tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/additive-manufacturing-17970/articlesAdditive manufacturing – The Conversation2020-04-24T12:22:31Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1332182020-04-24T12:22:31Z2020-04-24T12:22:31ZAs the coronavirus interrupts global supply chains, people have an alternative – make it at home<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329575/original/file-20200421-82666-1kto1ak.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C8%2C5982%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many items labeled "Made in China" could be made on people's desktops instead.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/printing-machine-royalty-free-image/1065223632?adppopup=true">kynny/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As COVID-19 <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/articles/2020-04-10/coronavirus-outbreak-throws-future-of-global-trade-into-question">wreaks havoc on global supply chains</a>, a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2015.47">trend of moving manufacturing closer to customers</a> could go so far as to put miniature manufacturing plants in people’s living rooms. </p>
<p>Most products in Americans’ homes are labeled “Made in China,” but even those bearing the words “Made in USA” frequently have <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/coronavirus-cripples-supply-chains-for-many-small-u-s-businesses-11582286402">parts from China</a> that are now often delayed. The coronavirus pandemic closed so many factories in China that <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/03/04/811019032/why-chinas-air-has-been-cleaner-during-the-coronavirus-outbreak">NASA could observe the resultant drop in pollution from space</a>, and some products are becoming harder to find. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/319997/original/file-20200311-116281-1hbaqwp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/319997/original/file-20200311-116281-1hbaqwp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319997/original/file-20200311-116281-1hbaqwp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319997/original/file-20200311-116281-1hbaqwp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319997/original/file-20200311-116281-1hbaqwp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319997/original/file-20200311-116281-1hbaqwp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/319997/original/file-20200311-116281-1hbaqwp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A sample from the thousands of items that can be 3D printed from free designs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Joshua Pearce</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>But at the same time, there are open-source, freely available digital designs for making millions of items with 3D printers, and their numbers are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechatronics.2013.06.002">growing exponentially</a>, as is an interest in open hardware design <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/inventions3030044">in academia</a>. Some designs are already being shared for <a href="https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202004.0054.v1">open-source medical hardware to help during the pandemic</a>, like <a href="https://www.prusa3d.com/covid19/">face shields</a>, <a href="https://freesewing.org/blog/facemask-frenzy">masks</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.22942.1">ventilators</a>. The free digital product designs go far beyond pandemic hardware. </p>
<p>The cost of 3D printers has dropped low enough to be accessible to most Americans. People can download, customize and print a remarkable range of products at home, and they often end up <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies5010007">costing less than it takes to purchase them</a>.</p>
<h2>From rapid prototyping to home factory</h2>
<p>Not so long ago, the prevailing thinking in industry was that the lowest-cost manufacturing was large, mass manufacturing in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2005.00514.x">low-labor-cost countries</a> like China. At the time, in the early 2000s, only Fortune 500 companies and major research universities had access to 3D printers. The machines were massive, expensive tools used to rapidly prototype parts and products. </p>
<p>More than a decade ago, the patents expired on the first type of 3D printing, and a professor in Britain had the intriguing idea of making a 3D printer that could print itself. He started the <a href="https://reprap.org/wiki/RepRap">RepRap project</a> – short for self-replicating rapid prototyper – and released the designs with open-source licenses on the web. The designs spread like wildfire and were quickly hacked and improved upon by thousands of engineers and hobbyists all over the world. </p>
<p>Many of these makers started their own companies to produce variants of these 3D printers, and people can now buy a 3D printer for US$250 to $550. Today’s 3D printers are full-fledged additive manufacturing robots, which build products one layer at a time. Additive manufacturing is infiltrating many industries. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329572/original/file-20200421-82645-6xq470.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329572/original/file-20200421-82645-6xq470.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329572/original/file-20200421-82645-6xq470.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329572/original/file-20200421-82645-6xq470.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329572/original/file-20200421-82645-6xq470.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329572/original/file-20200421-82645-6xq470.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329572/original/file-20200421-82645-6xq470.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">3D printers turn digital designs into toys, household items and even medical equipment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/printing-machine-with-cad-design-on-screen-in-royalty-free-image/571978289?adppopup=true">Monty Rakusen/Cultura via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>My colleagues and I have observed clear trends as the technology threatens <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2015.47">major disruption to global value chains</a>. In general, companies are moving from using 3D printing for prototyping to adopting it to make products they need internally. They’re also using 3D printing to move manufacturing closer to their customers, which reduces the need for inventory and shipping. Some customers have bought 3D printers and are making the products for themselves.</p>
<p>This is not a small trend. Amazon now lists 3D printing filament, the raw material for 3D printers, under “<a href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B07T2QZYQD/ref=dp_cerb_1">Amazon Basics</a>” along with batteries and towels. In general, people will save <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies5010007">90% to 99% off the commercial price</a> of a product when they print it at home.</p>
<h2>Coronavirus accelerates a trend</h2>
<p>We had expected that adoption of 3D printing and the move toward distributed manufacturing would be a slow process as more and more products were printed by more and more people. But that was before there was a real risk of products becoming unavailable as the coronavirus spread. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329564/original/file-20200421-82677-oymhf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329564/original/file-20200421-82677-oymhf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329564/original/file-20200421-82677-oymhf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329564/original/file-20200421-82677-oymhf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329564/original/file-20200421-82677-oymhf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329564/original/file-20200421-82677-oymhf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/329564/original/file-20200421-82677-oymhf0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The U.S. government is curating a collection of 3D printing designs for medical personal protective equipment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dr. Beth Ripley, VHA 3D Printing Network</span></span>
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<p>A good example of sharp demand for 3D printed products is <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/tech/coronavirus-crisis-3d-printing-ventilators">personal protective equipment (PPE)</a>. The National Institutes of Health 3D Print Exchange, a relativity small design repository, has <a href="https://3dprint.nih.gov/collections/covid-19-response">exploded with new PPE designs</a>. </p>
<p>Already, because of the global impact of the coronavirus, <a href="https://fortune.com/2020/02/21/fortune-1000-coronavirus-china-supply-chain-impact/">94% of Fortune 1000 companies</a> are having their supplies chains disrupted and <a href="https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/veeraraghavan-supply-chain/">businesses dependent on global sourcing</a> are facing hard choices.</p>
<p>The value of industrial commodities continues to slide because the coronavirus has put a major dent in demand as manufacturers shut down and potential customers are quarantined. This will limit people’s access to products while increasing their costs. </p>
<p>The disruptions to global supply chains caused by strict quarantines, stay-at-home orders and other social distancing measures in industrialized nations around the world present an opportunity for distributed manufacturing to fill unmet needs. Many people are likely, in the short to medium term, to find some products unavailable or overly expensive. </p>
<p>In many cases, they will be able to make the products they need themselves (if they have access to a printer). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2015.47">Our research on the global value chains</a> found that 3D printing with plastics in particular are well advanced so any product with a considerable number of polymer components, even if the parts are flexible, can be 3D printed.</p>
<h2>Beyond plastics</h2>
<p>Making functional <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies5030045">toys</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies5010007">household products</a> at home is easy even for beginners. So are <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/geriatrics3040089">adaptive aids for arthritis patients</a> and other medical products and <a href="https://www.academia.edu/38728877/Fab_Lab_Applications_of_Large-Area_Waste_Polymer-based_Additive_Manufacturing">sporting goods like skateboards</a>. </p>
<p>Metal and ceramic 3D printing is already available and expanding rapidly for a range of items, from <a href="https://www.3dnatives.com/en/best-3d-printed-implants-230720195/">high-cost medical implants</a> to rocket engines to improving simple bulk manufactured products with <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp2010018">3D printed brackets at low costs</a>. Printable <a href="https://all3dp.com/2/3d-printed-electronics-5-most-advanced-companies/">electronics</a>, <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/books/pharmaceutical-formulation-design-recent-practices/3d-printing-in-pharmaceutical-sector-an-overview">pharmaceuticals</a> and larger items like furniture are starting to become available or will be in the near future. These more advanced 3D printers could help accelerate the trend toward distributed manufacturing, even if they don’t end up in people’s homes.</p>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.tctmagazine.com/is-3d-printing-magic-bullet-supply-chain-covid-19/">some hurdles</a>, particularly for consumer 3D printing. 3D printing filament is itself subject to disruptions in global supply chains, although <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ohx.2018.e00026">recyclebot</a> technology allows people to create filament from waste plastic. Some metal 3D printers are still expensive and the fine metal powder many of them use as raw material is potentially hazardous if inhaled, but there are now $1,200 <a href="https://www.appropedia.org/Open-source_metal_3-D_printer">metal printers that use more accessible welding wire</a>. These new printers as well as those that can do multiple materials still need development, and there’s a long way to go before all products and their components can be 3D printed at home. Think computer chips.</p>
<p>When my colleagues and I initially analyzed when products would be available for distributed manufacturing, we focused only on economics. If the coronavirus continues to disrupt supply chains and hamper international trade, however, the demand for unavailable or costly products could speed up the transition to distributed manufacturing of all products.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133218/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Professor Joshua M. Pearce has received funding from the Air Force Research Laboratory (ARFL) through America Makes: The National Additive Manufacturing Innovation Institute, which is managed and operated by the National Center for Defense Manufacturing and Machining (NCDMM). He also receives funding from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E), and the National Science Foundation (NSF) for 3D printing related projects. In addition, his past and present research is supported by many non-profits and for-profit companies in the open source additive manufacturing industry including re:3D, Miller, Aleph Objects, Lulzbot, CNC Router Parts, Virtual Foundry, Ultimaker and Youmagine, Cheap 3D Filaments, MyMiniFactory, Zeni Kinetic, Matter Hackers, and Ultimachine. </span></em></p>The rush to make personal protective equipment like facemasks and face shields using 3D printers shows that the technology can help circumvent global supply chain disruptions.Joshua M. Pearce, Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, and Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan Technological UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1254282019-12-11T13:17:46Z2019-12-11T13:17:46Z‘Robotic blacksmithing’: A technology that could revive US manufacturing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305965/original/file-20191209-90597-1gauksg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Robots already assemble and weld products in factories. Can they make the components parts themselves, too?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/automate-industrial-robots-welding-automotive-part-593179760">Factory_Easy/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Although it may not be obvious, there’s a close link between manufacturing technology and innovation. Elon Musk often talks of the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f9uveu-c5us">“machines that build the machines”</a> as being the real enabler in both his space and automotive businesses.</p>
<p>Using less-expensive, more scalable processes allows Space X to launch missions on budgets and with speed that would be unthinkable using NASA’s old-school manufacturing methods. And the new <a href="https://www.motortrend.com/news/tesla-cybertruck-electric-pickup-engineering-manufacturing/">Tesla Cybertruck’s unorthodox design</a> appears to take advantage of a <a href="https://electrek.co/2019/11/24/teslas-cybertruck-looks-weird-because-otherwise-it-would-break-the-machines-to-make-it/">simplified manufacturing process</a> that does away with “<a href="https://www.thefabricator.com/thefabricator/article/stamping/die-basics-101-intro-to-stamping">die stamping</a>” metal in favor of bending and folding metal sheets.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305680/original/file-20191206-90609-163jsvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305680/original/file-20191206-90609-163jsvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305680/original/file-20191206-90609-163jsvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305680/original/file-20191206-90609-163jsvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305680/original/file-20191206-90609-163jsvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305680/original/file-20191206-90609-163jsvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305680/original/file-20191206-90609-163jsvd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Tesla has invested heavily in manufacturing as a way to build products faster and more efficiently. The design of newly unveiled Cybertruck is driven in part by Tesla’s production plans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.tesla.com/cybertruck">Tesla Motors</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Now a new manufacturing method dubbed “<a href="https://www.tms.org/portal/PUBLICATIONS/Studies/Metamorphic_Manufacturing/portal/Publications/Studies/MetamorphicManufacturing/MetamorphicManufacturing.aspx?hkey=35f836be-083d-470a-8cc9-df1b47bf3fee">robotic blacksmithing</a>” has the potential to revolutionize the way high-quality structural parts are made, resulting in a new class of customized and optimized products. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KzTuzhkAAAAJ&hl=en">I</a> am part of a loose coalition of engineers developing this process, a technique I believe can help revive U.S. manufacturing.</p>
<h2>Today’s technologies</h2>
<p>Metal parts are used in all kinds of high-performance and safety-critical applications in transportation, mining, construction and power-generation equipment such as turbine engines. Most are made using one of a small number of classical manufacturing processes that haven’t changed much in decades.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/custom-manufacturing-fabricating/types-machining/">Machining</a> cuts away raw material to get a desired shape; <a href="https://www.rfsystemlab.us/glossary/metal-casting/">casting</a> involves pouring molten metal into a mold; and <a href="https://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com/forming_basics.html">forming or forging</a> deforms and squeezes metal into new shapes. Casting and forging to shape usually needs custom molds or dies that can take considerable time and expense to design and manufacture, but once running are very productive; parts are inexpensive with highly reproducible properties. This is why nuts and bolts can be cheap and reliable.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305458/original/file-20191205-39014-jm00ou.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305458/original/file-20191205-39014-jm00ou.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/305458/original/file-20191205-39014-jm00ou.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305458/original/file-20191205-39014-jm00ou.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305458/original/file-20191205-39014-jm00ou.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305458/original/file-20191205-39014-jm00ou.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305458/original/file-20191205-39014-jm00ou.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/305458/original/file-20191205-39014-jm00ou.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Traditional metal manufacturing techniques.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Glenn S. Daehn</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Starting shortly after World War II, digital manufacturing ushered in more agile production, first with computer numeric control machining that cuts components of all kinds of shapes from metal blocks. Producing a different component was as simple as launching a new computer program. One common downside of computer numeric control machining is a low “fly-to-buy” ratio, where a 1,000-pound titanium block might be carved away to produce a 100-pound aerospace component. This is expensive and environmentally wasteful, but no new investment is needed and lead times are short.</p>
<p>Right now, there is also deserved enthusiasm about making such parts by <a href="https://hbr.org/2015/05/the-3-d-printing-revolution">3D printing</a>, also referred to as additive manufacturing. This process also makes parts from a computer file on demand by building a part one layer at a time. Shapes that are impossible to make by machining can be printed, allowing new shapes that, for instance, have internal passages for cooling or communication.</p>
<p>While these techniques have their advantages, they also have drawbacks. They often don’t produce the highest levels of strength or toughness and these processes are <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jiec.12664">wasteful</a>.</p>
<h2>Robots plus blacksmithing</h2>
<p>Metal implements made by blacksmiths oftentimes have <a href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1981/09/29/031177.html?pageNumber=41">legendary strength</a> because the working of the metal, like kneading of dough, makes its structure finer, more homogeneous. As the material is shaped, it develops directional strength, much like wood is stronger along the direction of its grain. However, no human blacksmith can deal with parts the size of aircraft landing gear or have the reproducibility and stamina to make the parts needed for our economy.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QflVRXLwsAw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A proof-of-concept demonstration of a robotic device forming a raw material by closely controlling deformation of the material and position of the machine.</span></figcaption>
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<p>The idea of robotic blacksmithing is to extend the blacksmith’s art with new digital capabilities. Parts are shaped by repeatedly and incrementally forming a piece of metal which is precisely positioned into a press. This powered press or hammer system will interchange tools depending on the shape needed.</p>
<p>By automating the process of shaping a part, but using the basic approach of a blacksmith, a machine can treat larger parts and be more efficient and reproducible than a human ever could.</p>
<p>This new approach has the potential to efficiently and consistently make the structural ‘bones’ inside aircraft, ships, submarines and locomotives. Or the concept could be scaled down to make small individualized medical implants. </p>
<h2>Where will technology take hold?</h2>
<p>The basic concept for robotic blacksmithing, formally called metamorphic manufacturing, was demonstrated in 2017 when a <a href="https://honeybadgerosu.wordpress.com">team of undergraduates from The Ohio State University</a> added hardware and software to a conventional computer numeric control milling machine to adapt it for controlled deformation. The work was in response to a US$25,000 challenge by the government-funded consortium <a href="https://lift.technology/">LIFT</a> (Lightweight Innovations for Tomorrow) to demonstrate the key concepts of digitally controlled deformation-based shaping.</p>
<p>But that was just a start. Today, much research and development remains before we have autonomous machines shaping metal into unique safety-critical items.</p>
<p>Fully developing the robot blacksmith requires a synthesis of technologies. The system must be able to know the shape, temperature and condition of the material at each location of the part being formed. Then it must be able to control the temperature to produce the right structure and properties. The press must squeeze the component where needed with robotic control, deforming the part bit by bit. And, a computer must make decisions on how to move and strike the part next in order to optimize shape and properties, often learning from how previous parts were made.</p>
<p>All of these base technologies are progressing rapidly, and there is no reason they cannot be quickly melded together as a useful and practical manufacturing technology, <a href="http://tms.org/metamorphicmanufacturing">as a recent roadmapping study has shown</a>.</p>
<p>History shows that when diverse groups come together to form a new industry, the birthplace of that innovation (turning the idea into businesses) <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/innovation-should-be-made-in-the-u-s-a-11573833987">reaps the long-term benefits</a>. Detroit with automobiles and Silicon Valley with computers are obvious examples but there’s also glass manufacturing in Toledo, polymer engineering in Akron and medical device engineering in Minneapolis. The more recent examples of thriving technical clusters are often outside the U.S., with personal electronics manufacturing centered around Shenzhen, China, and advanced semiconductor devices in Singapore. The early clusters were serendipitous. The later ones are usually the result of deliberate and smart policy decisions.</p>
<p>There are already <a href="https://marianamazzucato.com/entrepreneurial-state/">many examples of great technology that is born in the United States, then manufactured elsewhere</a>. For example, many of the core technologies in smartphones were developed in labs in the U.S. but production is now spread across the world. The next wave of innovation will likely be located where skills are deep due from staffing and improving current factories. Robotic blacksmithing provides an <a href="http://mforesight.org/download/7817/">opportunity for the United States to be the leader</a> if it wants to. The core in keeping this virtuous cycle going in any location is in developing the factories, or the machines that build the machines.</p>
<p>[ <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=expertise">Expertise in your inbox. Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter and get a digest of academic takes on today’s news, every day.</a></em> ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125428/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Glenn S. Daehn's research group receives funding from Federal (National Science Foundation, Department of Energy and LIFT Manufacturing USA Institute), State of Ohio (Ohio Development Services Agency) and Industry (Ford, Honda), but none of that funding is directly relevant to the ideas presented here. </span></em></p>A manufacturing engineer describes the concept for a technology that could lead to more efficient production – and perhaps a tool to revive US manufacturing.Glenn S. Daehn, Fontana Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, The Ohio State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1212652019-08-02T12:41:19Z2019-08-02T12:41:19ZReturn to the moon? 3D printing with moondust could be the key to future lunar living<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286741/original/file-20190802-117875-1nubem4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1556%2C471%2C3435%2C2335&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Laser Zentrum Hannover is also looking at lunar 3D printing.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.lzh.de/en/publications/pressreleases/2019/moonrise-bringing-3d-printing-to-the-moon">LZH</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The entire <a href="https://theconversation.com/apollo-11-made-us-believe-we-could-do-anything-the-truth-is-it-could-hasten-our-downfall-120249">Apollo 11 mission</a> to the moon took just <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo11.html">eight days</a>. If we ever want to build permanent bases on the moon, or perhaps even Mars or beyond, then future astronauts will have to spend many more days, months and maybe even years in space without a constant lifeline to Earth. The question is how would they get hold of everything they needed. Using rockets to send all the equipment and supplies for building and maintaining long-term settlements on the moon would be hugely expensive. </p>
<p>This is where <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-3d-printing-myths-119887">3D printing</a> could come in, allowing astronauts to construct whatever their lunar colony needed from raw materials. Much of the excitement around 3D printing in space has focused on using it to <a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-build-a-moon-base-easy-just-print-it-59070">construct buildings</a> from lunar rock. But my research suggests it may actually be more practical to use this moondust to supply lunar manufacturing labs turning out replacement components for all sorts of equipment.</p>
