tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/skiing-8710/articlesSkiing – The Conversation2024-03-13T19:15:13Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2255812024-03-13T19:15:13Z2024-03-13T19:15:13ZTennis anyone? Bad news for skiers as snow season could shrink by 78% this century<p>As the days shorten, many of us, particularly in Australia’s south-east, are looking forward to cooler times, and perhaps the allure of snow on the horizon. In the past week many in this region experienced their <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2024/mar/10/hobart-endures-hottest-night-in-112-years-as-severe-heatwave-hits-south-eastern-australia">warmest days for over a century</a>. What does this bode for times to come?</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0299735">Research</a> released overnight suggests ski areas in Australia and Aotearoa New Zealand will soon have much less snow due to climate change. German researcher Veronika Mitterwallner and her colleagues show average annual snow-cover days may decline by 78% in the Australian Alps and 51% in the Southern Alps of Aotearoa New Zealand (under a high-emissions scenario) by 2071–2100. Worldwide, they found 13% of ski areas will lose all natural snow cover by the end of the century. </p>
<p>It’s <a href="https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=617796527113271&set=pb.100066487878368.-2207520000&type=3&paipv=0&eav=AfaxRFHwY-3bvBmVsaq89GJJD_KbCitxFy9ExZef_YY5iwR1SbFy80eVARtIAgSDcuI&_rdr">often said</a> Australia gets more snow than Switzerland, though the evidence <a href="https://business.weatherzone.com.au/news/does-australia-really-have-more-snow-than-switzerland/">says otherwise</a>. The fact remains that the Australian Alps cover a large area, more than 12,000km, with a <a href="https://www.int-res.com/articles/cr2016/68/c068p025.pdf">third or more</a> covered in snow at peak times. So these changes will have a broad impact on local economies and threaten fragile alpine ecosystems.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="a panoramic view of the Australian Alps covered in snow" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581462/original/file-20240313-20-3ydx39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581462/original/file-20240313-20-3ydx39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=243&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581462/original/file-20240313-20-3ydx39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=243&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581462/original/file-20240313-20-3ydx39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=243&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581462/original/file-20240313-20-3ydx39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581462/original/file-20240313-20-3ydx39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581462/original/file-20240313-20-3ydx39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">If Australia loses three-quarters of its snow-cover days, a surprisingly big area will be affected.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Greg Brave/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How did the study make these findings?</h2>
<p>Mitterwallner’s team used a high-resolution climate data set for the global land surface area to identify the annual number of natural snow-cover days. Then, they projected those data under three emissions scenarios, and looked at historical (1950-2010), present (2011-2040), immediate future (2041-2070) and near future (2071-2100) data to examine changes over time.</p>
<p>Under most modelled emission scenarios, they found the annual number of snow-cover days will greatly decrease worldwide. For Australia and Aotearoa New Zealand, in particular, they found the average number will decrease by 78% and 51% respectively. These were the two regions with the greatest losses of snow.</p>
<p>However, under a low-emissions scenario, the good news is no regions will fall below an average of 100 snow-cover days a year. This is historically the minimum number of days a ski resort needs in seven out of ten winters <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00484-020-01867-3#">to remain viable</a> (cover must be at least 30–50cm).</p>
<h2>How will we adapt to the loss of snow?</h2>
<p>Will the way we use our alpine areas have to change permanently? Many resorts have already pivoted to activities such as mountain biking that don’t rely on snow. Skiing may be off the agenda – tennis anyone?</p>
<p>The prognosis of such research has driven the formation of groups such as <a href="https://protectourwinters.org/about-pow/">Protect Our Winters</a>. The mission of the <a href="https://protectourwinters.org.au">Australian section</a> is to help Australia’s outdoor community protect the integrity of our unique alpine environment and lifestyle from climate change.</p>
<p>Beyond Australia, New York recently had its <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/live-updates/snowstorm-northeast-nyc/snow-totals-near-new-york-city-107198753?id=107160643">highest snowfall in two years</a>. Across the United States in general, though, they just experienced the <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2024/03/08/weather/winter-warmth-record-climate/index.html">warmest winter ever</a>.</p>
<p>What is going on? And what might this new research mean, particularly for Australia and Aotearoa New Zealand?</p>
<p>These predictions, for almost all emissions scenarios, do not bode well for the skiers among us. More importantly, as many <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468312421000183#ab010">communities in the Himalaya</a> are finding out, snow is not just a recreational “nice to have”. It’s a life-source for alpine communities, both human and non-human, and all those that depend on rivers sustained by snow melt around the globe.</p>
<p>Perhaps a greater concern in our region is the potential for ecological damage as resorts seek to increase ski slope metreage in areas that remain snow-covered. Expanding resort footprints is not a sustainable approach to a problem that probably won’t be going away. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A snow machine shoots out a plume of snow in the Snowy Mountains" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581468/original/file-20240313-16-f1zu2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581468/original/file-20240313-16-f1zu2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581468/original/file-20240313-16-f1zu2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581468/original/file-20240313-16-f1zu2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581468/original/file-20240313-16-f1zu2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581468/original/file-20240313-16-f1zu2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/581468/original/file-20240313-16-f1zu2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Resorts can make artificial snow, but that doesn’t solve the problem of it melting if the alps get warmer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/snow-machine-sunset-snowy-mountians-background-2321559725">Edward Atkin/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Is artificial snow an option?</h2>
<p>So how might we support the goals of Protect Our Winters? What alternatives do we have? How about artificial snow, would that work?</p>
<p>As part of my PhD studies many years ago, at the University of Cambridge’s Scott Polar Research Institute, I made masses of “polar snow” in a cold room (while effectively destroying the air-conditioning units at the same time). Artificial snow can be created quite readily, assuming enough water is at hand. </p>
<p>Artificial snow will have a different form and its density and microstructure will differ, potentially affecting longevity. (You can read more about snow mechanics <a href="https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/cr/2022/06/10/what-is-snow-mechanics-and-why-should-we-care/">here</a>.) </p>
<p>But once on the ground, artificial snow, like natural snow, is subject to the vagaries of our weather. If the sun is shining and the day is hot, snow won’t last long, regardless of whether it’s natural or artificial.</p>
<p>There’s a lot to think on here as we contemplate what our world and our region might look like when skiing and snow-covered ground become no more than a memory in some areas. Yes, our recreational activities might change as we wonder whether it’s worth waxing up the skis this year – or is it time to break out the racquets? The ongoing survival of many communities might be jeopardised as a result.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225581/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrian McCallum does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The two alpine regions projected to suffer the greatest loss of snow cover in the world are in Australia and Aotearoa New Zealand.Adrian McCallum, Discipline Lead - Engineering, University of the Sunshine CoastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2220952024-02-12T16:31:43Z2024-02-12T16:31:43ZForever chemicals in ski wax are being spread on snowy slopes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574955/original/file-20240212-16-zludm6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A study of the Austrian slopes has found that forever chemicals in ski wax end up on the slopes, in soil and snow.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/skiing-jumping-skier-extreme-winter-sports-1187224183">Artur Didyk/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every February half-term, I think back to the French ski trips I went on as a teenager. I remember the freshness of the cold, crisp air as I snow-ploughed my way down the slopes. Escaping to somewhere seemingly so pristine felt like a world away from where I grew up in London. </p>
<p>Back then, I never considered that snow could be a potential source of exposure to a harmful chemical. However, recent evidence suggests that persistent, synthetic chemicals are being transferred into snow and soil from waxes applied to the surfaces of skis to enhance performance.</p>
<p>Nicknamed forever chemicals, per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of more than <a href="https://www.oecd.org/chemicalsafety/portal-perfluorinated-chemicals/aboutpfass/">10,000 different chemicals</a>, many of which have been used since the 1950s. They repel water and oil so they make great waterproof coatings for clothing, greaseproof paper and construction materials. </p>
<p>Some act as surfactants, allowing different liquids to mix more easily. Many resist high temperatures, so they’re ideal for making non-stick frying pans and firefighting foams. </p>
<p>Certain PFAS are used in ski wax applied to skis and snowboards as lubrication. By making surfaces of ski kit more slippery, skiers can speed up and make smoother turns as they travel from piste to piste. A <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2023/EM/D3EM00375B">new study</a> has found high PFAS concentrations in ski waxes and in the snow and soil sampled from popular skiing areas in Austria.</p>
<h2>The problem with persistence</h2>
<p>PFAS are organoflourine compounds – their super strong carbon-flourine bonds make them incredibly stable. Because PFAS don’t <a href="https://echa.europa.eu/hot-topics/perfluoroalkyl-chemicals-pfas">break down easily</a>, they can persist inside our bodies or in the environment for <a href="https://www.health.pa.gov/topics/Documents/Environmental%20Health/PFAS%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf">many years</a>. </p>
<p>A single dose of perfluorooctanoic acid or PFOA, one of the most well-studied PFAS, could take between three and seven years to reduce by half inside the body – that means it could take 100 years to eliminate 99.9% of that dose. </p>
<p>Some PFAS can be toxic to humans and wildlife, with links to <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/ebiom/article/PIIS2352-3964(23)00397-3/fulltext#:%7E:text=This%20study%20supports%20the%20hypothesis,plastic%20packaging%2C%20etc.">cancers</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412022003117">developmental</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36334833/#:%7E:text=Conclusion%3A%20Based%20on%20the%20evidence,in%20odds%20ratio%20for%20infertility">reproductive problems</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1438463918300476?via%3Dihub">hormone disruption</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935123003171#:%7E:text=May%202023%2C%20115525-,Exposure%20to%20high%20levels%20of%20PFAS%20through%20drinking%20water%20is,based%20study%20in%20Ronneby%2C%20Sweden">diabetes</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4890;%20https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144795">obesity</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman in yellow jackets applies wax to four yellow skis laid out on wooden table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574960/original/file-20240212-28-bro51v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574960/original/file-20240212-28-bro51v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574960/original/file-20240212-28-bro51v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574960/original/file-20240212-28-bro51v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574960/original/file-20240212-28-bro51v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574960/original/file-20240212-28-bro51v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574960/original/file-20240212-28-bro51v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The presence of PFAS in ski wax is widely understood - now research shows that the chemicals transfer from ski wax to the environment and end up in snow and soil on the white slopes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/japanese-senior-woman-waxing-skis-1620325474">Rammy_Rammy/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A slippery slope?</h2>
<p>The presence of PFAS in ski waxes is not a new discovery. In 2010, a Swedish study, found high levels of various PFAS in ski wax and in the blood of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/es9034733">ski-waxing technicians</a>. </p>
<p>The fascinating thing about the new study is the potential for these chemicals to transfer into the environment from recreational and professional skiing equipment. She reveals that PFAS levels in the snow and soil from skiing areas are consistently higher than in those from the control sample collected away from skiing areas, indicating that skiing can act as a source. </p>
<p>The researchers highlight how the PFAS profiles (the combination of different PFAS found in each sample) differed between locations and sample types. This variability was attributed to differences between ski waxes that had been manufactured at different times or in different places. </p>
<p>I would suggest that additional sources of PFAS are likely in these areas, particularly as PFAS were still sometimes detected in areas of no skiing. They are present in some waterproof clothing, which is worn in abundance by skiers, and in food packaging, paints and cabling – all of which will be found in these areas. These products are likely to display different PFAS profiles. </p>
<p>The new study highlights the difficulty of assessing PFAS globally. There are so many different individual PFAS chemicals. So much so that there’s still uncertainty over the true number that <a href="https://time.com/6281242/pfas-forever-chemicals-home-beauty-body-products/">exist</a>. With PFAS in so many products, it’s hard to identify a singular source.</p>
<p>With so many PFAS in circulation, it’s hard to know which ones to test for. The researchers in the new study searched for 34 PFAS chemicals – that’s no easy task. For every PFAS measured, analysis takes more time and money and gets more complicated.</p>
<p>The sum of the concentrations of these 34 PFAS represented less than 1% of the total organofluorine present in the same samples, so the true PFAS concentration could be even higher. </p>
<h2>A class-based approach</h2>
<p>Historically, individual chemicals have been banned depending on toxicity, persistence and resistance to degradation. This has invariably led to the replacement of banned chemicals with structurally similar ones. </p>
<p>Assessing 10,000 PFAS individually would be impossible. PFAS display varying levels of toxicity and persistence with some breaking down <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2022.105226">quite readily</a>, but in recent years, environmental chemists have called for PFAS to be regulated together as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fd0em00147c">group or class</a>. </p>
<p>The European Chemicals Agency is considering a <a href="https://echa.europa.eu/-/echa-publishes-pfas-restriction-proposal">proposed restriction</a> to ban the manufacture and use of PFAS, with some exemptions for essential use where no alternatives exist. If accepted by member states, it could prove a significant step towards the beginning of the end for forever chemicals. Meanwhile, UK legislation <a href="https://www.dwi.gov.uk/pfas-and-forever-chemicals/">falls behind</a> by focusing on individual PFAS, with delays in implementing new restrictions. </p>
<p>Interestingly, PFAS-containing waxes were banned by the International Ski and Snowboard Federation at the start of the 2023 – 2024 season. Norwegian Olympic silver medallist Ragnhild Mowinckel was disqualified last October for competing with fluorinated wax. </p>
<p>But a ban that only applies to professional competition won’t stop PFAS chemicals from reaching the slopes. A ban on the manufacture of PFAS-containing products is crucial. Only then can we prevent PFAS reaching the mountains, and even with a comprehensive ban now, PFAS already in the snow won’t disappear within my lifetime.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 30,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222095/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Drage has previously worked on projects funded by the Natural Environment Research Council and the Environmental Protection Agency of Ireland. He is a Lecturer in Environmental Health at the University of Birmingham, and an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Queensland (Australia). </span></em></p>Synthetic chemicals found in ski wax have been found in the snow and soil on ski slopes and could pose a toxic threat to the environment.Daniel Drage, Lecturer in Environmental Health, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2209432024-01-11T13:26:43Z2024-01-11T13:26:43ZTahoe avalanches: What causes innocent-looking snow slopes to collapse? A physicist and skier explains, with tips for surviving<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568796/original/file-20240111-19-upafl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C2438%2C3304%2C2022&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A skier at Palisades Tahoe, home of the 1960 Winter Olympics and site of a small but deadly avalanche in 2024.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SnowboundSierra/fa093ab6ef4849ad990f949d64a2887a/photo">AP Photo/Rich Pedroncelli</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>An avalanche <a href="https://www.kcra.com/article/avalanche-palisades-tahoe-resort-palisades-side/46342439/">swept up skiers</a> at Lake Tahoe’s largest ski resort on Jan. 10, 2024, as a 150-foot-wide sheet of snow slid down a mountain slope into a pile 10 feet deep. One person died in the avalanche and three others were rescued, according to the <a href="https://www.kcra.com/article/avalanche-palisades-tahoe-resort-palisades-side/46342439">Placer County, California, Sheriff’s Office</a>. The slide happened in steep terrain near the <a href="https://snowbrains.com/kt-22-palisades-tahoe-best-chairlift-north-america/">KT-22 chairlift</a>, which had just opened for the season that morning. A <a href="https://www.kcra.com/article/palisades-tahoe-resort-second-avalanche-reported/46356367">second unplanned avalanche</a> hit the same ski resort the next day, but no one was injured.</em> </p>
<p><em>Avalanche deaths are <a href="https://avalanche.state.co.us/accidents/us">rare inbounds</a> at ski resorts like Palisades Tahoe, but the risk rises in the backcountry – 30 backcountry avalanche deaths were reported in the U.S. during the 2022-2023 season. <a href="https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=bWUANQMAAAAJ&hl=en">Nathalie Vriend</a>, a skier and physicist at the University of Colorado Boulder who studies avalanches, explains what happens in an avalanche and techniques for surviving one.</em></p>
<h2>What causes avalanches?</h2>
<p>The behavior of an avalanche depends on the structure of the snowpack, but that’s only one ingredient. An avalanche requires all the wrong conditions at the wrong time.</p>
<p>The angle of the mountain slope is important. Slopes between <a href="https://avalanche.ca/glossary/terms/slope-angle">25 and 40 degrees</a> run the greatest risk of avalanches. Those are also ideal for skiing, of course. If the slope is less than 25 degrees, there might be little slips, but the snow won’t pick up speed. If it’s over 40 degrees, the snow typically cannot accumulate, clearing away the avalanche risk.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/oKTUw78thcg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Avalanche awareness for backcountry skiers.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Then there needs to be a trigger. A snowpack may be seemingly stable until a snowmobile or skier disturbs it enough that the snow starts to move. Strong winds or rock falls may also cause an avalanche. Blowing snow can create wind loading and <a href="https://avalanche.org/avalanche-encyclopedia/avalanche/avalanche-problems/avalanche-problem-type/cornice-fall/">build up into cornices</a>, creating an overhang that can eventually fall and trigger an avalanche below.</p>
<h2>What happens inside the snowpack during an avalanche?</h2>
<p>Mountain snowpack isn’t uniform. Because it builds up over time, it is a snapshot of recent weather conditions and has both stable and weak layers.</p>
<p>When snow falls, it’s a fluffy crystal structure. But when the temperature rises and the snow starts to melt and then refreezes, it <a href="https://avalanche.org/avalanche-encyclopedia/snowpack/weak-layer/persistent-weak-layers/depth-hoar-basal-facets/">turns more granular</a>.</p>
<p>That granular, icier snow is a <a href="https://avalanche.ca/glossary/terms/persistent-weak-layer">weak layer</a>. When a new snowfall dumps on top of it, the grains in the weak layer can shear, creating a surface for an avalanche to slide on. The weight of new snowpack can cause the entire face of a mountain to fall away almost instantaneously. As the avalanche picks up speed, more snow and debris are incorporated in the avalanche and it can become really big and violent.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A domed mountain with snow clearly slid down the full width of one side." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An avalanche takes down the side of a mountain near Winter Park, Colo., in 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Rockies-AvalancheDanger/ebc1137f30c54ec29eace5443635401f/photo">Colorado Avalanche Information Center via AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/mechanical/nathalie-m-vriend">my lab</a> at the University of Colorado at Boulder, I study small-scale laboratory avalanches. We use a technique called <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/book/mono/978-0-7503-2472-4/chapter/bk978-0-7503-2472-4ch1">photoelasticity</a> and create thin avalanches to reveal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.100.012902">what’s going on inside the avalanche</a>. We track photoelastic particles with a high-speed camera and can observe that particles bounce and collide really fast, within 1/1,000th of a second.</p>
<p>In a real avalanche, those violent collisions create a lot of heat through friction, which causes more melting. As the avalanche comes to a rest, this liquid can quickly refreeze again, locking the snowpack in place like concrete. People say “<a href="https://www.getprepared.gc.ca/cnt/hzd/vlchs-drng-en.aspx">swim to the surface</a>” in an avalanche, but you may not know whether the surface is up or down. If the avalanche is still moving and the granules haven’t frozen solid again, you might be able to move slightly, but it is really hard.</p>
<h2>What can skiers do if they’re in an avalanche?</h2>
<p>I’ve done fieldwork on real snow avalanches triggered intentionally in Switzerland. We were in a bunker in a valley, and they dropped explosives at the top of the mountain. Using radar, we could look inside the avalanche as it came toward us. It was easily going more than <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50134">110 miles per hour (50 meters per second)</a>.</p>
