world have studied human behaviour in darkened laboratories that restrict natural movement.</p>
<p>Our new study, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-45780-4">published today in Nature Communications</a>, challenges the wisdom of this approach. With the help of virtual reality (VR), we have revealed previously hidden aspects of perception that happen during a simple everyday action – walking. </p>
<p>We found the rhythmic movement of walking changes how sensitive we are to the surrounding environment. With every step we take, our perception cycles through “good” and “bad” phases. </p>
<p>This means your smooth, continuous experience of an afternoon stroll is deceptive. Instead, it’s as if your brain takes rhythmic snapshots of the world – and they are synchronised with the rhythm of your footfall.</p>
<h2>The next step in studies of human perception</h2>
<p>In psychology, the study of visual perception refers to how our brains use information from our eyes to create our experience of the world.</p>
<p>Typical psychology experiments that investigate visual perception involve darkened laboratory rooms where participants are asked to sit motionless in front of a computer screen.</p>
<p>Often, their heads will be fixed in position with a chin rest, and they will be asked to respond to any changes they might see on the screen. </p>
<p>This approach has been invaluable in building our knowledge of human perception, and the foundations of how our brains make sense of the world. But these scenarios are a far cry from how we experience the world every day.</p>
<p>This means we might not be able to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1571064523000830">generalise</a> the results we discover in these highly restricted settings to the real world. It would be a bit like trying to understand fish behaviour, but only by studying fish in an aquarium.</p>
<p>Instead, we went out on a limb. Motivated by the fact our brains have evolved to support action, we set out to test vision during walking – one of our most frequent and everyday behaviours.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579126/original/file-20240301-16-354ica.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A row of students in a uni computer lab looking at screens." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579126/original/file-20240301-16-354ica.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579126/original/file-20240301-16-354ica.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579126/original/file-20240301-16-354ica.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579126/original/file-20240301-16-354ica.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579126/original/file-20240301-16-354ica.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579126/original/file-20240301-16-354ica.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579126/original/file-20240301-16-354ica.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Doing tests in a lab isn’t quite the same as seeing and interacting with things in the real world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/side-view-students-using-computer-lab-122284963">sirtravelalot/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A walk in a (virtual) forest</h2>
<p>Our key innovation was to use a wireless VR environment to test vision continuously while walking. </p>
<p>Several previous studies have examined the effects of light exercise on perception, but used <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2010.00202">treadmills</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01082">exercise bikes</a>. While these methods are better than sitting still, they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01380.2006">don’t match the ways</a> we naturally move through the world.</p>
<p>Instead, we simulated an open forest. Our participants were free to roam, yet unknown to them, we were carefully tracking their head movement with every step they took. </p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/917787370" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Participants walked in a virtual forest while trying to detect brief visual ‘flashes’ in the moving white circle.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We tracked head movement because as you walk, your head bobs up and down. Your head is lowest when both feet are on the ground and highest when swinging your leg in-between steps. We used these changes in head height to mark the phases of each participant’s “step-cycle”.</p>
<p>Participants also completed our visual task while they walked, which required looking for brief visual “flashes” they needed to detect as quickly as possible.</p>
<p>By aligning performance on our visual task to the phases of the step-cycle, we found visual perception was not consistent.</p>
<p>Instead, it oscillated like the ripples of a pond, cycling through good and bad periods with every step. We found that depending on the phases of their step-cycle, participants were more likely to sense changes in their environment, had faster reaction times, and were more likely to make decisions.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/everything-we-see-is-a-mash-up-of-the-brains-last-15-seconds-of-visual-information-175577">Everything we see is a mash-up of the brain's last 15 seconds of visual information</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Oscillations in nature, oscillations in vision</h2>
<p>Oscillations in vision have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.006">shown before</a>, but this is the first time they have been linked to walking.</p>
<p>Our key new finding is these oscillations slowed or increased to match the rhythm of a person’s step-cycle. On average, perception was best when swinging between steps, but the timing of these rhythms varied between participants. This new link between the body and mind offers clues as to how our brains coordinate perception and action during everyday behaviour. </p>
<p>Next, we want to investigate how these rhythms impact different populations. For example, certain psychiatric disorders can lead to people having <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2922365/">abnormalities</a> in their gait.</p>
<p>There are further questions we want to answer: are slips and falls more common for those with stronger oscillations in vision? Do similar oscillations occur for our perception of sound? What is the optimal timing for presenting information and responding to it when a person is moving?</p>
<p>Our findings also hint at broader questions about the nature of perception itself. How does the brain stitch together these rhythms in perception to give us our seamless experience of an evening stroll?</p>
<p>These questions were once the domain of philosophers, but we may be able to answer them, as we combine technology with action to better understand natural behaviour.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223009/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Davidson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Psychology researchers have used virtual reality to find our brains oscillate with each step – an intriguing finding to better understand how we see the world.Matthew Davidson, Postdoctoral research fellow, lecturer, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2251682024-03-06T06:18:49Z2024-03-06T06:18:49ZNBN upgrade: what a free speed increase for fast broadband plans would mean for consumers and retailers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580058/original/file-20240306-26-onsg4t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C10%2C2396%2C1688&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NBN Co</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The National Broadband Network may offer a significant speed boost to many users, if a <a href="https://minister.infrastructure.gov.au/rowland/media-release/fibre-investment-unlocks-proposal-turbo-charge-speeds-nbn">plan from NBN Co</a>, the operator of the network, is implemented. NBN Co’s proposed upgrade would provide download speeds up to five times faster for users on its three fastest home services (Home Fast, Home Superfast and Home Ultrafast).</p>
<p>The speed boost would come at no extra wholesale cost to retailers. On its face, this is an exciting announcement that aims to meet consumer demand for higher speed broadband connections to the internet. </p>
<p>NBN Co has <a href="https://www.nbnco.com.au/corporate-information/media-centre/media-statements/nbn-plans-to-accelerate-highest-speed-tiers">highlighted</a> the rationale for this move. The average Australian household now has around 22 internet-connected devices, and this is expected to grow to 33 by 2026. Data usage per household has doubled in the past five years, and now averages 443 gigabytes per month.</p>
<p><iframe id="NmLBb" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/NmLBb/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Why do people want more data?</h2>
<p>Higher data usage is being driven by new applications, entertainment and online gaming. For example, game updates can be as large as 30 or more gigabytes today. If games update regularly, the amount of data used each month increases quickly.</p>
<p>Entertainment too is using more data. Most streaming video today is provided in a 720p format, but newer televisions can display content at the higher-resolution 4K format. With faster broadband speeds becoming more common, consumers should anticipate more 4K content becoming available.</p>
<p>Likewise, virtual reality and augmented reality are relatively new technologies that are slowly becoming integrated with gaming and business systems. These high data usage technologies are likely to become more present in our daily lives over the next decade.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580077/original/file-20240306-22-g3idi5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580077/original/file-20240306-22-g3idi5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580077/original/file-20240306-22-g3idi5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580077/original/file-20240306-22-g3idi5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580077/original/file-20240306-22-g3idi5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580077/original/file-20240306-22-g3idi5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580077/original/file-20240306-22-g3idi5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580077/original/file-20240306-22-g3idi5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nbnco.com.au/corporate-information/media-centre/media-statements/nbn-plans-to-accelerate-highest-speed-tiers">NBN Co</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>When would the upgrades happen?</h2>
<p>NBN Co has indicated it would like to start providing the new higher speed products later this year, or early next year. The upgrade would be achieved by increasing the overall capacity of the NBN, which could then be “shared out” to consumers. </p>
<p>The NBN Co announcement is something the service providers should have expected at some point soon.</p>
<p>NBN Co’s announcement, coming only months after the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) approved a proposal for <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/media-release/new-nbn-regulation-will-promote-competition-and-long-term-interests-of-australians">major annual price increases</a>, may not be welcomed by all broadband retailers. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nbn-upgrades-explained-how-will-they-make-internet-speeds-faster-and-will-the-regions-miss-out-146749">NBN upgrades explained: how will they make internet speeds faster? And will the regions miss out?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A spokesperson for the second largest broadband retailer, TPG Telecom, told <a href="https://www.commsday.com/">CommsDay</a> yesterday:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It took more than two years to finalise [the new pricing approved by the ACCC] and only three months for NBN Co to undermine the certainty it was supposed to create. We will always welcome opportunities to deliver greater service and speed to our customers, but NBN’s monopolistic whims make genuine collaboration with them very difficult.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Retailers understandably want certainty in wholesale pricing. One difficulty in achieving this is the high cost of “backhaul” in Australia: this is an intermediate connection between service providers and the NBN itself. Larger retailers have their own backhaul infrastructure, but smaller retailers must pay a third party.</p>
<p>If the NBN offers higher speed broadband connections, smaller retailers may end up paying more for backhaul – and will be faced with a dilemma over whether to pass these extra costs to consumers. </p>
<p>Telstra and Optus have broadly supported the plan by NBN Co to move to new technologies that offer the higher speed capabilities.</p>
<h2>A faster network may entice consumers</h2>