<p>Technically known as additive manufacturing, 3D printing comprises a sophisticated group of technologies that can produce physical products of almost any shape or geometrical complexity from digital designs. The technology can already make things from a huge palette of materials including <a href="https://theconversation.com/titanium-is-the-perfect-metal-to-make-replacement-human-body-parts-115361">metals</a>, ceramics and plastics, some of which can be used to make <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-3d-printed-rocket-engine-just-launched-a-new-era-of-space-exploration-78428">space-grade equipment</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286746/original/file-20190802-117887-gez9nq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286746/original/file-20190802-117887-gez9nq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286746/original/file-20190802-117887-gez9nq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286746/original/file-20190802-117887-gez9nq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286746/original/file-20190802-117887-gez9nq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286746/original/file-20190802-117887-gez9nq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286746/original/file-20190802-117887-gez9nq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">3D printing with moondust.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Thanos Goulas</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>3D printing also has the added benefit of working with minimal human involvement. You can just set it to print and wait for the finished product. This means it can even be operated remotely. In theory, you could send a <a href="http://www.esa.int/Highlights/Lunar_3D_printing">3D printer to the moon</a> (or any other space destination) ahead of a human crew and it could start manufacturing structures before the astronauts even arrived.</p>
<p>There are, of course, significant challenges. 3D printing has primarily been developed for use on Earth, relying on certain consistent levels of gravity and temperature to operate as designed. So far it uses materials significantly less complex than those found on the surface of the moon or Mars. </p>
<h2>Printing with moondust</h2>
<p>The moon is <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/stem-ed-resources/regolith-formation.html">covered in regolith</a>, a loose, powdery material formed from millions of years of meteors bombarding the moon’s surface. This has slowly transformed the top layers of bedrock into a soil-like material made from grains less than a few millimetres across. While you could in theory use regolith for additive manufacturin, for 3D-printed houses or even more basic components such as bricks and cement you would <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20050111578.pdf">need additional materials</a> from Earth to mix with the regolith such as liquid binders.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I have been looking into ways you could 3D print a range of engineering components using only regolith. <a href="https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/RPJ-02-2015-0022/full/html">Our technique</a> involves using a laser to turn a very small amount of energy into heat that can melt and fuse together grains of regolith to form a thin but solid slice of the material. By repeating this process multiple times and adding more layers in sequence, we can eventually build a three-dimensional object.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286747/original/file-20190802-117910-1kwnmnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/286747/original/file-20190802-117910-1kwnmnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286747/original/file-20190802-117910-1kwnmnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286747/original/file-20190802-117910-1kwnmnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286747/original/file-20190802-117910-1kwnmnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286747/original/file-20190802-117910-1kwnmnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/286747/original/file-20190802-117910-1kwnmnu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Small components could be made quickly and without other materials.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Thanos Goulas</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Each layer is than 1mm in thickness and so building large structures such as walls or complete shelters would take an impractical amount of time. Instead, it’s much better for producing smaller, precisely designed highly detailed objects such as dust or water filters, which typically need holes of less than a micron (0.001 mm). 3D printing would be particularly useful for replicating vital components if they were to become damaged or worn, and needed replacing faster than it would take a supply ship to bring a new one from Earth.</p>
<p>To figure out how to get this 3D printing to work in space, we’ve carried out in-depth investigations into both <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352940716300774">the material</a> and the <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221486041630032X">processes</a>, and tried to understand how the conditions on the moon <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1464420718777932">would likely impact them</a>. Without a ready supply of real regolith, we used a material that imitates its bulk chemical and mineral composition. This was formed under very different conditions to a meteor bombardment, but it’s complex enough for us to study its interaction with the laser and use that knowledge to estimate how real regolith would react. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-the-moon-and-beyond-1-what-we-learned-from-landing-on-the-moon-and-why-we-stopped-going-119701">To the moon and beyond 1: What we learned from landing on the moon and why we stopped going</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We still need to better understand the material and its interaction with the 3D printing process, and engineer novel technical solutions to overcome any limitations. At this stage, it’s even hard for us to know what kinds of things might go wrong. But a good next step would be to test 3D printing with real regolith. Existing samples on Earth are very limited, but with humanity poised to enter a <a href="https://theconversation.com/moon-2069-lunar-tourism-and-deep-space-launches-a-century-on-from-apollo-12121">new era of lunar activity</a>, perhaps a ready supply could soon become available.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121265/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thanos Goulas does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Why wait for parts and equipment to arrive from Earth when you can print your own from moondust?Thanos Goulas, Post-Doctoral Research Associate, Additive Manufacturing Research Group, Loughborough UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1037242019-01-07T11:41:23Z2019-01-07T11:41:23Z3D-printed guns may be more dangerous to their users than targets<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252497/original/file-20190104-32124-1u3838a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C119%2C1952%2C1377&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tiny, but deadly, flaws may be hiding in the parts of this 3D-printed gun.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/31290193@N06/14579895300">Justin Pickard/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Despite <a href="https://theconversation.com/print-your-own-gun-debate-ignores-how-the-us-government-long-provided-and-regulated-firearms-100648">fears</a> that <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/13/plastic-guns-emerge-as-threat-as-gun-law-expires/3520809/">guns made with 3D printers</a> will let <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/01/us/3d-guns-printing.html">criminals and terrorists</a> easily make <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/01/us/3d-guns-printing.html">untraceable, undetectable</a> <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/13/plastic-guns-emerge-as-threat-as-gun-law-expires/3520809/">plastic</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-gun-kits-to-3d-printable-guns-a-short-history-of-rogue-gun-makers-100878">weapons at home</a>, my own experience with 3D manufacturing quality control suggests that, at least for now, 3D-printed firearms may pose as much, or maybe even more, of a threat to the people who try to make and use them.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A company called Defense Distributed developed a 3D-printed gun called the Liberator, which many fear could pass through security checkpoints undetected.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/3D-Guns/3443e9b6339b4558bfa12fa36d49234e/3/0">AP Photo/Eric Gay</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sen. Edward Markey, D-Mass. and Sen. Richard Blumenthal, D-Conn., display a photo of a 3D-printed gun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Trump-3D-Guns-Congress/65190c14bbe04a1abe94e61e5d5948bd/1/0">AP Photo/Matthew Daly</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One firearms expert suggested that even the best 3D-printed guns might only fire “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/3d-guns-printers-plastic-canada-1.4768714">five shots [before] blowing up in your hand</a>.” A weapon with a design or printing defect might blow up or come apart in its user’s hand before firing even a single bullet.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=JoJQnyMAAAAJ&hl=en">someone</a> who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2223467">uses 3D printing</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2223469">in his work</a> and researches <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/machines3020055">quality assurance technologies</a>, I’ve had the opportunity to see numerous printing defects and analyze what causes them. The problem is not with the concept of 3D printing, but with the exact process followed to create a specific item. Consumer 3D printers don’t always create high-quality items, and regular people aren’t likely to engage in rigorous quality assurance testing before using a 3D-printed firearm.</p>
<h2>Problems are common at home</h2>
<p>Many consumer 3D printers experience a variety of glitches, causing defects in the items they make. At times, an object detaches from the platform it’s on while being made, ending up lopsided, broken or otherwise damaged. Flaws can be much harder to detect when the flow of filament – the melted plastic material the item is being made from – is too hot or cold or too fast or slow, or stops when it shouldn’t. Even with all of the settings right, sometimes 3D-printed objects still have defects.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some 3D printing defects are easy to see. Others can be far more difficult to detect.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeremy Straub</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When a poorly made toy or trinket breaks, it can be hazardous. A child might be left with a part that he or she could choke on, for example. However, when a firearm breaks, the result could be even more serious – even fatal. In 2013, agents from the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/13/plastic-guns-emerge-as-threat-as-gun-law-expires/3520809/">tested 3D-printed guns</a> and found that the quality of materials and manufacturing determined whether a gun would fire multiple rounds successfully, or break apart during or after the first shot.</p>
<p>Home printing also <a href="https://www.asme.org/engineering-topics/articles/manufacturing-design/protecting-new-world-3dprinted-products">risks</a> that nefarious people might <a href="https://www.techrepublic.com/article/3d-printing-security-risks-threaten-the-publics-health-and-safety/">tamper with the design files</a> on a website, publish intentionally defective designs or even create a virus that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2264588">interferes with the operation of a 3D printer</a> itself. Hackers may deliberately target 3D printed guns, for ideological or other reasons, or inadvertently cause defects with more general attacks against 3D printing systems.</p>
<h2>Not up to commercial standards</h2>
<p>Commercial manufacturers of guns double-check their designs, test models and perform rigorous examinations to ensure their firearms work properly. Defects still happen, but they’re much less likely than with home-printed weapons.</p>
<p>Home printers are not designed to produce the level of consistent quality required for weapon production. They also don’t have systems to detect all of the things that could go wrong and make printed weapons potentially dangerous.</p>
<p>This is not to say that 3D printing itself is unsafe. In fact, many companies use 3D printing to manufacture parts where safety is critical. Printed parts are used in <a href="https://www.additivemanufacturing.media/news/-navair-demonstrates-3d-printed-safety-critical-aircraft-parts">airplanes</a> and for <a href="https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/think3d-opens-6m-medical-device-3d-printing-facility-in-ap-medtech-zone-145693/">medical devices</a>, <a href="https://www.medicaldesignandoutsourcing.com/using-3d-printing-to-develop-custom-cardiac-surgical-devices/">patient-specific surgical instruments</a>, <a href="https://all3dp.com/4/researchers-develop-3d-printed-ingestible-capsule-wireless-drug-delivery/">customized time-release drugs</a>, <a href="https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/wide-3d-printed-prosthetic-customization-receives-ce-marking-145169/">prosthetics</a> and <a href="https://www.dezeen.com/2018/12/12/hex-3d-printed-hearing-aid-elen-parry/">hearing aids</a>. Scientists have even proposed printing <a href="https://3dprint.com/203252/india-3d-printed-ear/">scaffolding</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/term.2733">grow</a> or <a href="https://www.plasticstoday.com/medical/groundbreaking-3d-printed-medical-device-could-benefit-patients-spinal-cord-injuries/175590065459254">repair</a> human body parts. </p>
<h2>Solutions to defects, but not ready yet</h2>
<p>In time, improvements to popularly available 3D printers may allow safe production of reliable parts. For instance, emerging technologies could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSMC.1998.727536">monitor the process of printing</a> and the filament used. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/machines3020055">group I work with</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00692-1_18">and others</a> have developed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03658-4_15">ways to assess parts</a>, both during printing and afterward.</p>
<p>Other researchers are developing ways to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3264918">prevent malicious defects</a> from being added to existing printing instructions and secure printing, more generally.</p>
<p>So far, though, these advances are being developed and tested in research laboratories, not incorporated into mass-produced 3D printers. For the moment, most quality control over 3D-printed parts is left to the person operating the printer, or whoever is using the item. Most consumers don’t have the technical skills needed to design or perform the appropriate tests, and likely won’t ever learn them. Until the machines are more sophisticated, whatever is made with them – whether firearms or other items – isn’t guaranteed to be reliable enough to use safely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/103724/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremy Straub is an assistant professor in the NDSU Department of Computer Science and the associate director of the NDSU Institute for Cyber Security Education and Research. He has received support related to 3D printing from the National Science Foundation, the North Dakota Department of Commerce and the University of North Dakota. He has received funding related to cybersecurity from the U.S. National Science Foundation, the U.S. National Security Agency and the North Dakota State University. The views presented are his own and do not necessarily represent the views of NDSU or funding agencies. Straub is also a named inventor on a patent related to 3D printing quality assurance.
</span></em></p>Manufacturing errors, undetected by inexpert consumers, may be more dangerous than other threats from 3D-printed guns.Jeremy Straub, Assistant Professor of Computer Science, North Dakota State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1086572018-12-17T11:39:19Z2018-12-17T11:39:19ZWhy you should give your grandparents a 3D printer for Christmas<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250327/original/file-20181212-110249-1j5edjc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C35%2C982%2C712&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">3D printed adaptive aids can cut costs by more than 94 percent.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">J.M. Pearce</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Senior citizens might really like – and use – a 3D printer. That’s the surprising, and money-saving, conclusion of a new study I co-authored: 3D printers can <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/geriatrics3040089">save arthritis patients money</a> by more cheaply manufacturing plastic gadgets that help them do routine tasks like open jars and put on socks.</p>
<p>By 2040, about <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/arthritis/data_statistics/arthritis-related-stats.htm">one-quarter of the U.S. population</a> is expected to have arthritis – a physical ailment making joint movements difficult and painful. In addition to their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/art.22565">health care expenses</a>, arthritis patients often have additional needs that do not show up on medical bills and are not covered by insurance. For example, people with arthritic hands can find daily tasks like opening jars – or even eating with a spoon – to be cumbersome and painful. Many companies make and sell adaptive aids like <a href="https://www.arthritissupplies.com/right-hand-scoop-spoon.html">specially shaped spoons</a> and special handles that makes a toothbrush easier to hold. Some patients need dozens of these sorts of items, to help with various daily tasks. But those devices can be expensive – a <a href="https://www.arthritissupplies.com/right-hand-scoop-spoon.html">basic adaptive spoon can cost US$25</a>, vastly more than a standard spoon in any shop.</p>
<p>Other assistive items like key holders and pill-splitters can help arthritis patients continue to live independently. Though many of these items are made of cheap plastic, the costs can be prohibitively high for poor people as well as better-off people living on fixed incomes. Research I participated in found that using free online designs and a basic 3D printer to make these assistive aids can <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2308-3417/3/4/89">save arthritis patients more than 94 percent</a> of the cost of the commercially available products. A typical adaptive aid costs about $25; a 3D printed one costs about a dollar. That generates savings that add up to more than cover the cost of the printer itself.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-jl4sLLnuQI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">How 3D printing adaptive aids saves money.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What would Grandma make?</h2>
<p>There are dozens of adaptive aids that can be printed for pennies, helping with tasks like refueling a car, chopping vegetables and using scissors.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250091/original/file-20181211-76971-jpqpik.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250091/original/file-20181211-76971-jpqpik.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250091/original/file-20181211-76971-jpqpik.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250091/original/file-20181211-76971-jpqpik.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250091/original/file-20181211-76971-jpqpik.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250091/original/file-20181211-76971-jpqpik.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250091/original/file-20181211-76971-jpqpik.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250091/original/file-20181211-76971-jpqpik.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Make removing the gas cap easy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">J.M. Pearce</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250092/original/file-20181211-76974-1sy5bj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250092/original/file-20181211-76974-1sy5bj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250092/original/file-20181211-76974-1sy5bj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250092/original/file-20181211-76974-1sy5bj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250092/original/file-20181211-76974-1sy5bj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250092/original/file-20181211-76974-1sy5bj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250092/original/file-20181211-76974-1sy5bj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250092/original/file-20181211-76974-1sy5bj3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">3D printing makes opening locks even with tiny keys less painful.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">J.M. Pearce</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250093/original/file-20181211-76962-14x1yuf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250093/original/file-20181211-76962-14x1yuf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250093/original/file-20181211-76962-14x1yuf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250093/original/file-20181211-76962-14x1yuf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250093/original/file-20181211-76962-14x1yuf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250093/original/file-20181211-76962-14x1yuf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250093/original/file-20181211-76962-14x1yuf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250093/original/file-20181211-76962-14x1yuf.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chop your veggies again with ease.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">J.M. Pearce</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250096/original/file-20181211-76968-oy7oa3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250096/original/file-20181211-76968-oy7oa3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250096/original/file-20181211-76968-oy7oa3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250096/original/file-20181211-76968-oy7oa3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250096/original/file-20181211-76968-oy7oa3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250096/original/file-20181211-76968-oy7oa3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250096/original/file-20181211-76968-oy7oa3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250096/original/file-20181211-76968-oy7oa3.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">3D printing can help cut paper.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">J.M. Pearce</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our study technically and economically evaluated 20 fully free open-source designs for adaptive aids designed by Michigan Tech students and made available on <a href="http://www.appropedia.org/Economic_Potential_for_Distributed_Manufacturing_of_Adaptive_Aids_for_Arthritis_Patients_in_the_U.S.#Gallery">Appropedia</a> and <a href="https://www.myminifactory.com/">MyMiniFactory</a>. This is just a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechatronics.2013.06.002">tiny fraction of the 3D printed products available for anyone</a> with access to a 3D printer. People can download not just the designs for free, but also software that lets them adapt, personalize or customize the items for themselves or their loved ones. </p>
<p>We found that we could 3D print all 20 example adaptive aids for $20 – the cost of the plastic filament the 3D printer uses to make items. On the commercial market, the adaptive aids would cost over $20 each. A person, or family, who 3D printed 25 aids would save enough to more than pay for a <a href="https://mashable.com/2018/05/04/best-3d-printers-for-beginners/">relatively inexpensive $500 3D printer</a> – and a senior center that 3D printed another 50 could easily recoup the cost of a middle-range commercial desktop 3D printer.</p>
<p>Some people’s insurance or Medicare plan does help pay for adaptive aids. But even then patients usually must pay a portion, with copays around <a href="https://www.medicare.gov/coverage/durable-medical-equipment-dme-coverage">20 percent</a>. Our analysis found that even this group of patients would save significant amounts of money 3D printing their assistance items at home.</p>
<h2>Arthritis attacks the young, too</h2>
<p>Arthritis is not just for old people. For example, professional tennis player <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2018/10/26/sport/caroline-wozniacki-rheumatoid-arthritis-tennis-wta-finals-spt-intl/index.html">Caroline Wozniacki</a> was diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis at age 28, just a few weeks before the 2018 U.S. Open. Like most young people diagnosed with arthritis, she was shocked. </p>
<p>Younger people diagnosed with what is often viewed as an old person’s disease may <a href="https://www.versusarthritis.org/about-arthritis/young-people/living-with-arthritis/">feel embarrassed</a> and want to limit the number of people who know about their condition. Those patients would no doubt be glad to save the money, but perhaps be even more interested in 3D printing because it would let them customize and build their aid items in the privacy of their own homes.</p>
<p>Consider, for example, the normally private act of clipping your toenails. Some people with arthritis find it difficult to do this with small nail clippers, so they get <a href="https://www.groupon.com/articles/what-is-a-pedicure-guide-to-cost-tips-and-types">pedicures that cost in general between $35 and $60</a>. Some might pay <a href="https://www.arthritissupplies.com/deluxe-nail-care-board.html">$36 to buy a plastic handle</a> that attaches to a standard nail clipper, letting them cut their own nails at home. But a 3D printed handle costs about a dollar – a 97 percent savings.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250330/original/file-20181212-110237-12vybpt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250330/original/file-20181212-110237-12vybpt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250330/original/file-20181212-110237-12vybpt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250330/original/file-20181212-110237-12vybpt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250330/original/file-20181212-110237-12vybpt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250330/original/file-20181212-110237-12vybpt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250330/original/file-20181212-110237-12vybpt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250330/original/file-20181212-110237-12vybpt.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 3D printed adapter fits standard nail clippers, letting people use a larger lever to clip their own nails.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">J.M. Pearce</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How can you get 3D printed aids?</h2>