<p>Even if the avalanche is small, you can’t outski or outrun it easily. The big danger is when the snow is deep – you could be buried under several feet of snow. Basically, as the avalanche slows down, new snow keeps piling on top of you. People report this as being trapped in concrete without an ability to even move a limb. It must be a very frightening experience.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A yellow dog pulls on a tug held by a man in ski patrol outfit and goggles who is buried up to his waist in snow." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An avalanche rescue dog tugs on a ski patrol member during avalanche training at Copper Mountain in Colorado.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/mason-pulls-on-a-tug-held-by-ski-patroller-matt-urich-as-news-photo/1131269864">AAron Ontiveroz/MediaNews Group/The Denver Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Backcountry skiers carry <a href="https://catamounttrail.org/bc-zones/safety-in-the-backcountry/">tools that can increase their chances of survival</a>. Your best bet, though, is your peers – particularly in the backcountry, where emergency crews will take hours to arrive.</p>
<p>There are a few things you can do. First, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nnHXLVA2FcE">carry a transceiver</a>, which transmits a signal identifying your location. When you are caught in an avalanche, you are transmitting a signal. Your friends can switch their transceivers to the “receiving” mode and try to locate your beacon. It’s also important to have an avalanche probe and a shovel in the backcountry for when your friends do locate your position: The snow is like concrete, and it will be hard to extract you.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOE9b60TsT4">Avalanche air bags</a> can also help – James Bond <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MQQLqRYm4vg">used an elaborate concept of one</a> in “The World Is Not Enough.” With modern avalanche air bags, you pull a toggle on your back, and the air bag inflates behind your head, <a href="https://youtu.be/h7QFRXc0R8M?feature=shared">turning you into a bigger particle</a>. Bigger particles tend to stay at the surface, making you easier to locate.</p>
<h2>How is avalanche risk changing as winter temperatures rise?</h2>
<p>It’s an important question, and it’s not as simple as warming temperatures mean less snow, so fewer avalanches. Instead, if mountains have more variation in temperatures, they may have more melting and refreezing phases during the winter, creating weaker snowpacks compared with historical records.</p>
<p>The historical conditions that communities have grown up around can change. In 2017, there was a big <a href="https://www.gq.com/story/the-avalanche-that-ate-hotel-rigopiano">avalanche in Italy</a> that took out an entire hotel. It was in an area where people didn’t expect an avalanche, based on historical data.</p>
<p>There are computer models that can calculate where avalanches are likely to occur. But when temperatures, snowfall and precipitation patterns change, you may not be able to truly understand cause and effect on natural hazards like snow avalanches. </p>
<p><em>This article was updated with a second avalanche on Jan. 11, 2024.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220943/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nathalie Vriend receives funding from the Moore Foundation, and in the past from the Royal Society and NERC among others. </span></em></p>A deadly avalanche at Palisades Tahoe, home of the 1960 Winter Olympics, shows the risk as snow layers melt and new snow falls.Nathalie Vriend, Associate Professor of Thermo Fluid Sciences, University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2187312024-01-04T10:08:56Z2024-01-04T10:08:56ZWill we be able to ski in a +2°C world?<p>Over the last months, the <em>raison d’être</em> of winter sports has been threatened more than ever by a range of challenges and controversies. From the occupation by activists of the <a href="https://reporterre.net/Glacier-en-danger-une-nuit-a-la-zad-la-plus-haute-d-Europe">glacier of Girose</a>, Southeastern France, to protest against plans for a new cable car, to doubts over whether to hold pre-season sporting events following the partial destruction of the <a href="https://www.20min.ch/fr/video/coupe-du-monde-de-ski-a-zermatt-vs-le-glacier-est-esquinte-et-le-trouble-regne-sur-la-legalite-du-trace-934896922375">Théodule glacier</a> in Switzerland, scarce snow is pitting people against one another. Behind all these tensions lies the same question: what does the future hold for skiing on an overheating planet?</p>
<p>In recent decades, France has seen some ski resorts close due to a lack of snow or a sustainable business model. However, the majority of resorts continue to cling on to the hope of adapting to rising temperatures. But will reproducing the tried and tested recipes of the past be enough to meet the climate challenges ahead?</p>
<p>Published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-023-01759-5"><em>Nature Climate Change</em></a>, our <a href="https://hal.science/hal-04192000">study</a> of 2,234 winter sports resorts in Europe sought to measure the impact of global warming on snowmaking in resorts, and the possible room for manoeuvre available to adapt.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560805/original/file-20231121-27-xomtnb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560805/original/file-20231121-27-xomtnb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560805/original/file-20231121-27-xomtnb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560805/original/file-20231121-27-xomtnb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560805/original/file-20231121-27-xomtnb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560805/original/file-20231121-27-xomtnb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=624&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560805/original/file-20231121-27-xomtnb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=624&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560805/original/file-20231121-27-xomtnb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=624&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Winter sports resorts are unevenly distributed in 18 mountain massifs across Europe.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adapted from François et al., 2023</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This question is not just a concern for amateur or professional skiers. Skiing is also an economic issue, with a total turnover estimated at 30 billion euros in Europe. In France alone, 120,000 jobs depending directly and indirectly on the ski economy.</p>
<h2>53% of ski resorts are at risk of running out of snow at +2°C</h2>
<p>Climate change is a global phenomenon impacting resorts worldwide, but not all mountain areas are affected to the same degree or with the same speed, and the ability to limit the impact of these changes through snow production also varies greatly. We have measured the impact of climate change on winter sports resorts based on the level of global warming, using the graphical representation, commonly used in IPCC reports, of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0088-0">“burning embers”</a>.</p>
<p>At 2°C of global warming above pre-industrial levels, 53% of European resorts are at very high risk of low snowfall. We assess the risk of low snowfall on the basis of the frequency of snow conditions considered to be the most unfavourable, those encountered on average one season in five between 1961 and 1990, the golden age of resort development.</p>
<p>However, the picture varies at a national level: in the French Alps, this proportion concerns a third of resorts, while in the Pyrenees and in the Franco-Swiss mid-mountain massifs, 89% and 80% respectively of resorts are affected by a very high level of risk of low snowfall.</p>
<p>At 4°C of global warming, 98% of European resorts are at very high risk of low snowfall. With this level of warming, the climate leaves winter sports resorts little margin for adaptation.</p>
<h2>Changes in the use of snow production</h2>
<p>One of the most popular solutions to adapt to scarcer snow is <a href="https://theconversation.com/production-de-neige-le-piege-de-la-dependance-pour-les-stations-de-ski-198469">snowmaking</a>, also known as “artificial snow”. Snow production involves projecting micro-droplets of water into the atmosphere so that they freeze before falling back to the ground. The resulting snow, made up of small balls of ice, is a suitable material for making an underlay.</p>
<p>In the past, snow was produced mainly to limit the impact of natural fluctuations in snow cover from one season to the next. Snow is now mainly produced in the pre-season, without any knowledge of the weather conditions for the coming winter, and then on a more ad hoc basis if necessary between the Christmas and winter holidays.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560803/original/file-20231121-17-91hlvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560803/original/file-20231121-17-91hlvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560803/original/file-20231121-17-91hlvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560803/original/file-20231121-17-91hlvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560803/original/file-20231121-17-91hlvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560803/original/file-20231121-17-91hlvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560803/original/file-20231121-17-91hlvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">La Plagne Montchavin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lucas Berard Chenu</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
À lire aussi :
<a href="https://theconversation.com/les-stations-de-ski-forcees-de-repenser-leur-modele-132381">Les stations de ski forcées de repenser leur modèle</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Snow production also affected by rising temperatures</h2>
<p>Like natural snow, snow production is affected by rising temperatures, because snow production requires sufficiently cold weather conditions. This dual pressure is leading to increased investment to ensure that sufficient snow can be produced, thereby increasing the dependency of mountain resorts on snow tourism.</p>
<p>Not all ski resorts will equally be able to adapt to rising temperatures by producing snow. At +2°C global warming, snowmaking, if applied to 50% of the ski area, would reduce the proportion of resorts exposed to a very high risk of low snowfall in the Alps and Pyrenees to 7% and 9% respectively, while in the mid-range mountain ranges the proportion would be 56%. These differences are even more marked at higher levels of warming.</p>
<p>However, it should be remembered that while the level of snow cover is critical to ensuring resorts’ long-term socio-economic viability, other criteria are just as fundamental, such as the state of the ski lift network, promotion/marketing methods, or accommodation capacity and its attractiveness. It is therefore not possible to draw any direct conclusions from the figures for the risk of low snowfall as to the proportion or number of resorts likely to cease skiing.</p>
<h2>The carbon footprint of snow production</h2>
<p>What’s more, snow production is not carbon-neutral, so it’s important to bear this in mind before setting this technique up as the ultimate answer to reducing snow cover.</p>
<p>We have therefore also calculated the water requirements, production and energy demand involved, and the carbon footprint of the electricity used to produce snow. Over the reference period (1961-1990), the total quantity of snow produced on the slopes covered by the installations represents 13% of the total precipitation that falls annually on these same slopes. Assuming that 50% of the slopes are covered by snowmaking facilities, the total volume should increase by between 8% and 25%, depending on the country, for a warming of +2°C, and even more for a more marked warming.</p>
<p>This demand also tends to stagger over time, with lower production in November due to fewer cold spells favourable to production at the start of winter. It is therefore likely that the services provided by snow production will not be the same as in the past, which could make snow cover even more fragile over the high season.</p>
<p>In any case, the total volume of water that could be needed remains moderate, and a large part of this water is returned to the rivers as it melts. This is not to say complications can’t occur at a local scale further down the line, depending on how the water is drawn and of the makeup of affected ecosystems.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Snowman in Pralognan (Savoie, France)." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560807/original/file-20231121-19-zrwd0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560807/original/file-20231121-19-zrwd0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560807/original/file-20231121-19-zrwd0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560807/original/file-20231121-19-zrwd0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560807/original/file-20231121-19-zrwd0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560807/original/file-20231121-19-zrwd0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560807/original/file-20231121-19-zrwd0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Snow cannon in Pralognan (Savoie, France).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lucas Berard Chenu</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Similarly, at around 80 kt eq CO<sub>2</sub>, the carbon footprint of the electricity used to produce snow remains limited, even if it varies greatly depending on countries’ energy mix.</p>
<h2>Skiers’ transport and accommodation still emit a lot of CO₂</h2>
<p>Finally, it is impossible to dissociate snow production from the <a href="https://www.ski-planet.com/fr/actualites-ski/479/empreinte-carbone-pour-1-journee-de-ski.html">tourism activity</a> that calls for it. In reality, it is responsible for only a fraction of the carbon footprint of a winter sports tourist destination, with skiers’ transport and accommodation proving most polluting. Carbon emissions could nevertheless rise as people travel further and further afield to find snow.</p>
<p>Would the economic benefits be worth it? Our study calls on the tourism sector to craft a strategy based on climate adaptation and decarbonisation as resorts look to the future.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Real estate project poster in Valmorel, Panorama de La Plagne" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560809/original/file-20231121-19-i3u1c5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560809/original/file-20231121-19-i3u1c5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=164&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560809/original/file-20231121-19-i3u1c5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=164&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560809/original/file-20231121-19-i3u1c5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=164&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560809/original/file-20231121-19-i3u1c5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=207&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560809/original/file-20231121-19-i3u1c5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=207&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560809/original/file-20231121-19-i3u1c5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=207&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Real estate project poster in Valmorel, Panorama de La Plagne.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lucas Berard-Chenu</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218731/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The research laboratory to which Hugues François belongs (INRAE, Lyon Grenoble Center, LESSEM) has received funding from various public and private organizations for its research projects</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>The Météo-France department (DCSC) for which Raphaëlle Samacoïts works has received funding from various public and private organizations for its research projects.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>The research laboratory to which Samuel Morin belongs (CNRM, Météo-France - CNRS) has received funding from various public and private organizations for its research projects.</span></em></p>Skiing is central to the economy of many mountain regions across Europe. How are they coping with climate change and what room for adaptation do they have?Hugues François, Ingénieur de recherche tourisme et système d'information, InraeRaphaëlle Samacoïts, Ingénieur Climatologie et services climatiques, Météo-FranceSamuel Morin, Chercheur et directeur du Centre national de recherches météorologiques (Météo-France - CNRS), Météo FranceLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2142482023-09-26T23:45:04Z2023-09-26T23:45:04ZRuapehu has had a great ski season – but we need to reimagine the future of NZ’s iconic volcano<p>As a former competitive snowboarder and instructor, and later a <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9780230305571">researcher of snow sports</a>, I’ve been lucky to enjoy ski resorts around the world. But nothing compares to Mount Ruapehu on a good day.</p>
<p>Holidaying with my family last week, we fell in love with the natural terrain of both the Whakapapa and Tūroa fields – the latter enjoying the biggest snow base in the world at the time.</p>
<p>We were not alone. A <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/whanganui-chronicle/news/snow-records-fall-on-mt-ruapehu-best-season-in-years/KP6KXKI4OZDAHGV72QHSXHWGRI/">strong winter season</a> has seen many thousands making the most of the great conditions: 5,614 guests on Whakapapa’s busiest day of July 15, and 3,500 at Tūroa on July 28.</p>
<p>But this apparently positive picture makes it easy to overlook the fact that both ski fields on the North Island volcano have faced huge economic uncertainty over the past year. And one great season does not necessarily mean long-term recovery.</p>
<h2>Sustainability amid uncertainty</h2>
<p>After difficult pandemic years and a poor 2022 snow season, Ruapehu Alpine Lifts (RAL), which operates both Tūroa and Whakapapa, went into receivership. Ski resorts everywhere are <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13683500.2017.1410110?src=recsys">facing an uncertain future</a>, with climate change making seasons hard to predict.</p>
<p>After months of <a href="https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/new-zealand/2023/06/mt-ruapehu-ski-fields-face-worst-case-scenario-after-controversial-vote.html">uncertainty and debate</a> about its future, the government eventually offered a <a href="https://www.saminfo.com/news/sam-headline-news/10350-new-zealand-s-central-government-loans-5-million-to-bail-out-ski-season">NZ$5 million lifeline</a> for the 2023 winter season. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ruapehus-slippery-slopes-the-uncertain-future-of-snow-sports-in-a-climate-emergency-193004">Ruapehu's slippery slopes: the uncertain future of snow sports in a climate emergency</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Despite various longer-term rescue proposals, including a (now dropped) <a href="https://www.teaonews.co.nz/2023/09/07/ngati-tuwharetoa-drops-bid-for-ruapehu-alpine-lifts-reserves-stance-under-its-treaty-claim-settlement/">buyout bid by Ngāti Tūwharetoa</a> (one of several iwi shareholders), the future of skiing and snowboarding on Mt Ruapehu remains uncertain.</p>
<p>Understandably, this is causing anxiety among those whose livelihoods – and favourite sporting and leisure pursuits – are at risk. Beyond those immediate concerns, however, lies the place of the maunga (mountain) itself in the historical and cultural fabric of Aotearoa New Zealand.</p>
<h2>Cultural and geological significance</h2>
<p>Ruapehu is much more than a place for leisure tourism. Located in the heart of the 80,000-hectare Tongariro National Park, one of three world heritage sites in New Zealand, it is a unique and special place. </p>
<p>In fact, Tongariro has <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-go/central-north-island/places/tongariro-national-park/about-tongariro-national-park/world-heritage-site/">dual world heritage status</a> for its important Māori cultural and spiritual associations, as well as its distinctive volcanic features.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-detects-pre-eruption-warning-signals-at-whakaari-white-island-and-other-active-volcanoes-181090">New research detects pre-eruption warning signals at Whakaari White Island and other active volcanoes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Ruapehu is particularly significant to Māori, being part of the <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/kahu/the-battle-of-the-mountains-the-love-story-that-shaped-our-lands/ODTCQWVB77NBW6JOVOHQFOLXDM/">origin story</a> of te Ika-a-Māui (the North Island). And the ski fields are bound up in the unresolved Treaty of Waitangi <a href="https://www.newsroom.co.nz/give-mountain-a-chance-to-recover-ruapehu-iwi">claim to Tongariro National Park</a>.</p>
<p>The scale of that claim, which involves cultural redress more than the return of land, puts the future of the ski fields in <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ilj3&div=9&id=&page=">a much wider perspective</a>. Added to that is the question of environmental sustainability, with ski resorts increasingly <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-023-01770-w">reliant on snow-making</a> for their survival. </p>
<p>Behind the human activity, of course, sits Ruapehu’s great geological significance. As my nine-year-old son proudly explained upon arrival, it is a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00288306.2021.1909080">stratovolcano</a> (also called a composite cone volcano), built up by successive layers of andesite lava and ash deposits.</p>
<p>Rising impressively from the ancient native forest on one side and the beautiful tussock on the other, the maunga is a striking presence in the landscape. Light and clouds constantly change its appearance as they dance off its jagged peaks.</p>
<p>Ruapehu is also New Zealand’s <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00288306.2020.1824999">largest active volcano</a>. There are frequent minor eruptions and more significant events every 20 to 30 years. This makes it an unusual skiing experience, to say the least, with a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10346-009-0180-5">lahar alarm and warning system</a> in place, and signs everywhere reminding skiers and snowboarders of the lively nature of this powerful mountain.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/rising-costs-of-climate-change-threaten-to-make-skiing-a-less-diverse-even-more-exclusive-sport-177027">Rising costs of climate change threaten to make skiing a less diverse, even more exclusive sport</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The people’s mountain</h2>
<p>Over my many years researching snow sport cultures around the world, I’ve witnessed their <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1743043052000316632">unique social dynamics</a>. Unlike many sports that separate people based on gender, ability and age, the slopes offer a space for shared experiences. And they can be a wonderful place for families.</p>
<p>But skiing and snowboarding have long been <a href="https://kansaspress.ku.edu/9780700613410/">highly privileged activities</a>. Often they are available only to those with the free time and disposable income. Travel, accommodation, lift tickets and equipment are expensive. </p>
<p>Perhaps unsurprisingly, the clientele of ski resorts in New Zealand and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3640297">around the world</a> have been described as “<a href="https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/historyofskiing/2022/05/03/white-as-snow-an-examination-of-race-within-skiing/">white as the snow</a>”.</p>
<p>And yet I am struck by the diversity on Ruapehu. At $84 for an adult mid-week day pass, and $54 for a child day pass, it’s much more accessible than the more expensive South Island experience ($160 for an adult day pass at the Remarkables or Cardrona).</p>
<p>RAL also offers heavily discounted or free season passes and day passes to local iwi, schools, defence force staff and emergency services, among other groups.