<p>Aussie Broadband Group managing director Phillip Britt told <a href="https://gizmodo.com.au/2024/03/nbn-500-telstra-optus-tpg-aussie/">Gizmodo Australia</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Aussie Broadband is still understanding the detail of NBN Co’s speed proposal, but on the face of it, it could represent one of the most exciting steps in technology adoption for Australian households and businesses.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>For NBN Co, the boost for the higher-speed plans may entice consumers to move from basic 50 Mbps plans to the upgraded Home Fast plan (which will offer download speeds of 500 Mbps, up from the current 100 Mbps).</p>
<p>NBN Co may also hope this encourages the remaining consumers with copper “fibre to the node” connections to move to “fibre to the premises” by taking advantage of one of the low or no cost upgrade offers available through retailers.</p>
<p>NBN Co has issued a consultation paper to retailers, asking for their feedback on the proposed changes to the high speed products by April 19 2024.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225168/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark A Gregory does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australia’s NBN Co wants to offer services up to five times as fast at no extra cost. What’s the catch?Mark A Gregory, Associate Professor, School of Engineering, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243732024-03-05T21:00:26Z2024-03-05T21:00:26ZFrozen in time: old paintings and new photographs reveal some NZ glaciers may soon be extinct<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579425/original/file-20240303-30-xkp27s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C64%2C8502%2C3052&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Freshly exposed bedrock at the terminus of Brewster Glacier in March 2023.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andrew Lorrey</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the austral summer draws to a close, we are preparing to fly over the Southern Alps to survey glaciers. This annual flight supports the longest scientific study of Aotearoa New Zealand’s icescapes – and it shows that all of our glaciers have retreated since 1978.</p>
<p>This year’s survey comes on the heels of the <a href="https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/wmo-confirms-2023-smashes-global-temperature-record">warmest year on record globally</a> and the <a href="https://niwa.co.nz/climate/summaries/annual-climate-summary-2023#">second warmest for New Zealand</a>, which produced extreme weather events and impacts that still cut deep for many local communities. </p>
<p>Despite strong El Niño conditions in the Pacific this season, which typically <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14202">boost ice volume</a>, we expect the recent heat grilling the glaciers will have had a grim effect. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sboyVimLwY0?wmode=transparent&start=290" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Our work monitoring ice in the Southern Alps and central North Island shows many small glaciers are approaching an extinction horizon.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The 46-year record of end-of-summer glacier images is incredibly valuable because it contains irrefutable <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-birds-eye-view-of-new-zealands-changing-glaciers-97074">visual evidence of climate change</a>. We can see how glaciers are changing from year to year, with extremely hot years such as 2023 standing out clearly. </p>
<p>But our insights aren’t limited to images of glaciers taken from light aircraft. We can also learn from historic paintings of New Zealand’s mountain landscapes. </p>
<h2>Portraits of past climate</h2>
<p>Old paintings with glaciers are common for the European Alps, where many artists lived and visited. But similar offerings are relatively rare for our part of the world.</p>
<p>What’s remarkable for New Zealand is that some of these works of art were produced without the artist ever seeing the glaciers. </p>
<p>We recently scrutinised the artistic vistas painted by <a href="https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/1g25/gully-john">John Gully</a> to see if they were true to the real landscapes. Gully based his works on field sketches by <a href="https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/6h17/haast-julius-von">Julius Haast</a>, one of the first scientists to formerly recognise widespread glaciation in New Zealand. </p>
<p>Gully’s paintings show features that can be linked to glacial landforms we can see today, including moraines (rocks deposited by a glacier, typically at its edges), outwash fans (sediment deposited by braided rivers fed by a melting glacier) and trimlines (lines that mark a glacier’s earlier, higher position in a valley). </p>
<p>Many of those features in the paintings have ice in direct contact with them, showing how accurately field scientists and artists depicted glaciers at the time. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578079/original/file-20240226-27-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578079/original/file-20240226-27-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578079/original/file-20240226-27-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578079/original/file-20240226-27-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578079/original/file-20240226-27-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=305&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578079/original/file-20240226-27-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578079/original/file-20240226-27-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578079/original/file-20240226-27-zie9ae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">John Gully, On the Great Godley Glacier [1862], watercolour. Lakes and sediment now exist in these valleys where glaciers used to flow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alexander Turnbull Library</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Gully’s paintings were intended to convey the dramatic scale of a mysterious land located far away from industrialised 19th-century society. Serendipitously, for contemporary scientists, comparing these artworks with current photos vividly shows the magnitude of ice loss that has occurred since the mid-1800s. </p>
<p>The perspective we get from Gully’s paintings concurs with studies that place the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1169312">timing of ice retreat</a> as being already underway in the mid-1800s. Prior to this time, known commonly as the Little Ice Age, New Zealand <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00382-013-1876-8">experienced cooler temperatures</a> between about 1450 and 1850. </p>
<p>Modelling ice volume loss using these Little Ice Age landforms provides a benchmark. It illustrates that recent changes have occurred in a geological instant and that the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-70276-8">peak summer flows from glaciers</a> that helped create the braided river systems so typical of the South Island landscape are in the past. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-climate-change-made-the-melting-of-new-zealands-glaciers-10-times-more-likely-143626">How climate change made the melting of New Zealand's glaciers 10 times more likely</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Accelerating pace of glacier retreat</h2>
<p>Recent glacier changes are occurring ever more quickly. The long-term photographic record from the Southern Alps shows an <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-glaciology/article/southern-alps-equilibrium-line-altitudes-four-decades-of-observations-show-coherent-glacierclimate-responses-and-a-rising-snowline-trend/44DD090754DAEB558AFFF4D31BD734B1">acceleration</a> of the pace at which snowlines rise due to climate warming. </p>
<p>For a glacier to exist, average summer temperatures must be cool enough for the summer snowline to remain below mountain tops so ice can accumulate. We now observe that ice is disappearing from mountains which held small amounts during the late 1970s. Glaciers there are going extinct.</p>
<p>Combining long-term snowline observations with direct field measurements of <a href="https://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacier-processes/mass-balance/#">glacier mass balance</a> and <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-glaciology/article/using-structure-from-motion-photogrammetry-to-measure-past-glacier-changes-from-historic-aerial-photographs/18ACF49DFC0EC82A02655108A9E3453C">3D models of ice volume change</a> gives a good synopsis of how things have changed and a sense of things to come. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cop28-earths-frozen-zones-are-in-trouble-were-already-seeing-the-consequences-218119">COP28: Earth's frozen zones are in trouble – we're already seeing the consequences</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We estimate at least 13 trillion litres of water (in the form of ice) has been lost from the Southern Alps since 1978. This is equivalent to the basic water needs for all New Zealanders during that time. </p>
<p>The regions around the central Southern Alps that hold many small glaciers are experiencing accelerated ice loss. Some areas, like Southland and Otago, have small glaciers that are rapidly approaching an extinction horizon. And once they pass it, we are not likely to see them again. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579415/original/file-20240303-18-6z9u00.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579415/original/file-20240303-18-6z9u00.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579415/original/file-20240303-18-6z9u00.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579415/original/file-20240303-18-6z9u00.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579415/original/file-20240303-18-6z9u00.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579415/original/file-20240303-18-6z9u00.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579415/original/file-20240303-18-6z9u00.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579415/original/file-20240303-18-6z9u00.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=542&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Brewster Glacier in Mt Aspiring National Park has the longest record of mass balance measurements. Using snowstakes, we document its retreat due to warming temperatures.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andrew Lorrey</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The central North Island also hosts a number of <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/ourchangingworld/audio/2018783809/glaciers-as-barometers-of-climate-change54">small glaciers on Mt. Ruapehu</a> that feed into the headwaters of the Waikato and Whanganui rivers. Glaciers there were <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00288306.2020.1811354">originally mapped</a> in the mid-20th century, and again in 1978, 1988 and 2016. A recent photographic capture of Mt Ruapehu reflects a dire situation, indicating glaciers are fast approaching extinction. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579099/original/file-20240301-16-h982sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579099/original/file-20240301-16-h982sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579099/original/file-20240301-16-h982sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=706&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579099/original/file-20240301-16-h982sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=706&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579099/original/file-20240301-16-h982sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=706&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579099/original/file-20240301-16-h982sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=887&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579099/original/file-20240301-16-h982sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=887&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579099/original/file-20240301-16-h982sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=887&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This aerial image of the Mt Ruapehu summit region shows the earliest complete glacier survey from the Randolph Glacier Inventory (1978, white-dashed line) and an assessment from 2022 (yellow-dashed line).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shaun Eaves</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Environments and ethics</h2>
<p>New Zealand’s diminishing glaciers and loss of ice across Earth are largely carrying on unabated. These changes are primarily caused by rising temperatures driven by <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-020-0849-2">human activities that produce greenhouse gas emissions</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://gml.noaa.gov/ccgg/trends/weekly.html">global increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide</a> continues undiminished. This needs to change soon and rapidly to protect many of our glaciers. </p>