<p>Making adaptive aids using a 3D printer is particularly useful because of how easy it is to customize printed items for a person’s hand size or personal aesthetic. The software programs that make and modify designs, and that control 3D printers, are <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies5010007">getting easier to use</a>; in any case, many older people are technically adept. In fact, some of the <a href="https://www.thingiverse.com/thing:380987">best 3D printable designs</a> for <a href="http://www.appropedia.org/Recyclebot">recyclebots</a> were made by a retired engineer.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250095/original/file-20181211-76980-h8srnm.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250095/original/file-20181211-76980-h8srnm.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250095/original/file-20181211-76980-h8srnm.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250095/original/file-20181211-76980-h8srnm.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250095/original/file-20181211-76980-h8srnm.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250095/original/file-20181211-76980-h8srnm.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250095/original/file-20181211-76980-h8srnm.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250095/original/file-20181211-76980-h8srnm.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Writing is easy again with a 3D printed pen holder.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">J.M. Pearce</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of course, not everyone is interested in buying the machinery or learning how to use it. In many communities there are volunteers who are willing to <a href="https://ultimaker.com/en/blog/52650-connecting-students-and-seniors-to-solve-real-world-challenges-using-3d-printing">help people with disabilities</a> or medical conditions make what they need. The <a href="https://www.makersmakingchange.com/">Makers Making Change</a> nonprofit group even takes requests online. Many <a href="http://themakermap.com">community centers</a> and <a href="https://opensource.com/article/17/12/paying-it-forward-aalto-fab-lab">local libraries</a> also offer machinery, software and knowledgeable helpers. Senior centers and medical offices may soon start offering similar services as well, helping people with arthritis help themselves every day.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/108657/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Professor Joshua M. Pearce receives funding from the Air Force Research Laboratory (ARFL) through America Makes: The National Additive Manufacturing Innovation Institute, which is managed and operated by the National Center for Defense Manufacturing and Machining (NCDMM). He also receives funding from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E), and the National Science Foundation (NSF) for 3D printing related projects. In addition, his past and present research is supported by many non-profits and for-profit companies in the open source additive manufacturing industry including re:3D, 3D4Edu, Miller, Aleph Objects, CNC Router Parts, Virtual Foundry, Ultimaker and Youmagine, Cheap 3D Filaments, MyMiniFactory, Zeni Kinetic, Matter Hackers, and Ultimachine. He has no direct conflicts of interests.</span></em></p>Seniors and other people suffering from arthritis could do more daily tasks for themselves, and save money, by 3D printing their own small plastic aids, like key holders and pill-splitters.Joshua M. Pearce, Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, and Electrical and Computer Engineering, Michigan Technological UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/892122018-09-04T10:35:21Z2018-09-04T10:35:21ZIt’s too soon to call 3D printing a green technology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234549/original/file-20180902-195319-1bvkt5l.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Prototype vehicle built with 3D printing – but is it green?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tim Gutowski</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the past decade 3D printing has captured the imagination of the general public, engineers and environmental visionaries. It has been hailed as both <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-just-hype-3d-printing-is-the-bridge-to-the-future-43493">a revolution in manufacturing</a> and an opportunity for <a href="http://fortune.com/2018/07/23/3d-printing-global-warming/">dramatic environmental improvement</a>. </p>
<p>3D printing has two key attributes that lead enthusiasts to call it a “green” technology. First, many 3D printing systems generate very little waste, unlike conventional manufacturing techniques such as injection molding, casting, stamping and cutting. Second, 3D printers in homes, stores and community centers can use digital designs to make products onsite, reducing the need to transport products to end users.</p>
<p>However, there is limited quantitative analysis of the environmental performance of 3D printing. Much of it focuses only on energy used during production, rather than including impacts from raw materials production, use of the product itself, or waste management. To fill this gap, we organized a <a href="http://bit.ly/JIE-3D">special issue</a> of Yale University’s <a href="http://bit.ly/JIE-Home">Journal of Industrial Ecology</a>. We found that excitement around the possibilities for dramatic environmental improvements needs to be moderated with an understanding of the technology, how it would be implemented, and its current state of development. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">How does 3D printing affect the environment and how can governments respond?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Mainly for industry</h2>
<p>Most consumers who have seen 3D printers know them as small, boxy machines similar to ink-jet printers. Those systems can make simple products such as <a href="https://all3dp.com/1/useful-cool-things-3d-print-ideas-3d-printer-projects-stuff/">doorstops, bottle openers and shopping bag handles</a>, typically from a single material. </p>
<p>In fact 3D printing is a family of technologies used mainly in industry, where it is called additive manufacturing. These systems produce objects, based on digital information, by adding successive layers of materials. These items are then further processed and assembled into products such as jet engine components, hearing aids, medical implants and numerous different types of complex parts for industrial equipment. Additive manufacturing thus is a complement to conventional manufacturing processes, not a substitute for them. </p>
<p>Industry has used additive manufacturing for several decades to create prototypes for use in product design and production planning. Now the technologies are becoming more sophisticated, and are being used to make <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/operations/our-insights/additive-manufacturing-a-long-term-game-changer-for-manufacturers">end-use parts and products</a>.</p>
<p>Additive manufacturing is especially useful for making custom parts and small batches of complex objects at less cost than conventional manufacturing, which often requires time-consuming and expensive preparation of production equipment.</p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 3D printed mouthpiece customized for each patient, printed from titanium and coated with a medical grade plastic, prevents dangerous pauses in breath during sleep.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_2061_Hands_holding_a_3D_printed_mouthpiece_printed_from_titanium.jpg">CSIRO</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Junk on demand?</h2>
<p>Our review of emerging research indicates that additive manufacturing is not automatically good for the environment. Parts produced this way often require additional processing to give them the correct dimensions or appearance. This can consume resources or generate further environmental impacts. </p>
<p>Much of the research that we <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12629">reviewed</a> suggests that seemingly mundane considerations, such as how additive manufacturing equipment is configured, the operational setup, and choices about processing details – for example, the thickness of layers being added – have a big impact on overall environmental performance. Scientists also are starting to investigate <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12569">exposure to emissions</a> of tiny plastic particles and safety hazards during use of additive manufacturing machinery.</p>
<p>Importantly, additive manufacturing is not an inherently wasteless process. For example, some technologies require use of <a href="http://bit.ly/JIE-Lantada">temporary support structures</a> during production to prevent objects from warping or collapsing while they are being formed. These supports cannot always be reprocessed back into raw materials. It also is important to consider whether the plastics, metals or mixed materials used in parts made with additive manufacturing can be recycled. </p>
<p>Another concern is that on-demand production and endless customization could lead to dramatic increases in throw-away consumer products, or “<a href="http://www.changeist.com/changelog/2012/10/30/plastic-overdrive">crapjects</a>,” as some commentators refer to them. Producing shoes, costume jewelry or household goods in varied colors or designs on demand could take “<a href="https://theconversation.com/read-this-before-you-go-sales-shopping-the-environmental-costs-of-fast-fashion-88373">fast fashion</a>” to a whole new level.</p>
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<h2>Realizing environmental benefits</h2>
<p>At the same time, decentralized, customized production is an intriguing environmental opportunity. It arises from a vision of producing objects in local factories, or even at home, and making just the specific product that is desired, rather than making an entire batch in a distant location, then shipping and warehousing the items in bulk quantities. </p>
<p>Currently, however, most products that could be made this way must be simple enough to produce on entry-level 3D printers, usually from a single material. More importantly, processing raw materials for additive manufacturing can consume more energy than manufacturing with conventional manufacturing technology and shipping the final product to end users. </p>
<p>Making spare parts through additive manufacturing has real potential for prolonging the lifespan of products, although it also could <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12388">keep older, less energy efficient equipment in use longer</a>. To make this a common option, some parts will need to be specifically designed to be produced through additive manufacturing.</p>
<p>Here, though, intellectual property issues could pose major challenges. Users of 3D printers may not have the legal right to produce parts and products from designs created by the original producers. And those producers may not find it in their economic interest to allow use of the design. Users of 3D printers may want to make spare parts for, say, an older car, but the car manufacturer may not want to share designs for those parts.</p>
<p>Additive manufacturing has powerful capabilities to produce objects with very complicated shapes and internal spaces – for example, specialized parts for aircraft that can reduce weight, thereby lowering fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Many researchers think the capability to make such complicated parts, and resulting gains in energy efficiency, may offer the greatest environmental benefits from additive manufacturing.</p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">3D printed lightweight titanium cabin components for passenger aircraft made using selective laser melting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Centre for Additive Manufacturing, University of Nottingham, 2018</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Opportunities ahead</h2>
<p>Additive manufacturing is very effective for producing a small number of specialized parts or products. Its potential environmental advantages currently lie in making spare parts on demand, and especially in creating specialized parts that reduce energy consumption of products during use. Other gains may be realized as technologies continue to advance.</p>
<p>Despite claims made about the environmental benefits of this technology, it is important to realize that these systems have not been designed with environmental efficiency in mind. While some 3D printing applications may not be environmentally desirable, there are many opportunities for improvement that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12580">have not yet been pursued</a>. The first step is more research on the environmental impacts of producing materials used in 3D printing, how 3D products are used, and the wastes they generate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89212/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Reid Lifset received funding from the US Department of Energy, the Lounsbery Foundation and GE to support publication of a special issue of the Journal of Industrial Ecology on the Environmental Dimensions of Additive Manufacturing and 3D printing The funders played no role in the editorial content of the issue.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martin Baumers and Timothy Gutowski do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Is 3D printing better for the environment than conventional manufacturing? The jury is still out.Reid Lifset, Research Scholar, Resident Fellow in Industrial Ecology, School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale UniversityMartin Baumers, Centre Research Coordinator, Faculty of Engineering, University of NottinghamTimothy Gutowski, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/984902018-06-19T14:06:40Z2018-06-19T14:06:40ZHow to print a building: the science behind 3D printing in construction<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223893/original/file-20180619-126553-r7wi3p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Building sites are going to look a bit different, in the future. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/civil-construction-site-old-neighbourhood-city-1105491317?src=gSDnZVVblVMzXQdRPzwr2Q-1-96">Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s often claimed that 3D printing – known in the trade as “additive manufacturing” – will change the way we live. Most recently, a team from Eindhoven University of Technology announced plans to build the “world’s first” habitable 3D printed houses. But it’s one thing to build small, prototype homes in a park – it’s quite another to successfully use additive manufacturing for large scale projects in the construction sector. </p>
<p>Additive manufacturing uses a combination of materials science, architecture and design, computation and robotics. Yet in some ways, it’s not as futuristic as it sounds. The simple approach of layer-wise construction – where building materials are layered on top of each other to create a facade – has already been practised for a long time in the construction sector, for example in conventional brick layering techniques. </p>
<p>The true novelty of additive manufacturing lies in its ability to combine new, highly efficient and sustainable materials with architectural design software and robotic technology, to automate and improve processes that have already been proven manually. In this sense, additive manufacturing holds many potentially groundbreaking benefits for the construction sector. </p>
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<p>3D printing <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0926580517309731">can produce</a> up to 30% less material waste, use less energy and fewer resources, enable in-situ production (which in turn cuts transport costs), grant greater architectural freedom and generate fewer CO₂ emissions over the entire lifecycle of the product.</p>
<h2>Printable feedstocks</h2>
<p>But there is still some way to go before additive manufacturing technology can deliver on its potential. There are several different components of additive manufacturing, each of which must be developed and refined before the process can be successfully used in large-scale construction. </p>
<p>One component is printable feedstocks – the materials which are actually “printed” to create the final product. There are many types of printable feedstock, but the most relevant one for large scale construction is concrete. Printable feedstocks are typically made from a combination of bulk materials – such as soil, sand, crushed stone, clay and recycled materials – mixed with a binder such as Portland cement, fly ash or polymers, as well as other additives and chemical agents to allow the concrete to set faster and maintain its shape, so that the layers can be deposited rapidly. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.brunel.ac.uk/civil-engineering/research-and-phd-programmes/Additive-Manufacturing-Technology-in-Construction-AMTC">a project</a> I am currently working on at Brunel University, we are focusing on producing a printable cement feedstock. To create materials for 3D printed constructions, scientists must carefully control the setting time of the paste, the stability of first few layers and the bonding between the layers. The behaviour of the materials must be thoroughly investigated under a range of conditions, to achieve a robust structure which can take load. </p>
<p>The combination of cement, sand and other additives must be just right, so that the feedstocks don’t set while still in the printer, and don’t stay wet for too long once they have been deposited to form a structure. Different grades of feedstock need to be formulated and developed, so that this technology can be used to build a range of different structural elements, such as load-bearing and large-scale building blocks. </p>
<h2>Building blocks</h2>
<p>Another component is the printer, which must have a powerful pump to suit the scale of manufacturing in the construction industry. The pressure and flow rate of the printer must be trialled with different types of feedstocks. The speed and the size of the printer is key to achieving a good print quality: smooth surface, square edges and a consistent width and height for each layer. </p>
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<p>How quickly the feedstock materials are deposited – typically measured in centimetres per hour – can speed up or slow down construction. Decreasing the setting time of the feedstock means that the printer can work faster – but it also puts the feedstock at risk of hardening inside the printer system. The printing system should be optimised to continuously deliver the feedstock materials at a constant rate, so that the layers can fuse together evenly. </p>
<p>The geometry of the structures produced is the final piece of the puzzle, when it comes to using 3D printing in construction. When the printer and the feedstock have been properly set up, they will be able to produce full-size building blocks with a smart geometry which can take load without reinforcements. The shape stability of the truss-like filaments in these blocks is an essential part of printing, which provides strength and stiffness to the printed objects. </p>
<p>This three-pronged approach to adapting additive manufacturing for construction could revolutionise the industry within the next ten to 15 years. But before that can happen, scientists need to fine tune the mix ratios for the feedstocks, and refine a printing system which can cope with the rapid manufacturing of building blocks. Only then can the potential of 3D printing be harnessed to build faster, and more sustainably, than ever before.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98490/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Seyed Ghaffar is affiliated with Brunel University London. </span></em></p>There are plans to build the world’s first 3D printed house – but the potential for construction could be far greater.Seyed Ghaffar, Assistant Professor in Civil Engineering and Environmental Materials, Brunel University LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/831952017-10-11T23:17:58Z2017-10-11T23:17:58ZCan you be hacked by the world around you?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189211/original/file-20171006-25775-xkadt6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Could scanning a QR code be an invitation to malware?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/qr-code-payment-online-shopping-cashless-704697319">Zapp2Photo/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’ve probably been told it’s dangerous to open unexpected attachment files in your email – just like you shouldn’t open suspicious packages in your mailbox. But have you been warned against scanning unknown QR codes or just taking a picture with your phone? New research suggests that cyberattackers could exploit cameras and sensors in phones and other devices.</p>
<p>As someone who researches <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/technologies3010019">3-D modeling</a>, including <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/machines3020055">assessing 3-D printed objects</a> to be sure they meet quality standards, I’m aware of being vulnerable to methods of storing malicious computer code in the physical world. Our group’s work is in the laboratory, and has not yet encountered malware hidden in 3-D printing instructions or encoded in the structure of an item being scanned. But we’re preparing for that possibility. </p>
<p>At the moment, it’s not very likely for us: An attacker would need very specialized knowledge about our system’s functions to succeed in attacking it. But the day is coming when intrusions can happen through normal communications with or sensing performed by a computer or smartphone. Product designers and users alike need to be aware of the risks. </p>
<h2>Transmitting infection</h2>
<p>In order for a device to become infected or compromised, the nefarious party has to figure out some way to get the computer to store or process the malware. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/spearphishing-roiled-the-presidential-campaign-heres-how-to-protect-yourself-68274">human at the keyboard</a> has been a common target. An attacker might send an email telling the user that he or she has won the lottery or is going to be in trouble for not responding to a work supervisor. In other cases, a virus is designed to be unwittingly triggered by routine software activities.</p>
<p>Researchers at the University of Washington tested another possibility recently, <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/malware-dna-hack/">embedding a computer virus in DNA</a>. The good news is that most computers can’t catch an electronic virus from bad software – called malware – embedded in a biological one. The <a href="https://www.usenix.org/conference/usenixsecurity17/technical-sessions/presentation/ney">DNA infection</a> was a test of the concept of attacking a computer equipped to read <a href="https://theconversation.com/storing-data-in-dna-brings-nature-into-the-digital-universe-78226">digital data stored in DNA</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, when our team scans a 3-D printed object, we are both storing and processing the data from the imagery that we collect. If an attacker analyzed how we do this, they could – perhaps – identify a step in our process that would be vulnerable to a compromised or corrupted piece of data. Then, they would have to design an object for us to scan that would cause us to receive these data.</p>
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<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A 3-D scanning rig in our lab.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeremy Straub</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>Closer to home, when you scan a <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/the-curious-comeback-of-the-dreaded-qr-code/">QR code</a>, your computer or phone processes the data in the code and takes some action – perhaps sending an email or going to a specified URL. An attacker could find a bug in a code-reader app that allows certain precisely formatted text to be executed instead of just scanned and processed. Or there could be <a href="http://www.nbcnews.com/id/45729377/ns/technology_and_science-security/t/how-qr-codes-hide-privacy-security-risks/">something designed to harm your phone</a> waiting at the target website.</p>
<h2>Imprecision as protection</h2>
<p>The good news is that most sensors have less precision than DNA sequencers. For instance, two mobile phone cameras pointed at the same subject will collect somewhat different information, based on lighting, camera position and how closely it’s zoomed in. Even small variations could render encoded malware inoperable, because the sensed data would not always be accurate enough to translate into working software. So it’s unlikely that a person’s phone would be hacked just by taking a photo of something.</p>
<p>But some systems, like QR code readers, include methods for correcting anomalies in sensed data. And when the sensing environment is highly controlled, like with our <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/machines3020055">recent work to assess 3-D printing</a>, it is easier for an attacker to affect the sensor readings more predictably.</p>
<p>What is perhaps most problematic is the ability for sensing to provide a gateway into systems that are otherwise secure and difficult to attack. For example, to prevent the infection of our 3-D printing quality sensing system by a conventional attack, we <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.2264583">proposed</a> placing it on another computer, one disconnected from the internet and other sources of potential cyberattacks. But the system still must scan the 3-D printed object. A maliciously designed object could be a way to attack this otherwise disconnected system.</p>
<h2>Screening for prevention</h2>
<p>Many software developers don’t yet think about the potential for hackers to manipulate sensed data. But in 2011, Iranian government hackers were able to <a href="https://phys.org/news/2011-12-rq-drone-ambush-facts-iranian.html">capture a U.S. spy drone</a> in just this way. Programmers and computer administrators must ensure that sensed data are screened before processing, and handled securely, to prevent unexpected hijacking. </p>
<p>In addition to developing secure software, another type of system can help: An <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1084804512001944">intrusion detection system</a> can look for common attacks, unusual behavior or even when things that are expected to happen don’t. They’re not perfect, of course, at times <a href="http://www.dtic.mil/docs/citations/ADA391565">failing to detect attacks</a> and at others <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/357830.357849">misidentifing legitimate activities as attacks</a>.</p>
<p>Computer devices that both sense and modify the environment are becoming more common – in manufacturing robots, drones and self-driving cars, among many other examples. As that happens, the potential for attacks to include both physical and electronic elements grows significantly. Attackers may find it very attractive to embed malicious software in the physical world, just waiting for unsuspecting people to scan it with a smartphone or a more specialized device. Hidden in plain sight, the malicious software becomes a sort of “sleeper agent” that can avoid detection until it reaches its target – perhaps deep inside a secure government building, bank or hospital.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83195/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremy Straub is the Associate Director of the NDSU Institute for Cyber Security Education and Research. Work referenced in this article has previously been funded by the North Dakota Department of Commerce.</span></em></p>Scanning physical items constructed with nefarious intent can introduce malware into a smartphone or computer.Jeremy Straub, Assistant Professor of Computer Science, North Dakota State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/784282017-05-30T10:43:39Z2017-05-30T10:43:39ZA 3D-printed rocket engine just launched a new era of space exploration<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171429/original/file-20170530-16298-10q0h7o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">RocketLab</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The rocket that blasted into space from New Zealand on May 25 was special. Not only was it the <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-39971843">first to launch</a> from a private site, it was also the first to be powered by an engine made almost entirely using 3D printing. This might not make it the
“<a href="http://www.mirror.co.uk/science/3d-printed-rocket-launched-space-10497473">first 3D-printed rocket in space</a>” that some headlines described it as, but it does highlight how seriously this manufacturing technique is being taken by the space industry.</p>
<p>Members of the team behind <a href="https://www.rocketlabusa.com/electron/">the Electron rocket</a> at US company RocketLab say the engine was printed in 24 hours and provides efficiency and performance benefits over other systems. There’s not yet much information out there regarding the exact details of the 3D-printed components. But it’s likely many of them have been designed to minimise weight while maintaining their structural performance, while other components may have been optimised to provide efficient fluid flow. These advantages – reducing weight and the potential for complex new designs – are a large part of why 3D printing is expected to find some of its most significant applications in space exploration, with dramatic effect.</p>
<p>One thing the set of technologies known as additive manufacturing or 3D printing does really well is to produce highly complicated shapes. For example, lattice structures produced in exactly the right way so that they weigh less but are just as strong as similar solid components. This creates the opportunity to produce optimised, lightweight parts that were previously impossible to manufacture economically or efficiently with more traditional techniques.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.boeing.com/features/2015/10/innovation-lightest-metal-10-15.page">Boeing’s microlattice</a> is an example of taking this to the extreme, supposedly producing mechanically sound structures that are 99.9% air. Not all 3D printing processes can achieve this, but even weight savings of a few percent in aircraft and spacecraft can lead to <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652615004849">major benefits</a> through the use of less fuel.</p>