In contrast to the often international <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369183X.2016.1190638">staff of most ski resorts</a>, RAL workers are predominantly local, with 53% identifying as New Zealand European and 16% Māori.</p>
<h2>Reimagining Ruapehu</h2>
<p>While more can be done to ensure ski resorts are <a href="https://www.afar.com/magazine/these-groups-are-making-skiing-more-inclusive-accessible">more inclusive and accessible</a> for all, the various innovations by RAL to respond to the pandemic, seasonal disruption and ongoing economic uncertainty are a good start.</p>
<p>But its great cultural, social and geological significance makes Ruapehu a taonga (treasure) for all New Zealanders. Personally, I hope to enjoy riding with my family on Ruapehu for many years to come, but the issue is bigger than that.</p>
<p>With or without skiing, Ruapehu offers New Zealanders an opportunity to know mountain places as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09669580408667248">culturally significant landscapes</a>, to learn about their histories and to reimagine their collective futures.</p>
<p>There is untapped potential in using the existing resort facilities as educational spaces for future generations to learn about the cultural and geographical significance of this special place. </p>
<p>And while relationships with the mountain (and views on its future) will vary based on people’s different cultural, social and economic perspectives, acknowledging Ruapehu’s place in the Māori experience of <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/mountain-research-and-development/volume-42/issue-4/mrd.2022.00016/Rethinking-the-Role-of-Indigenous-Knowledge-in-Sustainable-Mountain-Development/10.1659/mrd.2022.00016.full">colonisation and dispossession</a> must be central too.</p>
<p>As the economic modelling continues, and various parties seek financial sustainability for the ski fields, it’s important we don’t lose sight of this bigger picture of a remarkable maunga in the heart of te Ika-a-Māui.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214248/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Holly Thorpe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>This winter’s bumper snowfall notwithstanding, the future of Ruapehu’s famous ski fields is highly uncertain. But the mountain itself will remain important in other ways.Holly Thorpe, Professor in Sociology of Sport and Gender, University of WaikatoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2024822023-04-16T12:19:07Z2023-04-16T12:19:07ZTo change for the better, Canadian sport needs leadership from the bottom up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520063/original/file-20230410-7479-agkvcs.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=84%2C9%2C6145%2C4240&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Efforts are underway to clean up sport in Canada, but if sporting bodies and athletes want to prevent abuse from occurring, we must re-engineer the structures, policies and practices that lead to abuse in the first place.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Frank Gunn</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2023/jan/27/abuse-canada-sport-inquiry-hockey-gymnastics-soccer">Canadian sport</a> has been rocked by a series of scandals in recent years. National sporting bodies that govern <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/bobsleigh-canada-skeleton-athlete-safety-racial-abuse-1.6383602">bobsleigh and skeleton</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/winter/alpine-skiing/sexual-assault-victims-suing-alpine-canada-1.4942675">alpine skiing</a>, <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/former-members-of-canada-s-national-water-polo-team-have-filed-a-5-5m-lawsuit-against-the-federation-alleging-abuse-1.6128677">water polo</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/summer/boxing/boxing-canada-resignation-investigation-1.6440793">boxing</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/gymnastics-canada-resignation-moss-1.6731050">gymnastics</a>, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-national-synchronized-swimming-program-overhauls-its-safety-policies/">artistic swimming</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/canada-soccer-women-pay-equity-parliament-1.6773010#:%7E:text=The%20governing%20body%20says%20the,competing%20and%20representing%20our%20country.%22">soccer</a>, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-hockey-canada-says-it-paid-out-76-million-worth-of-settlements-with/">hockey</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/rugby/rugby-sevens-women-let-down-rugby-canada-bullying-harrassment-policy-1.6005901">rugby</a> and <a href="https://www.sportsnet.ca/olympics/article/report-reveals-toxic-culture-within-rowing-canadas-high-performance-program/">rowing</a> have all faced major criticism for abuse, neglect and discrimination.</p>
<p>University sport teams have also faced their share of scandals including <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/4406312/harassment-lawsuit-university-lethbridge-hockey-pronghorns/">Lethbridge</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/st-fx-women-s-basketball-coach-suspended-1.5013056">St. Francis Xavier</a>, <a href="https://windsor.ctvnews.ca/lancer-hockey-coach-faces-allegations-of-verbal-abuse-from-players-1.4351228">Windsor</a>, <a href="https://rowingcanada.org/uploads/2021/04/Full-Written-Decision-with-Reasons-on-Complaints-Against-Barney-Williams.pdf">Victoria</a> and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/former-u-of-g-track-coach-accused-of-harassment-sexual-harassment-athletics-canada-says-1.5449370">Guelph</a>. And <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/amateur-sport-abuse-local-clubs-1.5006510">amateur clubs</a> <a href="https://macleans.ca/longforms/gymnastics-abuse-scandal-canada/">aren’t immune</a> either.</p>
<p>Athletes often recount how, at the very least, sport built their character and at the very most, saved their lives. But currently, Canadian sport itself needs rebuilding.</p>
<h2>Imbalance of power</h2>
<p><a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9239000/sport-abuse-women-study-hockey-canada/">Efforts are underway</a> to clean up sport in Canada, but if sporting bodies and athletes want to prevent abuse from occurring, we must re-engineer the structures, policies and practices that lead to abuse in the first place.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-clean-up-hockey-canada-financial-transparency-is-a-must-192705">To clean up Hockey Canada, financial transparency is a must</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black bobsleigh on the ice with a red maple leaf and the word Canada on it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Several Canadian sporting bodies have been rocked by a series of scandals in recent years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Oksana Dzadan)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the core of abuse is an <a href="https://calgaryjournal.ca/2018/03/06/sexual-abuse-in-sports-calgary-professor-explains-power-dynamics-between-elite-athletes-and-those-in-power-2/">imbalance of power</a> where one person, group or body controls all the resources, decision-making and information. </p>
<p>Total control can only be achieved through a lack of accountability, and examples exist at all levels in Canada:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Hockey Canada lacked a system of accountability to members, professional principles, or an overarching governing body. This led to their board and CEO controlling the money, information and decision-making and quickly devolved into <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/hockey-canada-funding-sex-assault-1.6795229">corruption, and protectionism</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>The same lack of accountability exists at university level sport which can lead to a toxic mix of <a href="https://doi.org/10.15763/issn.2376-5267.2020.1.8.34-54">intergroup dynamics and groupthink</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>At the club level, volunteer burnout and resource scarcity causes a gap in oversight, accountability and transparency and leads to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.03.001">an environment that tolerates or even rewards abuse</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>A team without strong <a href="https://athletescan.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/atheletescan_ar_guide_book_vf.pdf">athlete representation</a>, transparent and independent avenues for feedback, or powerful coaches or sport leaders can foster <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.05.007">susceptible followers</a> who soon become colluders, conformers or abusers.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Most of the abuse issues in Canadian sport stem from <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/winter/canadian-bobsleigh-skeleton-athletes-calls-to-sports-minister-st-onge-1.6549392">failures of leadership</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L6EGvl8-nA4">governance</a>, and most of the change has been driven by athlete <a href="https://www.gymnasts4changecanada.com/">movements</a> and <a href="https://athletescan.ca/">associations</a>, <a href="https://www.tsn.ca/rick-westhead-1.88451">journalists</a>, <a href="https://www.thesheldonkennedyshow.com/podcast/episode-2/">academics</a> and <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/5179352/whitecaps-fan-groups-plan-walkout-abuse-allegations/">fans</a>. The most productive and promising source of positive change in sport continues to come from the bottom up.</p>
<h2>Change from the bottom up</h2>
<p>A great deal of change has been sparked by this bottom-up movement including a new <a href="https://sportintegritycommissioner.ca/files/UCCMS-v6.0-20220531.pdf">Universal Code of Conduct</a>, an independent <a href="https://sportintegritycommissioner.ca/">Office of the Sport Integrity Commissioner</a> and a more trauma-informed <a href="https://sportintegritycommissioner.ca/osic-processes">complaint process</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cces.ca/true-sport">True Sport</a> is a bottom-up initiative by the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport designed to help Canadians reclaim the promise of sport. Canadian academics have <a href="https://abuse-free-sport.ca/symposium">led the way</a> in understanding abuse problems in sport. Yet, sport in Canada is currently caught in a <a href="https://www.aicd.com.au/corporate-governance-sectors/types/sports/morals-or-medals-governance-drugs-and-sport.html">hierarchical system</a> that fosters power imbalance and thus perpetuates the abuse at all levels.</p>
<p><a href="https://sportandsociety.com/journal/awards">Our research</a> at Royal Roads University highlights the need for <a href="https://viurrspace.ca/bitstream/handle/10613/25708/WatchamRoy_royalroads_1313O_10816.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">accountability frameworks</a>, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/2152-7857/CGP/v12i02/81-104">power-balanced organizational structures</a> and processes, and <a href="https://viurrspace.ca/handle/10613/26013">educational programming</a> for all sport participants. </p>
<p>While removing bad apples from the barrel is necessary, we must then refine the barrel itself. Every sport participant has the power to build a safe, quality, fun and exciting sport system in Canada.</p>
<p>Sport leaders can start by learning from sport itself. At its heart, sport is a collaborative endeavour for the mutual benefit of all. The word compete is <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/compete">derived from the Latin <em>competere</em></a> which means strive together. </p>
<p>Sport can build great people, communities and nations. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2U7ZgCMLjHc">Nelson Mandela</a> described sport as a tool against racism:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y1-7w-bJCtY">Sport has the power to change the world</a>. It has the power to inspire. It has the power to unite people in a way that little else does… It laughs in the face of all types of discrimination.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The <a href="https://invictusgamesfoundation.org/">Invictus Games</a> were founded upon this principle of recovering from violence, rebuilding trust and regenerating hope with fellow athletes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A hockey player in a Canada shirt" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Every sport participant has the power to build a safe, quality, fun and exciting sport system in Canada.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jeff McIntos</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Inclusive environment</h2>
<p>Likewise, sport leaders at all levels can lean on these principles of sport to shape the sport environment in ways that balance power and ensure better experiences for all sport participants with the following strategies:</p>
<p>Language — State the purpose of sport verbally, visually, and structurally:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>A sport organization should be open to <a href="https://youtu.be/2kvlJiFbSh8?list=PL_F04p4cdLDlXQ2Zgq07f">all abilities</a> and for the sake of individual and community development.</p></li>
<li><p>Be guided by the values of equity, friendship, and integrity and reflect regularly on whether we are living these values fully.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://youtu.be/CXvHVQcWz6k?list=PL_F04p4cdLDlXQ2Zgq07focUzst5HJI78&t=3790">Frame challenges as opportunities to make the team, club or system better</a> just as we do on the field or court.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Practice — Function in a way that honours everyone:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>There are multiple ways to participate in our sport.</p></li>
<li><p>The goal is for every sport participant to have an excellent experience.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Structures — Build an environment that promotes equity:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The CEO, head coach, or club manager, like a team captain, is a coordinator of activities and people — not the boss.</p></li>
<li><p>The <a href="https://youtu.be/3Z1H5kaUv34?list=PL_F04p4cdLDlXQ2Zgq07focUz">board’s role, like a coach</a>, is to set, support and monitor the standards of practice for the organization, not to run the race.</p></li>
<li><p>Forums, surveys and communication channels are pathways to question and learn together as a whole organization.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>We know from research on <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2022.823488">psychological safety</a> that a safe environment is crucial to excellent sport experiences. Psychological safety hinges on leadership and the ability to <a href="https://youtu.be/9WYsazDCwDo?t=6">foster an environment</a> where participants feel they belong and are safe to contribute, express ideas, learn, experiment and grow individually and collectively.</p>
<p>Cultural integrity, values alignment, or walking the talk of human and social development builds trust in the leaders and environment and gives people the safety and confidence to truly excel. </p>
<p>Canadians can reclaim sport by prioritizing individual and community development over dominance and control. This can be done at any level through our words, actions and structures. </p>
<p>By creating sport environments that actively welcome people, invite contribution, see failure and mistakes as learning opportunities, and provide avenues and opportunities to challenge the system as a whole, we will be true sport leaders.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202482/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Walinga receives funding from Royal Roads University, SSHRC, SDRCC and CAC.</span></em></p>Athletes often recount how, at the very least, sport built their character and at the very most, saved their lives. But currently, Canadian sport itself needs rebuilding.Jennifer Walinga, Professor, Communication and Culture, Royal Roads UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1959152022-12-28T09:16:07Z2022-12-28T09:16:07ZSkiing in the Alps faces a bleak future thanks to climate change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500737/original/file-20221213-16226-6fewxj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dmitrijs Bindemanis / shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Skiing was introduced into the Alps comparatively late in the 1880s, with the <a href="https://www.newlyswissed.com/ski-lift-nostalgia/">first ski-lift</a> being developed in the Swiss resort of Davos in the winter of 1934. The industrial revolution was two centuries old by that point, but the world climate was still largely pre-industrial.</p>
<p>With no reason to worry about the weather, tourism took off. Thomas Cook had begun offering opportunities for the British to ski in the first decade of the 20th century and Alpine skiing became further popularised with its introduction into the <a href="https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/garmisch-partenkirchen-1936">1936 Winter Olympics</a> leading to a big growth in skiing infrastructure. All of which depended on a regular and predictable winter season with fresh snow replenishing those ski runs. Ski resorts were able to promise their visitors smooth surfaces, safe upward transport and machines on duty to reposition snow as and when required.</p>
<p>But finding cold and snow has proved harder in recent years. The small French village of Saint-Firmin recently <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/french-ski-resort-dismantled-ski-lift-scn/index.html">removed its ski-lift</a> (which dated back to 1964) because there has simply been a lack of snow for over a decade. This year, seven of eight early-season World Cup skiing events have been <a href="https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/snow-sports/fis-alpine-skiing-world-cup-climate-change-canceled/">cancelled</a> due to another very warm summer in the Alps, when record-breaking temperatures reminded us that high-altitude environments are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jul/31/heatwaves-put-classic-alpine-hiking-routes-off-limits">not immune to excessive heat</a>.</p>
<p>The omens are not good. Average temperatures have already risen by 2°C since pre-industrial times, roughly <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/signals/signals-2010/alps">double the global average</a>. Since ice and snow is more reflective than the underlying rock and soil, with less of it on the ground more heat is absorbed and not radiated away from land. Warmer ground in turn makes it harder for snow to gather and remain frozen, and so on. </p>
<p>2022 was a particularly <a href="https://planetski.eu/2022/10/02/full-extent-of-summer-swiss-glacier-melt-revealed/">terrible year</a> for Swiss glaciers with excessive melting and entire glaciers disappearing. Windblown Saharan sand even shrouded alpine snow in mid-March, turning it an <a href="https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/alps-covered-sand-huge-sahara-26480111">eerie Mars-like orange</a> and therefore causing it to absorb even more heat. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1503743131048628228"}"></div></p>
<p>Long-term forecasting suggests that the Alps overall could be <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/almost-all-glaciers-in-the-alps-could-disappear-by-2100-study/a-48266333#:%7E:text=%2522In%2520this%2520pessimistic%2520case%252C%2520the,university%2520and%2520study%2520co%252Dauthor.">glacier-free every summer by 2100</a>, with only high-altitude patches of snow and ice remaining. To avoid that scenario, the world would have to reduce emissions markedly in the intervening period. Without snow, skiing and other winter activities simply can’t happen.</p>
<h2>Experiment and innovate</h2>
<p>Bearing all that in mind, Alpine countries have been forced to experiment and innovate. In Switzerland, glaciers such as the <a href="https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2022/01/05/glacier-blankets-in-switzerland-highlight-global-disparities-in-fighting-climate-change/">Rhone glacier</a> have been blanketed with permeable fabrics to slow melting. But these carry their own consequences in terms of material degradation and local pollution. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1547158920493502464"}"></div></p>
<p>Ski resorts are not resting on their seasonal laurels. In resort villages across the Alps, there is increasing interest in how to develop a <a href="https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/04/17/morzine-can-this-green-resort-stop-the-slow-death-of-the-ski-industry">carbon-neutral tourist industry</a> that places far less emphasis on plane and car travel. With a shorter skiing season, some resorts are looking to promote alternatives such as winter walking holidays while others warn that skiing and snowboarding will become increasingly the preserve of the <a href="https://www.fastcompany.com/90723619/climate-change-will-make-skiing-an-even-more-exclusive-less-diverse-sport">rich and privileged</a> as resorts are forced to invest in more <a href="https://theconversation.com/olympic-skiers-and-snowboarders-are-competing-on-100-fake-snow-the-science-of-how-its-made-and-how-it-affects-performance-176339">artificial snow</a> production and snow-preservation methods. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500740/original/file-20221213-18915-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Machine pumps out snowy mist on skyline" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500740/original/file-20221213-18915-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500740/original/file-20221213-18915-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500740/original/file-20221213-18915-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500740/original/file-20221213-18915-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500740/original/file-20221213-18915-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500740/original/file-20221213-18915-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500740/original/file-20221213-18915-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A ‘snow cannon’ pumps out water that will fall as artificial snow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Natalia Mikhaylina / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Winter activities are crucial to Europe’s mountainous countries and the <a href="https://apnews.com/article/europe-middle-east-business-france-switzerland-19067a12f1ba6e5c5c965be0cf15f5ff">Alpine Convention</a> (which entered into force in 1995) was an attempt by signatories including Austria, France, Germany, and tiny Monaco to co-ordinate approaches to resources, transport, and tourism. But record-breaking temperatures and glacial retreat does create tensions, as water shortages affect capacity to generate hydroelectric power and disrupts water supply for downstream users across the region. Retreating snow and ice could in the future become the object of discord as Alpine neighbours come to terms with the idea that there is no longer a bountiful seasonal cycle of fresh and frozen water.</p>
<p>The outlook is <a href="https://modernsciences.org/glaciers-in-the-alps-are-melting-faster-than-ever-and-2022-was-their-worst-summer-yet/">bleak</a> for skiing and winter sports in the European Alps. According to Swiss reports, <a href="https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/artificial-snow-saves-olympics-and-alpine-ski-resorts/47352882#:%7E:text=During%2520the%2520winter%2520of%25202020,across%2520a%2520relatively%2520smaller%2520area.">50% of the country’s ski slopes</a> were covered in artificial snow for the 2020-21 season, which is formed by blasting tiny droplets of water into the air. This is very water- and energy-intensive. While there are now more energy efficient approaches to making snow, the process will always require lots of water and temperatures low enough for the mist to freeze and turn to snow. </p>
<p>Saving the winter economy in alpine resorts will prove very challenging. Skiing won’t disappear overnight but it will find itself operating in a Europe where winter as we know it appears to be disappearing.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 10,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195915/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Klaus Dodds does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Alps are warming at twice the global rate.Klaus Dodds, Professor of Geopolitics, Royal Holloway University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1930042022-10-25T18:11:23Z2022-10-25T18:11:23ZRuapehu’s slippery slopes: the uncertain future of snow sports in a climate emergency<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491504/original/file-20221024-356-sfuoky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C15%2C5168%2C3399&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With New Zealand’s two major North Island ski fields in financial trouble, the combined impact of COVID-19 on national and international tourism and this year’s very poor snow season has hit hard. But this may be only a sign of things to come as climate change affects snow sports globally.</p>
<p>Ruapehu Alpine Lifts (RAL), which runs the Turoa and Whakapapa ski fields, has debts of NZ$40 million and has gone into <a href="https://www.1news.co.nz/2022/10/11/mt-ruapehu-ski-fields-enter-voluntary-administration/">voluntary administration</a>. Despite calls for government support, Minister of Tourism and Economic and Regional Development Stuart Nash has said there will be no more funding beyond the $15 million in loans already provided since 2018.</p>
<p>For now, then, the future of snow sports on the slopes of Mt Ruapehu remains uncertain, directly and indirectly affecting many businesses and livelihoods. But RAL is not the first ski company to struggle under increasingly unpredictable winters. </p>
<p>Shorter or less predictable ski seasons and warmer temperatures are already <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/dec/09/seduced-abandoned-tourism-and-climate-change-the-alps">causing closures</a> elsewhere. Some foreign ski fields are pivoting to cater for <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09669582.2022.2112204">summer recreational tourism</a> such as mountain biking and hiking.</p>
<p>Some ski resorts in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09669582.2019.1684932?src=recsys">North America</a>, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13683500.2019.1608919">Europe</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3357717/">Australia</a> are now facing uncertain futures. One <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0095069622000195?casa_token=LFT5TJlfzQgAAAAA:gpnUkQmlWPFrNG9GpF9om8anh5G4fWU9cy6Hbt3qo-r5IvhvZ2Z1Twatvd4Mz8uXrNNcdun5hg">US study</a> found revenues could fall 40-60% (on average) by 2080. The research is clearly showing the ways we currently practise and consume snow sports are unsustainable.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1473182464248057856"}"></div></p>
<h2>No business like snow business</h2>
<p>Scientists from the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) <a href="https://niwa.co.nz/news-and-publications/news/new-zealand-snow-areas-confident-they-will-adapt-to-any-risks-from-climate-change">recently modelled</a> the potential impact of climate change on snow levels in New Zealand. Their report showed an average gradual decrease in snow at nearly all elevations as the century progresses. </p>
<p>While all ski areas will experience this, the effects will vary depending on their location and elevation. Under the warmer climate change predictions, the study showed snow depths between 83% and 45% of current maximums at lower elevation sites by 2040. </p>
<p>By 2090, this will be further reduced (on average) to approximately 48% to 9% of current maximum snow depths. According to NIWA snow and ice scientist Dr Jordy Hendrikz: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>From these results we expect to see a gradual change in snow levels but […] we should be able to continue to make snow, even under a more extreme climate scenario, right out to the 2090s. </p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/beijing-2022-environmental-cost-of-worlds-first-winter-olympics-without-natural-snow-expert-q-a-176717">Beijing 2022: environmental cost of world's first Winter Olympics without natural snow – expert Q+A</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The report was considered good news for New Zealand snow areas, which are <a href="https://niwa.co.nz/news-and-publications/news/new-zealand-snow-areas-confident-they-will-adapt-to-any-risks-from-climate-change">reportedly</a> “confident they will adapt to any risks from climate change”. But is a future for ski fields based mostly on making artificial snow really good news?</p>