<p>We face particularly serious ethical questions with respect to Mt Ruapehu’s glaciers. They help sustain the Whanganui River Te Awa Tupua, which has been <a href="https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2017/0007/latest/whole.html">granted the rights of a living entity</a>. The glaciers’ ongoing retreat – and possible extinction – highlights our collective responsibilities for doing simultaneous harm to the environment and people.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The authors acknowledge Rebekah Parsons-King at NIWA for her work on the Glacier Extinction Horizons video. We also thank Brian Anderson for his long-term leadership on the Brewster Glacier snowstakes programme, and Pascal Sirguey for his work calculating mass balance for Brewster Glacier.</em> </p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224373/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Lorrey receives funding from NIWA's Strategic Science Investment Fund, which supports the annual Southern Alps glacier and snowline survey. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>George Hook, Lauren Vargo, and Shaun Eaves do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An estimated 13 trillion litres of ice has already been lost from glaciers in New Zealand’s Southern Alps since 1978. Several are now approaching extinction.Andrew Lorrey, Principal Scientist & Programme Leader of Southern Hemisphere Climates and Environments, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric ResearchGeorge Hook, Research Associate (in process), Canterbury MuseumLauren Vargo, Research Fellow, Antarctic Research Centre, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonShaun Eaves, Senior Lecturer in Physical Geography, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2246372024-03-05T19:11:02Z2024-03-05T19:11:02ZWhat is a GPU? An expert explains the chips powering the AI boom, and why they’re worth trillions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579746/original/file-20240305-26-fy5cnb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=804%2C1247%2C2236%2C1299&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AMD</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As the world rushes to make use of the latest wave of AI technologies, one piece of high-tech hardware has become a surprisingly hot commodity: the graphics processing unit, or GPU. </p>
<p>A top-of-the-line GPU can sell for <a href="https://www.tomshardware.com/tech-industry/artificial-intelligence/nvidias-h100-ai-gpus-cost-up-to-four-times-more-than-amds-competing-mi300x-amds-chips-cost-dollar10-to-dollar15k-apiece-nvidias-h100-has-peaked-beyond-dollar40000">tens of thousands of dollars</a>, and leading manufacturer NVIDIA has seen its market valuation <a href="https://www.reuters.com/technology/nvidia-set-close-with-2-trillion-valuation-dell-stokes-ai-rally-2024-03-01/">soar past US$2 trillion</a> as demand for its products surges.</p>
<p>GPUs aren’t just high-end AI products, either. There are less powerful GPUs in phones, laptops and gaming consoles, too.</p>
<p>By now you’re probably wondering: what is a GPU, really? And what makes them so special?</p>
<h2>What is a GPU?</h2>
<p>GPUs were originally designed primarily to quickly generate and display complex 3D scenes and objects, such as those involved in video games and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_design">computer-aided design</a> software. Modern GPUs also handle tasks such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_codec">decompressing</a> video streams. </p>
<p>The “brain” of most computers is a chip called a central processing unit (CPU). CPUs can be used to generate graphical scenes and decompress videos, but they are typically far slower and less efficient on these tasks compared to GPUs. CPUs are better suited for general computation tasks, such as word processing and browsing web pages.</p>
<h2>How are GPUs different from CPUs?</h2>
<p>A typical modern CPU is made up of between 8 and 16 “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-core_processor">cores</a>”, each of which can process complex tasks in a sequential manner.</p>
<p>GPUs, on the other hand, have thousands of relatively small cores, which are designed to all work at the same time (“in parallel”) to achieve fast overall processing. This makes them well suited for tasks that require a large number of simple operations which can be done at the same time, rather than one after another. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/demand-for-computer-chips-fuelled-by-ai-could-reshape-global-politics-and-security-224438">Demand for computer chips fuelled by AI could reshape global politics and security</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Traditional GPUs come in two main flavours. </p>
<p>First, there are standalone chips, which often come in add-on cards for large desktop computers. Second are GPUs combined with a CPU in the same chip package, which are often found in laptops and game consoles such as the PlayStation 5. In both cases, the CPU controls what the GPU does.</p>
<h2>Why are GPUs so useful for AI?</h2>
<p>It turns out GPUs can be repurposed to do more than generate graphical scenes. </p>
<p>Many of the machine learning techniques behind artificial intelligence (AI), such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_learning">deep neural networks</a>, rely heavily on various forms of “matrix multiplication”. </p>
<p>This is a mathematical operation where very large sets of numbers are multiplied and summed together. These operations are well suited to parallel processing, and hence can be performed very quickly by GPUs.</p>
<h2>What’s next for GPUs?</h2>
<p>The number-crunching prowess of GPUs is steadily increasing, due to the rise in the number of cores and their operating speeds. These improvements are primarily driven by improvements in chip manufacturing by companies such as <a href="https://www.anandtech.com/show/21241/tsmc-2nm-update-two-fabs-in-construction-one-awaiting-government-approval">TSMC</a> in Taiwan. </p>
<p>The size of individual transistors – the basic components of any computer chip – is decreasing, allowing more transistors to be placed in the same amount of physical space. </p>
<p>However, that is not the entire story. While traditional GPUs are useful for AI-related computation tasks, they are not optimal.</p>
<p>Just as GPUs were originally designed to accelerate computers by providing specialised processing for graphics, there are accelerators that are designed to speed up machine learning tasks. These accelerators are often referred to as “data centre GPUs”. </p>
<p>Some of the most popular accelerators, made by companies such as AMD and NVIDIA, started out as traditional GPUs. Over time, their designs evolved to better handle various machine learning tasks, for example by supporting the more efficient “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bfloat16_floating-point_format">brain float</a>” number format. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579743/original/file-20240305-26-pixv44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=965%2C333%2C1891%2C1253&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of an iridescent computer chip against a black background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579743/original/file-20240305-26-pixv44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=965%2C333%2C1891%2C1253&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579743/original/file-20240305-26-pixv44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579743/original/file-20240305-26-pixv44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579743/original/file-20240305-26-pixv44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579743/original/file-20240305-26-pixv44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579743/original/file-20240305-26-pixv44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579743/original/file-20240305-26-pixv44.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NVIDIA’s latest GPUs have specialised functions to speed up the ‘transformer’ software used in many modern AI applications.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/multimedia/search?origin=multimedia&keywords=h100">NVIDIA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other accelerators, such as Google’s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_Processing_Unit">Tensor Processing Units</a> and Tenstorrent’s <a href="https://tenstorrent.com/frequently-asked-questions/">Tensix Cores</a>, were designed from the ground up for speeding up deep neural networks.</p>
<p>Data centre GPUs and other AI accelerators typically come with significantly more memory than traditional GPU add-on cards, which is crucial for training large AI models. The larger the AI model, the more capable and accurate it is.</p>
<p>To further speed up training and handle even larger AI models, such as ChatGPT, many data centre GPUs can be pooled together to form a supercomputer. This requires more complex software in order to properly harness the available number crunching power. Another approach is to create a single very large accelerator, such as the “<a href="https://www.cerebras.net/blog/wafer-scale-processors-the-time-has-come/">wafer-scale processor</a>” produced by Cerebras.</p>
<h2>Are specialised chips the future?</h2>
<p>CPUs have not been standing still either. Recent CPUs from AMD and Intel have built-in low-level instructions that speed up the number-crunching required by deep neural networks. This additional functionality mainly helps with “inference” tasks – that is, using AI models that have already been developed elsewhere. </p>
<p>To train the AI models in the first place, large GPU-like accelerators are still needed.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/clampdown-on-chip-exports-is-the-most-consequential-us-move-against-china-yet-192738">Clampdown on chip exports is the most consequential US move against China yet</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It is possible to create ever more specialised accelerators for specific machine learning algorithms. Recently, for example, a company called Groq has produced a “<a href="https://wow.groq.com/lpu-inference-engine/">language processing unit</a>” (LPU) specifically designed for running large language models along the lines of ChatGPT. </p>
<p>However, creating these specialised processors takes considerable engineering resources. History shows the usage and popularity of any given machine learning algorithm tends to peak and then wane – so expensive specialised hardware may become quickly outdated. </p>
<p>For the average consumer, however, that’s unlikely to be a problem. The GPUs and other chips in the products you use are likely to keep quietly getting faster.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224637/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Conrad Sanderson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Originally designed to speed up computer graphics, GPUs have become a hot commodity as AI workhorses.Conrad Sanderson, Research Scientist & Team Leader, CSIROLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2249542024-03-05T05:07:21Z2024-03-05T05:07:21ZMH370 disappearance 10 years on: can we still find it?<p>It has been ten years since Malaysia Airlines passenger flight MH370 <a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-to-learn-despite-another-report-on-missing-flight-mh370-and-still-no-explanation-100764">disappeared on March 8 2014</a>. To this day it remains one of the biggest aviation mysteries globally.</p>
<p>It’s unthinkable that a modern Boeing 777-200ER jetliner with 239 people on board can simply vanish without any explanation. Yet multiple searches in the past decade have still not yielded the main wreckage or the bodies of the victims.</p>
<p>At a remembrance event held earlier this week, the Malaysian transport minister announced <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/malaysia-says-mh370-search-must-go-10-years-after-plane-vanished-2024-03-03/">a renewed push for another search</a>.</p>
<p>If approved by the Malaysian government, the survey will be conducted by United States seabed exploration firm Ocean Infinity, whose efforts were unsuccessful in 2018. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/lessons-to-learn-despite-another-report-on-missing-flight-mh370-and-still-no-explanation-100764">Lessons to learn, despite another report on missing flight MH370 and still no explanation</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What happened to MH370?</h2>
<p>The flight was scheduled to fly from Kuala Lumpur to Beijing. Air traffic control lost contact with the aircraft within 60 minutes into the flight over the South China Sea.</p>
<p>Subsequently, it was tracked by military radar crossing the Malay Peninsula and was last located by radar over the Andaman Sea in the northeastern Indian Ocean.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579774/original/file-20240305-18-vdbysn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of the region showing the initial search areas on 8-16 March." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579774/original/file-20240305-18-vdbysn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579774/original/file-20240305-18-vdbysn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579774/original/file-20240305-18-vdbysn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579774/original/file-20240305-18-vdbysn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579774/original/file-20240305-18-vdbysn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579774/original/file-20240305-18-vdbysn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579774/original/file-20240305-18-vdbysn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The planned route, final route and initial search area for MH370 in Southeast Asia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_370#/media/File:MH370_initial_search_Southeast_Asia.svg">Andrew Heenen/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Later, automated satellite communications between the aircraft and British firm’s Inmarsat telecommunications satellite indicated that the plane ended up in the southeast Indian Ocean <a href="https://hub.arcgis.com/datasets/4c94d33cfc144f7d8b78943dee56e29b/explore">along the 7th arc</a> (an arc is a series of coordinates).</p>