<iframe src="https://players.brightcove.net/800000612001/a7975ab0-d4c3-4514-a6c3-d7bfff0667c5_default/index.html?videoId=4484391445001" allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>3D printing tends to work best for the production of relatively small, intricate parts rather than large, simple structures, where the higher material and processing costs would outweigh any advantage. For example, a <a href="http://www.engineering.com/BIM/ArticleID/11948/First-Jet-Engines-with-3D-Printed-Nozzles-Delivered-to-Airbus.aspx">redesigned nozzle</a> can enhance fuel mixing within an engine, leading to better efficiency. Increasing the surface area of a <a href="http://www.materialstoday.com/additive-manufacturing/news/3d-printed-heat-shields-help-run-power-plant/">heat shield</a> by using a patterned rather than a flat surface can mean heat is transferred away more efficiently, reducing the chances of overheating. </p>
<p>The techniques can also reduce the amount of material wasted in manufacturing, important because space components tend to be made from highly expensive and often rare materials. 3D printing can also produce whole systems in one go rather than from lots of assembled parts. For example, NASA used it to reduce the components in one of its <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/3d-printed-rocket-injector.html">rocket injectors</a> from 115 to just two. Plus, 3D printers can easily make small numbers of a part – as the space industry often needs – without first creating expensive manufacturing tools. </p>
<h2>In orbit</h2>
<p>3D printers are also likely to find a use in space itself, where it’s difficult to keep large numbers of spare parts and hard to send out for replacements when you’re thousands of kilometres from Earth. There’s now a 3D printer on the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/international-space-station-s-3-d-printer">International Space Station</a> so, if something breaks, engineers can <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/3Dratchet_wrench">send up a design</a> for a replacement and the astronauts can print it out.</p>
<p>The current printer only deals with plastic so it’s more likely to be used for making tools or one-off replacements for low-performance parts such as door handles. But once 3D printers can more easily use other materials, we’re likely to see an increase in their uses. One day, people in space could produce their own <a href="https://theconversation.com/would-you-eat-a-3d-printed-pizza-70335">food items</a> and even <a href="http://www.engineering.com/3DPrinting/3DPrintingArticles/ArticleID/12481/First-Vascular-Structures-3D-Bioprinted-in-Zero-Gravity.aspx">biological materials</a>. Recycling facilities could also enable broken parts to be reused to make the replacements.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171434/original/file-20170530-16303-a0w07r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171434/original/file-20170530-16303-a0w07r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171434/original/file-20170530-16303-a0w07r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171434/original/file-20170530-16303-a0w07r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171434/original/file-20170530-16303-a0w07r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171434/original/file-20170530-16303-a0w07r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/171434/original/file-20170530-16303-a0w07r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Astro printing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Barry Wilmore/NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Looking even further ahead, 3D printers could prove useful in building colonies. Places like the moon don’t have much in the way of traditional building materials, but the European Space Agency has proven <a href="http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Engineering_Technology/Printing_bricks_from_moondust_using_the_Sun_s_heat">solar energy can power the production of “bricks</a>” of lunar dust, which would be a good start. Researchers are now looking at how to use 3D printing to take this idea further and develop <a href="https://theconversation.com/want-to-build-a-moon-base-easy-just-print-it-59070">complete printed buildings on the moon</a>.</p>
<p>To make many of these applications a reality, we’ll need to research more <a href="http://www.news.ucsb.edu/2017/018002/leap-3-d-printing">advanced materials and processes</a> that can manufacture components to withstand the extremely harsh conditions of space. Engineers also need to work on developing optimised designs and find ways of testing 3D printed parts to prove they’re safe. And then there’s the irritating issue of gravity, or rather the lack of it. Many current processes use powders or liquids as their raw materials so we’re likely to need some clever tricks in order to make these function safely in a low or microgravity environment.</p>
<p>Some of these barriers may even require entirely new materials and techniques. But as research goes on, 3D printing is likely to be used more and more in space, even if a fully printed space vehicle isn’t going to launch any time soon. The sky is no longer the limit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78428/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Candice Majewski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There are loads of applications for 3D printers in space.Candice Majewski, Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/775592017-05-23T06:33:16Z2017-05-23T06:33:16ZThe ‘digital handmade’: how 3D printing became a new craft technology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170243/original/file-20170521-12257-dxltwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">3D printing can be a powerful tool for designers and artists.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/head-3d-printer-action-212295607?src=GPL-Jl_Y8_FM-hXltk4zcw-1-11">www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For many people, craft is wooden chairs and pottery, all lovingly constructed by hand. A 3D-printed plastic object? Not so much.</p>
<p>The work of Australian designer Berto Pandolfo, shown in a new <a href="http://chippendalecreative.com/exhibitions/berto-pandolfo/">exhibition</a> at Kensington Contemporary in Sydney, upends that rule. His sidetables demonstrate that digital fabrication techniques like 3D printing offer new possibilities for design practitioners with a craft ethos.</p>
<p>By using new technology to enrich rather than substitute traditional techniques, he is part of a movement that the writer Lucy Johnston has termed <a href="http://www.thamesandhudsonusa.com/books/digital-handmade-craftsmanship-and-the-new-industrial-revolution-hardcover">“the digital handmade”</a> – designers that use emerging digital techniques to create desirable objects.</p>
<p>Craft is a contested term, especially in an era where machines have taken the place of work previously done by hand. Broadly, it’s an approach guided by tradition, sensitivity to materials and manual techniques. Pandolfo’s show explores the place of 3D printing within such a practice. The result is objects that feel distinctive rather than mass manufactured, despite their online origins.</p>
<p>3D printing, more accurately referred to as <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214860414000104">additive manufacturing</a>, creates objects by depositing material layer-by-layer. For furniture design in particular this is a radical shift away from traditional methods of material subtracting (think of carving) as well as forming and joining. Referred to as the third industrial revolution by technology writers such as <a href="http://www.economist.com/node/21552901">Paul Markillie</a>, additive manufacturing was first used as a tool to construct prototypes directly from computer-generated models.</p>
<p>Some 3D printing techniques are favoured by industrial designers on a mass scale. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9E5MfBAV_tA&t=5s">Selective laser sintering</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bgQvqVq-SQU">direct metal laser sintering</a>, for example, are two relatively expensive processes that have proven <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00170-011-3878-1?LI=true">particularly useful</a> in the biomedical and aerospace industries. </p>
<p>Processes such as <a href="https://medium.com/@enggtechnique/fused-deposition-modeling-fdm-3d-printing-technology-9154f637c269">fused deposition modelling</a>, on the other hand, are more affordable and more accessible to designers working on one-off objects like Pandolfo. Desktop 3D printers such as CraftUnique’s <a href="https://craftunique.com/category/craftbot-plus-3d-printer">CraftBot PLUS</a> cost a little over US$1,000.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/BwPgGCAseq8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">An animated video of the fused deposition modelling process.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For his exhibition, entitled MND, Pandolfo has produced a series of side tables, using fused deposition modelling to create the legs. Inspired by river stones, the legs contrast with the smooth finish of the body of the table, made by hand from kauri pine. Typically rough textures are associated with wood. In this instance, however, the wood is smooth and uniform, and the plastic is rough and irregular.</p>
<p>The 3D printing process typically produces a rough, lumpy or striped surface finish, which is often sanded down. Pandolfo decided not to, giving the side tables the markings of imperfection often associated with handmade objects. </p>
<p>He also chose the river stone form rather than a side table’s conventional turned wooden legs, in order to exploit the capacity of additive manufacturing for creating forms of <a href="https://www.designsociety.org/publication/39025/from_prototype_to_production_using_plastic_3d_printed_parts_in_furniture">subtle irregularity</a>. Rather than being regarded as incidental or antagonistic to the finished product, the surface imperfections typical of the fused deposition modelling process have been used as an opportunity. </p>
<p>Pandolfo’s work fits within the “digital handmade” movement because he has taken the technological limitations of 3D printing as a creative opportunity.</p>
<p>In fact, the marriage of 3D printing and craft represents a return to a pre-industrial values where creative intelligence and skill in making went together. </p>
<p>As Johnston suggests <a href="http://www.thamesandhudsonusa.com/books/digital-handmade-craftsmanship-and-the-new-industrial-revolution-hardcover">in her book</a>, the industrial revolution “resulted in a diminished role for the craftsman”. Skill and imagination were removed from mass manufacture as machines and the factory line dominated the production process. The creativity once associated with handmade objects and craft became more exclusively associated with the fine arts. </p>
<p>Pandolfo’s deliberate exploration of new materials, technology and form demonstrate a blending of these supposedly contrasting virtues. </p>
<p>The broader value of this work is in demonstrating how technological hardware, such as 3D printing, need not be relegated to mass industry. Designers and handcrafters can also claim it, ensuring new meaning can emerge from our machines.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/77559/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Lee is currently working with Berto Pandolfo in a research program at UTS looking at innovative solutions for the design and manufacture of objects in the context of small batch production. </span></em></p>The work of Australian designer Berto Pandolfo shows how 3D printing can be claimed as a craft technology.Tom Lee, Lecturer, Faculty of Design and Architecture Building, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/741172017-04-19T01:09:51Z2017-04-19T01:09:51ZIntroducing ‘Operator 4.0,’ a tech-augmented human worker<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165633/original/image-20170418-32716-1kvwum2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Technology can help workers in many ways.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.researchgate.net/project/The-Operator-40-Towards-Socially-Sustainable-Factories-of-the-Future">Romero, Stahre, Wuest, et al.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.rolandberger.com/publications/publication_pdf/roland_berger_industry_40_20160609.pdf">Fourth Industrial Revolution</a> has arrived. The first was the steam engine-driven Industrial Revolution; the second involved the innovations from Henry Ford’s assembly line. Third, microelectronics and computer power appeared on factory floors. Now, manufacturing businesses are beginning to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312069858_Industrie_40_and_Smart_Manufacturing_-_A_Review_of_Research_Issues_and_Application_Examples">integrate robotics, automation and other data-driven technologies</a> into their workflows.</p>
<p>Robots have taken over <a href="http://www.webdesignschoolsguide.com/library/10-things-we-couldnt-do-without-robots.html">difficult, dangerous and repetitive physical tasks</a>, improving factory safety, worker comfort and product quality. The next phase of labor innovation will do the same thing for cognitive work, removing mentally stressful and repetitive tasks from people’s daily routines.</p>
<p>Human work will become more versatile and creative. Robots and people will work more closely together than ever before. <a href="https://humans-machines-progress.com/reportage/work-4-0-humans-at-its-heart/">People will use their unique abilities</a> to innovate, collaborate and adapt to new situations. They will handle challenging tasks with knowledge-based reasoning. Machines enabled by the technologies that are now becoming commonplace – virtual assistants like <a href="https://www.apple.com/ios/siri/">Siri</a> and <a href="https://www.amazon.com/b/ref=amb_link_10?_encoding=UTF8&node=16067214011&pf_rd_m=ATVPDKIKX0DER&pf_rd_s=merchandised-search-leftnav&pf_rd_r=2RKBP0D6YK40CPK201WF&pf_rd_r=2RKBP0D6YK40CPK201WF&pf_rd_t=101&pf_rd_p=a26577b0-449b-401f-a482-44c5e9674e47&pf_rd_p=a26577b0-449b-401f-a482-44c5e9674e47&pf_rd_i=9818047011">Alexa</a>, wearable sensors like <a href="https://www.fitbit.com/home">FitBits</a> and smart watches – will take care of tedious work details.</p>
<p>People will still be essential on the factory floors, even as robots become more common. Future operators will have technical support and be super-strong, super-informed, super-safe and constantly connected.</p>
<p>We call this new generation of tech-augmented human workers, both on factory floors and in offices, “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/project/The-Operator-40-Towards-Socially-Sustainable-Factories-of-the-Future">Operator 4.0</a>.” There are several types of enhancements available, which can be used individually or in combination to put humans at the heart of this technological revolution.</p>
<h2>Super strong</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165679/original/image-20170418-32713-d4i79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165679/original/image-20170418-32713-d4i79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/165679/original/image-20170418-32713-d4i79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165679/original/image-20170418-32713-d4i79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165679/original/image-20170418-32713-d4i79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=456&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165679/original/image-20170418-32713-d4i79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165679/original/image-20170418-32713-d4i79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/165679/original/image-20170418-32713-d4i79m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This Hyundai wearable robot can help a human worker lift very heavy items.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.hmgjournal.com/Group-Story/Co-efficient/Hyundai-Wearable-Robot.blg">Hyundai</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One straightforward enhancement would let workers wear robotic exoskeletons to enhance their strength. A “super-strength operator” could let a human truly control the physical power of a large robot. In today’s warehouses and construction sites, workers risk injury and exhaustion by handling heavy objects themselves. Or they are forced to compromise, using a more powerful tool with less adaptability, like a forklift.</p>
<p>The benefits go well beyond the workplace. Of course, a worker in a powered robotic suit could easily handle extremely heavy objects without losing the flexibility of natural human movements. The worker would also be far less likely to suffer severe injuries from accidents or overwork. And at the end of a day, a super-strength worker could take off the exoskeleton and still have energy to play with the kids or spend time with friends. </p>
<h2>Super informed</h2>
<p>Fighter pilots use heads-up displays, which provide them with crucial information right on the cockpit windshield and directly in their line of sight. This is “augmented reality,” because it displays information within a live view of the world. It used to be very specialized and expensive technology. Now, <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/microsoft-hololens/en-us">Microsoft’s HoloLens</a> makes it available for consumers.</p>
<p>An “augmented operator” can get directions or assistance without interrupting the task he or she is working on. Often, when new equipment or processes are developed, trainers need to travel long distances to factories, staying for weeks to teach workers what to do. Designers do the same, getting feedback for refinements and improvements. All that travel takes up a huge amount of time and is extremely expensive. With augmented reality available, it is often unnecessary.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/8OWhGiyR4Ns?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Augmented reality on the job.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A worker <a href="http://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/consumer-electronics/gadgets/ces-2015-industrial-augmented-reality-takes-center-stage">wearing a set of smart glasses</a> can receive individualized, step-by-step instructions displayed right in front of his or her eyes, no matter where he or she is looking. With earbuds and a microphone, she or he could talk directly to trainers in real time.</p>
<h2>Super safe</h2>
<p>Many manufacturing environments are hazardous, involving heavy equipment, caustic chemicals and other dangers that can maim and kill human workers. A “healthy operator” may be equipped with wearable sensors tracking pulse rate, body temperature, chemical exposure or other factors that indicate risks of injury.</p>
<p>This type of system is already available: Truck drivers can wear the <a href="http://mavenmachines.com/co-pilot/">Maven Co-Pilot</a>, a hands-free headset that detects fatigue symptoms, like head-bobbing movements. It can also ensure drivers check their rear-view mirrors regularly to stay aware of nearby traffic. It can even provide reminders to take scheduled breaks. This helps keep the truck’s driver safe and improves everyone else’s road safety.</p>
<h2>And beyond…</h2>
<p>Possibilities are limitless. An “analytical operator” would wear a monitor showing real-time data and analytics, such as information on chemicals in a sewage treatment plant or pollutants at an incinerator. A “collaborative operator” may be linked to collaborative robots, or co-bots, like the assembly assistant <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-AitCwCF5VM">YuMi</a>. A “smarter operator” could be equipped with an intelligent virtual personal assistant, like an advanced Siri or Alexa.</p>
<p>There does not have to be conflict between robots and humans, with machines taking people’s jobs and leaving them unemployed. <a href="http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_White_Paper_Technology_Innovation_Future_of_Production_2017.pdf">Technology should be designed with collaboration in mind</a>. That way, companies and workers alike will be able to capitalize on the respective strengths of both human and machine. What’s more, the inherent flexibility of “Operator 4.0” workers will also help to ensure workplaces of the future that can change and adapt. That means getting ever more efficient and safer, as new technologies emerge.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/74117/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Johan Stahre receives funding from the National Swedish Innovation Agency, Vinnova.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Romero and Thorsten Wuest do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People will still be needed on factory floors, even as robots become more common. Future operators will have technical support and be super-strong, super-smart and constantly connected.Thorsten Wuest, Assistant Professor & J. Wayne and Kathy Richards Faculty Fellow in Engineering, West Virginia UniversityDavid Romero, Professor of Advanced Manufacturing, Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de MonterreyJohan Stahre, Professor of Production Systems, Chalmers University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/711252017-03-30T02:15:59Z2017-03-30T02:15:59ZTo really help US workers, we should invest in robots<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/155745/original/image-20170206-27204-1haiu34.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">University students experiment with human-robot interaction and autonomous manipulation, two elements of manufacturing's future.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nikolaus Correll</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>America’s manufacturing heyday is gone, and so are millions of jobs, lost to modernization. Despite what <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/03/mnuchin-ai/520791/">Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin might think</a>, the <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w23285">National Bureau of Economic Research</a> and <a href="http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2017/03/silicon-valley-slams-white-house-for-ignoring-ai-threat">Silicon Valley executives</a>, among <a href="https://www.wired.com/2017/03/hate-break-steve-mnuchin-ais-already-taking-jobs/">many others</a>, know it’s <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604005/actually-steve-mnuchin-robots-have-already-affected-the-us-labor-market/">already happening</a>. And a new report from PwC estimates that <a href="http://money.cnn.com/2017/03/24/technology/robots-jobs-us-workers-uk/index.html">38 percent of American jobs</a> are at “high risk” of being replaced by technology within the next 15 years. </p>
<p>But how soon automation will replace workers is not the real problem. The real threat to American jobs will come if China does it first.</p>
<p>Since the year 2000, the U.S. has <a href="https://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/iag31-33.htm#about">lost five million manufacturing jobs</a>. An estimated 2.4 million jobs <a href="http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21707834-truth-and-myth-about-effects-openness-trade-coming-and-going">went to low-wage workers in China and elsewhere</a> between 1999 and 2011. The remainder fell victim to gains in efficiency of production and automation, making many traditional manufacturing jobs obsolete.</p>
<p>Though more than a million jobs have returned since the 2008 recession, the net loss has <a href="http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21700758-will-smarter-machines-cause-mass-unemployment-automation-and-anxiety">devastated the lives</a> of millions of people and their families. Some blame robotics, others globalization. It turns out that those forces work together, and have been equally hurtful to manufacturing jobs. The car industry, for example, <a href="http://www.freep.com/story/money/cars/2017/01/29/auto-parts-suppliers-may-take-nafta-hit/97043034/">imports more and more parts from abroad</a>, while <a href="http://www.mmh.com/article/manufacturers_ramp_up_automation_investments_to_keep_pace_with_industry_gro">automating their assembly</a> in the U.S.</p>
<p>As a robotics researcher and educator, I strongly advocate that the best way to get those jobs back is to build on our existing strengths, remaining a leader in manufacturing efficiency and doing the hard work to further improve our educational and social systems to cope with a changing workforce. Particularly when looking at what’s happening in China, it’s clear we need to maintain <a href="https://hbr.org/2009/07/restoring-american-competitiveness">America’s international competitiveness</a>, as we have done since the beginning of industrialization.</p>
<h2>Chinese competition</h2>
<p>In 2014, China <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2016/04/26/china-exports-may-be-declining-but-still-clobber-u-s-and-european-trade/">exported more, and more valuable, products</a> than the U.S. for the first time. Many of these were made by the <a href="http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21646180-rising-chinese-wages-will-only-strengthen-asias-hold-manufacturing-tightening-grip">low-wage laborers</a> China has become famous for.</p>
<p>Yet China <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-is-largest-fastest-growing-market-world-wide-for-industrial-robots-1463584169">has also emerged as the largest growth market for robotics</a>. <a href="https://ifr.org/ifr-press-releases/news/world-record">Chinese companies bought more than twice</a> as many industrial robots (68,000) in 2015 than American companies did (27,000). China’s Midea – an appliance manufacturer – <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-07-03/voith-sells-kuka-stake-to-china-s-midea-for-about-1-3-billion">just purchased the German robotic powerhouse Kuka</a>. </p>
<p>China has understood that its competitive advantage of cheap labor will not last forever. Instead, labor costs will rise as its economy develops. Look at FoxConn, for example, the Taiwanese manufacturing contractor of the iPhone <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/business-30532463">known for the high-pressure work environment at its plants in China</a>. The company already <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/clsa-wef-and-citi-on-the-future-of-robots-and-ai-in-the-workforce-2016-6">uses more than 60,000 robots</a>, and has said it wants to <a href="http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-07/30/c_131018764.htm">use as many as a million robots by 2020</a>.</p>
<p>That’s a bold goal, especially given the current state of robotics. At present, robots are good only at highly repetitive tasks in structured environments. They are still <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1601.05484">far inferior to humans in simple tasks like picking items from a shelf</a>. But FoxConn’s goal of transforming its streamlined manufacturing line is definitely achievable. Many of the tasks now done by humans thousands of times a day can be easily automated – such as applying a puddle of glue, placing double-sided tape, positioning a piece of plastic, tightening screws or loading products onto a pallet. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Vi-JYKH2MEE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Taking apart and reassembling an iPhone.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The lesson here is simple: Some occupations will simply disappear, like those of weavers in the textile industry <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2014/01/25/what-the-humble-loom-can-teach-us-about-robots-and-automation/">displaced by the power loom</a>. We need to embrace this disruption if we want to avoid being taken out of the game altogether. Imagine if China is able to replace our low-wage jobs with its workers, and then can automate those jobs: Work Americans now do will be done here, or anywhere – but not by humans. FoxConn is <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/22/business/foxconn-might-build-plant-in-us.html">planning its first plant in the U.S.</a>; soon, Chinese robots will be working in America.</p>
<h2>Seeing opportunity, not loss</h2>
<p>The good news is that while many types of jobs will cease to exist, robots will create other jobs – and not only in the industry of designing new robots. </p>