<p>While some may see innovations in snow-making technologies as future-proofing the ski industry, resorts becoming highly dependent on their capacity to make artificial snow raises serious <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09669582.2013.804830?src=recsys">ethical and environmental</a> concerns. The process uses huge amounts of water and chemical and biological additives, with ramifications for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S143383190470061X">mountain ecosystems</a> and potentially <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969710000112?casa_token=i0Yp9CSNypkAAAAA:lLwMlabJByAuxaPF2BebtztntUS8WO_fZf41ialBJBI74kGDyJCjcUiMVEiy7W6wVtKWUWlvMg">human health</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1580083151854276613"}"></div></p>
<h2>Greening the snow?</h2>
<p>This presents a dilemma. For those privileged enough to visit <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Ski-Style-Culture-Rockies-CultureAmerica/dp/0700613412">often expensive ski resorts</a>, the pristine mountain environment is <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230305571_9">central to the experience</a>. Yet ski resorts are far from <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Making-Meaning-Out-Mountains-Political/dp/0774821973">environmentally friendly</a>. </p>
<p>With thousands of visitors every day, they have enormous <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14775085.2017.1313706?src=recsys">carbon footprints</a> when various factors are accounted for: travel to and from ski fields (planes, 4WD vehicles, buses), the energy demands of lifts and facilities, <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1890/08-0719.1?casa_token=nJHfvBe_eKoAAAAA%3AU7QOMzB-kYb7c6yGKRuHs607NTKGF2nygMn52lFPfGaGIExuSnRMJLrLnj1K3bVqTOmyZiw5wiPjzKzC">snow grooming</a> and machinery maintenance. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sportswashing-how-mining-and-energy-companies-sponsor-your-favourite-sports-to-help-clean-up-their-image-173589">Sportswashing: how mining and energy companies sponsor your favourite sports to help clean up their image</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It’s true that over the past decade there have been attempts to <a href="https://saveoursnow.com/green-resorts/">green the snow industry</a>. Ski resorts have invested in <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/11/4/494">sustainability planning</a> and adaption strategies, from recycling food waste to using wind turbines and solar energy. Some clothing and equipment companies are also working to produce <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/larryolmsted/2020/12/16/skiing-and-snowboarding-go-greenuphill-or-downhill-new-eco-friendly-gear/?sh=17caa14f5159">more sustainable and eco-friendly products</a>.</p>
<p>Despite signs of change, however, there are questions about whether a form of greenwashing is taking place in the snow sports industry, as it has across the <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Greenwashing-Sport/Miller/p/book/9781138962750">sports sector</a> in general, where many organisations have made superficial claims of environmentalism. Research has shown ski resorts can vary widely in their communication of sustainability efforts versus their actual levels of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1441352312000472">environmentally responsible action</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/Cggd2BCLMSg","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>From pleasure to politics</h2>
<p>Research also suggests that committed lifestyle sports participants like skiers, snowboarders and surfers can develop close relationships with the natural environment that <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14775080902965223?casa_token=sHrvROZ_Aq8AAAAA%3ARTjPXKVKupyBgnqRMshuoCqpDrSMTj6i73GpX5dRzfw8bubflWj9rLHI3FaOzYCsyi5H1SjDMMHILQ">encourage more environmentally sustainable practices</a>.</p>
<p>For example, Protect Our Winters (<a href="https://protectourwinters.org/pow-international/">POW</a>) is an international non-profit organisation (with a <a href="https://protectourwinters.nz/">New Zealand chapter</a>) where skiers, snowboarders, hikers, climbers and mountain bikers work with scientists, policymakers and politicians to advocate for greater protection of mountains. </p>
<p>As some scholars have observed, however, there is a degree of <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24707683">ecological irony</a> in an industry and its participants claiming to be environmentally conscious while maintaining highly mobile and consumerist lifestyles.</p>
<p>There are other strands of resistance, too. In Aotearoa New Zealand and around the world, mountain ownership and management have long been integral to Indigenous <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/ilj3&id=117&collection=journals&index=">struggles for self-determination</a>. Local communities have recently <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jun/19/indigenous-native-american-ski-resort-sewage-water-arizona?CMP=share_btn_tw">challenged expansion plans</a> by ski resorts for both cultural and environmental reasons.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/0XNBqe446uY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">First Nations, conservationists and backcountry skiers have been fighting the proposed Jumbo Glacier Resort in British Columbia for decades.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many ski resorts have been built on <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1468797616685643?casa_token=3kZVEqIX-IYAAAAA%3AlqwLSYCRf58q1aXQfx6xxPfNoqI6SEZeLX5g8GQpk6MlNhp-7LSmQ2akgCtZBvO0JcChr_RDwW456w">stolen land</a>. They still represent the <a href="https://journal.equinoxpub.com/JSRNC/article/view/4253">privilege and wealth of settler societies</a>. Only a few <a href="https://denverite.com/2021/11/12/winter-park-resort-acknowledges-it-operates-on-ancestral-indigenous-land/">acknowledge</a> the historical and contemporary politics of ski resort land use.</p>
<p>Any efforts to develop a sustainable ski industry, then, will have to include conserving the environmental integrity and cultural diversity <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/mountain-research-and-development/volume-26/issue-4/0276-4741_2006_26_304_SMTAT_2.0.CO_2/Sacred-Mountains-Themes-and-Teachings/10.1659/0276-4741(2006)26%5B304:SMTAT%5D2.0.CO;2.full">associated with the mountains</a> themselves. But the fact remains that climate change means the future is bleak for the snow sports industry.</p>
<p>While the full effects will be felt by some regions, resorts and communities more than others, the policy questions raised by the troubles at RAL and Ruapehu’s iconic ski fields are urgent: what is the future of snow sports, and what are the ethics of pursuing such activities in a climate emergency?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193004/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Holly Thorpe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The financial troubles at New Zealand’s most famous North Island ski fields are a warning of what lies ahead for many ski resorts – and snow sports in general.Holly Thorpe, Professor in Sociology of Sport and Gender, University of WaikatoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1906672022-09-25T20:03:46Z2022-09-25T20:03:46ZBackcountry visitors are leaving poo piles in the Australian Alps – and it’s a problem<p>Spring has arrived in Australia’s Snowy Mountains. The snow is starting to melt. Wildflowers are emerging in a variety of colours: blues, yellows, whites … hang on. Those aren’t white flowers. They’re scrunched up bits of toilet paper left behind by skiers, boarders and snow-shoers.</p>
<p>When you think of backcountry snow adventures, you think of pristine wilderness. But unfortunately, there’s a problem: what to do with your poo. Many backcountry adventurers just squat, drop and don’t stop. The result, as we saw ourselves on an overnight ski trip, is a surprisingly large amount of poo and toilet paper. It’s <a href="https://themountainjournal.com/2016/06/05/lets-talk-about-poo">become a bigger problem</a> in recent years, as backcountry trips have boomed in places like the Main Range section of the Snowy Mountains.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/YNUSDDMTKCR7KJEZQEDS/full?target=10.1080/14486563.2022.2105409">new research</a> explores this issue to find out how to better protect these wild areas. We surveyed backcountry visitors to Kosciuszko National Park in New South Wales and found a minority of visitors were carrying out their waste from overnight trips, as recommended. To combat the alpine poo scourge, we recommend building more toilets in strategic locations, making their location readily known, and giving out poo transport bags at entry points and gear shops. </p>
<p>If you’re sceptical, take heart – it wasn’t so long ago many people believed dog owners would never agree to scoop up their pet’s poo and bin it. But for the most part, they did.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485769/original/file-20220921-26-86cwmb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="snowy mountain lake" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485769/original/file-20220921-26-86cwmb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485769/original/file-20220921-26-86cwmb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485769/original/file-20220921-26-86cwmb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485769/original/file-20220921-26-86cwmb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485769/original/file-20220921-26-86cwmb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485769/original/file-20220921-26-86cwmb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485769/original/file-20220921-26-86cwmb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">As the snow melts, it can carry poo down to watercourses or lakes like Blue Lake in the popular Main Range section of the Snowy Mountains.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So what are you meant to do with snow poo?</h2>
<p>You might wonder why this matters. After all, aren’t our snow-covered mountains full of possums, wombats and wallabies, all of which poo? And can’t you bury your poo, like you can in other parts of Australia? The problem here is the snow. Human poo deposited in winter won’t decompose until spring. In popular areas, poo and toilet paper can pile up, which is an unpleasant visual for other visitors. And as the snow melts, it can carry poo into creeks, depositing cold-resistant viruses, bacteria like <em>E. coli</em>, and parasites such as giardia. If another skier eats contaminated snow or drinks the stream water, they can be infected. </p>
<p>That’s why backcountry visitors to Kosciuszko National Park are <a href="https://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/safety/alpine-safety/kosciuszko-back-country-camping#take-human-waste-with-you">urged to carry out</a> their poo in biodegradable bags or a home made poo tube (basically a <a href="https://cccsc.asn.au/home/info/poo-tube/">sealable plastic pipe</a>). </p>
<p>This, our survey of 258 visitors found, is not hugely popular. Only a third of highly experienced skiers on multi-day trips carry their poo out, while only a fifth of less experienced visitors did the same. </p>
<p>The options our multi-day skiers preferred were using a toilet at a hut, if available, or burying poo in the snow. This is not ideal – if you can’t carry it out, it’s preferable to bury it in exposed soil (ideally, at least 50 metres away from any water courses). Some visitors reported covering their waste with rocks. </p>
<p>Day visitors largely used toilets at the entry and exit points or at a resort, though around 10% reported burying their poo in the snow or using toilets at huts. </p>
<p>This means overall compliance with the carry-it-out policy is low. </p>
<p>But as one longtime backcountry visitor <a href="https://themountainjournal.com/2016/06/05/lets-talk-about-poo/">points out</a>, it’s not actually hard – or disgusting – to carry it out: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>It was easy. It was the most satisfying experience I have had, knowing that I had left no trace for the entire journey; the view, the ground, the creeks, the plants had been left unspoilt. No-one would have ever known I had been there. Carrying and taking it out went without mishap and finally disposing of my waste was not a problem.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-our-alps-so-why-arent-we-looking-after-them-3831">We need our Alps, so why aren't we looking after them?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What can be done?</h2>
<p>People prefer toilets as a tried and true method of removing poo. Installing new toilets is the most effective way to prevent open defecation. The problem is where to put them. Installing toilets in remote areas is a delicate matter, as many visitors may see them as taking away from the natural experience which is the major drawcard for backcountry visitors. It’s also expensive to maintain toilets in the snow, as they require helicopters or trucks to pump out the waste. </p>
<p>Other options include digging pit latrines, disposing of it into crevasses, burying in soil, snow or rocks, leaving it on the ground, burning it, or carrying it out in <a href="https://lnt.org/poop-tube-101/">poo tubes</a> or <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EbLjgOk5zZg">biodegradable bags</a>. You can see why park authorities prefer carrying it out. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485773/original/file-20220921-25-1wjkec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="main range signboard" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485773/original/file-20220921-25-1wjkec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485773/original/file-20220921-25-1wjkec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485773/original/file-20220921-25-1wjkec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485773/original/file-20220921-25-1wjkec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485773/original/file-20220921-25-1wjkec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485773/original/file-20220921-25-1wjkec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485773/original/file-20220921-25-1wjkec.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Toilets are the gold standard - but they’re hard to come by in remote areas of Kosciuszko National Park.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So how can we make it more inviting for visitors to pack their poo? Clearly, the present messaging isn’t fully effective. It’s time for a new approach, especially given the numbers of people heading to the backcountry is <a href="https://www.destinationnsw.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/snowy-mountains-factsheet-ye-mar-2019.pdf">growing</a>.</p>
<p>We recommend a two-pronged approach: better communication and targeted infrastructure at entry points. </p>
<p>Friends, websites and outdoor recreation clubs are important sources of information about how to undertake a backcountry trip. To harness these sources, parks authorities could work with the wider backcountry community on the issue, with simple, targeted messages. </p>
<p>By itself, messaging won’t be enough. That’s why we need more and improved toilets – and bins – at key locations, to make it as easy as possible for visitors to do the right thing with their poo. </p>
<p>Authorities should also make these locations clearly known on visitor maps and online, as well as making biodegradable bags or poo tubes available at entry points, information centres and gear shops. </p>
<p>If we get this right, backcountry skiers will once again be able to enjoy the wildflowers. Let’s aim for spring has sprung – not spring has dung. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/it-is-not-easy-how-science-and-courage-saved-the-stunning-australian-alps-141658">'It is not easy': how science and courage saved the stunning Australian Alps</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190667/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pascal Scherrer has conducted research that has received funding from the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) and has served on Regional Advisory Boards of the NPWS.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Isabelle Wolf has conducted research that has received funding from the University of Wollongong and the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jen Smart conducts research that receives funding from New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) Hawkweed Eradication Program and the University of Wollongong. </span></em></p>You’re meant to carry out your poo, if you visit Australia’s alpine backcountry. But not many people do – and it’s leaving plenty of evidence.Pascal Scherrer, Senior Lecturer, School of Business and Tourism, Southern Cross UniversityIsabelle Wolf, Vice Chancellor Senior Research Fellow, University of WollongongJen Smart, PhD student, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1770402022-02-19T09:33:20Z2022-02-19T09:33:20ZHow climate change threatens the Winter Olympics’ future – even snowmaking has limits for saving the Games<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447369/original/file-20220218-41748-1vbdyob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=43%2C157%2C2682%2C1771&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Almost all of the snow at the 2022 Winter Olympics came from machines.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/BeijingOlympicsFreestyleSkiing/290957ac00914a42b130c25c877be53a/photo">AP Photo/Gregory Bull</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Winter Olympics is an adrenaline rush as athletes fly down snow-covered ski slopes, luge tracks and over the ice at breakneck speeds and with grace.</p>
<p>When the <a href="https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/chamonix-1924">first Olympic Winter Games</a> were held in Chamonix, France, in 1924, all 16 events took place outdoors. The athletes relied on natural snow for ski runs and freezing temperatures for ice rinks.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Two skaters on ice outside with mountains in the background. They are posing as if gliding together." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447356/original/file-20220218-43671-w7eafo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447356/original/file-20220218-43671-w7eafo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=770&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447356/original/file-20220218-43671-w7eafo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=770&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447356/original/file-20220218-43671-w7eafo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=770&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447356/original/file-20220218-43671-w7eafo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=968&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447356/original/file-20220218-43671-w7eafo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=968&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447356/original/file-20220218-43671-w7eafo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=968&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sonja Henie, left, and Gilles Grafstrom at the Olympic Winter Games in Chamonix, France, in 1924.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SonjaHenieandGillesGrafstrom/78bbbc3ba3e3da11af9f0014c2589dfb/photo">The Associated Press</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nearly a century later, in 2022, the world watched skiers race down runs of 100% human-made snow near Beijing. Luge tracks and ski jumps have their own refrigeration, and four of the original events are now held indoors: Figure skaters, speed skaters, curlers and hockey teams all compete in climate-controlled buildings.</p>
<p>Innovation made the 2022 Winter Games possible in Beijing, but snowmaking can go only so far in a warming climate.</p>
<p>As global temperatures rise, what will the Winter Games look like in another century? Will they even be possible?</p>
<h2>Former host cities that would be too warm</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2018.1436161">average daytime temperature</a> of Winter Games host cities in February has increased steadily since those first events in Chamonix, rising from 33 degrees Fahrenheit (0.4 C) in the 1920s-1950s to 46 F (7.8 C) in the early 21st century.</p>
<p>In a recent study, scientists <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2018.1436161">looked at the venues of 19 past Winter Olympics</a> to see how each might hold up under future climate change.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A cross-country skier falls in front of another during a race. The second skier has his mouth open as if shouting." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447358/original/file-20220218-42890-462i4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447358/original/file-20220218-42890-462i4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447358/original/file-20220218-42890-462i4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447358/original/file-20220218-42890-462i4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447358/original/file-20220218-42890-462i4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447358/original/file-20220218-42890-462i4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447358/original/file-20220218-42890-462i4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Human-made snow was used to augment trails at the Sochi Games in 2014. Some athletes complained that it made the trails icier and more dangerous.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/XXCClimateDangerousSnow/0b148fbbb5ac48c4ba6319f7f030c855/photo">AP Photo/Dmitry Lovetsky</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>They found that by midcentury, four former host cities – Chamonix; Sochi, Russia; Grenoble, France; and Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany – would no longer have a reliable climate for hosting the Games, even under the United Nations’ best-case scenario for climate change, which assumes the world quickly cuts its greenhouse gas emissions. If the world continues burning fossil fuels at high rates, Squaw Valley, California, and Vancouver, British Columbia, would join that list.</p>
<p>By the 2080s, the scientists found, the climates in 11 of 21 former venues would be too unreliable to host the Winter Olympics’ outdoor events; among them were Turin, Italy; Nagano, Japan; and Innsbruck, Austria.</p>
<p>These venues would all be susceptible to problems associated with snowmaking. </p>
<p>Ideal snowmaking conditions today require a <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2022/01/23/snowmaking-ski-resort-artificial-climate/">dewpoint temperature</a> – the combination of coldness and humidity – of around <a href="https://www.tusseymountain.com/snowmaking">28 F (-2 C) or less</a>. More moisture in the air melts snow and ice at <a href="https://iahs.info/uploads/dms/15547.14-65-70-360-01-Fassnacht_etal.pdf">colder temperatures</a>, which affects snow on ski slopes and ice on bobsled, skeleton and luge tracks.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Stark white lines etched on a swath of brown mountains delineate ski routes and bobsled course." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446960/original/file-20220217-34819-1kzj9c4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446960/original/file-20220217-34819-1kzj9c4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446960/original/file-20220217-34819-1kzj9c4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446960/original/file-20220217-34819-1kzj9c4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446960/original/file-20220217-34819-1kzj9c4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446960/original/file-20220217-34819-1kzj9c4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446960/original/file-20220217-34819-1kzj9c4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A satellite view clearly shows the absence of natural snow during the 2022 Winter Olympics. Beijing’s bid to host the Winter Games had explained how extensively it would rely on snowmaking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/149430/a-satellite-view-of-olympic-terrain">Joshua Stevens/NASA Earth Observatory</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A gondola passes by with dark ground below and white ski slopes behind it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447360/original/file-20220218-48814-g7qon0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447360/original/file-20220218-48814-g7qon0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447360/original/file-20220218-48814-g7qon0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447360/original/file-20220218-48814-g7qon0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447360/original/file-20220218-48814-g7qon0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447360/original/file-20220218-48814-g7qon0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447360/original/file-20220218-48814-g7qon0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The finish area of the Alpine ski venue at the 2022 Winter Olympics was white because of artificially made snow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/BeijingOlympicsAlpineSkiing/5c9eec01890844a8a471bde42463e406/photo">AP Photo/Robert F. Bukaty</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=p4UqsX0AAAAJ&hl=en">Colorado snow</a> <a href="https://warnercnr.colostate.edu/person/?user=pIv7%2Bvwdy3%2BBo/yXa22Zpw==">and sustainability</a> scientists and avid skiers, we’ve been watching the developments and studying the climate impact on the mountains and winter sports we love. </p>
<h2>Conditions vary by location and year to year</h2>
<p>The Earth’s <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/">climate will be warmer</a> overall in the coming decades. Warmer air can mean <a href="https://theconversation.com/devastating-colorado-fires-cap-a-year-of-climate-disasters-in-2021-with-one-side-of-the-country-too-wet-the-other-dangerously-dry-173402">more precipitation</a> in some areas. It can also mean more winter rain, particularly at lower elevations. Over the globe, snow has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150970">covering less area</a>. </p>
<p>However, local changes vary. For example, in northern Colorado, the amount of snow has <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/piahs-371-131-2015">decreased since the 1970s</a>, but the decline has <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050562">mostly been at higher elevations</a>.</p>
<p>A future climate may also be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1716789115">more humid</a>, which <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-couldn%E2%80%99t-have-the-beijing-olympics-without-snow-machines-how-do-they-work-and-whats-the-environmental-cost-176795">affects snowmaking</a> and could affect bobsled, luge and skeleton tracks.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Several barrels blow snow onto one ski run while skiers uses another." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447361/original/file-20220218-3064-1c25dsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447361/original/file-20220218-3064-1c25dsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447361/original/file-20220218-3064-1c25dsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447361/original/file-20220218-3064-1c25dsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447361/original/file-20220218-3064-1c25dsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447361/original/file-20220218-3064-1c25dsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447361/original/file-20220218-3064-1c25dsy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Snowmaking machines spray artificially made snow on a ski slope during a test ahead of the 2022 Winter Olympics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ChinaSkiCrossWorldCup/6c55b1f1e56e44c19414337f056e744c/photo">AP Photo/Mark Schiefelbein</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of the <a href="https://olympics.com/en/beijing-2022/sports/">15 Winter Games sports today</a>, seven are affected by temperature and snow: alpine skiing, biathlon, cross-country skiing, freestyle skiing, Nordic combined, ski jumping and snowboarding. And three are affected by temperature and humidity: bobsled, luge and skeleton.</p>
<h2>Technology also changes</h2>
<p>Developments in technology have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2014.887665">helped the Winter Games adapt</a> to some changes over the past century.</p>
<p>Hockey moved indoors, followed by skating. Luge and bobsled tracks were refrigerated <a href="https://www.ibsf.org/en/our-sports/skeleton-history">in the 1960s</a>. The <a href="https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/lake-placid-1980">Lake Placid Winter Games in 1980</a> used snowmaking to augment natural snow on the ski slopes.</p>