<p>This became the basis for defining the initial search areas by the Australian Air Transport Safety Bureau. Initial air searches were conducted in the South China Sea and the Andaman Sea.</p>
<p>To date, we still don’t know what caused the aircraft’s change of course and disappearance.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579749/original/file-20240305-25-p456o1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579749/original/file-20240305-25-p456o1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579749/original/file-20240305-25-p456o1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579749/original/file-20240305-25-p456o1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579749/original/file-20240305-25-p456o1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579749/original/file-20240305-25-p456o1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579749/original/file-20240305-25-p456o1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579749/original/file-20240305-25-p456o1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Location of the 7th arc and the origin of debris locations for simulations undertaken by the University of Western Australia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Google Earth/Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What have searches for MH370 found so far?</h2>
<p>On March 18 2014, ten days after the disappearance of MH370, a search in the southern Indian Ocean <a href="https://www.atsb.gov.au/publications/2014/considerations-on-defining-the-search-area-mh370">was led by Australia</a>, with participation of aircraft from several countries. This search continued until April 28 and covered an area of 4,500,000 square kilometres of ocean. No debris was found. </p>
<p>Two underwater searches of the Indian Ocean, 2,800km off the coast of Western Australia, have also failed to find any evidence of the main crash site. </p>
<p>The initial seabed search, led by Australia, covered 120,000 square kilometres and extended 50 nautical miles across the 7th arc. It took 1,046 days and was suspended on January 17 2017.</p>
<p>A second search by Ocean Infinity in 2018 <a href="https://oceaninfinity.com/conclusion-of-current-search-for-malaysian-airlines-flight-mh370/">covered over 112,000 square kilometres</a>. It was completed in just over three months but also didn’t locate the wreckage.</p>
<h2>What about debris?</h2>
<p>While the main crash site still hasn’t been found, several pieces of debris have washed up in the years since the flight’s disappearance. </p>
<p>In fact, in June 2015 officials from the Australian Air Transport Safety Bureau determined that debris might arrive in Sumatra, contrary to the ocean currents in the region.</p>
<p>The strongest current in the Indian Ocean is the South Equatorial Current. It flows east to west between northern Australia and Madagascar, and debris would be able to cross it. </p>
<p>Indeed, on July 30 2015 a large piece of debris – a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaperon">flaperon</a> (moving part of a plane wing) – washed up on Reunion Island in the western Indian Ocean. It was later confirmed to belong to MH370.</p>
<p>Twelve months earlier, using an oceanographic drift model, our University of Western Australia (UWA) modelling team had predicted that any debris originating from the 7th arc would end up in the western Indian Ocean.</p>
<p>In subsequent months, additional aircraft debris was found in the western Indian Ocean in Mauritius, Tanzania, Rodrigues, Madagascar, Mozambique and South Africa.</p>
<p>The UWA drift analysis accurately predicted where floating debris from MH370 would beach in the western Indian Ocean. It also guided American adventurer Blaine Gibson and others to directly recover several dozen pieces of debris, three of which <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/where-blaine-gibson-now-malaysia-airlines-mh370-debris-hunter-1787369">have been confirmed</a> to be from MH370, while several others <a href="https://www.airlineratings.com/news/mh370-debris-now-for-the-facts/">are deemed likely</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579756/original/file-20240305-22-q62h9n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A detailed satellite map showing locations of debris found on the shores of Africa and Madagascar." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579756/original/file-20240305-22-q62h9n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579756/original/file-20240305-22-q62h9n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579756/original/file-20240305-22-q62h9n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579756/original/file-20240305-22-q62h9n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579756/original/file-20240305-22-q62h9n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579756/original/file-20240305-22-q62h9n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579756/original/file-20240305-22-q62h9n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Predicted locations of landfall from results of University of Western Australia drift modelling. The white dots indicate predicted landfall of the debris. The aggregation of many dots, particularly close to land, is an indication of the density of particles – higher probability of debris making landfall. These are highlighted by red circles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Charitha Pattiaratchi/UWA, Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To date, these debris finds in the western Indian ocean are the only physical evidence found related to MH370.</p>
<p>It is also independent verification that the crash occurred close to the 7th arc, as any debris would initially flow northwards and then to the west, transported by the prevailing ocean currents. These results are consistent with other drift studies undertaken by independent researchers globally.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ocean-currents-suggest-where-we-should-be-looking-for-missing-flight-mh370-63100">Ocean currents suggest where we should be looking for missing flight MH370</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why a new search for MH370 now?</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, the ocean is a chaotic place, and even oceanographic drift models cannot pinpoint the exact location of the crash site.</p>
<p>The proposed new search by Ocean Infinity has significantly narrowed down the target area within latitudes 36°S and 33°S. This is approximately 50km to the south of the locations where UWA modelling indicated the release of debris along the 7th arc. If the search does not locate the wreckage, it could be extended north.</p>
<p>Since the initial underwater searches, technology has tremendously improved. Ocean Infinity is using a fleet of autonomous underwater vehicles with improved resolution. The proposed search will also use remotely controlled surface vessels.</p>
<p>In the area where the search is to take place, the ocean is around 4,000 metres deep. The water temperatures are 1–2°C, with low currents. This means that even after ten years, the debris field would be relatively intact.</p>
<p>Therefore, there is a high probability that the wreckage can still be found. If a future search is successful, this would bring closure not just to the families of those who perished, but also the thousands of people who have been involved in the search efforts.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mh370-new-underwater-sound-wave-analysis-suggests-alternative-travel-route-and-new-impact-locations-110664">MH370: New underwater sound wave analysis suggests alternative travel route and new impact locations</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224954/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charitha Pattiaratchi receives funding from Integrated Marine Observing System research institute, the Australian Research Council and the West Australian Marine Science Institution.</span></em></p>It remains one of the biggest aviation mysteries – the tragic disappearance of passenger flight MH370. But a new, targeted search of the seabed could still yield answers.Charitha Pattiaratchi, Professor of Coastal Oceanography, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2246432024-03-04T01:25:27Z2024-03-04T01:25:27ZYour face for sale: anyone can legally gather and market your facial data without explicit consent<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579102/original/file-20240301-28-tzp738.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=956%2C85%2C6119%2C4218&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/futuristic-technological-scanning-face-beautiful-woman-1554013514">Kitreel/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The morning started with a message from a friend: “I used your photos to train my local version of Midjourney. I hope you don’t mind”, followed up with generated pictures of me wearing a flirty steampunk costume.</p>
<p>I did in fact mind. I felt violated. Wouldn’t you? I bet Taylor Swift did when <a href="https://theconversation.com/taylor-swift-deepfakes-new-technologies-have-long-been-weaponised-against-women-the-solution-involves-us-all-222268">deepfakes of her hit the internet</a>. But is the legal status of my face different from the face of a celebrity?</p>
<p>Your facial information is a unique form of personal sensitive information. It can identify you. Intense profiling and mass government surveillance <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/kalevleetaru/2019/05/06/as-orwells-1984-turns-70-it-predicted-much-of-todays-surveillance-society/?sh=38a97b4e11de">receives much attention</a>. But businesses and individuals are also using tools that <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/creepy-and-invasive-kmart-bunnings-and-the-good-guys-accused-of-using-facial-recognition-technology/h08q8evb1">collect</a>, <a href="https://www.afr.com/technology/how-clearview-ai-unleashed-a-global-dystopia-20230929-p5e8lc">store</a> and modify facial information, and we’re facing an unexpected wave of <a href="https://deepai.org/machine-learning-model/text2img">photos</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-sora-a-new-generative-ai-tool-could-transform-video-production-and-amplify-disinformation-risks-223850">videos</a> generated with artificial intelligence (AI) tools.</p>
<p>The development of legal regulation for these uses is lagging. At what levels and in what ways should our facial information be protected? </p>
<h2>Is implied consent enough?</h2>
<p>The Australian <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.au/C2004A03712/latest/text">Privacy Act</a> considers biometric information (which would include your face) to be a part of our personal sensitive information. However, the act doesn’t <em>define</em> biometric information. </p>
<p>Despite its drawbacks, the act is currently the main legislation in Australia aimed at facial information protection. It states biometric information cannot be collected without a person’s consent. </p>
<p>But the law doesn’t specify whether it should be <a href="https://www.ipc.nsw.gov.au/fact-sheet-consent">express or implied consent</a>. Express consent is given explicitly, either orally or in writing. Implied consent means consent may reasonably be inferred from the individual’s actions in a given context. For example, if you walk into a store that has a sign “facial recognition camera on the premises”, your consent is implied. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578587/original/file-20240228-28-ns24xh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A poster at a supermarket that says camera technology trial in progress, partially obscured by a couple of bins." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578587/original/file-20240228-28-ns24xh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578587/original/file-20240228-28-ns24xh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578587/original/file-20240228-28-ns24xh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578587/original/file-20240228-28-ns24xh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578587/original/file-20240228-28-ns24xh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578587/original/file-20240228-28-ns24xh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578587/original/file-20240228-28-ns24xh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An inconspicuous sign that flags camera technology trial is in progress counts as implied consent.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Margarita Vladimirova</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But using implied consent opens our facial data up to potential exploitation. <a href="https://www.choice.com.au/consumers-and-data/data-collection-and-use/how-your-data-is-used/articles/kmart-bunnings-and-the-good-guys-using-facial-recognition-technology-in-store">Bunnings, Kmart</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/feb/19/woolworths-expands-self-checkout-ai-that-critics-say-treats-every-customer-as-a-suspect">Woolworths</a> have all used easy-to-miss signage that facial recognition or camera technology is used in their stores.</p>