<p>This is already beginning to happen. In 2014, there were <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/big-growth-in-tiny-businesses-1482953786">more than 350,000 manufacturing companies with only one employee</a>, up 17 percent from 2004. These companies combine globalization and automation, embracing outsourcing and technological tools to make craft foods, artisanal goods and even high-tech engineered products. </p>
<p>Many American entrepreneurs use digitally equipped manufacturing equipment like 3-D printers, laser cutters and computer-controlled CNC mills, combined with market places to outsource small manufacturing jobs like <a href="http://mfg.com">mfg.com</a> to run small businesses. I’m one of them, manufacturing custom <a href="http://www.roboticmaterials.com">robotic grippers</a> from my basement. Automation enables these sole proprietors to create and innovate in small batches, without large costs.</p>
<h2>Returning to manufacturing dominance</h2>
<p>This sort of solo entrepreneurship is just getting going. Were robots more available and cheaper, people would make jewelry and leather goods at home, and even create custom-made items like clothing or sneakers, directly competing with mass-produced items from China. As with the iPhone, even seemingly complex manufacturing tasks can be automated significantly; it’s not even necessary to incorporate artificial intelligence into the process.</p>
<p>Three trends are emerging that, with industry buy-in and careful government support, could help revitalize the U.S. manufacturing sector.</p>
<p>First, robots are getting cheaper. Today’s US$100,000 industrial robotic arms are not what the future needs. Automating iPhone assembly lines will require cheap robotic arms, simple conveyor belts, 3-D-printed fixtures and software to manage the entire process. As <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/rakeshsharma/2013/09/24/stratasys-bold-moves-a-conversation-with-company-chairman-scott-crump/">we saw in the 3-D printing industry</a>, the maker movement is setting the pace, creating <a href="http://makerarm.com">low-cost fabrication robots</a>. The government is involved, too: The Pentagon’s research arm, DARPA, has backed the <a href="https://othermachine.co/">OtherMill</a>, a low-cost computer-controlled mill. </p>
<p>In addition, more people are programming robots. Getting a robot to accomplish repetitive tasks in industry – for example, using <a href="http://www.zacobria.com/universal-robots-zacobria-forum-hints-tips-how-to/gui-programming-universal-robots/">Universal Robot’s interface</a> – is as simple as programming <a href="https://www.lego.com/en-us/mindstorms">LEGO Mindstorms</a>. Many people think it’s much harder than that, confusing robotic automation with artificial intelligence systems <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-the-computer-beat-the-go-master/">playing chess or Go</a>. In fact, building and programming robots is very similar both physically and intellectually to doing your own plumbing, electrical wiring and car maintenance, which many Americans enjoy and are capable of learning. “Maker spaces” for learning and practicing these skills and using the necessary equipment are <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/04/makerspaces-are-remaking-local-economies/390807/">sprouting across the country</a>. It is these spaces that might develop the skill sets that enable Americans to take automation into their own hands at their workplaces.</p>
<p>Lastly, cutting-edge research is improving the hardware needed to grasp and manipulate manufacturing components, and the software to sense and plan movements for assembling complex items. Industrial robot technology is upgradeable and new robots <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/meet-the-new-generation-of-robots-for-manufacturing-1433300884">are designed to complement human workers</a>, allowing industry to make gradual changes, rather than complete factory retooling.</p>
<h2>A path forward</h2>
<p>To fully take advantage of these trends and other developments, we need to improve connections between researchers and businesses. Government effort, in the form of the Defense Department’s new <a href="http://www.arminstitute.org/">Advanced Robotics Manufacturing Institute</a>, is already working toward this goal. <a href="https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Releases/News-Release-View/Article/1049127/dod-announces-award-of-new-advanced-robotics-manufacturing-arm-innovation-hub-i">Funded by US$80 million in federal dollars</a>, the institute has drawn an additional $173 million in cash, personnel, equipment and facilities from the academic and private sectors, aiming to create half a million manufacturing jobs in the next 10 years.</p>
<p>Those numbers might sound high, but China is way ahead: Just two provinces, Guangdong and Zhejiang, plan to spend <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-impending-robot-revolution-1470241843">a combined $270 billion</a> over the next five years to equip factories with industrial robots.</p>
<p>The stakes are high: If the U.S. government ignores or avoids globalization and automation, it will stifle innovation. Americans can figure out how to strengthen society while integrating robotics into the workforce, or we can leave the job to China. Should it come to that, Chinese companies will be able to export their highly efficient manufacturing and logistics operations back to the U.S., putting America’s manufacturing workforce out of business forever.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/71125/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nikolaus Correll is an Assistant Professor at the University of Colorado at Boulder, publishes an open-source robotic textbook, and is a co-founder of Robotic Materials Inc. He receives funding from the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Today, the U.S. is leading the robotics revolution. But without timely investment, China will overtake us, and could permanently put Americans out of work.Nikolaus Correll, Assistant Professor of Computer Science, University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/718782017-02-02T19:07:49Z2017-02-02T19:07:49ZThe legal minefield of 3D printed guns<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154337/original/image-20170126-23854-hgxbgm.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=556%2C682%2C5425%2C3296&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A solid, non-working Colt 1911 static model by TaylarRoids is printed on a household printer; is this a digital blueprint?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Richard Matthews</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-3d-printing-and-whats-it-for-9456">3D printed guns</a> are back in the news after Queensland set a <a href="http://www.goldcoastbulletin.com.au/news/crime-court/gold-coast-man-gets-suspended-jail-sentence-after-making-a-3d-printed-gun/news-story/ec85f7edda303affadb5c5beda01ca44">legal precedent</a> for giving Kyle Wirth a six-month suspended sentence for fabricating a number of gun parts.</p>
<p>As presiding Judge Katherine McGuinness acknowledged, Wirth didn’t produce an entire gun – it took police to add a few key parts in order for the gun to successfully fire a bullet – but he was “trying to make a gun”.</p>
<p>As such, she said “there is a real need to deter and protect the public from such offending”.</p>
<p>But if it’s illegal to build a gun via conventional means without a licence, what’s the concern over making guns using 3D printers in particular?</p>
<p>And for those who are either researching the capabilities of 3D printers – a form of <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/additive-manufacturing-17970">additive manufacturing</a> – or using them at home or in their business, it’s important to understand the legal boundaries under which they can be used. </p>
<h2>3D printed firearms in Australia</h2>
<p>3D printed guns currently occupy a grey area in terms of their legality in many jurisdictions around Australia. For example, the South Australian Police released a guide outlining which kinds of <a href="https://www.police.sa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/263719/Imitation-firearms-quick-guide.pdf">imitation firearms are considered legal</a>.</p>
<p>The distinction between a “regulated imitation firearm” and a children’s toy is significant, as a South Australian man discovered in 2015. He was charged with a firearms offence after police found a toy gun in a box along with a single shotgun shell. </p>
<p>The judge <a href="http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/district-court-judge-rules-childhood-toy-capgun-is-not-a-firearm-when-acquitting-murray-bridge-man-24/news-story/0e60558dd8cda22363cc3c026fb0611c">acquitted him</a> because the gun was clearly a child’s cap gun and could not be modified to fire the shell.</p>
<p>However, according to the South Australian Police’s guide, the “gun” pictured at the top of this article, although non-functional, is technically neither a “moulded imitation firearm” nor is it an “imitation firearm carved from timber, plastic or other material”. This means it’s unclear how it would be regarded by police or the courts.</p>
<p>New South Wales takes a different approach on the issue. The <a href="http://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/bills/5bb4f02b-1f1e-48b2-aa93-955574e699f6">Firearms and Weapons Prohibition Legislation Amendment Bill 2015</a> made it illegal to possess digital files that can be used to manufacture firearms on “3D printers or electronic milling machines”. </p>
<p>The act was amended “to create a new offence of possessing digital blueprints”, although the definition of a “digital blueprint” is a little ambiguous. As defined, it captures “any type of digital (or electronic) reproduction of a technical drawing of the design of an object”. As written, this could even mean a photograph of a technical drawing. But technical drawing files are not always needed for 3D printing.</p>
<p>In 3D printing, drawing files are used to create <a href="http://replicat.org/primer">GCode</a>, a computer control language used to guide the print head and the amount of plastic to extrude. Is GCode a digital reproduction? Even if it is, it does not stop someone 3D printing gun parts in another jurisdiction in Australia or overseas where they’re not illegal and then posting it back to NSW.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154157/original/image-20170125-16062-1p6wait.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154157/original/image-20170125-16062-1p6wait.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154157/original/image-20170125-16062-1p6wait.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154157/original/image-20170125-16062-1p6wait.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154157/original/image-20170125-16062-1p6wait.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154157/original/image-20170125-16062-1p6wait.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154157/original/image-20170125-16062-1p6wait.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154157/original/image-20170125-16062-1p6wait.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Is a list of coordinates in three dimensional space a digital reproduction of a technical drawing?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It was this fear that drove the Queensland Palmer United Party to introduce a bill in 2014 to make 3D printing of firearms illegal. It was <a href="http://www.itnews.com.au/news/qld-govt-knocks-back-3d-printed-guns-bill-403827">rejected by the parliamentary committee</a> and never reintroduced. </p>
<p>When Labor took power in Queensland following the 2015 election, it defended the move and released a statement stating that “Queensland already has legislation dealing with the unlawful manufacture of weapons that carries with it some of the harshest penalties in Australia”.</p>
<p>Hence Kyle Wirth was charged in 2015 with manufacturing <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-02-10/3d-printing-police-suspect-plastic-parts-belong-to-homemade-gun/6083938">offensive weapons, including a plastic knuckle duster</a>. He was not charged under any legislation that prevented him from 3D printing parts, as the PUP bill would have outlawed. </p>
<p>Plastic or not, it is illegal under <a href="http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BN/0708/FirearmsAustralia">nationally unified gun laws</a> to make a gun without a licence. If this is the case, why did NSW feel the need to ban digital blueprints? The answer could come from the future prospects of 3D printing.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154704/original/image-20170130-7663-187oypu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/154704/original/image-20170130-7663-187oypu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154704/original/image-20170130-7663-187oypu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154704/original/image-20170130-7663-187oypu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154704/original/image-20170130-7663-187oypu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154704/original/image-20170130-7663-187oypu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/154704/original/image-20170130-7663-187oypu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The parts Wirth printed and stored in bags.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Supplied: Queensland Police Service</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Towards the future</h2>
<p>In the next 20 years we will be able to <a href="http://www.computerworld.com/article/3048823/3d-printing/this-is-the-first-3d-printed-drug-to-win-fda-approval.html">print drugs</a>, metals and substances at an <a href="https://3dprint.com/79303/quantum-3d-printing/">atomic level</a> – possibly all at home. </p>
<p>Regulation of these things is currently predicated on the idea that producing them typically required expertise and specialised equipment. But that may no be the case for long.</p>
<p>This will mean we need a new unified approach to legislation that specifically speaks to the capabilities of 3D printers, and the distribution of the files they use.</p>
<p>New South Wales is the only state that has started outlawing the digital blueprints needed for additive manufacturing of illegal objects. This is a step in the right direction.</p>
<p>However, we need a classification of digital blueprints. <a href="http://www.classification.gov.au/Pages/Home.aspx">AustralianClassification</a> is already responsible for passing judgement on a wide array of media. In the future we will likely see such an agency extended to cover digital blueprints available or for sale to the public.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/71878/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Matthews is a member of the South Australian Labor Party. </span></em></p>3D printing still exists in a legal grey area. This area is slowly being defined as courts prosecute the first cases but, is current copyright and criminal law keeping up with the technology?Richard Matthews, PhD Candidate, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/703352016-12-22T19:08:04Z2016-12-22T19:08:04ZWould you eat a 3D printed pizza?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151330/original/image-20161222-4065-3obf3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Look tasty? It depends what's in it.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.naturalmachines.com/">Natural Machines</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Could you imagine serving a 3D printed turkey for Christmas lunch? Or munching on a 3D printed pizza for an afternoon snack?</p>
<p>This is not as far fetched as it sounds. While 3D printers have mainly been in the news for their ability to <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/additive-manufacturing-17970">manufacture inedible goods</a>, they are increasingly being used for culinary endeavours.</p>
<p>3D food printers extrude soft liquid edible matter through nozzles that build up layer by layer in patters directed by a computer program. They can pump out everything from to chocolates, confectionery, biscuits and pancakes, to pasta, pizza and other savoury snacks. </p>
<p>News reports and industry blogs <a href="https://osf.io/wfdft/">are very positive about what 3D food printing can offer</a>. They have covered such events as <a href="https://www.finedininglovers.com/blog/news-trends/3d-food-printing-fine-dining/">Michelin-starred chefs</a> experimenting with 3D food printers in <a href="http://www.timeout.com/london/blog/the-worlds-first-3d-printing-restaurant-is-coming-to-london-071416">pop-up restaurants in Europe</a>. </p>
<p>The media have also reported on the potential for 3D printing to cater for <a href="http://inhabitat.com/nasa-funded-food-3d-printer-gets-its-first-prototype-3d-prints-an-entire-pizza/">astronauts</a>, <a href="https://3dprint.com/16138/3d-food-printing-airline/">air travellers</a> and people in <a href="https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/CO16273.pdf">emergency situations</a>. </p>
<p>Nursing homes in Europe <a href="https://3dprint.com/102674/3d-printed-food-dysphagia/">are offering 3D printed food</a> with jelly-like texture for residents with chewing and swallowing difficulties. <a href="https://www.naturalmachines.com/">Developers of 3D food printers</a> claim that people will soon have these devices in their kitchens, helping them prepare tasty and healthy foods at home.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/8WWHpWgaq7I?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A 3D food printer was demonstrated at the 2014 Consumer Electronics Show in the US.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But that’s not all. There’s also the radical idea of using <a href="http://www.susanasoares.com/index.php?id=82">insects</a> and <a href="http://www.globalmeatnews.com/Industry-Markets/3D-printed-meat-on-the-way-and-it-will-be-disruptive-say-American-specialists">laboratory-grown meat</a> in 3D printed food as a sustainable alternative to traditional protein sources. </p>
<p>Meat and Livestock Australia also recently announced that it is looking into ways to <a href="http://www.globalmeatnews.com/Products/3D-printed-meat-opportunity-analysed-by-Australia">use 3D printing to produce new meat products</a> to extract the most value from animal carcasses. </p>
<p>So it is not far-fetched to imagine serving a Christmas lunch with 3D printed food made from red meat and poultry, or decorative edible items made from fruit or vegetable purees, sugar or chocolate.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151332/original/image-20161222-4070-1feyst6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151332/original/image-20161222-4070-1feyst6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151332/original/image-20161222-4070-1feyst6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151332/original/image-20161222-4070-1feyst6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151332/original/image-20161222-4070-1feyst6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151332/original/image-20161222-4070-1feyst6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151332/original/image-20161222-4070-1feyst6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151332/original/image-20161222-4070-1feyst6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ChefJet Candy 3D Printer does what it says - it prints candy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Maurizio Pesce/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>But would you eat it?</h2>
<p>What do you think about 3D printed food? Would you try it, or offer it to family members or guests? Despite industry enthusiasm and investment in research and development, few studies have actually asked these questions of consumers. </p>
<p>To investigate these issues, we conducted <a href="https://osf.io/aa3d6/">our own research with 30 Australians</a>, using an online focus group. The results highlight some interesting complications in the way many people perceive 3D printed foods, and what might tempt them to try some.</p>
<p>First of all, we <a href="https://osf.io/2m2vu/">found</a> that none of the participants had heard of using 3D printing technology to make food products. As 3D printing technologies were usually associated with inedible objects made from substances such as plastic, plaster or metal, it was difficult for our participants to understand how they might work with foodstuffs. </p>
<p>They were initially incredulous that this technology could be used for making food and couldn’t imagine what kinds of foods would be produced. This manner of food processing was viewed as highly unnatural, with several assuming that the resulting food would be somehow “plastic” and therefore inedible.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151333/original/image-20161222-4063-1ids3nc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151333/original/image-20161222-4063-1ids3nc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151333/original/image-20161222-4063-1ids3nc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151333/original/image-20161222-4063-1ids3nc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151333/original/image-20161222-4063-1ids3nc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151333/original/image-20161222-4063-1ids3nc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151333/original/image-20161222-4063-1ids3nc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151333/original/image-20161222-4063-1ids3nc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">3D printed carrots made by the Dutch research organisation TNO.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">TNO</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our participants were far more positive about 3D printed carrots, pasta, pizza, chocolate and a meal with chicken and vegetables (made from “real” whole food purees) than they were about 3D printed sugar confections, meat and food made from food waste and alternative food sources such as algae and insects. </p>
<p>Cultural beliefs about what kinds of matter are considered tasty and appropriate to eat were central in our participants’ responses. While substances such as insects and algae fit consumers’ preferences for natural ingredients, these foods were considered disgusting by nearly all of the participants. </p>
<p>They could not imagine eating them or serving them to others. These materials were considered to be inedible according to the cultural norms of our participants, no matter how they are prepared or processed. So it wasn’t that they were 3D printed <em>per se</em>, but what they were printed from that affected their attitude to the food.</p>
<p>Those participants who had ethical misgivings about eating conventionally grown meat liked the idea of 3D printed meat products. But most of the participants considered the process to be a little too much like “Frankenfood”, particularly if it involved using laboratory-cultured meat. Here it was the process of making the ingredient that was considered “unnatural”.</p>
<h2>Building familiarity</h2>
<p>Many participants’ lack of familiarity with the 3D printing process underpinned their reservations about the safety of using food materials that would otherwise be discarded as waste. They were unsure about how the risks of food contamination and preservation would be dealt with.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151334/original/image-20161222-4076-1gltir6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151334/original/image-20161222-4076-1gltir6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/151334/original/image-20161222-4076-1gltir6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151334/original/image-20161222-4076-1gltir6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151334/original/image-20161222-4076-1gltir6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151334/original/image-20161222-4076-1gltir6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151334/original/image-20161222-4076-1gltir6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/151334/original/image-20161222-4076-1gltir6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">3D printers can produce food in shapes that would be impossible by conventional means, like this geometric sugar cake topper.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.3dsystems.com/">3D Systems</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many of them also considered the healthiness of foods to be an important factor. Our participants had no problem viewing 3D printed sugar confections, pizza or chocolate as potentially edible. But they did express concern about the healthiness of these foods, given their ingredients and current status as junk food.</p>
<p>So, if our results can be generalised to the broader population, it seems many people are interested in novel food products. They will try them if they can be assured of their edibility, healthiness and safety, and have an understanding of how these products are processed and what they are made from. </p>
<p>But our study shows that those wishing to promote 3D printed food might have several challenges on their hands. First of all, they may need to familiarise the public with how this process works and reassure them that it is safe. </p>
<p>Then they might need to emphasise that 3D printed food is tasty, even if it looks unusual or is made from ingredients that are not normally considered edible by cultural standards. Only then might consumers consider the possibility of including 3D printed food as part of their lives, including at the Christmas lunch table.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/70335/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>3D printed food is already here, but not everyone is convinced it looks edible.Deborah Lupton, Centenary Research Professor, University of CanberraBethaney Turner, Assistant Professor in International Studies, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/693992016-11-28T02:52:10Z2016-11-28T02:52:10ZA licence to print: how real is the risk posed by 3D printed guns?<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/a-violent-debate-could-guns-be-made-at-home-by-3d-printers-11406">3D printed guns</a> are back <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/23/gold-coast-drug-raids-uncover-3d-printed-submachine-guns">in the news</a> after Queensland Police reported last week that they had discovered a 3D printer in a raid on what appeared to be a “large-scale” weapons production facility as a part of <a href="http://mypolice.qld.gov.au/blog/2016/11/23/police-close-firearms-drugs-trafficking-operation/">Operation Oscar Quantum</a>. </p>
<p>According to <a href="http://mypolice.qld.gov.au/blog/2016/11/23/police-close-firearms-drugs-trafficking-operation/">police</a>, the raid uncovered homemade weapons and ammunition in a workshop manufacturing facility “containing equipment used in the production of fully automatic machine guns, including a 3D printer, lathes, drill presses and other tools”. </p>
<p>The Gold Coast Bulletin <a href="http://www.goldcoastbulletin.com.au/news/crime-court/raids-and-weapons-charges-reveal-nerangs-criminal-underbelly/news-story/c860d842c38d6d57e3a92b40a9c87e1a">reported</a> that Detective Superintendent Jon Wacker, of the Drug and Serious Crime Group, said the “Uzi”-style guns, thought to be made with the help of a 3D printer, were “fairly close” to factory quality. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147519/original/image-20161125-15351-1vmizin.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147519/original/image-20161125-15351-1vmizin.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147519/original/image-20161125-15351-1vmizin.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147519/original/image-20161125-15351-1vmizin.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147519/original/image-20161125-15351-1vmizin.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147519/original/image-20161125-15351-1vmizin.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147519/original/image-20161125-15351-1vmizin.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of the weapons seized in the Operation Oscar Quantum raids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Queensland police</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of the home made weapons was captioned in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/23/gold-coast-drug-raids-uncover-3d-printed-submachine-guns">one media report</a> as being a “3D-printed submachine gun”. This could certainly raise alarm and hint at a new era of disorganised and decentralised weapons production, and a burgeoning “reshoring” of weapon manufacturing as an alternative to importation from overseas. </p>
<p>But the fact is that 3D printing technology is not yet at the stage where it can readily produce weapons. Although it can be used to help rogue gunsmiths work their shady trade.</p>
<h2>Impracticalities</h2>