<p>Today, initiatives are exploring ways to make skiing possible year-round with <a href="https://alpine-x.com/">indoor skiing facilities</a>. <a href="https://www.skidxb.com/">Ski Dubai</a>, open since 2005, has five ski runs on a hill the height of a 25-story building inside a resort attached to a shopping mall.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two workers pack snow on an indoor ski slope with a sloped ceiling overhead." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447364/original/file-20220218-44444-1se55e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447364/original/file-20220218-44444-1se55e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447364/original/file-20220218-44444-1se55e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447364/original/file-20220218-44444-1se55e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447364/original/file-20220218-44444-1se55e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447364/original/file-20220218-44444-1se55e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447364/original/file-20220218-44444-1se55e7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dubai has an indoor ski slope with multiple runs and a chairlift, all part of a shopping mall complex.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirusOutbreakEmirates/9defb929928a4f0f81d259f195007107/photo">AP Photo/Jon Gambrell</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But making snow and keeping it cold requires energy and water – and both become issues in a warming world. Water becomes more scarce in many areas. And energy, if it means more fossil fuel use, further <a href="https://ugc.berkeley.edu/background-content/burning-of-fossil-fuels/">contributes to climate change</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/the-ioc-and-the-olympic-games-addressing-climate-change">International Olympic Committee recognizes</a> that the future climate will have a big impact on the Olympics, both winter and summer. It also recognizes the importance of ensuring the adaptations <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/sustainability">are sustainable</a>.</p>
<p>The Winter Olympics could become limited to more northerly locations, <a href="https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/calgary-1988">like Calgary, Alberta</a>, or be pushed to <a href="https://doi.org/10.25675/10217/222418">higher elevations</a>.</p>
<h2>Summer Games are feeling climate pressure, too</h2>
<p>The Summer Games also face challenges. <a href="https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/28075216">Hot temperatures and high humidity</a> can make competing in the summer difficult, but these sports have more flexibility than winter sports.</p>
<p>For example, changing the timing of typical summer events to another season can help alleviate excessive temperatures. The <a href="https://www.espn.com/soccer/fifa-world-cup/story/4345373/qatar-2022-how-will-football-squeeze-in-a-world-cup-in-november-december">2022 World Cup</a>, normally a summer event, is scheduled for November so Qatar can host it.</p>
<p>What makes adaptation more difficult for the Winter Games is the necessity of snow or ice for all of the events.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A snowboarder with 'USA' on her gloves puts her arms out for balance on a run." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447367/original/file-20220218-2552-ereikj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447367/original/file-20220218-2552-ereikj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447367/original/file-20220218-2552-ereikj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447367/original/file-20220218-2552-ereikj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447367/original/file-20220218-2552-ereikj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447367/original/file-20220218-2552-ereikj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447367/original/file-20220218-2552-ereikj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Climate change threatens the ideal environments for snowboarders, like U.S. Olympian Hailey Langland, competing here during the women’s snowboard big air final in Beijing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/BeijingOlympicsSnowboardBigAir/c8a95826680b4213a3f4ded228e04a77/photo">AP Photo/Jae C. Hong</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Future depends on responses to climate change</h2>
<p>In uncertain times, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/0266543042000192475">Olympics offer a way for the world to come together</a>.</p>
<p>People are thrilled by the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2020.1866474">athletic feats</a>, like Jean-Claude Killy winning all three Alpine skiing events in 1968, and stories of perseverance, like the 1988 <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RgulzUHbZik">Jamaican bobsled team</a> competing beyond all expectation.</p>
<p>The Winter Games’ outdoor sports may look very different in the future. How different will <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/grantham/publications/climate-change-faqs/what-are-the-worlds-countries-doing-about-climate-change/">depend heavily on how countries respond</a> to climate change.</p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=science&source=inline-science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177040/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Innovation made the 2022 Winter Games possible in Beijing, but snowmaking has limits in a warming climate.Steven R. Fassnacht, Professor of Snow Hydrology, Colorado State UniversitySunshine Swetnam, Assistant Professor of Natural Resources, Colorado State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1770272022-02-17T20:08:14Z2022-02-17T20:08:14ZRising costs of climate change threaten to make skiing a less diverse, even more exclusive sport<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447098/original/file-20220217-9608-qkwoe3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=850%2C183%2C4259%2C2980&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some resorts have launched diversity efforts to try to appeal to a wider community.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/portrait-of-skier-royalty-free-image/97534255">Johannes Kroemer via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Watching skiers compete <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/02/13/1080446506/weather-snow-disrupts-events-at-the-beijing-olympics">almost entirely</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/olympic-skiers-and-snowboarders-are-competing-on-100-fake-snow-the-science-of-how-its-made-and-how-it-affects-performance-176339">on artificially made snow</a> at the 2022 Winter Olympics, we found it hard not to think about climate change and what it will mean for the future of the winter sports industry – and who will be able to participate.</p>
<p>Ski areas are increasingly reliant on extensive snowmaking operations to keep their slopes open as the planet warms. A few degrees of warming can mean more days of <a href="https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/2/">rain instead of snow</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2017.1410110">shorter seasons</a>. That reduces the operators’ revenue and raises their costs.</p>
<p>Those costs, passed along to visitors in higher lift ticket and resort prices, directly affect who can afford to spend a day on the slopes skiing or snowboarding. </p>
<p>As resorts’ costs rise, these already expensive sports risk becoming more exclusive and less diverse.</p>
<p><a href="https://ahs.illinois.edu/warwick">Our</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=yEcX-t0AAAAJ&hl=en">research</a> involves what’s known as <a href="https://www.intersectionalenvironmentalist.com/topic-identity-leaders">intersectional sustainability</a> in sports – looking at how to ensure they are both inclusive and environmentally sustainable. For ski resorts, intersectional sustainability means acknowledging that climate change may result in the unintended consequence of further entrenching the sports’ lack of diversity, and proactively seeking to prevent that. </p>
<h2>Adaptation is necessary, and expensive</h2>
<p>Creating artificial snow to adapt to climate change doesn’t come cheap.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.holidayvalley.com/winter/snowmaking-grooming/">Holiday Valley</a>, a small resort in Ellicottville, New York, has invested over $13 million in snowmaking equipment in the past 40 years. On top of that are the costs of energy, labor and piping in <a href="https://blog.steamboat.com/the-most-modern-and-energy-efficient-way-to-create-the-early-season-fluff/">thousands of gallons of water a minute</a> to run snowmaking machines. Even as snowmaking machines become more efficient, the <a href="https://files.danfoss.com/download/Drives/ITDDPC400A102_TechnoAlpin_LR.pdf">overall cost is still significant</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Skiers on a lift with a snowmaking machine running below" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Snowmaking machines, like this one at Breckenridge Ski Resort in Colorado, use a lot of water and are often expensive to run.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/snowboarder-and-a-skier-ride-the-rips-ride-lift-while-a-news-photo/1190523571">Andy Cross/MediaNews Group/The Denver Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2017.1401984">analysis of the outlook for Blue Mountain</a>, a ski resort in Ontario, Canada, offers a glimpse of the future. </p>
<p>In a best-case scenario, if the world achieves the <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement">Paris climate agreement</a> goal of limiting warming to under 2 degrees Celsius (3.6 F), Blue Mountain’s ski season is to likely shorten by 8% and its snowmaking efforts would have to almost double by 2050. The window of ideal weather for snowmaking would also reduce by 22%, meaning the resort would be making snow under less efficient conditions, which further drives up the cost. Those extra costs likely will show up in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.01.009">higher lift ticket and resort prices</a>.</p>
<p>Smaller resorts may be forced to take on debt to finance snowmaking equipment. High leverage ratios have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2020.1770683">shown to reduce profitability</a> for ski resorts. Some smaller ski areas have <a href="https://nsaa.org/webdocs/Media_Public/IndustryStats/ski_areas_per_season_thru_2021.pdf">shut down</a>, leaving fewer nearby options for skiing and snowboarding in some areas and reducing competition that could help keep prices in check.</p>
<h2>Resorts already struggle with diversity</h2>
<p>Alpine skiing and snowboarding resorts already draw criticism for their lack of diversity. </p>
<p>In 2019-20, 69% of visitors who described themselves as skiers and 61% as snowboarders identified as Caucasian or white, according to <a href="https://members.snowsports.org/research-center/">Snowsports Industries of America</a>. The organization found the most frequent participants are even less diverse. </p>
<p>A separate survey by the <a href="https://www.nsaa.org/NSAA/Resources/Industry_Stats/NSAA/Media/Industry_Stats.aspx?hkey=8247ed3b-e20e-46d2-9c5d-36b92782c297">National Ski Area Association</a> found a wider difference: 87.5% of U.S. visits that season were individuals identifying as Caucasian or white, and only 1.5% were people identifying as Black or African American. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://members.snowsports.org/research-center/">Snowsports Industries of America</a> survey also found a wealth gap. More than 63% of skiers and 55% of snowboarders had an income over $75,000, almost double the <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2021/demo/p60-273.html">median earnings</a> of Americans. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A family with young children on skis" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">As costs rise, family ski trips can get expensive. Smaller ski areas, like this one in Quebec, Canada, offer opportunities, but their costs are rising, too.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/multi-ethnic-family-with-their-friends-skying-royalty-free-image/1043765830">Manonallard via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some resort corporations, including <a href="https://www.aspensnowmass.com/discover/who-we-are/racial-justice">Aspen Snowmass</a> and <a href="https://www.powdr.com/play-forever">Powdr</a>, have committed to increasing diversity and inclusion at their resorts. Powdr, for example, has community initiatives in its “Play Forever” campaign that include awarding scholarships to help people attend their camps and a partnership with <a href="https://www.stoked.org/">STOKED</a>, a nonprofit that mentors young people from underserved communities who are interested in board sports.</p>
<p>But among several other <a href="https://www.nsaa.org/NSAA/Media/Who_Owns_Which_Mountain_Resorts.aspx">corporate-owned ski resorts</a>, there is a noticeable lack of diversity efforts on their corporate websites. Eight resort companies included either no mention of diversity and inclusion or provided no evidence of initiatives supporting these efforts on their corporate websites.</p>
<p>The results suggest to us that the rising costs of climate adaptation will leave many would-be skiers and snowboarders unable to enjoy the sports.</p>
<h2>Three tactics to improve diversity for the future</h2>
<p>As the climate changes, management practices can also change to keep the slopes accessible.</p>
<p>One effective strategy is engaging and partnering with community organizations that focus on diversity and inclusion. By working with organizations engaged in the community, Powdr can connect with disadvantaged youth and introduce them to snowboarding and skiing, for example.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 150,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-150ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>Ski resorts can also engage directly with nonprofits like the <a href="https://nbs1973.clubexpress.com/">National Brotherhood of Skiers</a>, whose mission is to develop and support athletes of color in winter sports, and communities that are underrepresented on the mountain to understand how decisions related to climate adaptation may have the unintended consequence of further entrenching inequalities.</p>
<p>Resort corporations can also improve their connections with diverse communities by increasing the diversity of leadership and creating senior leadership positions in charge of diversity, equity and inclusion initiatives. </p>
<p>By including diverse communities in the climate adaptation discussion, ski resorts have a better chance of achieving a future where snow sports are more accessible for everyone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177027/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian P. McCullough is also the Co-Director of the Sport Ecology Group. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lance Warwick does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As temperatures warm, ski and snowboard resorts are investing more in snowmaking and seeing their seasons shrink. Those costs roll down to customers in an already expensive sport.Brian P. McCullough, Associate Professor of Sport Management and Director of the Laboratory for Sustainability in Sport, Texas A&M UniversityLance Warwick, Graduate student, University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1765442022-02-10T02:40:11Z2022-02-10T02:40:11ZHow do Olympic freestyle skiers produce their amazing tricks? A biomechanics expert explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445303/original/file-20220209-17-ia0056.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C4992%2C3622&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Yosuke Hayasaka/AP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There have been some incredible acrobatics on display in Beijing, with Australia’s Jakara Anthony <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-02-07/smale-jakara-anthony/100809298">scoring gold</a> in the women’s moguls this week. </p>
<p>How do these athletes pull off such incredible feats of manoeuvrability, and land them (mostly)? </p>
<h2>The mechanics of freestyle acrobatics</h2>
<p>Freestyle skiers and snowboarders have to produce as much lift-off force as they can before they leave the ground, as it’s impossible to generate lift once airborne. </p>
<p>They do this by optimising their take-off speed before the ramp and extending their knees and hips when they jump. They can also initiate rotation just before take-off, by leaning forwards, backwards, or even slightly sideways.</p>
<p>You’ll have some sense of how this works if you’ve ever tried a somersault or backflip on on a trampoline. But the goal for professional skiers is to control the rotation with acute precision. </p>
<p>The more they lean, the greater the rotational force and the faster their spin will become. This rotational momentum, created just before lift-off, is all the athlete has to execute their aerial trick.</p>
<p>Many trampolines have nets to protect jumpers from the consequences of this going awry. But out on the snow, and with the world watching, there’s little room for error. Perfect posture is very important. </p>
<p>Once they’re in the air, they can start to tune their body to complete the desired manoeuvre. This often involves changing their posture mid-flight, such as by tucking their limbs in tight to increase the rate of spin, as needed for a somersault. </p>
<p>Part of athletes’ training is learning exactly what sort of posture causes what sort of rotation in the air – and how they need to tuck, extend or position their limbs to optimise the rotation. Add skis and poles or a snowboard to the picture, and this exercise becomes much more complex. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-snowboarding-became-a-marquee-event-at-the-winter-olympics-but-lost-some-of-its-cool-factor-in-the-process-175053">How snowboarding became a marquee event at the Winter Olympics – but lost some of its cool factor in the process</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Twisting and turning</h2>
<p>It doesn’t stop there though. Sometimes a somersault will also incorporate twisting – rotation along the long axis of the body. This is where things get even more challenging. </p>
<p>Remember how athletes can’t really create external force in the air? How do they change their rotation if they can’t push or pull against something solid? </p>
<p>Well, this process also begins just as they’re leaving the ground. They will try to set up a second rotation axis before they take-off, leaning slightly to the right or left, or pushing off harder with one foot than the other, to initiate the twist. </p>
<p>If they’re already in mid-air, they may strategically manipulate their arms and hips to change somersault rotation into twisting, or vice versa. </p>
<p>You may have seen an athlete moving their arms and hips in an asymmetrical fashion at the top of their run. That’s not them practising their latest dance move – they’re rehearsing the movements required to change rotation after take-off. </p>
<p>Cats can rotate their torsos incredibly well while in the air. That’s how they land on their feet!</p>
<h2>The final step</h2>
<p>Now the most important bit: landing safely.</p>
<p>While a freestyle athlete is upside down, in the midst of their trick, they need to simultaneously look for a spot on the ground to plant their feet. You may have noticed them grab their skis or snowboard while looking at the landing. </p>
<p>To slow their twisting, they can spread our their arms. Similarly, to slow down a somersault they’ll spread out their arms and legs to slow the rotation. This is called increasing the moment of inertia.</p>
<p>Once they’re in an extended posture, instinct and gravity do the rest, bringing them safely (mostly) back to earth. Their knees and hips work as natural shock absorbers to help slow their fall. Touch down!</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/your-guide-to-the-best-figure-skating-at-the-beijing-winter-olympics-through-the-eyes-of-a-dancer-176229">Your guide to the best figure skating at the Beijing Winter Olympics – through the eyes of a dancer</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176544/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin Netto receives funding from industry and government to support his work. He is affiliated with Exercise and Sports Science Australia as a member of their research committee. </span></em></p>Executing the perfect manoeuvre on the slopes requires foresight, technical skill and being able to think on the go.Kevin Netto, Associate Professor, Curtin School of Allied Health and Curtin enAble Institute, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1764962022-02-09T18:47:03Z2022-02-09T18:47:03ZSki jump: Flying or falling with style?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445195/original/file-20220208-21-nw1u31.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=122%2C73%2C3432%2C2629&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ski jumpers use aerodynamics and physics to overcome gravity -- at least for a while</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/APTOPIXGermanySkiJumpingFourHills/2b64f1bcbdc14400ac611acdff71c0f5/photo?Query=ski%20jump&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=21735&currentItemNo=97">AP Photo/Matthias Schrader</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you or I jump in the air as high as possible, we can stay off the ground for about half a second. Michael Jordan could stay aloft for <a href="https://www.scienceabc.com/pure-sciences/secret-michael-jordan-slam-dunks-basketball-math-physics-hang-time-jump.html">almost one second</a>. While there are many events at the Winter Olympics that feature athletes performing feats of athleticism and strength while high in the air, none <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhVLgTsoMhQ">blur the line between jumping and flying</a> quite as much as the ski jump.</p>
<p>I teach students about the <a href="https://www.clemson.edu/science/departments/physics-astro/people/profiles/amyj">physics of sports</a>. The ski jump is perhaps one of the most intriguing events in the Winter Games to showcase physics in action. The winner is the athlete who travels the farthest and who flies and lands with the best style. By turning their skis and bodies into what is essentially a wing, ski jumpers are able to fight gravity and stay airborne for five to seven seconds as they travel about the <a href="https://olympics.com/beijing-2022/olympic-games/en/results/ski-jumping/results-women-s-nh-individual-fnl-0002sj-.htm">length of a football field</a> through the air. So how do they do this? </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445189/original/file-20220208-32038-db77yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person flying with a red triangular hang glider." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445189/original/file-20220208-32038-db77yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445189/original/file-20220208-32038-db77yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445189/original/file-20220208-32038-db77yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445189/original/file-20220208-32038-db77yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445189/original/file-20220208-32038-db77yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445189/original/file-20220208-32038-db77yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445189/original/file-20220208-32038-db77yy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hang gliders have large wings, are very aerodynamic and are very light, all of which maximize lift to produce long flights despite the lack of an engine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hanggliding_in_Sweden_2011.jpg#/media/File:Hanggliding_in_Sweden_2011.jpg">Gegik via WikimediaCommons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How to fly</h2>
<p>Three major concepts from physics are at play in the ski jump: gravity, lift and drag.</p>
<p>Gravity pulls any object in flight down toward the ground. Gravity acts on all objects equally and there is nothing athletes can do to lessen its effect. But the athletes also interact with the air as they move. It is this interaction that can produce lift, which is an upwards force produced by air pushing on an object. If the force produced from lift roughly balances the force of gravity, an object can glide or fly.</p>
<p>To produce lift, an object needs to be moving. As the object moves through the air, its surface collides with air particles and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/aerodynamic-lift">pushes these particles</a> out of the path of the object. As air particles are pushed down, the object is pushed up according to <a href="https://openstax.org/books/college-physics/pages/4-4-newtons-third-law-of-motion-symmetry-in-forces">Newton’s Third Law</a> of motion which says that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Air particles pushing an object upwards are what create lift. Increasing speed as well as increasing surface area will increase the amount of lift. The <a href="https://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine/aero_12/whatisaoa.pdf">angle of attack</a> – the angle of the object relative to the direction of air flow – can also affect lift. Too steep and the object will stall, too flat and it won’t push down on air particles. </p>
<p>While this all may seem complicated, sticking your hand out of a car window illustrates these principles perfectly. If you hold your hand perfectly flat, it will stay more or less in place. However, if you tilt your hand so that bottom is facing the direction of the wind, your hand will be pushed upwards as the air particles collide into it. That is lift.</p>
<p>The same collisions between an object and air that provide lift also produce <a href="https://physics.info/drag/">drag</a>. Drag resists the forward motion of any object and slows it down. As speed decreases, lift does too, limiting the length of a flight.</p>
<p>For ski jumpers, the goal is to use careful body positioning to maximize lift while reducing drag as much as possible.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/RHNPxhpH6qM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">During excellent jumps, athletes will maximize lift and glide long distances.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Flying on skis</h2>
<p>Skiers start high up on a slope then ski downhill to generate speed. They minimize drag by crouching down and carefully steer to reduce friction between the skis and ramp. By the time they reach the end they can be going <a href="https://ssec.si.edu/stemvisions-blog/falling-style-science-ski-jumping">60 miles per hour</a> (96kph).</p>
<p>The ramp ends at a takeoff point which, if you look closely, is actually at a slight downward <a href="http://www.skisprungschanzen.com/EN/Articles/0007-Ski+jumping+hill+dictionary">angle of 10 degrees</a>. Just before the athletes reach the end of the ramp, they jump. The ski landing slope is designed to mimic the path a jumper will take so that they are never more than <a href="https://assets.fis-ski.com/image/upload/v1639755981/fis-prod/assets/ICR_Ski_Jumping_2022_clean.pdf">10 to 15 feet</a> above the ground.</p>
<p>Once the athletes are in the air, the fun physics begins.</p>
<p>The jumpers do everything they can to produce as much lift as possible while minimizing drag. Athletes will never be able to generate enough lift to overcome gravity entirely, but the more lift they generate, the slower they will fall and the further down the hill they will travel. </p>
<p>To do this, athletes align their skis and body nearly parallel to the ground and place their skis in a V-shape just outside the form of the body. This position increases the surface area that generates lift and puts them in the ideal angle of attack that will also maximize lift. </p>
<p>As drag reduces the speed of the skier, lift decreases and gravity continues to pull on the jumper. Athletes will begin to fall faster and faster until they land.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445194/original/file-20220208-32038-1ag0tph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A ski jumper sitting on the start bench showing how it can be moved." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445194/original/file-20220208-32038-1ag0tph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445194/original/file-20220208-32038-1ag0tph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445194/original/file-20220208-32038-1ag0tph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445194/original/file-20220208-32038-1ag0tph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445194/original/file-20220208-32038-1ag0tph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445194/original/file-20220208-32038-1ag0tph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445194/original/file-20220208-32038-1ag0tph.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many regulations – like the height of the starting point and ski length – are variable depending on conditions and the athlete’s height and weight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ski_jumping_at_the_2020_Winter_Youth_Olympics_-_20_January_2020_-_31.jpg#/media/File:Ski_jumping_at_the_2020_Winter_Youth_Olympics_-_20_January_2020_-_31.jpg">DarDarCH via WikimediaCommons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The rules follow the physics</h2>