<h2>Valuable and unprotected</h2>
<p>Our facial information has become so valuable, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/oct/24/australian-federal-police-afp-pimeyes-facial-recognition-facecheck-id-search-engine-platform">data companies such as Clearview AI and PimEye</a> are mercilessly hunting it down on the internet <a href="https://onezero.medium.com/i-got-my-file-from-clearview-ai-and-it-freaked-me-out-33ca28b5d6d4">without our consent</a>.</p>
<p>These companies put together databases for sale, used not only by the police in various countries, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/oct/24/australian-federal-police-afp-pimeyes-facial-recognition-facecheck-id-search-engine-platform">including Australia</a>, but also by <a href="https://www.clearview.ai/developer-api">private companies</a>. </p>
<p>Even if you deleted all your facial data from the internet, you could easily be captured in public and appear in some database anyway. Being in someone’s TikTok video <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-14/tiktok-video-maree-melbourne-flowers/101228418">without your consent</a> is a prime example – in Australia this is legal.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1547794543726055425"}"></div></p>
<p>Furthermore, we’re also now contending with generative AI programs such as Midjourney, DALL-E 3, Stable Diffusion and others. Not only the collection, but the modification of our facial information can be easily performed by anyone. </p>
<p>Our faces are unique to us, they’re part of what we perceive as ourselves. But they don’t have special legal status or special legal protection.</p>
<p>The only action you can take to protect your facial information from aggressive collection by a store or private entity <a href="https://www.oaic.gov.au/privacy/privacy-complaints/lodge-a-privacy-complaint-with-us">is to complain</a> to the office of the Australian Information Commissioner, which may or may not result in an investigation.</p>
<p>The same applies to deepfakes. The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission will consider only activity that applies to trade and commerce, for example if a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2022/mar/18/accc-takes-meta-to-court-over-facebook-scam-ads-depicting-australian-identities">deepfake is used for false advertising</a>. </p>
<p>And the Privacy Act doesn’t protect us from other people’s actions. I didn’t consent to have someone train an AI with my facial information and produce made-up images. But there is no oversight on such use of generative AI tools, either. </p>
<p>There are currently no laws that <em>prevent</em> other people from collecting or modifying your facial information.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/so-youve-been-scammed-by-a-deepfake-what-can-you-do-223299">So, you've been scammed by a deepfake. What can you do?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Catching up the law</h2>
<p>We need a range of regulations on the collection and modification of facial information. We also need a stricter status of facial information itself. Thankfully, some developments in this area are looking promising.</p>
<p>Experts at the University of Technology Sydney have proposed a comprehensive legal framework for <a href="https://www.uts.edu.au/human-technology-institute/projects/facial-recognition-technology-towards-model-law">regulating the use of facial recognition technology</a> under Australian law.</p>
<p>It contains proposals for regulating the first stage of non-consensual activity: the collection of personal information. That may help in the development of new laws.</p>
<p>Regarding photo modification using AI, we’ll have to wait for announcements from the newly established government <a href="https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/husic/media-releases/new-artificial-intelligence-expert-group">AI expert group</a> working to develop “safe and responsible AI practices”.</p>
<p>There are no specific discussions about a higher level of protection for our facial information in general. However, the government’s recent <a href="https://www.ag.gov.au/rights-and-protections/publications/government-response-privacy-act-review-report">response to the Attorney-General’s Privacy Act review</a> has some promising provisions. </p>
<p>The government has agreed further consideration should be given to enhanced risk assessment requirements in the context of facial recognition technology and other uses of biometric information. This work should be coordinated with the government’s ongoing work on Digital ID and the National Strategy for Identity Resilience. </p>
<p>As for consent, the government has agreed in principle that the definition of consent required for biometric information collection should be amended to specify it must be voluntary, informed, current, specific and unambiguous. </p>
<p>As facial information is increasingly exploited, we’re all waiting to see whether these discussions do become law – hopefully sooner rather than later.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Correction: we have amended a sentence to clarify Woolworths use camera technology but not necessarily facial recognition technology.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224643/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Margarita Vladimirova does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our facial information is sensitive – yet companies and individuals can collect, sell and manipulate it without our consent. Australian law must change to protect us all.Margarita Vladimirova, PhD in Privacy Law and Facial Recognition Technology, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243722024-03-03T19:19:44Z2024-03-03T19:19:44ZGravity experiments on the kitchen table: why a tiny, tiny measurement may be a big leap forward for physics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579074/original/file-20240301-30-ecsdm7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C16%2C2131%2C1536&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/string-theory-physical-processes-quantum-entanglement-733672807">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Just over a week ago, European physicists <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adk2949">announced</a> they had measured the strength of gravity on the smallest scale ever. </p>
<p>In a clever tabletop experiment, researchers at Leiden University in the Netherlands, the University of Southampton in the UK, and the Institute for Photonics and Nanotechnologies in Italy measured a force of around 30 attonewtons on a particle with just under half a milligram of mass. An attonewton is a billionth of a billionth of a newton, the standard unit of force.</p>
<p>The researchers <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1035222">say</a> the work could “unlock more secrets about the universe’s very fabric” and may be an important step toward the next big revolution in physics. </p>
<p>But why is that? It’s not just the result: it’s the method, and what it says about a path forward for a branch of science critics say may be trapped in a loop of <a href="https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/ideas/technology/38913/is-particle-physics-at-a-dead-end">rising costs and diminishing returns</a>.</p>
<h2>Gravity</h2>
<p>From a physicist’s point of view, gravity is an extremely weak force. This might seem like an odd thing to say. It doesn’t feel weak when you’re trying to get out of bed in the morning!</p>
<p>Still, compared with the other forces that we know about – such as the electromagnetic force that is responsible for binding atoms together and for generating light, and the strong nuclear force that binds the cores of atoms – gravity exerts a relatively weak attraction between objects. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-standard-model-of-particle-physics-2539">Explainer: Standard Model of Particle Physics</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>And on smaller scales, the effects of gravity get weaker and weaker.</p>
<p>It’s easy to see the effects of gravity for objects the size of a star or planet, but it is much harder to detect gravitational effects for small, light objects.</p>
<h2>The need to test gravity</h2>
<p>Despite the difficulty, physicists really want to test gravity at small scales. This is because it could help resolve a century-old mystery in current physics.</p>
<p>Physics is dominated by two extremely successful theories. </p>
<p>The first is general relativity, which describes gravity and spacetime at large scales. The second is quantum mechanics, which is a theory of particles and fields – the basic building blocks of matter – at small scales. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/approaching-zero-super-chilled-mirrors-edge-towards-the-borders-of-gravity-and-quantum-physics-162785">Approaching zero: super-chilled mirrors edge towards the borders of gravity and quantum physics</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These two theories are in some ways contradictory, and physicists don’t understand what happens in situations where both should apply. One goal of modern physics is to combine general relativity and quantum mechanics into a theory of “quantum gravity”. </p>
<p>One example of a situation where quantum gravity is needed is to fully understand black holes. These are predicted by general relativity – and we have observed huge ones in space – but tiny black holes may also arise at the quantum scale. </p>
<p>At present, however, we don’t know how to bring general relativity and quantum mechanics together to give an account of how gravity, and thus black holes, work in the quantum realm.</p>
<h2>New theories and new data</h2>
<p>A number of approaches to a potential theory of quantum gravity have been developed, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-string-theory-2983">string theory</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5567241/">loop quantum gravity</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41114-019-0023-1">causal set theory</a>.</p>
<p>However, these approaches are entirely theoretical. We currently don’t have any way to test them via experiments.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1761104918780461222"}"></div></p>
<p>To empirically test these theories, we’d need a way to measure gravity at very small scales where quantum effects dominate.</p>
<p>Until recently, performing such tests was out of reach. It seemed we would need very large pieces of equipment: even bigger than the world’s largest particle accelerator, the Large Hadron Collider, which sends high-energy particles zooming around a 27-kilometre loop before smashing them together. </p>
<h2>Tabletop experiments</h2>
<p>This is why the recent small-scale measurement of gravity is so important.</p>
<p>The experiment conducted jointly between the Netherlands and the UK is a “tabletop” experiment. It didn’t require massive machinery.</p>
<p>The experiment works by floating a particle in a magnetic field and then swinging a weight past it to see how it “wiggles” in response.</p>
<p>This is analogous to the way one planet “wiggles” when it swings past another.</p>
<p>By levitating the particle with magnets, it can be isolated from many of the influences that make detecting weak gravitational influences so hard.</p>
<p>The beauty of tabletop experiments like this is they don’t cost billions of dollars, which removes one of the main barriers to conducting small-scale gravity experiments, and potentially to making progress in physics. (The latest proposal for a bigger successor to the Large Hadron Collider would <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-00353-9">cost US$17 billion</a>.)</p>
<h2>Work to do</h2>
<p>Tabletop experiments are very promising, but there is still work to do.</p>
<p>The recent experiment comes close to the quantum domain, but doesn’t quite get there. The masses and forces involved will need to be even smaller, to find out how gravity acts at this scale. </p>
<p>We also need to be prepared for the possibility that it may not be possible to push tabletop experiments this far.</p>
<p>There may yet be some technological limitation that prevents us from conducting experiments of gravity at quantum scales, pushing us back toward building bigger colliders.</p>
<h2>Back to the theories</h2>
<p>It’s also worth noting some of the theories of quantum gravity that might be tested using tabletop experiments are very radical.</p>