<p>The fact is that today’s home or consumer grade 3D printers are not able to produce durable metal objects, such as would be required to print a gun. The standard nozzles used in the process of fused deposition modelling (<a href="http://www.livescience.com/39810-fused-deposition-modeling.html">FDM</a>) simply do not get hot enough to melt pure metals. </p>
<p>There are certainly efforts to bring metal FDM 3D printers to market. One of the future contenders for mass adoption is a prototype <a href="https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/michigan-tech-releases-open-source-3d-metal-printer-less-2000-21215/">open source FDM metal 3D printer</a>, much like a home welder. At the moment this does not really compare to the resolution of plastic printers, although the concept is claimed to be at least <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2013.2293018">proven</a>.</p>
<p>However, there is constant innovation with 3D printer materials. There are currently <a href="https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/now-can-print-metal-3d-printer-85255/">efforts</a> to make metal-infused filaments in bronze and copper. These are certainly a promising development for budding home jewellery designers and makers, but not gunsmiths, as firearms require stronger and purer metal feedstocks.</p>
<p>One of the key hurdles for gunsmiths is the extremely high temperatures needed to melt or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintering">sinter</a> metals. For example, iron sinters at between 1,100°C and 1,300°C, whereas a general FDM 3D printer can reach 195-220°C. </p>
<p>Another hurdle is the cost of “powderised” metals found in direct metal laser sintering (<a href="https://i.materialise.com/blog/direct-metal-laser-sintering-dmls/">DMLS</a>) or selective laser sintering (<a href="http://www.livescience.com/38862-selective-laser-sintering.html">SLS</a>) printers. </p>
<p>Powdered metals also require <a href="http://www.cmu.edu/ehs/fact-sheets/3D-Printing-Safety.pdf">safe facilities</a> to use them: finely divided metal powders, such as titanium and aluminium, can spontaneously combust causing fires.</p>
<p>It is possible to see limited runs of critical metal parts for automobiles and other specialist objects made on 3D printers in many <a href="http://www.csiro.au/en/Research/MF/Areas/Metals/Lab22">research</a> and industry facilities. </p>
<p>Indeed, for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) around the world, “additive manufacturing” using 3D printers is a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JMTM-12-2015-0117">game changer for supply chains</a>. Many SMEs are investing in their own high end metal 3D printers or utilising facilities in universities and incubators.</p>
<p>But one catch is the cost. For example, the <a href="http://www.aniwaa.com/product/3d-printers/eos-eosint-m-100/">EOS EOSINT M 100</a> is a relatively “entry level” DMLS 3D printer and costs between US$100,000 and US$250,000. Such machines are unlikely to turn up in the Christmas stockings of criminal gangs. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147506/original/image-20161125-15359-tx7ves.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147506/original/image-20161125-15359-tx7ves.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147506/original/image-20161125-15359-tx7ves.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147506/original/image-20161125-15359-tx7ves.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147506/original/image-20161125-15359-tx7ves.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147506/original/image-20161125-15359-tx7ves.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147506/original/image-20161125-15359-tx7ves.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The EOS EOSINT M 100 can print using metal, but it’s not cheap.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EOS</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Prototypes</h2>
<p>What makes me sceptical that the guns recovered from Operation Oscar Quantum were 3D printed in their entirety is not only the prohibitive cost of 3D printing in metals, but the presence of typical gunsmith production machines at the facility.</p>
<p>But a 3D printer could have certainly been used to manufacture many non- or near- critical parts, such as grips or the outer framework. </p>
<p>A 3D printer may have also been used for “rapid prototyping” for mock-ups to test the final design in plastic. This is where a 3D printer can quickly produce a prototype part for testing before the final part is produced using more conventional means. This is one of the most common uses of 3D printers in industry today.</p>
<p>It should be noted that this is not the first time that police have flagged 3D printing as playing a role in weapons production. </p>
<p>On December 10, 2015, Queensland Police <a href="http://mypolice.qld.gov.au/blog/2015/12/10/drug-weapons-charges-mudgeeraba/">reported</a> that Taskforce Maxima found methamphetamine and steroids, drug paraphernalia and “a loaded handgun allegedly created by a 3D printer” in a raid on a meth lab.</p>
<p>The handgun from Taskforce Maxima certainly appears to be made on a 3D printer, featuring the characteristic surface ribbing you see from 3D printed items. It also appears to conform to the design parameters of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/3d-printing-a-new-threat-to-gun-control-and-security-policy-61416">3D printed gun</a>, the “Liberator”, produced by American organisation, Defense Distributed. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147505/original/image-20161125-15362-1s1z1yv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147505/original/image-20161125-15362-1s1z1yv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147505/original/image-20161125-15362-1s1z1yv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147505/original/image-20161125-15362-1s1z1yv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147505/original/image-20161125-15362-1s1z1yv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147505/original/image-20161125-15362-1s1z1yv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147505/original/image-20161125-15362-1s1z1yv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ‘Liberator’ recovered by Queensland police in December 2015.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Queensland Police</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, the critical part – the barrel – appears to be a conventional non-printed piece, most likely metal. Whether it would have actually worked safely or simply been used for intimidation is another question entirely.</p>
<p>NSW Police Commissioner Andrew Scipione’s team was also <a href="http://www.news.com.au/national/nsw-act/nsw-police-terrified-3d-plastic-guns-will-make-way-to-sydney-streets/story-fnii5s3x-1226649840420">reported</a> to have bought a 3D printer for A$1,700 and made a polymer Liberator handgun from a design file downloaded from the internet.</p>
<h2>Backyard gunsmiths</h2>
<p>We shouldn’t really be surprised that 3D printers are now an integral part of illicit gunsmiths’ repertoires. 3D printing is a near essential element of any pre-production suite, particularly for rapid prototyping. Metal 3D printing will no doubt be a part of the suite too, if it is not already.</p>
<p>Gunsmithing also has a long heritage in Australia as the photo below shows. Indeed, <a href="http://www.lithgowarms.com/about-us/">Lithgow Arms’</a> history dates back to 1912. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147513/original/image-20161125-15330-edq8ci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/147513/original/image-20161125-15330-edq8ci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147513/original/image-20161125-15330-edq8ci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147513/original/image-20161125-15330-edq8ci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147513/original/image-20161125-15330-edq8ci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=734&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147513/original/image-20161125-15330-edq8ci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=734&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/147513/original/image-20161125-15330-edq8ci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=734&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The flintlock maker, Lithgow, NSW.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales, Jeff Carter exhibition</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>3D printing also offers tremendous advantages and perhaps even a <a href="https://www.routledge.com/A-New-Industrial-Future-3D-Printing-and-the-Reconfiguring-of-Production/Birtchnell-Urry/p/book/9781138022928">new industrial future</a>. Other local industries could benefit from 3D printing boutique, custom and novelty objects. This would buck the trend of <a href="http://www.polity.co.uk/book.asp?ref=9780745664859">offshoring</a> that has ailed Australian manufacturing over the 21st century.</p>
<p>And we should remember that it’s not only 3D printing that enables people to build illicit firearms. With the right tools, a skilled gunsmith can make a weapon in their back shed. However, 3D printing can make that process easier and more accessible to less skilled individuals.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/69399/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Birtchnell receives funding from the Australian Research Council (DP160100979). </span></em></p>Latest Queensland raids suggest criminals are potentially adopting 3D printers at an industrial scaleThomas Birtchnell, Senior lecturer, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/614162016-07-19T10:06:21Z2016-07-19T10:06:21Z3D printing: a new threat to gun control and security policy?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/130617/original/image-20160714-23320-1dge3ui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A computer design for home manufacturing of a receiver, the trigger and firing part, of a semi-automatic rifle.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/simonov/21739928933">simonov/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Following the recent <a href="http://www.npr.org/2016/06/16/482322488/orlando-shooting-what-happened-update">mass shooting in Orlando</a>, and the shootings <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/07/us/falcon-heights-shooting-minnesota/">in Minnesota</a> <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/08/us/philando-castile-alton-sterling-protests/">and Dallas</a>, the sharp political divisions over gun control within the U.S. are once again on display. In June, House Democrats even <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/24/us/politics/senate-gun-control.html?_r=0">staged a sit-in</a> to advocate for stronger laws. </p>
<p>There is <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/ip.2006.013714">some evidence</a> that more restrictions can reduce gun violence, but another recent shooting highlighted some limitations of regulation. British Member of Parliament Jo Cox <a href="http://news.nationalpost.com/news/world/what-was-the-makeshift-gun-that-killed-british-mp-jo-cox">was murdered with a “makeshift gun”</a> despite the United Kingdom’s restrictive gun-control laws.</p>
<p>The threat of self-manufactured firearms is not new, but a critical barrier is collapsing. Until recently, most people didn’t have the skills to make a weapon as capable as commercially available ones. However, recent developments in the field of additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, have made home manufacturing simpler than ever before. The prospect of more stringent legislation is also fueling <a href="https://www.wired.com/2016/06/orlando-homemade-ar-15-industry-surges/">interest in at-home production</a>.</p>
<p>Plans for basic handguns that can be created on consumer-grade 3D printers are readily available online. With more advanced 3D printers and other at-home technologies such as the <a href="http://ghostgunner.net">Ghost Gunner</a> computer-controlled mill, people can even make more complex weapons, <a href="https://3dprint.com/21109/3d-print-metal-gun-reason">including metal handguns</a> and <a href="https://www.wired.com/2015/06/i-made-an-untraceable-ar-15-ghost-gun/">components for semi-automatic rifles</a>. </p>
<p>These technologies pose challenges not only for gun regulation but also for efforts to protect humanity from more powerful weapons. In the words of Bruce Goodwin, associate director at large for national security policy and research at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, “<a href="http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201504/revolution.cfm">All by itself, additive manufacturing changes everything, including defense matters</a>.”</p>
<h2>Policymakers and researchers respond</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/130592/original/image-20160714-23353-1cwa9nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/130592/original/image-20160714-23353-1cwa9nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130592/original/image-20160714-23353-1cwa9nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130592/original/image-20160714-23353-1cwa9nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130592/original/image-20160714-23353-1cwa9nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130592/original/image-20160714-23353-1cwa9nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/130592/original/image-20160714-23353-1cwa9nf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘The Liberator,’ a 3D-printed handgun that raised the concern of the U.S. State Department.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/31290193@N06/14579895300">Justin Pickard/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Government officials have recently begun to react to this emerging threat. The U.S. State Department argued that posting online instructions to make a 3D-printed single-shot handgun <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/07/us/cody-wilson-who-posted-gun-instructions-online-sues-state-department.html">violated federal laws barring exports of military technology</a>. At the local level, the city of Philadelphia <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/26/3d-gun-philadelphia_n_4344733.html">outlawed the possession</a> of 3D-printed guns or their components in 2013.</p>
<p>Those of us in the research community have also been addressing the security implications of additive manufacturing. A 2014 conference of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2533681">intelligence community and private sector professionals</a> noted that current at-home and small-scale 3D printing technology can’t produce the same quality output as industrial equipment, and doesn’t work with as wide a range of plastics, metals and other materials. Nevertheless, participants recommended a number of policies, such as more rigorous intellectual property laws, to counter the evolving threat of unregulated 3D-printed weapons. These types of policies will become increasingly important as at-home manufacturing of firearms weakens traditional gun control regulations such as those focusing on the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2186936">buying and selling of weapons</a>.</p>
<h2>Expanding the security threat</h2>
<p>The danger goes well beyond firearms. Countries seeking to develop nuclear weapons could use additive manufacturing to <a href="http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201504/revolution.cfm">evade international safeguards against nuclear proliferation</a>. Traditional nuclear weapon control efforts include <a href="https://fas.org/spp/starwars/ota/9344.html">watching international markets for sales of components</a> needed for manufacturing a nuclear device. Additional measures place restrictions on the types of technology nuclear capable states can export. Additive manufacturing could avoid these efforts by letting countries make the equipment themselves, instead of buying it abroad.</p>
<p>Research into this threat led <a href="http://www.kcl.ac.uk/sspp/policy-institute/icsa/Staff/gchristopher.aspx">nonproliferation scholar Grant Christopher</a> to recommend that governments <a href="http://local.droit.ulg.ac.be/jcms/service/49/pdf/str01/2_3D_Printing_A_Challenge_to_Nuclear_Export_Controls.pdf">enact export restrictions</a> on certain types of 3D printers. Nuclear policy experts <a href="http://explore.georgetown.edu/people/mhk32/">Matthew Kroenig</a> and <a href="http://carnegieendowment.org/experts/1076">Tristan Volpe</a> proposed other approaches to limit additive manufacturing’s dangers to nuclear security. One way could be <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0163660X.2015.1099022">increasing international cooperation to regulate the spread</a> of 3D printing technology. </p>
<p>Beyond regulating the hardware, governments and industry professionals can also work to more effectively secure the files needed to build components for weapons of mass destruction. <a href="http://www.cfr.org/experts/defense-and-security-arms-industries-and-trade-defense-technology/amy-j-nelson/b20953">Arms control analyst Amy Nelson</a> points out that the risk this kind of data will spread increases as <a href="http://warontherocks.com/2015/12/the-truth-about-3-d-printing-and-nuclear-proliferation/">it becomes increasingly digital</a>.</p>
<p>Terrorist groups and other nongovernment forces could also find ways to use 3D printing to make more destructive weapons. We argue that despite these groups’ interest in using weapons of mass destruction, they don’t use them regularly <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/18335330.2015.1089636">because their homemade devices are inherently unreliable</a>. Additive manufacturing could help these groups produce more effective canisters or other delivery mechanisms, or improve the potency of their chemical and biological ingredients. Such developments would make these weapons more attractive and increase the likelihood of their use in a terror attack.</p>
<h2>Where to go from here</h2>
<p>The worst threats 3D printing poses to human life and safety are likely some distance in the future. However, the harder policymakers and others work to restrict access to handguns or unconventional weapons, the more attractive 3D printing becomes to those who want to do harm.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/why-kids-are-key-to-unlocking-the-potential-of-3d-printing-54985">Additive manufacturing holds great promise</a> for improvements across many different areas of people’s lives. Scholars and policymakers must work together to ensure we can take advantage of these benefits while guarding against the technology’s inherent dangers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61416/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Beyond making guns at home, 3D printing could help countries secretly develop nuclear weapons and terrorists stage more effective attacks. How do we protect innovation and ourselves?Daniel C. Tirone, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Louisiana State University James Gilley, Instructor of International Studies, Louisiana State University Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/613522016-06-29T01:06:33Z2016-06-29T01:06:33ZEarly days of internet offer lessons for boosting 3D printing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/128541/original/image-20160628-7854-1xiiory.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Innovating with 3D printing offers huge promise, such as these 3D-printed microscopes.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/synbiosri/27691057045/">SynBioSRI/Flickr</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Even in its relative infancy, <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-3d-printing-and-whats-it-for-9456">3D printing</a> has created an enormous list of possibilities: <a href="http://money.cnn.com/2016/03/16/technology/homemade-invisalign/">dental aligners</a> to straighten your teeth, <a href="http://www.wsj.com/articles/3-d-printers-now-cheaper-take-on-toys-1458150516">unique toys</a> for your children, inexpensive <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/24/opinion/graboyes-3-d-printer-prosthetics">custom prosthetics</a> for people with limb deficiencies, and restoring lost or destroyed <a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-3d-print-a-new-palmyra-57014">cultural artifacts</a>. It can also be used to create <a href="http://news.cnet.com/8301-11386_3-57589294-76/3d-printed-guns-may-face-regulations-bans-in-new-york">untraceable firearms</a> and an endless supply of <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-3d-printing-threatens-our-patent-system-52665">copyright infringements</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/128548/original/image-20160628-7815-hb8z7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/128548/original/image-20160628-7815-hb8z7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128548/original/image-20160628-7815-hb8z7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128548/original/image-20160628-7815-hb8z7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128548/original/image-20160628-7815-hb8z7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128548/original/image-20160628-7815-hb8z7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128548/original/image-20160628-7815-hb8z7g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">3D printing AR-15 components worries policymakers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ACharon_Line_of_3D_Printable_AR-15_Lower_Receivers_by_Shanrilivan.jpg">Shanrilivan</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Just as when the internet developed, 3D printing is opening doors to amazing opportunities and benefits – as well as some undeniable dangers. Also called “additive manufacturing,” 3D printing’s enabling of truly decentralized, democratized innovation will challenge traditional legal, economic and social norms. Potentially faulty products and <a href="http://www.insidecounsel.com/2016/02/09/lets-look-closer-at-3d-printing-and-ip-issues">counterfeit goods</a> are again among the leading concerns. Some people are already <a href="http://inlinepolicy.com/2014/3d-printing-regulation-to-intervene-or-not-to-intervene/">calling for preemptive regulation</a> of 3D printing on those grounds.</p>
<p>But we must be patient and cautious, rather than rash and worried, when creating laws and rules governing this new method of innovation. As scholars who have studied technology policy issues, my collaborator Adam Marcus and I <a href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2795562">propose allowing wide experimentation without regulations or restraint</a>, a concept we call “<a href="http://permissionlessinnovation.org/book/">permissionless innovation</a>.” As problems develop, they can be dealt with as reality, not hypotheticals.</p>
<p>We have a roadmap for this approach to technology innovation because it’s the same one the Clinton administration adopted two decades ago for the internet. Its 1997 <a href="http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/New/Commerce/">Framework for Global Electronic Commerce</a> said the U.S. government intended that “the private sector should lead [and] the Internet should develop as a market-driven arena not a regulated industry.” The goal was to “encourage industry self-regulation” and “minimal government involvement or intervention” so as to “avoid undue restrictions on electronic commerce,” the administration argued.</p>
<h2>Huge benefits</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/128544/original/image-20160628-7815-1kqs8wx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/128544/original/image-20160628-7815-1kqs8wx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128544/original/image-20160628-7815-1kqs8wx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128544/original/image-20160628-7815-1kqs8wx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128544/original/image-20160628-7815-1kqs8wx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128544/original/image-20160628-7815-1kqs8wx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/128544/original/image-20160628-7815-1kqs8wx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vint Cerf.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AVint_Cerf_-_2010.jpg">Veni Markovski</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the case of the internet, the results of this openness speak for themselves. Once policymakers gave digital innovators an unambiguous green light to experiment with new technologies and business models, U.S.-based information technology firms quickly became household names across the world. <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/25/opinion/keep-the-internet-open.html">As Vint Cerf</a>, one of the fathers of the internet, wrote:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The Net prospered precisely because governments – for the most part – allowed the Internet to grow organically, with civil society, academia, private sector and voluntary standards bodies collaborating on development, operation and governance.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Booz & Company’s <a href="http://www.strategyand.pwc.com/global/home/what-we-think/innovation1000/top-innovators-spenders">annual survey</a> of the world’s most innovative companies reveals that eight of the top 10 are based in the United States. Most of them are involved in computing, software, or other internet-based technologies. But the more important success story involves the countless small digital <a href="https://theconversation.com/thinking-innovatively-about-the-risks-of-tech-innovation-52934">innovators that are always popping up</a> to provide exciting new gadgets and services. </p>
<p>Additive manufacturing can benefit from that same sort of vision – if today’s lawmakers are willing to once again embrace permissionless innovation.</p>
<h2>Properly assigning legal responsibility</h2>
<p>One concrete way policymakers can achieve that goal is to take another page from the early days of the internet. In the Telecommunications Act of 1996, lawmakers created <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/47/230'">legal protections for websites that hosted content</a> created by others. This was like telling the owner of a public bulletin board that she couldn’t be sued if someone posted something bad on it. This move <a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/adamthierer/2011/05/08/the-greatest-of-all-internet-laws-turns-15">helped encourage</a> more vibrant online speech and commerce.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://techliberation.com/2016/03/01/a-section-230-for-the-makers-movement/">similar liability shield</a> may be needed for 3D printing intermediaries, to ensure that the threat of excessive litigation doesn’t chill innovation. Device makers and website operators that host <a href="https://www.thingiverse.com/">blueprints for 3D-printed objects</a> shouldn’t be held responsible for what others do with those designs. </p>
<p>Neither should the manufacturers of 3D printers be held liable if an average citizen uses them to create weapons or medical devices that cause harm to others. People who use 3D printers to cause harm should be responsible for any damage, not the creators of the general-purpose technologies.</p>
<p>A variant of that liability protection may also be needed against intellectual property-related claims. Luckily, we can again build upon existing internet law, which frees sites like YouTube and Flickr, which depend on user-contributed content, from copyright infringement liability, as long as they obey the <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/512">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</a> of 1998.</p>
<p>Under the DMCA, so long as online intermediaries promptly block or remove allegedly infringing material from their systems when they receive notification about it, they cannot be sued for having a role in any copyright violation. It wouldn’t be surprising to see that “notice-and-takedown” process extended to 3D printing services and platforms.</p>
<p>At present the landscape is unclear, with neither regulation nor a promise to be cautious about introducing it.</p>
<h2>Preparing the ground for real innovation</h2>
<p>Of course, problems will arise, but when they do, we should not leap to introduce regulation for 3D printing. First, we should apply existing laws – those governing contracts and property rights, and fighting fraud, for example. Also, the Federal Trade Commission and state attorneys general have broad consumer protection powers to police “unfair or deceptive acts or practices” that may occur.</p>