<p>With so much physics at play, there are a lot of ways wind, equipment choices and even the athletes’ own bodies can affect how far a jump can go. So to keep things fair and safe, there are a <a href="https://www.fis-ski.com/en/inside-fis/document-library/ski-jumping-documents">lot of regulations</a>.</p>
<p>While watching the events, you may notice officials moving the starting point up or down the slope. This adjustment is made based on the wind speed as faster headwinds will produce more lift and result in longer jumps that could go past the safe landing zone.</p>
<p>Ski length is also regulated and tied to a skier’s height and weight. Skis can at most be <a href="https://assets.fis-ski.com/image/upload/v1544086634/fis-prod/Specifications_for_CC_JP_NC_SB_FS_FK_Competiton_Equipment.pdf">145% of the skier’s height</a> and skiers with a body mass index less than 21 must have shorter skis. Long skis are not always the best as the heavier the ski, the more lift you need to produce to stay airborne. Finally, skiers must <a href="https://assets.fis-ski.com/image/upload/v1623221580/fis-prod/assets/document-library/ski-jumping/Equipment-Guidelines.pdf">wear tight-fitting suits</a> to ensure that athletes will not use their clothing as an additional source of lift. </p>
<p>As you tune into the Olympics to marvel at the physical power of the athletes, take a moment to consider also their mastery of the concepts of physics.</p>
<p>[<em>Climate change, AI, vaccines, black holes and much more.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=science&source=inline-science-various">Get The Conversation’s best science and health coverage</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176496/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Pope does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Ski jumpers do everything they can to counteract the effects of gravity and fly as far as they can down hills.Amy Pope, Senior Lecturer of Physics and Astronomy, Clemson UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1763392022-02-08T17:14:28Z2022-02-08T17:14:28ZOlympic skiers and snowboarders are competing on 100% fake snow – the science of how it’s made and how it affects performance<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444596/original/file-20220204-25-1wqc0jo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C74%2C4910%2C3136&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Snowmaking machines blow cold water, which freezes before it hits the ground.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/snow-cannon-in-winter-mountains-snow-gun-spraying-royalty-free-image/1337370791?adppopup=true">Alexander Uhrin/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The winter Olympics conjure up images of snowy mountain ranges, frozen ice rinks and athletes in cold-weather gear. And for good reason. Winter Olympic venues have often been in places that receive an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-19-0007.1">average snowfall of 300 inches per year</a> or more.</p>
<p>However, barring some extremely anomalous weather patterns, the mountains surrounding the snow events for the Beijing Winter Olympics will be tones of brown and green and nearly devoid of snow. The region typically receives only <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangjiakou">a few inches of snowfall</a> in each winter month. This means that basically all of the snow the athletes will be competing on will be human-made.</p>
<p>I am an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=f8naRg0AAAAJ">atmospheric scientist</a> who specializes in mountain weather and snow. I am also the co-founder of a snowmaking startup and an avid skier. There are distinct differences between natural and artificial snow, and it will be interesting to see if these differences have any effect on competition.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/GE8KpPzU_rQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Snowmaking guns spray tiny droplets of cooled water into the air.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How to make fake snow</h2>
<p>Though artificial snow and natural snow are both frozen water, most skiers and snowboarders are able to immediately recognize that the two are very different.</p>
<p>Traditional snowmaking uses <a href="https://www.technoalpin.com/en-us/snow-guns/fan-guns/tr10">high pressure water, compressed air and specialized nozzles</a> to blow tiny liquid droplets into the air that then freeze as they fall to the ground. But snowmaking is not as simple as just making sure the air is sufficiently cold. </p>
<p>Pure water does not freeze until it is cooled to nearly -40 F (-40 C). It is only the presence of microscopic suspended particles in water that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710444024">allow it to freeze at the familiar 32 F (0 C)</a>. These particles, known as ice nuclei, act as a sort of scaffolding to help ice crystals form.</p>
<p>Without these particles, water struggles to turn into ice. Different particles can raise or lower freezing temperatures depending on their specific molecular configuration. </p>
<p>Two of the best ice nuclei are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-18-0341.1">silver iodide</a> and a protein produced by the bacteria <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC186742/"><em>Pseudomonas syringae</em></a>. Most snowmaking systems add a <a href="https://www.snomax.com/product.html">commercial form of the bacterial protein</a> to water to ensure most of the tiny droplets freeze before they hit the ground.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman making a tight turn on skis around a red gate." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Skiers and snowboarders in downhill racing events, like U.S. Olympian Mikaela Shiffrin, often prefer the harder, faster artificial snow over natural snow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/USWorldCupAlpineSkiing/891980327fe34d159be71c729d6ff316/photo?Query=mikaela%20shiffrin&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=2741&currentItemNo=8">AP Photo/Charles Krupa</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sliding on human-made snow</h2>
<p>Natural snow starts as a tiny ice crystal on an ice nucleus in a cloud. As the crystal falls through the air, it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-9112/27/8/028">slowly grows into the classic six-sided snowflake</a>. </p>
<p>By comparison, human-made snow freezes quickly from a single droplet of water. The resulting snow consists of billions of tiny spherical balls of ice. It may resemble natural snow to the naked eye on a ski run, but the natural and artificial snow “feel” very different.</p>
<p>Due to the fact that the tiny ice balls pack together quite densely – and that some of them may have not frozen until they touched the ground – artificial snow often feels hard and icy. Fresh natural “powder” snow, on the other hand, provides skiers and snowboarders an almost weightless feeling as they soar down the mountainside. This is largely because the natural snow crystals stack very loosely – a fresh layer of powder is as much as <a href="https://upcolorado.com/utah-state-university-press/item/2390-secrets-of-the-greatest-snow-on-earth">95% or more air</a>. </p>
<p>While fresh powder is what most recreational skiers dream of, Olympic skiers have different tastes. Racers want to be able to glide as fast as possible and use their sharp edges to make powerful, tight turns. The dense, icy conditions of artificial snow are actually better in these regards. In fact, race organizers often <a href="https://mountaintimes.info/elite-ski-racers-carve-water-injected-icy-course/">add liquid water to race courses of natural snow</a> which will freeze and ensure a durable, consistent surface for racers.</p>
<p>Another consideration is the fact that natural snowstorms produce dull, flat lighting and low visibility – hard conditions to race or jump in. Heavy natural snowfall will often cancel ski races, as <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/sports/1998/02/09/mens-downhill-delayed-again-due-to-weather/cb89f1d0-5ae2-4b13-9c90-43257b4e9970/">happened during the snowy 1998 Nagano Games</a>. For racers, clear skies and artificial snow provide the advantage there, too.</p>
<p>But hard human-made snow does have its downsides. Freestyle skiers and snowboarders who are flying off jumps or sliding on rails high above the ground seem to <a href="https://www.sportecology.org/_files/ugd/a700be_9aa3ec697a39446eb11b8330aec19e30.pdf">prefer the softer surface of natural snow</a> for safety reasons. This is also true of Nordic skiers, who recently flagged the <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/science/environment/climate-warms-athletes-flag-dangers-manmade-snow-rcna11915">dangers of artificial snow in the event of crashes</a> as icy, hard surfaces can lead to more injuries. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A zoomed in photo of a complex six-sided snowflake." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Natural snowflakes grow slowly into six-sided crystals that are full of air when they pile up on the ground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Snowflake_macro_photography_1.jpg#/media/File:Snowflake_macro_photography_1.jpg">Alexey Kljatov via WikimediaCommons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Mimicking nature</h2>
<p>While Olympic athletes have mixed needs for their snow, for the vast majority of recreational skiers, natural snow is far better. Due to the air-filled crystals, it is much softer and more enjoyable to ski or snowboard on. </p>
<p>Scientists have been trying for decades to create more natural snow on demand. The first way that people tried to make “real” snow was by seeding natural clouds with silver iodide. The goal was to facilitate moisture in clouds turning into falling snow crystals. If you could make this process – called the <a href="https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Bergeron-findeisen_process">Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen</a> process – occur more easily, it would theoretically increase the snowfall rate.</p>
<p>In practice, it has historically been difficult to prove the efficacy of seeding. However, recent work using large, meticulously deployed sets of atmospheric instruments has shown that – for a fraction of storms with the proper conditions – seeding clouds with silver iodide does indeed yield modest <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1917204117">increases in the total amount of snowfall</a>. </p>
<p>[<em>Over 140,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>Another option – which doesn’t require storm clouds to seed in the first place – is to create snowmaking machines that can grow fluffy natural snow crystals. Scientists have been growing snowflakes in laboratories for many decades, but the process is delicate, and typically researchers only <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/2115/34465">produce a few flakes at a time</a>. Because ice crystals typically grow slowly, it has been tricky for researchers to scale the process up by the many orders of magnitude needed to grow enough snow for skiing. But in a quest to produce fluffy powder for skiers and snowboarders, my colleague Trey Alvey and I developed a process that can produce snowflakes in larger quantities using a technique that mimics the natural crystal formation process. We’re commercializing it through our company called <a href="https://www.quantum-snow.com">Quantum Snow</a>.</p>
<p>The dry, barren mountains hosting the 2022 Winter Olympic venues are not exactly a skiing destination. But thanks to snowmaking science, the athletes will have reliable, if icy, runs to compete on. And sports fans can all be thankful for the technology that allows them to enjoy the high-speed spectacle put on by the brave souls who compete in the skiing and snowboarding events.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176339/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Veals works for, consults for and owns shares in Quantum Snow LLC. He receives funding from The National Science Foundation, U.S. Department of Energy, NASA, and NOAA. </span></em></p>Snowmaking machines can produce enough snow to cover a run, but artificial snow is very different from natural flakes that fall from the sky.Peter Veals, Professor of Atmospheric Science, University of UtahLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1751792022-01-20T16:16:32Z2022-01-20T16:16:32Z“How can we ever recover?”: French ski resorts are fighting for survival due to changing COVID travel restrictions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441476/original/file-20220119-15-1qmg6en.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=51%2C0%2C5760%2C3802&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/skier-skiing-downhill-valle-blanche-french-534140185">Shutterstock/gorillaimages</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Before COVID, the winter sports tourism industry was worth over <a href="https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/life-culture/ski-industry-faces-steep-slope-with-virus-warming">€70 billion (£58.2 billion) a year globally</a>, with ski resorts <a href="https://cdn.whu.edu/fileadmin/Faculty/Centers/Center_for_Sports_and_Management/2021_WHU_CSM_Future_of_Winter_Sports_vf.pdf">expanding across the world</a>. The pandemic then led to a <a href="https://www.vanat.ch/ski-resorts-english">stark decrease</a> in visitor numbers, with a major <a href="https://www.economist.com/europe/2021/02/25/skiing-without-lifts-in-france">impact on revenues</a> and livelihoods. </p>
<p>Resorts in France were dealt a further blow in mid-December 2021 when all non-essential travel from the UK <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-59708107">was banned</a> in the wake of the surging omicron variant.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/macron-s-covid-strategy-is-to-blame-it-on-britain">Some have suggested</a> that the restrictions were implemented as a political move connected to recent disputes between the UK and France over <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/dec/12/france-drops-threat-of-trade-war-over-post-brexit-fishing-rights">fishing</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/26/world/europe/france-uk-migrants-english-channel.html">migration</a>. But, whatever the reason, the restrictions (now lifted) have significantly damaged French ski resorts desperate for some respite. </p>
<p>In early January 2022, I spoke to workers in the Portes du Soleil region, as part of an ongoing project exploring the impact of COVID on tourism. As one of the two biggest ski regions in the world (alongside Les Trois Vallées), Portes du Soleil covers 13 resorts between Mont Blanc in France and Lake Geneva in Switzerland.</p>
<p>A business owner in the French resort of Avoriaz described altering restrictions for a second consecutive season “as highly damaging” – even more so than the previous year’s closures. A chalet host claimed that the recent travel ban made the country look “pompous”, and had done serious economic harm. </p>
<p>Many of the people I spoke to said a key issue in resorts near the border with Switzerland was the difference in travel restrictions between the neighbouring countries. In November 2020, France <a href="https://planetski.eu/2021/11/22/france-confirms-rules-for-ski-resorts/">closed the lifts</a> in all 250 of its ski areas for the season, while the majority in Switzerland <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/with-ski-resorts-closed-across-europe-die-hards-descend-on-switzerland-11608382801">remained open</a>. And although the French government <a href="https://www.archyde.com/the-government-to-the-rescue-of-ski-resorts/">paid compensation</a> to hoteliers, ski operators, restaurants and retailers, the impact of the closure <a href="https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210120-france-to-keep-ski-lifts-shut-due-to-covid-19-in-blow-to-winter-sports-tourism">was catastrophic</a>. </p>
<p>One restaurant manager from the resort of Chatel (France) told me: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Some of our neighbours ten minutes away in the resort of Morgins (Switzerland) made over 55% of their pre-COVID income [last winter]. We made absolutely nothing last season. Now they introduce these restrictions during one of the busiest times of the season. How can we ever recover when they keep changing the rules?</p>
</blockquote>
<p>An estate agent in the resort of Morzine explained how many chalet businesses had been struggling to attract both visitors and workers. She said “more than a third” of the resort’s chalets are expected to be empty for the whole of the current season. She added: “I don’t understand how the authorities expect businesses to survive.” </p>
<p>A chalet manager in the neighbouring resort of Les Gets also described how rival companies in the region had decided to sell their chalets or cease to be “snow rentals” due to the uncertainty that businesses believe will continue to dominate next winter.</p>
<h2>A slippery slope</h2>
<p>Indeed, many residents, resort staff and business owners are worried about an annual trend of new COVID variants. They believe this could lead to a repeat of the issues this season, in which individual countries set different rules and restrictions on travel. </p>
<p>As one owner explained: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>These rules for different countries and new annual variants will ruin the winter sport industry. The ministers in each country clearly don’t communicate with each other – so they don’t understand what we are going through.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>French ski resorts, many of which rely <a href="https://www.thelocal.fr/20211219/france-to-compensate-ski-resorts-hit-by-ban-on-british-tourists/">heavily on British tourists</a>, <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1242161/mountain-resorts-overnight-stays-france/">lost over 50% of their visitors in the winter of 2020-21</a>. Meanwhile, over the same period, domestic tourism in Swiss ski resorts increased by <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/ffe70ca7-7c1d-4b01-85f4-e09f1c3915c3">nearly 30%</a> and restaurants were able to continue with outdoor dining. </p>
<p>Nicolas Rubin, <a href="https://www.voanews.com/a/europe_covid-rules-divide-adjacent-french-swiss-ski-resorts/6199781.html">the mayor of Chatel</a>, was so exasperated by blanket restrictions for French resorts that he displayed Swiss flags outside of the town hall for a week in protest in November 2020.</p>
<p>On January 14 2022, France’s reopening of their borders to UK visitors led to a <a href="https://www.euronews.com/travel/2022/01/14/french-ski-bookings-skyrocket-as-ban-on-uk-tourists-is-lifted">dramatic surge</a> in bookings. This could salvage some of the current season, but the damage already done should not be ignored. </p>
<p>As many countries make <a href="https://www.politico.eu/article/austrias-vaccination-mandate-to-apply-from-february-1/">vaccination mandatory</a> for entry, some staff believe winter resorts will never again reach pre-COVID levels.</p>
<p>The people I spoke with made it clear that many in the winter-sports industry are seriously concerned about the continuing effects of COVID and the lack of agreement between different countries over entry restrictions. Livelihoods are at stake as resorts try to predict what the future holds for tourist numbers in the years ahead. As one barman commented to me: “There will be [some] who are never going to return.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175179/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leon Davis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Industry insiders say winter tourism has been battered by the pandemic.Leon Davis, Senior Lecturer in Events Management, Teesside UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1622232021-07-14T12:24:32Z2021-07-14T12:24:32ZDon’t hike so close to me: How the presence of humans can disturb wildlife up to half a mile away<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409534/original/file-20210702-21-b9n87d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=55%2C15%2C1802%2C855&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What are you looking at?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/RvnoYa">Greg Shine, BLM/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Millions of Americans are traveling this summer as pandemic restrictions wind down. <a href="https://www.vogue.com/article/2021s-biggest-summer-travel-trend-the-great-outdoors">Rental bookings</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/overcrowded-us-national-parks-need-a-reservation-system-158864">crowds in national parks</a> show that many people are headed for the great outdoors.</p>
<p>Seeing animals and birds is one of the main draws of spending time in nature. But as researchers who study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-Spw_2cAAAAJ&hl=en">conservation</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=uflMR0gAAAAJ&hl=en">wildlife</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=DHusKacAAAAJ&hl=en">human impacts on wild places</a>, we believe it’s important to know that you can have major effects on wildlife just by being nearby. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.44.63270">recent review</a> of hundreds of studies covering many species, we found that the presence of humans can alter wild animal and bird behavior patterns at much greater distances than most people may think. Small mammals and birds may change their behavior when hikers or birders come within 300 feet (100 meters) – the length of a football field. Large birds like eagles and hawks can be affected when humans are over 1,300 feet (400 meters) away – roughly a quarter of a mile. And large mammals like elk and moose can be affected by humans up to 3,300 feet (1,000 meters) away – more than half a mile. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409530/original/file-20210702-19-142k85b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Elk viewed over a hiker's shoulder." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409530/original/file-20210702-19-142k85b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409530/original/file-20210702-19-142k85b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409530/original/file-20210702-19-142k85b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409530/original/file-20210702-19-142k85b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409530/original/file-20210702-19-142k85b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409530/original/file-20210702-19-142k85b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/409530/original/file-20210702-19-142k85b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A hiker about 75 feet from a bull elk in Yellowstone National Park.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/YFPp56">Jacob W. Frank, NPS/Flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many recent studies and reports have shown that the world is facing a <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/05/nature-decline-unprecedented-report/">biodiversity crisis</a>. Over the past 50 years, Earth has lost so many species that many scientists believe the planet is experiencing its <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-mass-extinction-and-are-we-in-one-now-122535">sixth mass extinction</a> – due mainly to human activities. </p>
<p>Protected areas, from local open spaces to national parks, are vital for conserving plants and animals. They also are places where people like to spend time in nature. We believe that everyone who uses the outdoors should understand and respect this balance between outdoor recreation, sustainable use and conservation. </p>
<h2>How human presence affects wildlife</h2>
<p>Pandemic lockdowns in 2020 confined many people indoors – and wildlife responded. In Istanbul, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-52459487">dolphins ventured much closer to shore than usual</a>. <a href="https://www.businessinsider.co.za/penguins-roads-2020-4">Penguins explored quiet South African Streets</a>. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/gallery/2021/jan/22/israels-ibex-make-the-most-of-lockdown-in-pictures">Nubian ibex grazed on Israeli playgrounds</a>. The fact that animals moved so freely without people present shows how wild species change their behavior in response to human activities.</p>
<p>Decades of research have shown that outdoor recreation, whether it’s hiking, cross-country skiing or riding all-terrain vehicles, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167259">has negative effects on wildlife</a>. The most obvious signs are behavioral changes: Animals may flee from nearby people, decrease the time they feed and abandon nests or dens.</p>
<p>Other effects are harder to see, but can have serious consequences for animals’ health and survival. Wild animals that detect humans can experience physiological changes, such as increased heart rates and elevated levels of stress hormones. </p>
<p>And humans’ outdoor activities can degrade habitat that wild species depend on for food, shelter and reproduction. <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/07/humans-predators-mountain-lions-landscape-of-fear/594187/">Human voices</a>, <a href="https://www.oregonmetro.gov/sites/default/files/2017/09/28/impacts-of-dogs-on-wildlife-water-quality-science-review.pdf">off-leash dogs</a> and <a href="https://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/environment/your-campsite-destroying-nature/">campsite overuse</a> all have harmful effects that make habitat unusable for many wild species.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/D3x3oVKdzhI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Disturbing shorebirds can cause them to stop eating, stop feeding their young or flee their nests, leaving chicks vulnerable.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Effects of human presence vary for different species</h2>
<p>For our study we examined 330 peer-reviewed articles spanning 38 years to locate thresholds at which recreation activities negatively affected wild animals and birds. The main thresholds we found were related to distances between wildlife and people or trails. But we also found other important factors, including the number of daily park visitors and the decibel levels of people’s conversations.</p>
<p>The studies that we reviewed covered over a dozen different types of motorized and nonmotorized recreation. While it might seem that motorized activities would have a bigger impact, some studies have found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-263X.2008.00019.x">dispersed “quiet” activities, such as day hiking, biking and wildlife viewing</a>, can also affect which wild species will use a protected area. </p>
<p>Put another way, many species may be disturbed by humans nearby, even if those people are not using motorboats or all-terrain vehicles. It’s harder for animals to detect quiet humans, so there’s a better chance that they’ll be surprised by a cross-country skier than a snowmobile, for instance. In addition, some species that have been historically hunted are more likely to recognize – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.06.026">and flee from – a person walking</a> than a person in a motorized vehicle.</p>
<p>Generally, larger animals need more distance, though the relationship is clearer for birds than mammals. We found that for birds, as bird size increased, so did the threshold distance. The smallest birds could tolerate humans within 65 feet (20 meters), while the largest birds had thresholds of roughly 2,000 feet (600 meters). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1590/s1984-46702015000600002">Previous research</a> has found a similar relationship. We did not find that this relationship existed as clearly for mammals.</p>
<p>We found little research on impact thresholds for amphibians and reptiles, such as lizards, frogs, turtles and snakes. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.538">growing body of evidence</a> shows that amphibians and reptiles are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.01.001">disturbed</a> and negatively affected by recreation. So far, however, it’s unclear whether those effects reflect mainly the distance to people, the number of visitors or other factors.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407795/original/file-20210623-26-n3youq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic showing distances at which human presence affects animals' behavior." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407795/original/file-20210623-26-n3youq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407795/original/file-20210623-26-n3youq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407795/original/file-20210623-26-n3youq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407795/original/file-20210623-26-n3youq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407795/original/file-20210623-26-n3youq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407795/original/file-20210623-26-n3youq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407795/original/file-20210623-26-n3youq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Human recreation starts to affect wild creatures’ behavior and physical state at different distances. Small mammals and birds tolerate closer recreation than do larger birds of prey and large mammals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sarah Markes</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How to reduce your impact on wildlife</h2>