<p>Some theories, such as loop quantum gravity, suggest <a href="https://theconversation.com/time-might-not-exist-according-to-physicists-and-philosophers-but-thats-okay-181268">space and time may disappear</a> at very small scales or high energies. If that’s right, it may not be possible to carry out experiments at these scales.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-string-theory-2983">Explainer: String theory</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>After all, experiments as we know them are the kind of thing that happen at a particular place, across a particular interval of time. If theories like this are correct, we may need to rethink the very nature of experimentation so we can make sense of it in situations where space and time are absent.</p>
<p>On the other hand, the very fact we can perform straightforward experiments involving gravity at small scales may suggest that space and time are present after all.</p>
<p>Which will prove true? The best way to find out is to keep going with tabletop experiments, and to push them as far as they can go.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224372/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sam Baron receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>A new measurement of gravity at small scales hints at an alternative to billion-dollar experiments for the future of physics.Sam Baron, Associate Professor, Philosophy of Science, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2202802024-03-01T00:15:33Z2024-03-01T00:15:33ZWhy and how often do I need to wash makeup brushes and sponges?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576120/original/file-20240216-24-9aako6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C4928%2C3268&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/@anniespratt?utm_content=creditCopyText&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=unsplash">Annie Spratt</a> on <a href="https://unsplash.com/photos/selective-focus-photography-of-woman-applying-blush-on-on-her-face-xOEmZX6YSu8">Annie Spratt/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>From the bristles of brushes to the porous surfaces of sponges, your makeup kit can harbour a host of bacteria and fungi.</p>
<p>These potentially hazardous contaminants can originate not only from the cosmetics themselves, but also from the very surface of our skin. </p>
<p>So, how can we keep things hygienic and avoid microbial growth on makeup brushes and sponges? Here’s what you need to know.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-micellar-water-and-how-does-it-work-219492">What is micellar water and how does it work?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How do germs and fungi get in my brushes and sponges?</h2>
<p>Germs and fungi can make their way into your makeup kit in lots of ways. </p>
<p>Ever flushed a toilet with the lid open with your makeup brushes nearby? There’s a good chance <a href="https://theconversation.com/mobile-phones-are-covered-in-germs-disinfecting-them-daily-could-help-stop-diseases-spreading-135318">faecal particles</a> have landed on them. </p>
<p>Perhaps a family member or housemate has used your eyeshadow brush when you weren’t looking, and transferred some microbes across in the process. </p>
<p>Bacteria that trigger a pimple outbreak can be easily transferred from the surface of your skin to a makeup brush or sponge. </p>
<p>And tiny little mites called Demodex mites, which have been linked to certain rashes and acne, live on your skin, as well, and so may end up in your sponge or brushes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A young Asian man applies makeup at a cluttered vanity." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Germs and fungi can make their way into your makeup in lots of ways.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/gay-queer-man-nonbinary-beauty-blogger-2361479535">Chay_Tee/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/invisible-skin-mites-called-demodex-almost-certainly-live-on-your-face-but-what-about-your-mascara-195451">Invisible skin mites called Demodex almost certainly live on your face – but what about your mascara?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Bacterial contamination of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38020232/">lip cosmetics</a>, in particular, can pose a risk of skin and eye infections (so keep that in mind if you use lip brushes). Lipsticks are frequently contaminated with bacteria such as <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em>, <em>E. coli</em>, and <em>Streptococcus pneumoniae</em>.</p>
<p>Low-quality cosmetics are more likely to have higher and more diverse microbial growth compared to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1319562X23002978?pes=vor">high-quality cosmetics</a>.</p>
<p>Brushes exposed to sensitive areas like the eyes, mouth and nose are particularly susceptible to being potential sources of infection. </p>
<p>The range of conditions caused by these microorganisms includes:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>abscesses</p></li>
<li><p>skin and soft tissue infections</p></li>
<li><p>skin lesions</p></li>
<li><p>rashes</p></li>
<li><p>and dermatitis.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>In severe cases, infections can lead to invasion of the bloodstream or deep tissues. </p>
<p>Commercially available cosmetics contain varying amounts and types of preservatives aimed at inhibiting the growth of fungi and bacteria.</p>
<p>But when you apply makeup, different cosmetics with unique formulations of preservatives can become mixed. When a preservative meant for one product mixes with others, it might not work as well because they have different water amounts or pH levels.</p>
<p>So preservatives are not foolproof. We also need to observe good hygiene practices when it comes to brushes and other cosmetics applicators. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman washes a makeup brush in a sink." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You don’t need to use micellar water to clean your brushes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-washing-makeup-brush-under-water-2020030193">Pixel-Shot/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Keeping brushes clean</h2>
<p>Start with the basics: never <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Isolation-of-Pathogenic-Microbes-from-Beauty-Salons-Hassan-Hamad/0199635290628fe326fcd04a2b8a2422884a8240">share makeup brushes or sponges</a>. Everyone carries different microbes on their skin, so sharing brushes and sponges means you are also sharing germs and fungi.</p>
<p>If you need to share makeup, use something disposable to apply it, or make sure any shared brushes are washed and sterilised before the next person uses it.</p>
<p>Clean makeup brushes by washing with hot soapy water and rinsing thoroughly.</p>
<p>How often? Stick to a cleaning routine you can repeat with consistency (as opposed to a deep clean that is done annually). <a href="https://www.aad.org/public/everyday-care/skin-care-secrets/routine/clean-your-makeup-brushes#:%7E:text=To%20protect%20your%20skin%20and,every%207%20to%2010%20days.">Once a week</a> might be a good goal for some, while others may need to wash more regularly if they are heavy users of makeup. </p>
<p>Definitely wash straight away if someone else has used your brushes or sponges. And if you’ve had an eye infection such as conjunctivitis, ensure you clean applicators thoroughly after the infection has resolved. </p>
<p>You can use bactericidal soap, 70% ethanol or chlorhexidine solutions to wash. Just make sure you wash very thoroughly with hot water after, as some of these things can irritate your skin. (While some people online say alcohol can degrade brushes and sponges, opinion seems to be mixed; in general, most disinfectants are unlikely to cause significant corrosion.)</p>
<p>For some brushes, heating or steaming them and letting them dry may also be an effective sterilisation method once they are washed with detergent. Microwaving sponges isn’t a good idea because while the heat generated by a domestic microwave would kill microbes, it would need temperatures approaching 100°C for a decent period of time (at least several minutes). The heat could melt some parts of the sponge and hot materials could be a scalding hazard.</p>
<p>Once clean, ensure brushes and sponges are stored in a dry place away from water sources (and not near an open toilet).</p>
<p>If you’re having makeup applied professionally, brushes and applicators should be sterilised or changed from person to person. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A bunch of makeup brushes are set out to dry on a towel." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dry brushes thoroughly after washing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/after-cleaning-makeup-brushes-finish-will-653637367">prachyaloyfar/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Should I wash them with micellar water?</h2>
<p>No. </p>
<p>Not only is this expensive, it’s unnecessary. The same benefits can be achieved with cheaper detergents or alcohol (just rinse brushes carefully afterwards).</p>
<p>Disinfection methods such as using bactericidal soap, 70% ethanol, or chlorhexidine are all very good at reducing the amount of microbes on your brushes and sponges.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-micellar-water-and-how-does-it-work-219492">What is micellar water and how does it work?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220280/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rosalie Hocking is currently the recipient of an Australian government Future Fellowship.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Enzo Palombo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Yes, you need to wash them but no, you don’t need to use micellar water to do it.Enzo Palombo, Professor of Microbiology, Swinburne University of TechnologyRosalie Hocking, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2244942024-02-29T19:06:47Z2024-02-29T19:06:47ZWe discovered a ‘gentle touch’ molecule is essential for light tactile sensation in humans – and perhaps in individual cells<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578809/original/file-20240229-16-loeyq2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=36%2C0%2C2692%2C2570&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/womans-hand-fern-leaf-man-nature-2190358695">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You were probably taught that we have five senses: sight, sound, smell, taste and touch. This is not quite right: “touch” is not a single sense, but rather several working together. </p>
<p>Our bodies contain a network of sensory nerve cells with endings sitting in the skin that detect an array of different physical signals from our environment. The pleasant sensation of a gentle touch feels distinct from the light pressure of our clothes or the hardness of a pencil gripped between our fingers, and all of these are quite different from the pain of a stubbed toe.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-you-feel-your-sense-of-touch-is-several-different-senses-rolled-into-one-169344">How do you feel? Your 'sense of touch' is several different senses rolled into one</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>How do these sensory neurons communicate such a wide range of different inputs? </p>
<p>In <a href="http://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl0495">new research published in Science</a>, the two co-authors of this article and our colleagues have found a force-sensing molecule in nerve cells called ELKIN1, which is specifically involved in detecting gentle touch. This molecule converts gentle touch into an electrical signal, the first step in the process of gentle touch perception.</p>
<h2>How we sense gentle touch</h2>
<p>Sensing gentle touch begins with tiny deformations of the skin due to a light brush. While they may not seem like much, these deformations generate enough force to activate sensory molecules that are found in specialised nerve endings in the skin. </p>
<p>These molecular force sensors form a pore in the surface of the cell that is closed until a force is applied. When the cell is indented, the pore opens and an electrical current flows. </p>
<p>This electrical current can generate a signal that moves along the sensory nerve to the spinal cord and up to the brain. </p>
<p>Our new research, led by Gary Lewin and Sampurna Chakrabarti from the Max Delbruck Center in Berlin, showed the force sensor ELKIN1 is necessary for us to detect very gentle touch.</p>
<p>They found mice lacking the ELKIN1 molecule did not appear to sense a cotton bud being gently drawn across their paw. The mice retained their ability to sense other environmental information, including other types of touch.</p>
<h2>Different molecules for different kinds of touch</h2>
<p>This new finding reveals one reason we can sense multiple types of “touch”: we have multiple, specialised force-sensing proteins that can help us distinguish different environmental signals. </p>