<p>Educational efforts will also be essential. For better or worse, any efforts to regulate 3D-printed creations will be extremely difficult to enforce; solutions beyond regulation will be needed. Industry, non-profits and government bodies can work together to craft sensible guidelines for appropriate uses of these technologies. Lessons for students could explain the dangers associated with building certain 3D-printed applications that might have potentially dangerous societal impacts, including weapons or counterfeit products. Industry could also develop voluntary best practices and developer guidelines.</p>
<p>In the end, there is more reason for optimism than pessimism when it comes to additive manufacturing. Like the internet before it, 3D printing is another important generative technology. It can unleash the creativity of the next generation of innovators and spawn entirely new, life-enriching products and services in the process. We should focus at least as much on protecting the possibilities of innovation as we do on safeguarding ourselves from potential harm.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/61352/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adam Thierer does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>3D printing is opening doors to amazing opportunities and benefits – as well as some undeniable dangers. Patience and caution about regulating it will yield more innovation.Adam Thierer, Senior Research Fellow, Technology Policy Program, Mercatus Center, George Mason UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/590702016-05-17T00:45:13Z2016-05-17T00:45:13ZWant to build a moon base? Easy. Just print it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/122674/original/image-20160516-15926-147elhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Robotic construction of Lunar and Martian infrastructure using 3D printing.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.contourcrafting.org/space-colonies/">Contour Crafting</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://makerlab.illinois.edu/">Planetary Resources</a>, a company hoping to make asteroid mining into <a href="http://video.cnbc.com/gallery/?video=3000500435">a trillion dollar industry</a>, earlier this year unveiled the world’s first <a href="http://www.planetaryresources.com/2016/01/planetary-resources-and-3d-systems-reveal-first-ever-3d-printed-object-from-asteroid-metals/">3D printed object made from bits of an asteroid</a>. </p>
<p>3D printing, and additive manufacturing processes more generally, have made many advances in recent years. Just a few years ago, most 3D printing was only used for building prototypes, which would then go on to be manufactured via conventional processes. But it’s now increasingly being used for <a href="https://www.class-central.com/report/3d-printing-coursera-specialization/">manufacturing</a> in its own right.</p>
<p>Nearly two years ago, NASA even sent a <a href="http://www.madeinspace.us/">3D printer</a> to the International Space Station with the goal of testing how the technology works in micro-gravity. While the printer resembles a <a href="http://memory-alpha.wikia.com/wiki/Replicator">Star Trek replicator</a>, it’s not quite that sophisticated yet; the objects it can print are <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/3Dratchet_wrench">small prototypes</a> for testing. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121662/original/image-20160509-20612-1x5jc16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121662/original/image-20160509-20612-1x5jc16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121662/original/image-20160509-20612-1x5jc16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121662/original/image-20160509-20612-1x5jc16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121662/original/image-20160509-20612-1x5jc16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121662/original/image-20160509-20612-1x5jc16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121662/original/image-20160509-20612-1x5jc16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121662/original/image-20160509-20612-1x5jc16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The 3D printer used in the ISS.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Made In Space</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But 3D printing objects don’t have to be small. <a href="http://3dprintcanalhouse.com/">Entire houses</a> have now been 3D printed, including out of renewable resources such as <a href="http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2015-09/21/giant-3d-printer-builds-houses">clay and earth</a>. </p>
<p>And visionary architect Enrico Dini, a pioneer of 3D construction featured in the film <a href="https://vimeo.com/29984723">The Man Who Prints Houses</a>, isn’t thinking small,<a href="https://cosmopolitanscum.com/2011/09/23/the-worlds-first-printed-building/">confessing</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>What I really want to do is to use the machine to complete the <a href="http://www.sagradafamilia.org/en/">Sagrada Familia</a>. And to build on the moon.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Above and beyond</h2>
<p>NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) and entrepreneurs aiming to jump-start human colonisation of space see the 3D printing of large scale objects, including entire habitations, as a major enabling technology for the future of space exploration. </p>
<p>In 2013, a project led by the ESA used simulated lunar regolith – i.e. loose top soil – to produce a 1.5 ton hollow cell building block. It was conceived as part of a dome shelter for a lunar base that would also incorporate an <a href="https://theconversation.com/living-in-a-bubble-inflatable-modules-could-be-the-future-of-space-habitats-57570">inflatable interior</a> structure. The project used a <a href="http://d-shape.com/">D-Shape printer</a> using Enrico Dini’s company, Monolite.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121665/original/image-20160509-20584-vtctce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121665/original/image-20160509-20584-vtctce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121665/original/image-20160509-20584-vtctce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121665/original/image-20160509-20584-vtctce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121665/original/image-20160509-20584-vtctce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121665/original/image-20160509-20584-vtctce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121665/original/image-20160509-20584-vtctce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121665/original/image-20160509-20584-vtctce.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">1.5 tonne building block produced as a demonstration.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ESA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since 2011, NASA has been funding similar research led by Professor Behrokh Khoshnevies at the University of Southern California. His team has been using a technology called <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JdbJP8Gxqog">contour crafting</a>, which also has the goal of using 3D printing to construct entire space habitations from <em>in situ</em> resources. </p>
<p>After testing 3D printing in space, NASA has decided the technology is close to a tipping point. As part of a new <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-new-public-private-partnerships-to-advance-tipping-point-emerging-space">programme</a> of public/private partnerships aimed at pushing emerging space capabilities over these tipping points, NASA has awarded a major contract to the <a href="http://www.madeinspace.us/projects/archinaut/">Archinaut project</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121666/original/image-20160509-20612-ducobi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121666/original/image-20160509-20612-ducobi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121666/original/image-20160509-20612-ducobi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121666/original/image-20160509-20612-ducobi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121666/original/image-20160509-20612-ducobi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121666/original/image-20160509-20612-ducobi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121666/original/image-20160509-20612-ducobi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121666/original/image-20160509-20612-ducobi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Multi-dome lunar base being constructed, based on the 3D printing concept. Once assembled, the inflated domes are covered with a layer of 3D-printed lunar regolith by robots to help protect the occupants against space radiation and micrometeoroids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ESA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The project will see a 3D printer, built by <a href="http://www.madeinspace.us/">Made in Space</a>, mated with a robotic arm, built by <a href="http://www.oceaneering.com/space-systems/">Oceaneering Space Systems</a>, with <a href="http://www.northropgrumman.com/capabilities/space/Pages/default.aspx">Northrup Grumman</a> providing the control software and integration with the ISS systems. </p>
<p>The goal of the project is to provide an on-orbit demonstration of large, complex structure – in this case a boom for a satellite – sometime in 2018.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121823/original/image-20160510-20605-41gq75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121823/original/image-20160510-20605-41gq75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121823/original/image-20160510-20605-41gq75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121823/original/image-20160510-20605-41gq75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121823/original/image-20160510-20605-41gq75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121823/original/image-20160510-20605-41gq75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121823/original/image-20160510-20605-41gq75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121823/original/image-20160510-20605-41gq75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Archinaut is a technology platform that enables autonomous manufacture and assembly of spacecraft systems on orbit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Made In Space</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Down to Earth</h2>
<p>But 3D manufacturing is already changing the aerospace industry. Composites, for example, have become a commonly used material for a wide variety of applications. </p>
<p>But composites tend to suffer weakness between their laminating layers, which can lead to material failures in crucial components. 3D weaving, which deploys fibers on three axes, is set to revolutionise these materials and their performances. </p>
<p>Indeed, NASA is now using <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/feature/first-3d-woven-composite-for-nasa-thermal-protection-systems">3D woven quartz fibre compression pads</a> for its <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/index.html">Orion Space Vehicle</a> and exploring the technology for use in other thermal protection surfaces. </p>
<p>But the ability to use <em>in situ</em> materials, both for fuel, water and construction whether on the moon, Mars, or asteroids has long been recognised as a crucial ability to enable human exploration of the solar system. </p>
<p>Contests such as last the <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial_challenges/3DPHab/2015winners.html">3D Printed Habitat Challenge</a>, part of <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/centennial_challenges/">NASA’s Centennial Challenges</a>, are an important element of an innovation strategy designed to push the envelope of technology, leveraging entrepreneurial spirit, scientific and technological know-how and design thinking in a bid to take human space exploration to the next level. </p>
<p>The winning design, announced at the New York Makers Faire in September, was the <a href="http://www.marsicehouse.com/">Mars Ice House</a>. </p>
<p>The Mars Ice House Habitat, which would be printed out of ice from relatively abundant water on Mars’ northern hemisphere, is a far cry from the bunker like spaces frequently envisioned for Mars bases. The ice would provide ample radiation protection while creating a radiant, light filled space reminiscent of a cathedral.</p>
<p>Space exploration has always been associated with visionary fiction and grandiose plans, and it looks like 3D manufacturing and construction may finally bring the printed word to life. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121825/original/image-20160510-20605-1sf7e3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121825/original/image-20160510-20605-1sf7e3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/121825/original/image-20160510-20605-1sf7e3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121825/original/image-20160510-20605-1sf7e3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121825/original/image-20160510-20605-1sf7e3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=389&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121825/original/image-20160510-20605-1sf7e3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121825/original/image-20160510-20605-1sf7e3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/121825/original/image-20160510-20605-1sf7e3d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=489&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mars Ice House cross section.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Space Exploration Architecture and Clouds AO (Clouds Architecture Office)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/59070/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Morgan Saletta is a marketing and academic consultant with the University of Melbourne Space Program.</span></em></p>Why carry building materials from Earth into space, when we can build structures by 3D printing using materials found out there?Morgan Saletta, PhD, History and Philosophy of Science, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/549852016-03-01T11:20:42Z2016-03-01T11:20:42ZWhy kids are key to unlocking the potential of 3D printing<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113114/original/image-20160226-26723-tjsdzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Introducing a child to the wonder of 3D printing.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/40878621@N02/15148012832/">Cockrell School of Engineering at The University of Texas at Austin</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mattel recently announced that it will release a <a href="http://techcrunch.com/2016/02/15/mattel-unveils-thingmaker-a-300-3d-printer-that-lets-kids-make-their-own-toys/">US$300 3D printer</a> for kids in time for the 2016 holiday season. With accompanying software that is specially tailored for young toy designers, the <a href="http://thingmaker.com/printer">ThingMaker</a> promises to introduce a new generation of innovators to the up-and-coming world of 3D printing.</p>
<p>Known in technology circles as “additive manufacturing,” 3D printing has grown into a <a href="http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2016/01/05/3d-printing-in-2016-3-stats-everyone-should-know.aspx">$4 billion industry</a> since it was first commercialized 30 years ago by <a href="http://www.3dsystems.com/">3D Systems</a>. For most of its history, though, it has been out of the reach of typical consumers. Most industrial-scale 3D printing machines cost tens or hundreds of thousands of dollars and fabricate parts with materials that cost orders of magnitude more than those used in most consumer products. </p>
<p>Over the past 10 years, however, inexpensive personal 3D printers became more popular, starting with the wildly popular <a href="http://reprap.org/">RepRap</a> project in the U.K. and <a href="http://www.fabathome.org/">Fab@Home</a> in the U.S. More than <a href="https://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2887417">100,000 desktop 3D printers were sold in the U.S. in 2014</a> alone, almost double the number sold the previous year. Even though these desktop machines are affordable and widely available, they aren’t always kid-friendly. Hot nozzles and plates and a variety of moving parts are exposed to the user, and maintenance often involves such consumer-unfriendly tasks as disassembling a clogged nozzle mechanism and leveling build plates by hand with precision screws.</p>
<p>If a machine like Mattel’s ThingMaker can avoid the downsides of other 3D printers and be truly kid-friendly, what impact might it have on our kids, the next generation of innovators? </p>
<h2>Improving access to innovation</h2>
<p>For more than a year, my research group at the University of Texas at Austin has been running the <a href="https://innovationstation.utexas.edu/">Innovation Station</a>, a 3D printing vending machine that we designed and built to provide open access to 3D printing on the university campus. After fabricating more than 1,000 parts, it gives us a unique window into the types of objects young people will fabricate when 3D printing is freely available to them. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113115/original/image-20160226-27003-p3w4km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113115/original/image-20160226-27003-p3w4km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113115/original/image-20160226-27003-p3w4km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113115/original/image-20160226-27003-p3w4km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113115/original/image-20160226-27003-p3w4km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113115/original/image-20160226-27003-p3w4km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113115/original/image-20160226-27003-p3w4km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113115/original/image-20160226-27003-p3w4km.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Checking out the new dimension: college students contemplate the possibilities presented by the Innovation Station.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/cockrellschool/14961677159/in/album-72157647269329065/">Cockrell School of Engineering at The University of Texas at Austin</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many times, the objects are not particularly creative. They are copies of objects that already exist. But students are still thrilled to hold their fabricated objects in their hands. Why? Sociologists call it the <a href="http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Publication%20Files/11-091.pdf">IKEA effect</a>: the notion that we value things more when we make them ourselves, even if they are not as good as objects that experts could make. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113116/original/image-20160226-26673-12hj4md.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113116/original/image-20160226-26673-12hj4md.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113116/original/image-20160226-26673-12hj4md.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1018&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113116/original/image-20160226-26673-12hj4md.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1018&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113116/original/image-20160226-26673-12hj4md.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1018&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113116/original/image-20160226-26673-12hj4md.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1279&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113116/original/image-20160226-26673-12hj4md.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1279&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113116/original/image-20160226-26673-12hj4md.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1279&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">From the station: a 3D-printed prototype of a device for harvesting energy from bridges to power remote structural sensors.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many parts could be made with another method (machining, molding, carving), but the 3D printer allows students to make the parts themselves with minimal training, fewer safety risks, no extra tools and, in some cases, much less time.</p>
<p>Children are likely to magnify that effect. They are even more excited to make things themselves and even more willing to overlook mistakes or imperfections. </p>
<p>We often find university students printing parts that they download from popular file-sharing sites such as <a href="https://www.thingiverse.com/">Thingiverse</a> and <a href="https://grabcad.com/">GrabCAD</a>. Although many people print the parts directly as-is, others customize them in personal ways. One student printed a chess set with unique Texas Longhorn insignias embedded in the pieces. Another inscribed a pendant with a personal message. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113118/original/image-20160226-26694-wyblzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113118/original/image-20160226-26694-wyblzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113118/original/image-20160226-26694-wyblzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1455&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113118/original/image-20160226-26694-wyblzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1455&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113118/original/image-20160226-26694-wyblzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1455&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113118/original/image-20160226-26694-wyblzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1829&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113118/original/image-20160226-26694-wyblzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1829&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113118/original/image-20160226-26694-wyblzk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1829&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A mini-statue: custom printing of action figures could be an early application.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jurvetson/14821145761">Jurvetson/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If kids adopt similar strategies, we are likely to see many incarnations of superheroes customized with an image of the child’s own face or self-styled jewelry that mimics the child’s favorite things. It could provide an opportunity for kids to take a break from experiencing technology in a purely virtual sense: instead they could experience the joy of actually making things – imperfections and all – as another aspect of the high-tech world.</p>
<h2>Unlocking unlimited creativity</h2>
<p>How creative might these kids become in a 3D printed world of play? I predict that they will be very creative indeed! </p>
<p>Professional engineers who design and fabricate everyday objects draw upon a vast mental library of objects in the world around them. Existing objects provide powerful analogies for realizing brand new systems with unique capabilities – in the way that an umbrella mechanism or a bat’s wing could provide inspiration for a deployable sail on a fuel-efficient ship. </p>
<p>But experienced designers also fall prey to embracing the known instead of exploring the unknown – a phenomenon called “<a href="http://phys.org/news/2015-03-concept-fixation.html">design fixation</a>.” It restricts the creative mind to making use of designs it has seen. At present, nearly every design has been made with conventional (non-3D printing) routes. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113119/original/image-20160226-26697-10zmhne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113119/original/image-20160226-26697-10zmhne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113119/original/image-20160226-26697-10zmhne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=962&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113119/original/image-20160226-26697-10zmhne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=962&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113119/original/image-20160226-26697-10zmhne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=962&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113119/original/image-20160226-26697-10zmhne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1209&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113119/original/image-20160226-26697-10zmhne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1209&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113119/original/image-20160226-26697-10zmhne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1209&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Designed for the new technique: a GE-created fuel nozzle was specifically created to take advantage of 3D printing technology.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.gereports.com/post/80701924024/fit-to-print/">GE Reports</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a result, it can be difficult for an experienced designer to think of ways to truly make use of the freedoms afforded by 3D printing. That in turn helps explain why there are very few examples of 3D printed parts that are truly designed for 3D printing; most are parts that could be fabricated in another way.</p>
<p>Among university student users of the Innovation Station, uniquely 3D printable parts are starting to appear. When completing course projects, students will often design parts that offer needed performance with geometries that could not be fabricated without 3D printing. They are freed from the complex web of rules that govern fabrication by more conventional means. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113117/original/image-20160226-26694-77hs97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113117/original/image-20160226-26694-77hs97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/113117/original/image-20160226-26694-77hs97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113117/original/image-20160226-26694-77hs97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113117/original/image-20160226-26694-77hs97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113117/original/image-20160226-26694-77hs97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1006&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113117/original/image-20160226-26694-77hs97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1006&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/113117/original/image-20160226-26694-77hs97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1006&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">University of Texas spirit: a 3D-printed cryptex in true Longhorn style.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Young children offer an even more extreme example of innovators. They simply do not have vast mental libraries of technical solutions, and don’t know what can or can’t be made conventionally. They are, therefore, much less likely to fixate on existing designs and more likely to unleash their imaginations. If we give them this massive design freedom very early in life, perhaps they won’t design within the same constraining mental boxes that midcareer engineers struggle to escape. We could unleash a generation of engineers and creatives with unprecedented levels of creativity and 3D imagination.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/54985/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carolyn Conner Seepersad receives funding from the National Science Foundation, America Makes, Sandia National Laboratories, DARPA, the Department of Defense, Cameron Corporation, The University of Texas at Austin, and the UT Austin - Portugal Alliance. Recent collaborators include HRL Laboratories, Maritime Applied Physics Corporation, and Stratasys. </span></em></p>As 3D printing gets cheaper and easier to use, what might children - the next generation of innovators - make?Carolyn Conner Seepersad, Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at AustinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/549022016-02-18T19:18:42Z2016-02-18T19:18:42ZChemistry has a bright future for us and our economy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/111907/original/image-20160218-1264-125lytr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Chemistry is all around us.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/chemistry">Chemistry</a> is the science of molecules: the basic building blocks of all known matter. In a way, this makes chemistry the science of everything.</p>
<p>Chemists have shown that all the substances around us – the Earth and indeed the universe as a whole – are composed of just 92 building blocks or elements (not including several we have <a href="https://theconversation.com/something-new-and-superheavy-at-the-periodic-table-26286">made ourselves</a>, which don’t appear in nature). </p>