<p>While there’s much still to learn, we know enough to identify some simple actions people can take to minimize their impacts on wildlife. First, keep your distance. Although some species or individual animals will become used to human presence at close range, many others won’t. And it can be hard to tell when you are stressing an animal and potentially endangering both it and yourself. </p>
<p>Second, respect closed areas and stay on trails. For example, in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, wildlife managers <a href="https://rootsrated.com/stories/dont-poach-the-powder-campaign-helps-protect-wildlife-in-the-winter">seasonally close some backcountry ski areas</a> to protect critical habitat for bighorn sheep and reduce stress on other species like moose, elk and mule deer. And rangers in Maine’s Acadia National Park <a href="https://www.nps.gov/acad/learn/news/trails-close-for-peregrine-nesting.htm">close several trails annually near peregrine falcon nests</a>. This reduces stress to nesting birds and has <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/peregrine-falcons-in-acadia.htm">helped this formerly endangered species recover</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/B89vyKwFlsZ","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Getting involved with educational or volunteer programs is a great way to learn about wildlife and help maintain undisturbed areas. As our research shows, balancing recreation with conservation means opening some areas to human use and keeping others entirely or mostly undisturbed. </p>
<p>As development <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500052">fragments wild habitat</a> and climate change forces many species to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1913007117">shift their ranges</a>, movement corridors between protected areas become even more important. Our research suggests that creating recreation-free wildlife corridors of at least 3,300 feet (1,000 meters) wide can enable most species to move between protected areas without disturbance. Seeing wildlife can be part of a fun outdoor experience – but for the animals’ sake, you may need binoculars or a zoom lens for your camera.</p>
<p>[<em>Get our best science, health and technology stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-best">Sign up for The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162223/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremy Dertien receives funding from Sonoma Land Trust</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Courtney Larson received funding from the California Department of Fish and Wildlife.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Reed receives funding from Sonoma Land Trust. </span></em></p>Outdoor recreation is booming across the US, but research shows that the presence of humans – or the trails they hike and ski on – can have harmful effects on wildlife at less-than-close range.Jeremy Dertien, PhD Candidate in Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson UniversityCourtney Larson, Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of WyomingSarah Reed, Affiliate Faculty in Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Colorado State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1534792021-02-19T13:38:00Z2021-02-19T13:38:00ZCOVID-19 has crippled the winter sports industry – but a digital revolution will help it recover<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/384240/original/file-20210215-21-su8xko.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=83%2C44%2C914%2C489&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/skiing-jumping-skier-extreme-winter-sports-1187224186">Shutterstock/Artur Didyk</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It was all going so well. When China sparked the greatest winter sports boom in history by trying to inspire 300m people ahead of the Olympics in Beijing in 2022, the forecast for the industry was great. The 2018/2019 season was the most successful for 20 years, as the American and European markets were thriving too. </p>
<p>Then the pandemic hit, and winter sports, like many other industries, <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/01367cf5-f7d8-48ae-9410-a52cdd33f94f">were severely affected</a>. But our recent research suggests the technological developments the pandemic has also ushered in could help secure its future by changing the way elite sportspeople and amateurs approach the sports they love.</p>
<p>The pandemic’s impact has been widespread. Ski resorts, hotels, bars and tourism operators have all been affected, as have a whole range of suppliers who depend on demand from these organisations. </p>
<p>While some venues can at least remain open and maintain operations, others have had to shut down entirely <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/21/blow-for-french-ski-resorts-as-covid-rules-hit-holiday-season">for the time being.</a>. Equipment manufacturers and retailers will be worrying about full warehouses that are <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/ski/articles/how-ski-shops-are-staying-afloat-during-the-pandemic/">waiting for buying customers</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ledauphine.com/societe/2021/01/06/stations-de-ski-soit-on-ouvre-ultra-rapidement-soit-on-est-morts">Many businesses</a> will not have the financial stamina and resilience to carry on. It is clear the industry will have to adapt to survive. </p>
<p>We investigated the future of winter sports by soliciting opinions from a diverse panel of experts from 15 countries. They included industry officials, former elite athletes, managing directors of ski resorts, technology experts, equipment manufacturers, esports video game developers and media representatives. Our <a href="https://cdn.whu.edu/fileadmin/Faculty/Centers/Center_for_Sports_and_Management/2021_WHU_CSM_Future_of_Winter_Sports_vf.pdf">report</a> aimed to nurture a discussion on the future of the sector.</p>
<p>The experts, surveyed in November 2020, believe that winter sports will take at least two to three years to reach pre-COVID-19 levels (for example, in terms of live attendance at ski events). But, perhaps surprisingly, a clear majority of 30 out of 53 said they thought the pandemic would change the industry slightly for the better. And this was despite the severe, short-term challenges. </p>
<p>This positive development related mainly to rapidly advancing digitisation. In fact, our experts told us that COVID-19 may have forced the industry to improve its digital offering. </p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-digital/our-insights/the-covid-19-recovery-will-be-digital-a-plan-for-the-first-90-days">data</a> gathered during the pandemic, digitisation has been catapulted forwards in many industries and businesses, with five years’ worth of adoption of new technology happening within a couple of weeks. The most obvious examples include using the internet to work, teach or study, buy groceries or consult health professionals from home.</p>
<h2>High-tech impact</h2>
<p>Our experts emphasised that technology could also change winter sports for the better as they become increasingly high-tech. In particular, <a href="https://www.skijournal.com/creative-innovation-boosts-performance-in-these-2021-ski-models/">advanced materials</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337259240_From_Sensor_Data_to_Coaching_in_Alpine_Skiing_-_A_Software_Design_to_Facilitate_Immediate_Feedback_in_Sports">sensors</a> are due to have have a big impact over the next five years.</p>
<p>For example, in alpine skiing there are systems known as inertial measurement units which use accelerometers, gyroscopes and magnetometers to measures the body’s specific force, angular rate and orientation. This all helps to calculate and capture data about a skier’s pose and movements.</p>
<p>Our research found that such technology could have a big impact on the performance of elite athletes. For example, integrated measuring systems could allow the verification of feedback from professional skiers during training when they report issues with their skis, like when they become shaky or unstable.</p>
<p>For amateurs, sensor-based technology could help make improvements by providing on-slope feedback and <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-35048-2_11">coaching</a> on skiing technique for issues like skidding in turns (and how to avoid it). <a href="https://dlmag.com/become-a-better-skier-with-snowcookie-wearables/#:%7E:text=What%20exactly%20is%20a%20Snowcookie,a%20degree%20of%20inherent%20risk.">Smart wearable sensors</a> measuring skiers’ movement and body position could further increase both safety (by measuring fatigue) and overall experience (by improving skills). </p>
<p>Beyond performance, our experts felt the biggest impact of technology on skiers in resorts would be from smart tracking systems for live information on how busy lifts, routes and restaurants are. Contactless features, such as cashless payments, will also become the norm by 2025. In fact, many resorts might be able to provide almost entirely contactless experiences by then.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An infographic detailing different technologies used in winter sports." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379692/original/file-20210120-13-1gc2qna.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/379692/original/file-20210120-13-1gc2qna.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379692/original/file-20210120-13-1gc2qna.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379692/original/file-20210120-13-1gc2qna.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379692/original/file-20210120-13-1gc2qna.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=588&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379692/original/file-20210120-13-1gc2qna.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=588&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/379692/original/file-20210120-13-1gc2qna.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=588&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Our survey showed a range of benefits that technology will have on the future of winter sports.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mastercard</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another area of major technical advancement that experts predict to see by 2025 comes in the form of <a href="https://www.fis-ski.com/en/international-ski-federation/apps-gaming/esports-alpine-world-ski-championships-cortina-2021">esports and gaming</a>. Although video games are unlikely to become one of the main drivers of the success of winter sports by 2025, online offers and activities will play a major role in reaching younger generations and people in areas lacking the necessary winter facilities.</p>
<p>In areas like this, simulations will have a significant impact on overall accessibility, according to 43% of our experts. They said that virtual technology will also give people with disabilities a chance to experience the sport. </p>
<p>So digitisation and new technology are providing some reasons for hope in the winter sports industry. There is still a long way to go but our experts believe that if the sector can adapt and innovate, then it will survive and perhaps even prosper in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153479/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mastercard had commissioned the reseach study which is public</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicolas Frevel does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A panel of winter sports experts told us that pandemic-enforced technological advances are providing hope for the shattered sector.Sascha L. Schmidt, Professor and Director, Center for Sports and Management, WHU – Otto Beisheim School of ManagementNicolas Frevel, PhD Candidate, WHU – Otto Beisheim School of ManagementLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1407702020-06-16T03:39:00Z2020-06-16T03:39:00ZPlanning a snow holiday? How to reduce your coronavirus risk at Thredbo, Perisher or Mount Buller<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341817/original/file-20200615-65956-1h499gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C62%2C4181%2C2728&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’re lucky enough to be able to afford a winter holiday, some good news: ski fields are reopening across the country as coronavirus restrictions continue to ease.</p>
<p>This makes the slopes perhaps more attractive than they’ve ever been. Indeed, the website of one of New South Wales’ most popular venues, Thredbo, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-12/thredbo-website-crashes-as-thousands-scramble-to-get-passes/12347756">crashed last week</a> as 25,000 customers tried to buy a lift pass at once – the largest volume the resort had ever experienced on its online store.</p>
<p>What’s more, skiing is great exercise and also good for both the tourism industry and the economy. And it’s an outdoor activity (which makes it safer than indoor activities as far as COVID-19 risk is concerned).</p>
<p>But there are still risks. So how do you stay safe on the slopes?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-stay-safe-in-restaurants-and-cafes-139117">How to stay safe in restaurants and cafes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>When do they open?</h2>
<p>Ski resorts in <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-15/one-week-countdown-to-the-start-of-the-nsw-2020-ski-season/12354840">NSW</a> and <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-11/victorian-ski-season-to-operate-at-half-capacity-due-to-covid-19/12343714">Victoria</a> are allowed to open from June 22, which is just around the corner.</p>
<p>Both <a href="https://www.thredbo.com.au/about-thredbo/covid-19-update/">Thredbo</a> and <a href="https://www.mtbuller.com.au/Winter/resort-info/latest-news/details/green-light-for-season">Mount Buller</a> are scheduled to reopen on that date, while <a href="https://www.fallscreek.com.au/">Falls Creek</a>, <a href="https://www.mthotham.com.au/discover/connect-with-us/latest-news/covid-19-update">Mount Hotham</a> and <a href="https://www.perisher.com.au/plan-your-trip/new-to-perisher/covid19-update">Perisher</a> will launch two days later. <a href="https://charlottepass.com.au/">Charlotte Pass</a> opens on June 26.</p>
<p>Many of these holiday spots have COVID-19 advice on their websites, which is worth reading closely before you book.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341816/original/file-20200615-65961-1xcx67n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341816/original/file-20200615-65961-1xcx67n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/341816/original/file-20200615-65961-1xcx67n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341816/original/file-20200615-65961-1xcx67n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341816/original/file-20200615-65961-1xcx67n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341816/original/file-20200615-65961-1xcx67n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341816/original/file-20200615-65961-1xcx67n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/341816/original/file-20200615-65961-1xcx67n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Good news: the coronavirus pandemic won’t prevent you from throwing snowballs at your friends.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP/Perisher</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Caution required</h2>
<p>The risk of contracting COVID-19 in the community is much reduced thanks to all our efforts over the previous few months. But we still need to still be cautious and sensible as we navigate the next phase with our newly granted freedoms. </p>
<p>There is no doubt things will be different this year on the slopes, as ski companies <a href="https://www.mthotham.com.au/discover/connect-with-us/latest-news/covid-19-update">do what they can</a> to make sure you’re safe.</p>
<p>Some extra planning and care can reduce the coronavirus risks to you, your loved ones and the community. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heading-back-to-the-gym-heres-how-you-can-protect-yourself-and-others-from-coronavirus-infection-139681">Heading back to the gym? Here's how you can protect yourself and others from coronavirus infection</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Planning your holiday</h2>
<p>The first and most important rule: stay home if you are sick. This should go without saying but if you have any symptoms, such as a sore throat or fever, get tested. Consider cancelling your holiday until you know you’re COVID-19-free.</p>
<p>You could also consider downloading the <a href="https://www.health.gov.au/resources/apps-and-tools/covidsafe-app?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIrdnL-4CF6gIVWQ4rCh26KwYyEAAYASAAEgJNnvD_BwE">COVIDSafe app</a> before you set off and make sure you know how to use it.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/covidsafe-tracking-app-reviewed-the-government-delivers-on-data-security-but-other-issues-remain-137249">COVIDSafe tracking app reviewed: the government delivers on data security, but other issues remain</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Remember, all ski slopes in Australia will limit numbers to ensure people can maintain social distancing.</p>
<p>Demand for ski holidays will be great, with overseas getaway options limited. But many ski resorts will operate at <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-11/victorian-ski-season-to-operate-at-half-capacity-due-to-covid-19/12343714">about 50% capacity</a> to ensure social distancing, which means some people may miss out on accommodation and lift passes.</p>
<p>Furthermore, all resorts are asking people to book resort entry and lift passes well ahead of time, to help with planning. Same-day lift ticket sales will not be available at many resorts.</p>
<p>Besides the usual warm clothing, pack hand sanitiser and perhaps even a few face masks for times you’re not able to physically distance.</p>
<h2>What will the new normal look like?</h2>
<p>Ski resorts face a range of challenges in dealing with the pandemic, and you should expect things to feel very different.</p>
<p>Aside from limiting numbers to ensure patrons can physically distance, resorts will have to institute rigorous cleaning protocols.</p>
<p>And the usual international ski workers will not be available due to travel restrictions.</p>
<p>Resorts are placing limits on classes. Although some <a href="https://www.perisher.com.au/plan-your-trip/new-to-perisher/covid19-update">are running</a> lessons for adults, others are <a href="https://www.mtbuller.com.au/Winter/ski-snowboard-school/lessons">not running group lessons</a> at all. Thredbo and Mount Buller are offering private lessons only. Make sure to check your destination’s rules before leaving.</p>
<p>There will be strict enforcement of social distancing in queues and limitations in the numbers on ski lifts. Mt Hotham is restricting ski lifts to <a href="https://www.mthotham.com.au/discover/connect-with-us/latest-news/covid-19-update">two people per quad chair</a> and asks that you only ride with those you’re sharing accommodation with on the mountain. Like many resorts, it is also banning cash.</p>
<p>Indoor seating at cafes and restaurants will be strictly limited and some resorts <a href="https://www.perisher.com.au/plan-your-trip/new-to-perisher/covid19-update">advise</a> you to pack your own snacks and lunch.</p>
<p>Tobogganing and snow play is <a href="https://www.perisher.com.au/plan-your-trip/activities/snow-experience">prohibited</a> throughout Perisher this year, to reduce COVID-19 risk. </p>
<p>There will also be hand sanitiser stations and increased cleaning protocols, particularly of frequently touched surfaces such as lift guardrails. </p>
<h2>What about when you’re not skiing or snowboarding?</h2>
<p>What will be most obvious is the absence of events that bring large groups of people together at ski resorts. Restaurants and cafes will operate in line with their respective state guidelines, involving limits to the numbers of people allowed indoors.</p>
<p>And just like the rest of Australia currently, there will be no nightclubbing.</p>
<p>As with all our activities, it’s your own responsibility to stay safe by making sure you maintain hand hygiene and physical distancing wherever possible.</p>
<p>However, resorts will be adapting to the current situation to keep you safe. With a bit of planning and flexibility, it can be a great holiday for you and your family that also supports Australia’s tourism industry.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/as-coronavirus-restrictions-ease-heres-how-you-can-navigate-public-transport-as-safely-as-possible-138845">As coronavirus restrictions ease, here's how you can navigate public transport as safely as possible</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article is supported by the <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/partners/judith-neilson-institute">Judith Neilson Institute for Journalism and Ideas</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/140770/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hassan Vally does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If you’re lucky enough to be able to afford a ski trip, expect it to look different this year. Some extra planning, however, can lower the coronavirus risk to you, your loved ones and the community.Hassan Vally, Associate Professor, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1298622020-02-07T13:50:53Z2020-02-07T13:50:53ZThe dystopian experience of skiing in New Jersey’s new American Dream mall<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/314051/original/file-20200206-43108-mgl10n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C7%2C5145%2C3437&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Snowboarders and skiers enjoy the grand opening of Big Snow.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/American-Dream-Mall-Indoor-Skiing/e2703b67e4204b6081e3dfadf1573a1e/6/0">AP Photo/Seth Wenig</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 50 years of skiing, my first downhill run of 2020 was like nothing I had ever experienced. The 28-degree temperature and machine-made snow were familiar enough, but I ended up skiing through a windowless rectangular box, beneath girders and electric lights, and toward a mural of a swank ski lodge.</p>
<p>I was at “Big Snow,” an indoor ski slope at the new American Dream Meadowlands, a mall and amusement park in East Rutherford, New Jersey.</p>
<p>Whether the vast project will actually deliver the crowds and dollars that its promoters <a href="https://www.americandream.com/press">anticipate</a> remains to be seen. Though amusements like Big Snow and Nickelodeon Universe are up and running, most of the mall’s stores and restaurants are set to open in March.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.newark.rutgers.edu/about-us/have-you-met-rutgers-newark/robert-w-snyder">As a historian</a> and avid skier, what I find so jarring about the American Dream Meadowlands is the dissonance of its name and the timing of its completion. Its doors are opening just as malls around the country are shuttering, and as economic inequality and climate change have rendered the postwar vision of the <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/essay/senator-booker-american-dream-deferred">American Dream</a> – modest but real prosperity, a better life for all and little luxuries like the Saturday ski trips that brightened my youth – ever <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w22910">harder to attain</a> for ordinary Americans.</p>
<h2>Malls on life support</h2>
<p>The broad prosperity of the United States’ postwar years was built on <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/29448/a-consumers-republic-by-lizabeth-cohen/">mass consumption</a> made possible by good wages – often won by unions – for working- and middle-class Americans. <a href="https://www.njspotlight.com/2019/12/the-long-and-winding-road-how-the-garden-state-became-the-mall-state">Malls</a>, starting in the 1950s, were central to this enterprise. </p>
<p>As historian Lizabeth Cohen <a href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/4699748/cohen_town.pdf?sequence=2">points out</a>, malls were hardly innocent participants in the postwar economy: They drained shoppers, department stores and vitality from urban downtowns and suburban main streets. African Americans and Latinos in places like Newark, New Jersey, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/11/opinion/trying-to-buy-our-way-out-of-trouble.html">found themselves isolated</a> from the jobs and shopping opportunities found in malls, while their cities were sapped of tax revenue.</p>
<p>The economic growth that defined the postwar boom <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/291196/american-empire-by-joshua-freeman/">staggered</a> in the 1970s. When it resumed, it distributed wealth in ways that exacerbated economic inequality. By the 1990s, the security and social mobility that Americans once considered normal <a href="https://www.nber.org/papers/w22910">had withered</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/jun/19/-sp-death-of-the-american-shopping-mall">Malls</a>, meanwhile, experienced a steady and slow decline. Economic inequality weakened the middle class that long served as malls’ customer base. Then online shopping undermined the brick-and-mortar stores that populated malls. By the 21st century, the future of the traditional shopping mall was <a href="https://time.com/4865957/death-and-life-shopping-mall/">shaky at best</a>. </p>
<p>Look no further than the fate of Macy’s. The department store that has long served as an “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/02/04/macys-is-closing-125-stores-laying-off-2000-employees/">anchor</a>” for hundreds of malls <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/macy-s-to-close-125-department-stores-exit-weakest-malls-11580850007?mod=trending_now_2">announced</a> on Feb. 5 that it would close 125 stores in shopping centers across the United States.</p>
<h2>Xanadu in the swamps of New Jersey</h2>
<p>Nonetheless, in the Meadowlands American Dream forges on. </p>
<p>Developers broke ground in <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/10/06/nyregion/party-promotes-huge-meadowlands-project-as-critics-raise-concerns.html">2004</a> for its predecessor, a mall initially dubbed “Xanadu” after the pleasure dome in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem “<a href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43991/kubla-khan">Kubla Khan</a>.” Though its construction was halted by the 2008 recession, Xanadu <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/24/business/american-dream-meadowlands-mall.html">was reborn</a> as American Dream Meadowlands, a US$5 billion development built by the Triple Five Group, the same Canadian firm that constructed the Mall of America in Minnesota. A joint series by WNYC, NJ Spotlight and Bloomberg Businessweek <a href="https://www.njspotlight.com/2016/12/16-12-15-putting-a-price-tag-on-the-american-dream/">described</a> American Dream Meadowlands as “a labyrinth arrangement of private loans, bond sales, tax incentives and a public finance agency in Wisconsin.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/314039/original/file-20200206-43095-yvi8dl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C4%2C2982%2C1980&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/314039/original/file-20200206-43095-yvi8dl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314039/original/file-20200206-43095-yvi8dl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314039/original/file-20200206-43095-yvi8dl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314039/original/file-20200206-43095-yvi8dl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314039/original/file-20200206-43095-yvi8dl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/314039/original/file-20200206-43095-yvi8dl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The first portions of the mall finally opened in 2019 after nearly two decades of fits and starts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/American-Dream-Opening/f1397be2fb5046a6a65f8b73d66be00a/27/0">AP Photo/Julio Cortez, File</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If the financing of American Dream is byzantine, its rationale is straightforward. As shopping malls shut down because online retailing is siphoning off their customers, American Dream hopes to attract patrons by offering more amusements than stores. </p>