<p>ELKIN1 is the second touch-receptor molecule discovered in sensory neurons. The first (PIEZO2) was found in 2010 by Ardem Patapoutian, who was later awarded the Nobel Prize for the work. PIEZO2 is involved in sensing gentle touch, as well as a sense known as “proprioception”. Proprioception is the sense of where our limbs are in space that helps us regulate our movements.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578782/original/file-20240228-30-4t2s64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A microscope image showing blobs of cyan, yellow and magenta." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578782/original/file-20240228-30-4t2s64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578782/original/file-20240228-30-4t2s64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578782/original/file-20240228-30-4t2s64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578782/original/file-20240228-30-4t2s64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578782/original/file-20240228-30-4t2s64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578782/original/file-20240228-30-4t2s64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578782/original/file-20240228-30-4t2s64.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mouse neurons with the new ion channel ELKIN1 (cyan), which is responsible for touch sensation, nucleus (yellow) and the already known ion channel PIEZO2 (magenta).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sampurna Chakrabarti / Max Delbrück Center</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Identifying these force-sensing molecules is a challenge in itself. We need to be able to study nerve cells in isolation and measure electrical currents that flow into the cell while simultaneously applying controlled forces to the cells themselves. </p>
<h2>Do cells feel?</h2>
<p>While much of our research studied mouse neurons, not all scientific data obtained from mice can be directly translated to humans. </p>
<p>With team members at the University of Wollongong, one of us (Mirella Dottori) tried to determine whether ELKIN1 worked the same way in humans. They reprogrammed human stem cells to produce specialised nerve cells that respond to “touch” stimuli. In these human cells, ELKIN1 had similar functional properties of detecting touch. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578781/original/file-20240228-24-4t2s64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of a glass electrode prodding some cells in a Petri dish." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578781/original/file-20240228-24-4t2s64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578781/original/file-20240228-24-4t2s64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578781/original/file-20240228-24-4t2s64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578781/original/file-20240228-24-4t2s64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578781/original/file-20240228-24-4t2s64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578781/original/file-20240228-24-4t2s64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578781/original/file-20240228-24-4t2s64.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Experiments on sensory neurons confirmed the role of the ELKIN1 molecule.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Felix Petermann / Max Delbrück Center</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While this research expands our understanding of how we make sense of the world around us, it also raises an additional, intriguing possibility. </p>
<p>ELKIN1 was first identified by one of us (Kate Poole) and her team at UNSW, with Gary Lewin and his team, while studying how melanoma cells break away from model tumours and “feel” their way through their surroundings. This could mean these tiny molecular force sensors give not only us, but our individual cells, a nuanced sense of touch.</p>
<p>Future research will continue to search for more molecular force sensors and endeavour to understand how they help our cells, and us, navigate our physical environment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224494/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kate Poole receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, the Australian Research Council and the US Air Force Asian Office of Aerospace Research and Development
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mirella Dottori receives funding from the Australian Research Council, Medical Research Future Fund, Friedreich's Ataxia Research Alliance and Friedreich Ataxia Research Association. </span></em></p>Our bodies have a dedicated channel for sensing only the very lightest of touches.Kate Poole, Associate Professor in Physiology, UNSW SydneyMirella Dottori, Professor, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2246262024-02-29T03:52:46Z2024-02-29T03:52:46ZAlgorithms are pushing AI-generated falsehoods at an alarming rate. How do we stop this?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578812/original/file-20240229-22-ki29m8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C7%2C2462%2C1608&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/online-news-mobile-phone-close-smartphone-1204164946">Tero Vesalainen/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Generative artificial intelligence (AI) tools are supercharging the problem of misinformation, disinformation and fake news. OpenAI’s ChatGPT, Google’s Gemini, and various image, voice and video generators have made it easier than ever to produce content, while making it harder to tell what is factual or real.</p>
<p>Malicious actors looking to spread disinformation can use AI tools to largely automate the generation of <a href="https://cyber.fsi.stanford.edu/io/publication/generative-language-models-and-automated-influence-operations-emerging-threats-and">convincing and misleading text</a>. </p>
<p>This raises pressing questions: how much of the content we consume online is true and how can we determine its authenticity? And can anyone stop this?</p>
<p>It’s not an idle concern. Organisations seeking to covertly influence public opinion or sway elections can now <a href="https://cyber.fsi.stanford.edu/io/publication/generative-language-models-and-automated-influence-operations-emerging-threats-and">scale their operations</a> with AI to unprecedented levels. And their content is being widely disseminated by search engines and social media. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-sora-a-new-generative-ai-tool-could-transform-video-production-and-amplify-disinformation-risks-223850">What is Sora? A new generative AI tool could transform video production and amplify disinformation risks</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Fakes everywhere</h2>
<p>Earlier this year, <a href="https://www.techradar.com/computing/search-engines/google-search-might-be-getting-worse-and-ai-threatens-to-ruin-it-entirely">a German study</a> on search engine content quality noted “a trend toward simplified, repetitive and potentially AI-generated content” on Google, Bing and DuckDuckGo.</p>
<p>Traditionally, readers of news media could rely on editorial control to uphold journalistic standards and verify facts. But AI is rapidly changing this space.</p>
<p>In a report published this week, the internet trust organisation NewsGuard <a href="https://www.newsguardtech.com/special-reports/ai-tracking-center/">identified 725 unreliable websites</a> that publish AI-generated news and information “with little to no human oversight”.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1761047409243603406"}"></div></p>
<p>Last month, Google <a href="https://www.adweek.com/media/google-paying-publishers-unreleased-gen-ai/">released an experimental AI tool</a> for a select group of independent publishers in the United States. Using generative AI, the publisher can summarise articles pulled from a list of external websites that produce news and content relevant to their audience. As a condition of the trial, the users have to publish three such articles per day.</p>
<p>Platforms hosting content and developing generative AI blur the traditional lines that enable trust in online content. </p>
<h2>Can the government step in?</h2>
<p>Australia has already seen tussles between government and online platforms over the display and moderation of news and content.</p>
<p>In 2019, the Australian government <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Bills_Legislation/Bills_Search_Results/Result?bId=s1201">amended the criminal code</a> to mandate the swift removal of “abhorrent violent material” by social media platforms. </p>
<p>The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission’s (ACCC) inquiry into power imbalances between Australian news media and digital platforms led to the 2021 implementation of <a href="https://www.accc.gov.au/by-industry/digital-platforms-and-services/news-media-bargaining-code/news-media-bargaining-code">a bargaining code</a> that forced platforms to pay media for their news content.</p>
<p>While these might be considered partial successes, they also demonstrate the scale of the problem and the difficulty of taking action.</p>
<p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/02683962221114408">Our research</a> indicates these conflicts saw online platforms initially open to changes and later resisting them, while the Australian government oscillated from enforcing mandatory measures to preferring voluntary actions.</p>
<p>Ultimately, the government realised that relying on platforms’ “trust us” promises wouldn’t lead to the desired outcomes. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-google-and-meta-owe-news-publishers-much-more-than-you-think-and-billions-more-than-theyd-like-to-admit-216818">Why Google and Meta owe news publishers much more than you think – and billions more than they’d like to admit</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The takeaway from our study is that once digital products become integral to millions of businesses and everyday lives, they serve as a tool for platforms, AI companies and big tech to anticipate and push back against government.</p>
<p>With this in mind, it is right to be sceptical of early calls for regulation of generative AI by tech leaders like <a href="https://fortune.com/2023/11/02/elon-musk-ai-regulations-uk-prime-minister-sunak-ai-safety-summit/">Elon Musk</a> and Sam Altman. Such calls have faded as AI takes a hold on our lives and online content.</p>
<p>A challenge lies in the sheer speed of change, which is so swift that safeguards to mitigate the potential risks to society are not yet established. Accordingly, the World Economic Forum’s 2024 Global Risk Report has predicted mis- and disinformation as the <a href="https://www.weforum.org/publications/global-risks-report-2024/">greatest threats</a> in the next two years.</p>
<p>The problem gets worse through generative AI’s ability to create multimedia content. Based on current trends, we can expect an increase in <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/social-media/emma-watson-deep-fake-scarlett-johansson-face-swap-app-rcna73624">deepfake incidents</a>, although social media platforms like Facebook are responding to these issues. They aim to <a href="https://about.fb.com/news/2024/02/labeling-ai-generated-images-on-facebook-instagram-and-threads/">automatically identify and tag</a> AI-generated photos, video and audio.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-openai-saga-demonstrates-how-big-corporations-dominate-the-shaping-of-our-technological-future-218540">The OpenAI saga demonstrates how big corporations dominate the shaping of our technological future</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What can we do?</h2>
<p>Australia’s eSafety commissioner <a href="https://www.esafety.gov.au/industry/tech-trends-and-challenges/generative-ai">is working on ways to regulate and mitigate</a> the potential harm caused by generative AI while balancing its potential opportunities.</p>
<p>A key idea is “safety by design”, which requires tech firms to place these safety considerations at the core of their products.</p>
<p>Other countries like the US are further ahead with the regulation of AI. For example, US President Joe Biden’s recent executive order <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/oct/30/biden-orders-tech-firms-to-share-ai-safety-test-results-with-us-government">on the safe deployment of AI</a> requires companies to share safety test results with the government, regulates <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_team">red-team testing</a> (simulated hacking attacks), and guides watermarking on content.</p>
<p>We call for three steps to help protect against the risks of generative AI in combination with disinformation.</p>
<p>1. Regulation needs <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/posts/noamsp_3-steps-to-reshaping-our-digital-landscape-activity-7152649121189797889-WEct">to pose clear rules</a> without allowing for nebulous “best effort” aims or “trust us” approaches.</p>
<p>2. To protect against large-scale disinformation operations, we need to teach media literacy in the same way we teach maths.</p>
<p>3. Safety tech or “safety by design” needs to become a non-negotiable part of every product development strategy.</p>
<p>People are aware AI-generated content is on the rise. In theory, they should adjust their information habits accordingly. However, research shows users <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8196605/">generally tend to underestimate</a> their own risk of believing fake news compared to the perceived risk for others.</p>
<p>Finding trustworthy content shouldn’t involve sifting through AI-generated content to make sense of what is factual.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224626/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stan Karanasios receives funding from Emergency Management Victoria, Asia-Pacific Telecommunity, and the International Telecommunications Union.