<p>In fact, just seven of these elements are responsible for more than 99% of the world around us. </p>
<p>In sharp contrast to other major science disciplines, such as physics, mathematics and biology, chemistry is the only fundamental science that has a specific industry attached to it.</p>
<h2>Chemical civilisation</h2>
<p>Chemistry as a discipline also has been, and remains, a significant contributor to the wealth, prosperity and health of humanity. Over the last 5,000 years, it is chemistry, more than any other discipline, that has made our global civilisation possible. </p>
<p>Early civilisations learned how to extract simple metals and to process them, which enabled military and eventually economic superiority. Likewise the civilisations that discovered gunpowder gained ascendancy in many areas of the globe. </p>
<p>Innovations, such as the development of specific cements, mortars and, later on, concrete, glass and plastic, allowed urbanisation on a massive scale. </p>
<p>The industrial revolution was enabled by the rapid improvements in understanding combustion and thermodynamics of fossil fuels. This led to global power shifts to those countries, which were able to implement these innovations on an industrial scale.</p>
<p>In 2014, the global chemicals industry contributed 4.9% of global GDP and the sector had gross revenues of US$5.2 trillion. That corresponds to US$800 for every man, woman and child on the planet.</p>
<p>We anticipate that chemistry will continue to define the directions of technological change during the 21st century. For example, chemical research and development will contribute to energy efficient LEDs, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/solar-power">solar cells</a>, electric vehicle <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/batteries">batteries</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/desalination">water desalination</a>, biodiagnostics, advanced materials for durable clothing, aerospace, defence, agriculture, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/additive-manufacturing">additive manufacturing</a> as well as health and medicine. </p>
<h2>Focal point</h2>
<p>Chemistry is the largest scientific discipline, with 29 of Australia’s universities having dedicated chemistry departments. </p>
<p>Contrary to popular belief, there is close to gender balance within chemistry, with 56% of all graduates in chemistry being male. Mean salaries are A$50,000 p.a., with a mean graduation age of 22. </p>
<p>Currently, around half of all chemists work in industry, one quarter in universities or teaching, and most of the remaining quarter are employed in government laboratories. </p>
<p>Chemicals and plastics supply 109 of Australia’s 111 industries. There are more than 60,000 people employed in the chemical industry and it is our second largest manufacturing sector. The sector contributes A$11.6 billion dollars annually to Australian GDP. </p>
<p>These are impressive figures but to maintain this performance, long term strategies and national focus are required.</p>
<h2>Rich opportunities</h2>
<p>Today, February 19, the first <a href="https://www.science.org.au/files/userfiles/support/reports-and-plans/2016/chemistry-decadal-plan-2016-25-web.pdf">Decadal Plan</a> (DP) for Australian chemistry was launched by the President of the Australian Academy of Science, Professor Andrew Holmes, and the Chair of the Australian Research Council, Professor Aidan Byrne. </p>
<p>The decadal plan is a grass roots document, put together by a working group under the auspices of the <a href="https://www.science.org.au/supporting-science/national-committees-science/national-committee-chemistry">National Committee for Chemistry</a>. The key goals of such a bottom-up approach are to ensure that it is the chemistry community itself that sets the direction of the field and identifies the opportunities and challenges ahead.</p>
<p>Based on the findings of the DP process, chemistry in Australia remains a healthy but underperforming science. Chemistry is an attractive career choice and chemistry remains vital to many Australian industries including construction, mining and agriculture. </p>
<p>However, chemistry graduates are increasingly moving into areas such as biotechnology, environmental monitoring, forensic science, food science and green chemistry.</p>
<p>The biggest challenge identified by the DP working group is poor communication across the sector. While 40% of companies in many European countries have interactions with universities, only 4% of Australian companies report such links. </p>
<p>Australia can do much better in exploiting its strong research base. The chemistry community must work together more effectively to create a genuine “value-adding chain”. </p>
<p>Profitable, chemistry-based companies create high quality jobs, which in turn attract students to stay in science. Better linkages between universities and industry will ensure Australia can generate the products needed to maintain high living standards. </p>
<p>Governments need to support this value-adding chain by developing long-lasting, bipartisan policies that foster risk-taking and greater investment in manufacturing. We may have heard a lot of this before but now it is being said with one voice.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/54902/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Mulvaney is affiliated with the Australian Academy of Science, The RACI and the Royal Society of Chemistry</span></em></p>Our civilisation is built on chemistry, and the science has a bright future, with the launch of a new Decadal Plan that will steer the science into the future.Paul Mulvaney, ARC Laureate Professor in Chemistry, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/533282016-01-18T16:46:03Z2016-01-18T16:46:03ZUltrasound could transform 3D printing for a future of smart materials<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108448/original/image-20160118-31828-1f02jzh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tom Llewellyn-Jones, Bruce Drinkwater and Richard Trask</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The advent of 3D printers supposedly means we can manufacture anything in our homes. <a href="https://theconversation.com/3d-printing-possibilities-are-beautiful-but-not-limitless-25890">But in reality</a> most existing home 3D printers can only make things out of certain plastics, although there are industrial systems that can print certain metals.</p>
<p>What has so far been out of reach is a way to 3D print <a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-stick-together-composite-materials-aeroplanes-and-you-7207">high-tech composite materials</a> such as the carbon fibre composites that are used to build lightweight but extremely strong versions of things including tennis racquets, aerodynamic bikes and even aircraft parts. But researchers from my lab at Bristol University have now developed a way to transform existing 3D printers so they can also print composite materials.</p>
<p>When designed properly, composites have just about the best strength for their weight of any common material, making them perfect for applications that need to be very strong but light, such as aeroplanes. Composites are usually made from very long glass or carbon fibres set in a plastic matrix. It’s the presence of the fibres, and the fact that they are all carefully arranged, that makes these materials so impressively strong yet lightweight.</p>
<h2>Simple solution</h2>
<p>At present, composite products are made by forming the fibres into sheets that look a bit like stiff cloth. These are then cut to shape and assembled by hand, layer-by-layer, to create the final product. As a result, composites are expensive and not easily replicated with 3D printers.</p>
<p>However, <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0964-1726/25/2/02LT01">my colleagues and I</a> have found a way to print composite material by making a relatively simple addition to a cheap, off-the-shelf 3D printer. The breakthrough was based on the simple idea of printing using a liquid polymer mixed with millions of tiny fibres. This makes a readily printable material that can, for example, be pushed through a tiny nozzle into the desired location. The final object can then be printed layer by layer, as with many other 3D printing processes. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108450/original/image-20160118-31834-1sjadzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/108450/original/image-20160118-31834-1sjadzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108450/original/image-20160118-31834-1sjadzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108450/original/image-20160118-31834-1sjadzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108450/original/image-20160118-31834-1sjadzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108450/original/image-20160118-31834-1sjadzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/108450/original/image-20160118-31834-1sjadzu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Anyone for laser tennis?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tom Llewellyn-Jones, Bruce Drinkwater and Richard Trask</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The big challenge was working out how to reassemble the tiny fibres into the carefully arranged patterns needed to generate the superior strength we expect from composites. The innovation we developed was to use ultrasonic waves to form the fibres into patterns within the polymer while it’s still in its liquid state.</p>
<p>The ultrasound effectively creates a patterned force field in the liquid plastic and the fibres move to and align with low pressure regions in the field called nodes. The fibres are then fixed in place using a tightly focused laser beam that cures (sets) the polymer.</p>
<h2>Smart materials</h2>
<p>The patterned fibres can be thought of as a reinforcement network, just like the <a href="http://www.crsi.org/index.cfm/steel/about">steel reinforcing bars</a> that are routinely placed in concrete structures such as foundations or bridges. Our study used short glass fibres in liquid epoxy polymer that are formed into longer lines of fibres and can recreate the structure of a traditional composite.</p>
<p>But the process has huge flexibility and can also create patterns not possible with traditional methods. By adjusting the ultrasonic wave pattern we can steer the fibres as the print progresses, producing a complex 3D architecture of fibres rather than layers of 2D structures.</p>
<p>One of the particularly useful features of the ultrasonic alignment process is that almost any type, size or shape of fibre can be used. This will give product designers some completely new possibilities and allow the printing of <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-synthetic-materials-with-the-power-to-change-the-world-37131">smart materials</a> that can repair themselves or harvest electricity from the environment. For example <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0964-1726/15/3/005/meta;jsessionid=B6C8BE723EA80DB5209180A4BAA53D4D.c1.iopscience.cld.iop.org">researchers are working</a> on embedding networks of hollow tubes filled with uncured polymer into composites. If the material is damaged and the tubes are broken open they will “bleed” polymer that will then set and “heal” the product. These tubes could be positioned in the liquid plastic with our ultrasonic printing system.</p>
<p>The ultrasonic technology is still in its early stages, so don’t expect to be able to buy these printers next week. But 3D printing is a very fast moving field so these ideas could well hit the market in the next few years.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/53328/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bruce Drinkwater receives funding from the UK Engineering and Physical Science Research Council (EPSRC). </span></em></p>Researchers have found a way to turn cheap 3D printers into a simple method for making super-strong but light composite materials for things like aircraft.Bruce Drinkwater, Professor of Ultrasonics, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/436452015-07-05T20:16:42Z2015-07-05T20:16:42ZThe future of manufacturing in Australia is smart, agile and green<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/86956/original/image-20150701-25062-1c8l32m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=687%2C84%2C3309%2C3099&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Technologies like 3d printing and robotics will be crucial aspects of Australia's manufacturing future.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This article is part of our series on the <a href="http://www.science.gov.au/scienceGov/news/Pages/PrioritisingAustraliasFuture.aspx">Science and Research Priorities</a> recently announced by the Federal Government. You can read the introduction to the series by Australia’s Chief Scientist, Ian Chubb, <a href="http://theconversation.com/australias-chief-scientist-on-getting-our-research-priorities-right-43833">here</a>.</em></p>
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<p><strong>Alan Finkel</strong><br>
<em>Chancellor of Monash University, and Fellow and President of the Australian Academy of Technological Science and Engineering (ATSE)</em></p>
<p>In a rapidly changing world, attempts to preserve the past will doom the future. The <a href="http://www.science.gov.au/scienceGov/ScienceAndResearchPriorities/Pages/ThePriorities.aspx">research priorities</a> seek to avoid that trap by identifying the need for our industries to be agile and transformative, to provide high value-add and to recognise their place in a complex global supply chain.</p>
<p>The research priorities also note the importance of seeking to dominate in selected niche product categories where we already have some wins, such as high-performance materials, composites, alloys and polymers.</p>
<p>Not explicitly stated in the priorities, though, is the reality that the efficiency of tomorrow’s industries will be driven by automation and artificial intelligence. More will be achieved with fewer workers. </p>
<p>We must accept that revenue growth in manufacturing will not routinely be accompanied by jobs growth in the manufacturing industry itself. That is not necessarily a bad thing, because as new wealth is created it will be invested in services, health and other industries, with net creation of jobs.</p>
<p>If we are smart about aligning our research to our priorities, there will be ample opportunity for us to develop advanced manufacturing techniques to create, or in some cases, bring back added-value manufacturing in food and resources, and expand our achievements in medical devices. </p>
<p>We will be able to improve quality and productivity, improve scheduling and logistics, and in many cases produce products in Australia more cheaply than we could import products of equivalent quality.</p>
<p>But measuring our success in manufacturing will be confounded by its changing nature. For example, printing and distributing text books is clearly a manufacturing industry. In the future, when textbooks fully transition to online delivery, will that mean that the manufacturing jobs in that sector have been wiped out? </p>
<p>Or should we think of the engineers who develop and maintain the cloud-based delivery systems as the manufacturing workers of the future? We must learn to value our successes in the context of a changing definition of what we are measuring.</p>
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<p><strong>Cathy Foley</strong><br>
<em>Deputy Director and Science Director of the Manufacturing Flagship at CSIRO and former President of Science and Technology Australia</em></p>
<p>The fourth industrial revolution has started! Known as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_4.0">Industry 4.0</a>, in 15 years time <a href="http://theconversation.com/australia-must-prepare-for-massive-job-losses-due-to-automation-43321">40% of the jobs we know today will not exist</a>, and the way we manufacture products and get them to the consumer will be radically different. </p>
<p>Just-in-time, personalised, agile and adaptive “creator robots and machines” will build a world that is a little like the Jetsons cartoon from my childhood. But this means that, as a country, we have to change our approach to manufacturing too.</p>
<p>Having standalone industrial companies and innovation organisations doing their own thing, competing against one another, simply will not work.</p>
<p>We need to reset our thinking to compete globally and collaborate locally. Australia’s success in Industry 4.0 will pivot on our willingness to shift our currently poor ability to collaborate across sectors – such as from research to industry – and within sectors – industry to industry, and research organisation to research organisation – so that we can move rapidly up the ranks and be a world leader in collaboration. </p>
<p>We currently rank <a href="http://www.globalinnovationindex.org/">81 out of the 143 OECD economies</a> for innovation efficiency. We have all the components we need to do this: top-class research; great design; well-educated citizens; a strong small-to-medium enterprise community; and a terrific services industry. </p>
<p>We are poised to make that transition. But our focus can’t remain on competing among ourselves, whether it is between academic institutions, states or within local industry sectors.</p>
<p>Can we be a “big” enough country to rise above the local and think global? I think we can.</p>
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<p><strong>Veena Sahajwalla</strong><br>
<em>Scientia Professor, and Laureate Fellow and Director, SMaRT Centre, UNSW Australia</em></p>
<p>Last year, I wrote about the ability of <a href="https://theconversation.com/building-the-nation-will-be-impossible-without-engineers-23191">engineers to build Australia into the future</a> by fostering invention and innovation. I still believe it will be engineers who can deliver previously unimaginable solutions, like green manufacturing, which is an area that will transform the manufacturing industry.</p>
<p>Australian industries need the flexibility, insight and foresight that comes from thinking creatively, asking critical questions, forming and testing hypotheses and reasoning quantitatively. They also need access to the research and technologies that will add value to manufactured products.</p>
<p>At the Sustainable Materials Research and Technology Centre (<a href="http://smart.unsw.edu.au/">SMaRT</a>) at UNSW, we are working on green manufacturing in collaboration with industry, using waste and end‐of‐life products as raw materials.</p>
<p>We are rethinking the way we have traditionally done manufacturing and looking at creating new resources from waste. But it is fundamental and applied research that have created the foundations of where we are today.</p>
<p>The ability to produce ferrous alloys from auto waste and copper-based alloys from e-waste is also forcing us to rethink mining, which has traditionally been about extracting raw materials and sending them long distances, with one large processing plant transforming them into usable material. </p>
<p>Not only are natural resources being depleted at an unsustainable rate, industries are beginning to recognise the cost-effectiveness of reusing materials, and the importance of high value-add, small, agile and localised processing facilities.</p>
<p>Silicon from silica in glass, or copper from e-waste, are extremely valuable, so we need to look past the fact that initially they present as waste. This is where science and innovation come in. It’s looking for the beauty within. The future manufacturing scientists and engineers will be creating high-value materials by discovering novel green manufacturing solutions.</p>
<p>I see a huge opportunity for green manufacturing in micro-factories across regional Australia, and new jobs for regional communities that offer economic opportunities in tomorrow’s industries. We believe these new industries can happen on a small scale quite effectively based on new scientific discoveries.</p>
<p>In Australia, where our population is small and the tyranny of distance presents its own challenges, doing it cleaner and smarter, and developing innovations that are good for the environment and sustainable on every level, offers huge economic benefits and a brand new manufacturing sector built around transforming waste into resources.</p>
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<p><strong>Read more in our Science and Research Priorities series</strong></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/on-the-road-research-can-improve-transport-across-australia-43643">On the road: research can improve transport across Australia</a></p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/research-priority-make-australias-health-system-efficient-equitable-and-integrated-43547">Research priority: make Australia’s health system efficient, equitable and integrated</a></p>
<p><a href="http://theconversation.com/australia-could-become-a-leader-in-cybersecurity-research-43716">Australia could become a leader in cybersecurity research</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/43645/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Veena Sahajwalla has collaborated with OneSteel through the ARC Linkage grants scheme. The PIT technology – “Green Steel” – has been licensed to OneSteel for commercialisation. Current grants and previously received grants are ARC grant schemes (ARC Linkage, Discovery, ARC Industrial Transformation Research Hub), Australian Laureate Fellowship, Australia India Strategy Research Funding, CRC Low Carbon Living, and industries including: Arrium Mining and Materials, Hyundai Steel, Brickworks Building Products, Jaylon Industries, Tersum Energy, TES-AMM Australia and LKAB. She is a member of a range of professional associations: EA, AIST, ACS, ASM International, AusIMM, ATSE, Climate Council and NSW Australia Day Council Board member.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alan Finkel and Cathy Foley do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australia has a bright future in advanced manufacturing, but it will be a turbulent transition that we need to manage carefully.Alan Finkel, Chancellor, Monash UniversityCathy Foley, Deputy Director and Science Director Manfacturing Flagship CSIRO, CSIROVeena Sahajwalla, Professor and Director of the Centre for Sustainable Materials Research and Technology (SMaRT), UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/434932015-06-19T10:37:31Z2015-06-19T10:37:31ZIt’s not just hype – 3D printing is the bridge to the future<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/85607/original/image-20150618-23256-ao0h14.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'Here I am, the most intelligent robot in the galaxy, welding a bridge.'</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Heijmans</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A company in the Netherlands is building a bridge across a canal in Amsterdam <a href="http://www.informationweek.com/it-life/3d-printing-robot-will-build-an-entire-bridge/d/d-id/1320868">using 3D-printing robots</a>. It seems that such attention-grabbing headlines appear regularly to declare how 3D-printing is destined to revolutionise manufacturing of all kinds. If the idea that key manufacturing products such as cars, aircraft – or indeed bridges – built by 3D printing sounds like hype, you’re mistaken.</p>
<p>It’s human nature to be suspicious of new things: we find them both attractive and worrying. The manufactured world around us has been made by cutting and casting and forging for many centuries. We are very comfortable with those processes and we believe that engineers and scientists can exert complete control over them, using these technologies to create the safe and predictable world (on an engineering level at least) we inhabit. This new way of making through 3D printing, in contrast, seems to have appeared suddenly and, somewhat reminiscent of the way it creates, almost out of thin air. </p>
<p>3D printing, or additive manufacturing as it’s also known, has in fact <a href="http://wohlersassociates.com/history2014.pdf">been in use since the 1980s</a>, beginning as a means of prototyping objects through various stages of development. Decades later, we have gained a huge wealth of knowledge and understanding of how the process works. We may marvel at the wonder of it all – and the weird and wonderful shapes that can be created through 3D printing. But the main concern for many is that the properties of 3D-printed materials are equal to their conventionally manufactured equivalents. </p>
<p>To answer this concern, generally speaking a 3D-printed component can have comparable properties to one made conventionally. For example, some surgical implants <a href="http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/73b528f8-70a0-11e4-8113-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3dQojF031">are already made in this way</a>. Many people have a 3D-printed hip implant, for example, and we know that 3D-printed parts have been a <a href="http://www.rapidreadytech.com/2014/07/additive-manufacturing-helps-drive-f1-racing/">feature of Formula 1 cars</a> and military aircraft for years – and perform very well in those applications. What we are seeing now is that the technology is becoming more mainstream – and that change is helping drive a huge explosion of creative thought about how, and where, we make things. </p>
<p>Many of the more ambitious ideas about large-scale 3D printing emerge from laboratories and studios of artists and architects who see this as an opportunity to give their ideas physical form, enabling bespoke creations using free-form fabrication. Take for example this bridge in Amsterdam using torch-wielding robot welders: the company behind the project, <a href="http://mx3d.com/projects/bridge/">MX3D</a>, which was formed by Dutch architect and designer Joris Laarman, demonstrated its technology last year and has shown the courage of its convictions in performing this “research” in public.</p>
<p>Aerospace is another great supporter of emerging technologies, and large aerospace companies and supply chains are very clear that they intend to employ 3D printing as a means to manufacture airframes and engine components. In the US, <a href="http://fortune.com/2015/03/05/ge-engine-3d-printing/">GE</a>, Lockheed Martin and Pratt and Whitney, and Airbus, <a href="http://3dprint.com/45820/rolls-royce-largest-3d-printed/">Rolls Royce</a> and GKN Aerospace in Europe have all made recent investments and announcements of products that employ 3D printing in the direct manufacture of complex components. It’s even a technique used for the <a href="http://3dprint.com/73961/esa-3d-printed-thruster/">manufacture of spacecraft</a>.</p>
<p>Despite all these high-profile, major industrial users there is a feeling among many, still, that 3D printing is all hype that will blow over soon – that there is an element of the <a href="http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheEmperorsNewClothes_e.html">Emperor’s New Clothes</a> about it.</p>
<p>If I were to draw a comparison with another field: in 2001 just as the internet was truly taking off worldwide, the author Douglas Adams made a radio programme called the <a href="https://www.radioclash.com/archives/2015/06/15/the-hitchhikers-guide-to-the-future/">Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Future</a> in which he recalled a number of conversations with those working in publishing, music and broadcasting. They were interested to know what impact the emergence of computers would have on their industries – clearly hoping, he said, that the answer would be “not very much”. Of course 15 years on we know just what a significant impact digitisation and the internet has had – changing business models, consumer behaviour and expectations beyond imagination. </p>
<p>The reality is that we don’t know where 3D printing will lead us but its potential to change the way we manufacture the things we use in our lives is enormous. As with those in Adams’ programme, perhaps hoping that the impact of this emerging technology will also be “not very much” is not the right approach. Instead, as with the revolutionary effects it has had on the media, embracing the opportunities it affords us as manufacturers could take us in directions we hadn’t previously considered possible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/43493/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Iain Todd provided consultancy for Rolls Royce in 2012 and 2014, and has received funding from EPSRC, innovate UK, Aerospace Technology Institute, and GKN and Rolls- Royce.
</span></em></p>3D printing robots are to create a new bridge in Amsterdam - would you walk on it?Iain Todd, RAE and GKN Chair in Additive Manufacturing, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.