Stan is a Distinguished Member of the Association for Information Systems.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marten Risius is the recipient of an Australian Research Council Australian Discovery Early Career Award (project number DE220101597) funded by the Australian Government.</span></em></p>It’s increasingly hard to tell which content online is fake. As malicious actors use generative AI to fuel disinformation, governments must regulate now before it’s too late.Stan Karanasios, Associate Professor, The University of QueenslandMarten Risius, Senior Lecturer in Business Information Systems, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2245252024-02-28T19:15:08Z2024-02-28T19:15:08ZWhat ended the ‘dark ages’ in the early universe? New Webb data just brought us closer to solving the mystery<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578478/original/file-20240228-16-jfjexw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3000%2C2281&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/2023/107/01GQQF4KP3GNVB12G6R0V8KSGM?news=true">NASA / ESA / CSA / Ivo Labbe (Swinburne) / Rachel Bezanson (University of Pittsburgh) / Alyssa Pagan (STScI)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>About 400,000 years after the Big Bang, the cosmos was a very dark place. The glow of the universe’s explosive birth had cooled, and space was filled with dense gas – mostly hydrogen – with no sources of light.</p>
<p>Slowly, over hundreds of millions of years, the gas was drawn into clumps by gravity, and eventually the clumps grew big enough to ignite. These were the first stars.</p>
<p>At first their light didn’t travel far, as much of it was absorbed by a fog of hydrogen gas. However, as more and more stars formed, they produced enough light to burn away the fog by “reionising” the gas – creating the transparent universe dotted with brilliant points of light we see today.</p>
<p>But exactly which stars produced the light that ended the dark ages and triggered this so-called “epoch of reionisation”? In <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07043-6">research published in Nature</a>, we used a gigantic cluster of galaxies as a magnifying glass to gaze at faint relics of this time – and discovered that stars in small, faint dwarf galaxies were likely responsible for this cosmic-scale transformation.</p>
<h2>What ended the dark ages?</h2>
<p>Most astronomers already agreed that galaxies were the main force in reionising the universe, but it wasn’t clear how they did it. We know that stars in galaxies should make a lot of ionising photons, but these photons need to escape the dust and gas inside their own galaxy to ionise hydrogen out in the space between galaxies.</p>
<p>It hasn’t been clear what kind of galaxies would be able to produce and emit enough photons to get the job done. (And indeed, there are those who think more exotic objects like big black holes may have been responsible.)</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/looking-back-toward-cosmic-dawn-astronomers-confirm-the-faintest-galaxy-ever-seen-207602">Looking back toward cosmic dawn − astronomers confirm the faintest galaxy ever seen</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There are two camps among adherents of the galaxy theory. </p>
<p>The first thinks huge, massive galaxies produced the ionising photons. There were not many of these galaxies in the early universe, but each one produced a lot of light. So if a certain fraction of that light managed to escape, it might have been enough to reionise the universe.</p>
<p>The second camp thinks we are better off ignoring the giant galaxies and focussing on the huge number of much smaller galaxies in the early universe. Each one of these would have produced far less ionising light, but with the weight of their numbers they could have driven the epoch of reionisation.</p>
<h2>A magnifying glass 4 million lightyears wide</h2>
<p>Trying to look at anything in the early universe is very hard. The massive galaxies are rare, so they are hard to find. Smaller galaxies are more common but they are very faint, which makes it difficult (and expensive) to get high-quality data.</p>
<p>We wanted a look at some of the faintest galaxies around, so we used a huge group of galaxies called Pandora’s Cluster as a magnifying glass. The enormous mass of the cluster distorts space and time, amplifying the light from objects behind it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578484/original/file-20240228-24-wuvfsk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo showing magnified galaxies." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578484/original/file-20240228-24-wuvfsk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578484/original/file-20240228-24-wuvfsk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=247&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578484/original/file-20240228-24-wuvfsk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=247&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578484/original/file-20240228-24-wuvfsk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=247&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578484/original/file-20240228-24-wuvfsk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578484/original/file-20240228-24-wuvfsk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578484/original/file-20240228-24-wuvfsk.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=310&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Two of the most distant galaxies ever seen, as magnified by Pandora’s Cluster.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abell_2744#/media/File:Webb_Finds_Distant_Galaxies_Seen_Behind_Pandora’s_Cluster_(weic2220a).jpeg">NASA / ESA/ CSA / T. Treu (UCLA)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As part of the <a href="https://jwst-uncover.github.io">UNCOVER program</a>, we used the James Webb Space Telescope to look at magnified infrared images of faint galaxies behind Pandora’s Cluster.</p>
<p>We first looked at many different galaxies, then chose a few particularly distant (and therefore ancient) ones to examine more closely. (This kind of close examination is expensive, so we could only look at eight galaxies in greater detail.)</p>
<h2>The bright glow of hydrogen</h2>
<p>We selected some sources which were around 0.5% of the brightness of our Milky Way galaxy at that time, and checked them for the telltale glow of ionised hydrogen. These galaxies are so faint they were only visible at all thanks to the magnifying effect of Pandora’s Cluster.</p>
<p>Our observations confirmed that these small galaxies did exist in the very early universe. What’s more, we confirmed they produced around four times as much ionising light as we would consider “normal”. This is at the highest end of what we had predicted, based on our understanding of how early stars formed.</p>
<p>Because these galaxies produced so much ionising light, only a small fraction of it would have needed to escape to reionise the universe. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/unlocking-the-mystery-of-the-first-billion-years-of-the-universe-37368">Unlocking the mystery of the first billion years of the universe</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Previously, we had thought that around 20% of all ionising photons would need to escape from these smaller galaxies if they are to be the dominant contributor to reionisation. Our new data suggests even 5% would be sufficient – which is about the fraction of ionising photons we see escaping from modern galaxies.</p>
<p>So now we can confidently say these smaller galaxies could have played a very large role in the epoch of reionisation. However, our study was only based on eight galaxies, all close to a single line of sight. To confirm our results we will need to look at different parts of the sky. </p>
<p>We have new observations planned which will target other large galaxy clusters elsewhere in the universe, to find yet more magnified, faint galaxies to test. If all goes well, we will have some answers in a few years.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224525/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Themiya Nanayakkara receives funding from Australian Research Council Laureate Fellowship FL180100060. </span></em></p>With the help of a magnifying glass 4 million lightyears wide, astronomers may have solved the riddle of what burned away the hydrogen fog that pervaded the early universe.Themiya Nanayakkara, Senior Scientist at the James Webb Australian Data Centre, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2245032024-02-28T01:00:24Z2024-02-28T01:00:24ZLeap of imagination: how February 29 reminds us of our mysterious relationship with time and space<p>If you find it intriguing that February 28 will be followed this week by February 29, rather than March 1 as it usually is, spare a thought for those alive in 1582. Back then, Thursday October 4 was followed by Friday October 15.</p>
<p>Ten whole days were snatched from the present when Pope Gregory XIII issued a papal bull to “restore” the calendar from discrepancies that had crept into the Julian calendar, introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 BCE.</p>
<p>The new Gregorian calendar returned the northern hemisphere’s vernal equinox to its “proper” place, around March 21. (The equinox is when the Earth’s axis is tilted neither toward nor away from the sun, and is used to determine the date of Easter.) </p>
<p>The Julian calendar had observed a leap year every four years, but this meant time had drifted out of alignment with the dates of celestial events and astronomical seasons. </p>
<p>In the Gregorian calendar, leap days were added only to years that were a multiple of four – like 2024 – with an exception for years that were evenly divisible by 100, but not 400 – like 1700.</p>
<p>Simply put, leap days exist because it doesn’t take a neat 365 days for Earth to orbit the Sun. It takes 365.2422 days. Tracking the movement of celestial objects through space in an orderly pattern doesn’t quite work, which is why we have February – time’s great mop.</p>
<h2>Time and space</h2>
<p>This is just part of the history of how February – the shortest month, and originally the last month in the Roman calendar – came to have the job of absorbing those inconsistencies in the temporal calculations of the world’s most commonly used calendar.</p>
<p>There is plenty of <a href="https://theconversation.com/leap-day-fixing-the-faults-in-our-stars-54032">science</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-the-science-behind-leap-years-and-how-they-work-54788">maths</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-a-seasonal-snarl-up-in-the-mid-1500s-gave-us-our-strange-rules-for-leap-years-132659">astrophysics</a> explaining the relationship between time and the planet we live on. But I like to think leap years and days offer something even more interesting to consider: why do we have calendars anyway?</p>
<p>And what have they got to do with how we understand the wonder and strangeness of our existence in the universe? Because calendars tell a story, not just about time, but also about space.</p>
<p>Our reckoning of time on Earth is through our spatial relationship to the Sun, Moon and stars. Time, and its place in our lives, sits somewhere between the scientific, the celestial and the spiritual. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-a-leap-year-have-366-days-218330">Why does a leap year have 366 days?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It is <a href="https://shop.whitechapelgallery.org/products/time">notoriously slippery, subjective and experiential</a>. It is also marked, tracked and determined in myriad ways across different cultures, from tropical to solar to <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/pou-tiaki/300062097/matariki-and-the-maramataka-the-mori-lunar-calendar">lunar</a> calendars.</p>
<p>It is the Sun that measures a day and gives us our first reference point for understanding time. But it is the <a href="https://librarysearch.aut.ac.nz/vufind/Record/1145999?sid=25214690">Moon</a>, as a major celestial body, that extends our perception of time. By stretching a span of one day into something longer, it offers us a chance for philosophical reflection.</p>
<p>The Sun (or its effect at least) is either present or not present. The Moon, however, goes through phases of transformation. It appears and disappears, changing shape and hinting that one night is not exactly like the one before or after.</p>
<p>The Moon also has a distinct rhythm that can be tracked and understood as a pattern, giving us another sense of duration. Time is just that – overlapping durations: instants, seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, years, decades, lifetimes, centuries, ages.</p>
<h2>The elusive Moon</h2>
<p>It is almost impossible to imagine how time might feel in the absence of all the tools and gadgets we use to track, control and corral it. But it’s also hard to know what we might do in the absence of time as a unit of productivity – a measurable, dispensable resource.</p>
<p>The closest we might come is simply to imagine what life might feel like in the absence of the Moon. Each day would rise and fall, in a rhythm of its own, but without visible reference to anything else. Just endless shifts from light to dark.</p>
<p>Nights would be almost completely dark without the light of the Moon. Only stars at a much further distance would puncture the inky sky. The world around us would change – trees would grow, mammals would age and die, land masses would shift and change – but all would happen in an endless cycle of sunrise to sunset.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-are-hoping-to-redefine-the-second-heres-why-157645">Scientists are hoping to redefine the second – here's why</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The light from the Sun takes <a href="https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/space-science/how-take-light-from-sun-reach-earth">eight minutes</a> to reach Earth, so the sunlight we see is always eight minutes in the past. </p>
<p>I remember sitting outside when I first learned this, and wondering what the temporal delay might be between me and other objects: a plum tree, trees at the end of the street, hills in the distance, light on the horizon when looking out over the ocean, stars in the night sky.</p>
<p>Moonlight, for reference, takes about <a href="https://www.pbs.org/seeinginthedark/astronomy-topics/light-as-a-cosmic-time-machine.html">1.3 seconds</a> to get to Earth. Light always travels at the same speed, it is entirely constant. The differing duration between how long it takes for sunlight or moonlight to reach the Earth is determined by the space in between. </p>
<p>Time on the other hand, is anything but constant. There are countless ways we characterise it. The mere fact we have so many calendars and ways of describing perceptual time hints at our inability to pin it down. </p>
<p>Calendars give us the impression we can, and have, made time predictable and understandable. Leap years, days and seconds serve as a periodic reminder that we haven’t.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224503/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily O'Hara does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>2024 is a leap year, when the shortest month mops up a bit of leftover time. But the extra day also tells us about space – and our place in it.Emily O'Hara, Senior Lecturer, Spatial Design + Temporary Practices, Auckland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.