<p>The mall’s creators <a href="https://www.americandream.com/our-story">envision</a> that its pay-to-enter attractions like the DreamWorks Water Park and Big Snow – the first indoor ski hill in the U.S. – will be the draw that brings visitors, who will then go on to spend money in the stores. When visitors to American Dream shift from amusements to the task of shopping, they’ll have an <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/stores-opening-in-american-dream-mall-shopping-forever-21-sephora-2019-10">array</a> of stores to choose from, ranging from Forever 21 to <a href="https://www.hermes.com/us/en/bags-and-small-leather-goods/?gclid=Cj0KCQiA7OnxBRCNARIsAIW53B_80fmrHRyRxBvTZOEPgWi6hf3582hc57i2PV2vyVdohHr7YAwtX6AaAtsLEALw_wcB&gclsrc=aw.ds#%7C%7CCategory%26engineid%3DGOOGLE%26utm_campaign%3DG-TM-NATL-US-Bags-ST-Exact-HV%26utm_adgroup%3DTM-Bag%26utm_source%3Dgoogle%26utm_medium%3Dcpc%26utm_content%3Dtext%26utm_term%3Dhermes%2Bbag">Hermes</a>, where pocketbooks sell for thousands of dollars. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313403/original/file-20200203-41503-s78yw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313403/original/file-20200203-41503-s78yw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/313403/original/file-20200203-41503-s78yw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313403/original/file-20200203-41503-s78yw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313403/original/file-20200203-41503-s78yw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313403/original/file-20200203-41503-s78yw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313403/original/file-20200203-41503-s78yw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/313403/original/file-20200203-41503-s78yw7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The DreamWorks Water Park at the American Dream Meadowlands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/general-view-of-the-dream-works-water-park-at-the-american-news-photo/1193182810?adppopup=true">Kena Betancur/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I’m skeptical about the mall’s prospects. But beyond its profitability, there’s certain to be an environmental cost.</p>
<p>Think of the massive amounts of energy the mall will consume to keep Big Snow at 28 degrees year-round. And in an era when climate change and rising sea levels remind us of the importance of wetlands to absorb rain and storm surges, the mall slices off yet another piece of the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/northeast/njfieldoffice/pdf/Fact%20Sheets%20PDF%20holding/Meadowlands_restore_.pdf">Meadowlands</a>, leaving the mall and the region around it <a href="https://www.sierraclub.org/new-jersey/press-releases/0341">more vulnerable to flooding</a>.</p>
<h2>The emptiness of big-box skiing</h2>
<p>The skier in me keeps returning to the artificial slope. Global warming may be cutting into the <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/20/climate-change-is-taking-a-toll-on-the-20-billion-ski-industry.html">length</a> of <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-and/climate-skiing">ski seasons</a>. </p>
<p>But is the answer to build an artificially refrigerated ski slope on a wetlands? </p>
<p>Of course, outdoor downhill skiing is <a href="https://kansaspress.ku.edu/978-0-7006-1869-9.html">far from environmentally pure</a>. Badly cut <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/18ef/ebbf791f1d23a9d165354b27ecb32ddc2a60.pdf">trails</a> scar mountainsides, and at many ski resorts – with their slope side shops and condominiums – athletic pursuit <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3640295?seq=1">long ago gave way to real estate development</a>. </p>
<p>Yet of all the sports that boomed in the United States in the last century, <a href="https://kansaspress.ku.edu/978-0-7006-1341-0.html">skiing</a> offered people a special blend of grace, thrills and natural beauty. </p>
<p>The surge to the suburbs that redefined the United States in the prosperous decades after World War II was many things. But in part, it expressed a desire to <a href="http://www.doloreshayden.com/new-page-1">live closer to nature</a>. While it’s easy to mock postwar suburban landscapes as “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_2lGkEU4Xs">little boxes on a hillside</a>,” the impulse to live with trees and a lawn deserves some sympathy. And for those who wanted more adventure in their lives than shoveling snow in the winter and mowing lawns in the summer, skiing offered a break from daily drudgery. </p>
<p>Downhill skiing, a product of postwar prosperity and the American Dream, never entirely transcended the limits of its time. Despite a significant number of African American skiers, they are not included in the sport’s public image – a problem summed up in a brilliant essay by historian Annie Gilbert Coleman titled “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3640297?seq=1">The Unbearable Whiteness of Skiing</a>.”</p>
<p>But the sport nonetheless fostered community. Small, local resorts have long been part of the skiing scene in the <a href="https://www.timeout.com/new-york-kids/travel/ski-trips-near-nyc">New York metropolitan area</a>, <a href="https://www.boston.com/travel/travel/2018/10/29/5-little-new-england-ski-resorts">New England</a> and <a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2015/10/16/family-friendly-affordable-skiing-at-colorados-smaller-ski-resorts/">Colorado</a>. And cross-country skiing continues to offer natural snow and the silence of winter woodlands without the intrusions of ski lifts. The <a href="https://sgbonline.com/backcountry-boom-alpine-touring-business-on-the-right-track/">growth</a> in backcountry skiing in recent years is, in part, a reaction against crowded resorts and a desire to ski <a href="http://granitebackcountryalliance.org/objectives">untracked terrain</a>. </p>
<p>Most of my skiing is <a href="https://www.betatrails.org/jackrabbit-ski-trail.html">cross-country</a>, which brings me to serene and remote places that I would never otherwise get to. Downhill gives me mountaintop vistas and manageable thrills. Big Snow provides none of these.</p>
<p>I left the American Dream Meadowlands bewildered. My muscles ached pleasantly the way they usually do after skiing, but I didn’t feel the sense of ease and satisfaction that I associate with a good day in the outdoors.</p>
<p>As I headed for my car, a construction worker laboring to finish the stores in time for their March opening asked me what Big Snow was like. I said it was different. He said that he liked to ski but was planning to go to Gore Mountain in the Adirondacks. I told him that was the better bet.</p>
<p>[ <em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129862/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert W. Snyder does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Skiing in a mall is bizarre enough. But a mall dubbed the ‘American Dream’ – when malls are vanishing, along with the postwar vision of the American Dream – is its own brand of eerie dissonance.Robert W. Snyder, Professor of Journalism and American Studies, Rutgers University - NewarkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1288102020-01-02T09:33:14Z2020-01-02T09:33:14ZJanuary blues: cross-country skiers hold clues to beating it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306637/original/file-20191212-85417-1hwupm6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">gorillaimages</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s that time of the year again. The festive season is over and we are left with the prospect of months of darkness and nothing to celebrate. So what can you do to avoid feeling down? Our study, recently <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165178119307796?via%3Dihub">published in Psychiatry Research</a>, followed almost 200,000 long-distance skiers for up to two decades, and we found that skiers are 50% less likely to develop depression than the general population.</p>
<p>So what’s their secret? And can you benefit from the results without actually taking up skiing? </p>
<p>In 1922, a 90km race was arranged for the first time in Sweden. The world’s largest long-distance ski race was born and named “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasaloppet">Vasaloppet</a>” after a former Swedish king, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_I_of_Sweden">Gustav Vasa</a>. In Sweden, we have a penchant for setting up registries. Since 1989, it has been possible to track all Swedes participating in the race. Together with Swedish patient and population registries, it’s a goldmine for exercise research. </p>
<p>Previous studies have shown that Vasaloppet skiers are significantly <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1046/j.1365-2796.2003.01122.x">more physically active</a>, have a better diet, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ehjqcco/article/4/2/91/4829759">smoke less and live longer</a> than the general population. In our study, we investigated how often these skiers were affected by depression compared to people of the same sex and age in the general population. In total, the study included almost 400,000 people (40% women), skiers and non-skiers. </p>
<h2>Psychology and brain chemicals</h2>
<p>We think that the lower risk of depression in skiers is mainly due to their <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-exercise-can-boost-your-brain-function-95506">physically active lifestyle</a>. Skiers also spend a substantial amount of time outdoors, and sunlight exposure is associated with a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2908269/">reduced risk of depression</a>. However, previous studies show that physical activity <a href="https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004366.pub6/full">has a more important effect</a> compared only to light therapy. But physical activity and being outdoors might offer a powerful combination to prevent depression.</p>
<p>In addition, natural environments appear to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-tranquil-spaces-can-help-people-feel-calm-and-relaxed-in-cities-82358">improve how we cope with stress</a>. </p>
<p>But since we still lack knowledge about what actually causes depression, it is difficult to elucidate exactly how physical activity reduces the risk. It is likely that exercise affects psychological as well as molecular factors related to depression. </p>
<p>Psychologically, exercise might distract you from negative thoughts. In addition, being physically active might <a href="https://theconversation.com/running-not-so-much-a-liberating-hobby-as-a-cult-127765">make you feel better as a person</a> because you are doing something regarded as beneficial by society</p>
<p>So what if skiing attracts people that are already very happy, whereas the more sad people susceptible to getting depressed do not want to participate to begin with? In the Vasaloppet study, we tried to control for this by additional analysis, excluding all skiers and non-skiers diagnosed with depression within the first five years after being included in the study. Even though taking this into consideration, skiers still had about 50% lower risk of depression. </p>
<p>Physically speaking, exercise has also been shown to affect inflammation and the stress system in the brain, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1545968314562108?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed">two systems linked to depression</a>. In addition, exercise increases secretion of endorphins, “feel-good” molecules, in the brain. Physical activity also stimulates neuronal growth factors. However, most of these discoveries have been made in animal studies with short follow up and need to be repeated in humans. </p>
<h2>Gender differences</h2>
<p>The risk of getting depression was equally reduced among skiing men and women compared to the general population. However, among men, skiers completing the race faster had a further decreased risk of later depression compared to slower men. This indicates some kind of dose-response relationship regarding physical fitness level and the risk of depression. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306636/original/file-20191212-85386-1fw5w5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306636/original/file-20191212-85386-1fw5w5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306636/original/file-20191212-85386-1fw5w5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306636/original/file-20191212-85386-1fw5w5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306636/original/file-20191212-85386-1fw5w5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306636/original/file-20191212-85386-1fw5w5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306636/original/file-20191212-85386-1fw5w5j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vasaloppet is a cross-country skiing competition in Sweden.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Vasaloppet/Nisse Schmidt -</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The fastest skiing women also had a lower risk of depression compared to women in the general population. Interestingly though, unlike men, faster skiing women did not show any further decreased risk of depression compared to slower women. Our study does not reveal why women who ski faster do not have the same additional benefit as men who do. Even though male and female brains differ, these discrepancies might also be explained by other factors. For instance, it has been shown that reasons for exercising <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5033515/">might be a better predictor</a> of mental wellbeing than the actual exercise level in women, but not in men. </p>
<h2>Staying healthy and happy</h2>
<p>Our study offers a unique possibility to study the effect of a physically active lifestyle on the development of depression in a large study population over a long time. Participation in Vasaloppet is a particular kind of activity, but numerous studies indicate that it <a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17111194?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed">might not matter</a> what kind of physical activity you are doing to promote mental wellbeing as long as you are active. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, more tactile sports that put you at risk of recurrently occurring concussions – such as football, boxing and hockey – might <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-we-discovered-that-heading-a-football-causes-impairment-of-brain-function-67468">increase the risk for future brain disorders</a>, including depression. On the other hand, athletes participating in team sports tend to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6683619/">report better mental health</a> compared to those engaged in individual sports. Social interaction also helps people stick with their exercise regime. </p>
<p>The research clearly shows that there are ways of reducing your risk of depression, and that exercise, being outdoors and being part of a team are all good approaches. So although we have seen great results for cross-country skiing, there are plenty of others options to improve your mental health.</p>
<p>It is also clear that the most important factor for success in sticking to an exercise routine is feeling motivated. So rather than torturing yourself at the gym with everyone else this January, why not try something you actually enjoy?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/128810/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martina Svensson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cross-country skiers are 50% less likely to develop depression than the general population.Martina Svensson, PhD Candidate, Lund UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1214062019-08-08T13:11:36Z2019-08-08T13:11:36ZClimate change will mean more multiyear snow droughts in the West<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287234/original/file-20190807-144843-1oaohbt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A valuable resource: Snowpack on Oregon's Mt. Hood.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/qLSJBo">USDA NRCS/Spencer Miller</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=NpvW4oYAAAAJ&hl=en">environmental scientist</a>, I’ve done plenty of hiking in the western U.S. – always with a map, water bottle and list of water sources. In dry areas it’s always smart to ration water until you get to a new source. Sometimes a stream has dried up for the season, or a pond is too scummy to drink from, so your supply has to stretch further than planned.</p>
<p>On one memorable hike, I found that a water source was dry. The next one, three miles later, was dry too. And the one after that had a dead bear carcass in it. While one dry water source was tolerable, several in a row created a serious problem. </p>
<p>Something similar is happening to snow resources in the western United States. Scientists have long known that the warming temperatures associated with climate change are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04141">diminishing</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-86-1-39">the region’s</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-018-0012-1">snowpack</a>, with more precipitation falling as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL060500">rain, rather than snow</a>. That’s a problem because snowpack is a critical resource, acting as a natural reservoir that stores winter precipitation.</p>
<p>In a newly published study, my colleagues <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=S1J4kAoAAAAJ&hl=en">John Abatzoglou</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=J5v6XjUAAAAJ&hl=en">Timothy Link</a>, <a href="https://sites.google.com/site/christopherjtennanthomepage/">Christopher Tennant</a> and I analyze year-to-year variations of future snowpack to see how frequently western states can expect multiple years in a row of <a href="https://www.drought.gov/drought/data-maps-tools/snow-drought">snow drought</a>, or very low snow. We find that if climate change continues relatively unabated, consecutive years with snow drought conditions will <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019GL083770">become much more common</a>, with impacts on cities, agriculture, forests, wildlife and winter sports.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ro_qgXwPVzI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">False-color imaging shows changes in snowpack (red) in California’s Sierra Nevada over the past 20 years.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Snow droughts affect ecoystems and people</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.watercalculator.org/water-use/importance-mountain-snowpack-water/">Snowpack</a> is a critical resource in the western U.S. and Canada. Snow melts and runs off in spring and summer, when cities, farms and forests need water. It supports animals such as <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/pubs/34712">wolverines</a> that depend on snow, and underpins winter sports industries. </p>
<p>Multiyear snow droughts are akin to drawing down a bank account for some of these important systems. For example, lower snow years typically have longer summer periods with low soil moisture. Trees and other plants may be able to survive these stresses for one year, but longer stretches could lead to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0388-5">increases in forest mortality</a>.</p>
<p>These periods also test western reservoirs, many of which are managed for dual purposes: Storing spring runoff for times of high water demand, and holding space for potential floodwaters. The amount of space allocated to storage versus flood control varies by time of year. </p>
<p>Water managers may need to update these rules to account for higher chances of snow drought or changes in the timing of snowmelt runoff. Rainfall is also a factor, and at least in California, total precipitation is projected to become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0140-y">increasingly variable</a> from year to year with climate change. </p>
<p>Snow droughts also affect the winter tourism industry. Ski resorts in lower-elevation areas with increasingly warm winters may be able to survive one year of poor snow conditions, but multiple low-snow years in a row may threaten their viability.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287232/original/file-20190807-144873-o9opf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287232/original/file-20190807-144873-o9opf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287232/original/file-20190807-144873-o9opf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287232/original/file-20190807-144873-o9opf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287232/original/file-20190807-144873-o9opf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287232/original/file-20190807-144873-o9opf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287232/original/file-20190807-144873-o9opf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287232/original/file-20190807-144873-o9opf6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Frank Gehrke, chief of the California Cooperative Snow Surveys Program, carries a snow pack measuring tube near Echo Summit, Calif., on April 1, 2015 – the first time Gehrke found no snow at this location on this date.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/California-Drought-Dismal-Snowpack/a262a5dd11e44b9bacb89e86a7025aef/179/0">AP Photo/Rich Pedroncelli</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Projecting future snows</h2>
<p>In our study we defined snow droughts as years with snowpack low enough to have historically occurred only one out of every four years or less. Such events occurred recently in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/EI-D-17-0027.1">Sierra Nevada between 2012-2015</a> and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/8/084009">Cascades in 2014-2015</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://climate.northwestknowledge.net/IntegratedScenarios/contact.php">Researchers</a> created the <a href="https://climate.northwestknowledge.net/IntegratedScenarios/">dataset we used</a> by first running 10 <a href="https://www.climate.gov/maps-data/primer/climate-models">global climate models</a> – computer programs that simulate historical and future climate based on a number of factors, including atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. </p>
<p>Like all climate projections, our estimates include some uncertainty. Each global climate model produces slightly different results; by analyzing all 10, we can be more confident in our conclusions when most of them agree on projected changes. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1012100762900389888"}"></div></p>
<p>These models produce data with a resolution of hundreds of kilometers. That doesn’t provide detailed information about conditions in the mountainous parts of the western U.S., where conditions vary dramatically over much smaller scales. To solve this problem, the modelers used a process called <a href="http://www.climatologylab.org/maca.html">downscaling</a> to develop results with much higher spatial resolution – in this case, to grid cells that measured about six kilometers on a side. </p>
<p>Then they loaded this climate data into a <a href="https://vic.readthedocs.io/en/master/">hydrologic model</a> that estimates daily snow accumulation and melt. We used the results from this hydrologic model to calculate changes in snowpack in future conditions, relative to historical conditions. </p>
<h2>Fewer big snow years</h2>
<p>Today, back-to-back snow droughts in the western U.S. occur around 7% of the time. By mid-century, if greenhouse gas emissions continue to increase, our results predict that multiyear snow droughts will occur in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019GL083770">42% of years on average</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287251/original/file-20190807-144862-fam407.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287251/original/file-20190807-144862-fam407.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287251/original/file-20190807-144862-fam407.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287251/original/file-20190807-144862-fam407.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287251/original/file-20190807-144862-fam407.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287251/original/file-20190807-144862-fam407.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287251/original/file-20190807-144862-fam407.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287251/original/file-20190807-144862-fam407.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Under a high-emission scenario, the West could experience multiyear snow drought 42% of the time on average.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019GL083770">Marshall et al., 2019.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In addition to projecting more frequent snow droughts, we also found that peak snowpack is projected to decline and become less variable in a warming climate across much of the mountainous West. This will mean there will be fewer very high-snow years to offset the impacts of low-snow years. </p>
<p>Another feature of changing snowpack is the timing of when it accumulates and melts. Generally, as the climate warms snow is melting earlier, which leads to earlier <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI3321.1">spring</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CLIM.0000013702.22656.e8">runoff</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL065855">less</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2018WR023087">water</a> available in summer. </p>
<p>In our study, we also found that in many places the timing of peak snowpack is projected to become more variable from year to year. We developed an <a href="https://snowvariability.nkn.uidaho.edu/">interactive tool</a> that allows users to explore this data on their own. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287229/original/file-20190807-144851-1ye6mc2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287229/original/file-20190807-144851-1ye6mc2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/287229/original/file-20190807-144851-1ye6mc2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287229/original/file-20190807-144851-1ye6mc2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287229/original/file-20190807-144851-1ye6mc2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287229/original/file-20190807-144851-1ye6mc2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287229/original/file-20190807-144851-1ye6mc2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/287229/original/file-20190807-144851-1ye6mc2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Screenshot of interactive data visualization tool developed for the snow drought study.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adrienne Marshall</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Planning for the future</h2>
<p>Our results are based on a future in which the world continues to rely on fossil fuels. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions would limit the impacts on western snowpack that we project. </p>
<p>On the hike where all of my water sources were dry, I was saved by a kind stranger. The trail intersected a road, and a passing driver gave me some water. Global climate change won’t be solved so easily: Addressing these issues will require major coordinated efforts to limit future warming and manage Earth’s natural resources strategically to provide for society’s needs and environmental conservation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121406/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrienne Marshall receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>New research forecasts that climate change will make multiyear stretches with low snow levels more common across western North America – bad news for water managers, farmers, foresters and skiers.Adrienne Marshall, Postdoctoral Fellow in Forest, Rangeland, and Fire Sciences, University of IdahoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1082192018-12-26T10:30:56Z2018-12-26T10:30:56ZWinter skiing holidays: how to get ski fit and avoid an injury<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250017/original/file-20181211-76959-1e3w0w8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>From Vail in the US to Val d’Isere in France, winter sports holidays are all the rage. And with <a href="https://denver.cbslocal.com/2013/11/19/ski-slopes-demographics-change-as-more-senior-skiers-suit-up/">more older people</a> now hitting the slopes, there has been an inevitable rise in <a href="http://www.thetravelmagazine.net/post-office-survey-says-half-of-holidaymakers-injured-while-skiing-were-not-covered-by-travel-insurance.html">snow sport-related injuries</a>. </p>
<p>The knee joint is especially vulnerable – accounting for <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0363546512472045">30% of all skiing injuries</a>. The most common knee injury is to the anterior cruciate ligament – known as the “ACL”. Skiing injury is the <a href="https://bradscholars.brad.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10454/14627/FULL%2520FINAL%2520SUBMISSION%2520ELECTRONIC%2520VERSION.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">third most common cause</a> of an ACL injury in Britain, after football and rugby. Most skiers suffering an ACL injury will require surgery followed by many months of rehabilitation. So the impact of an ACL injury should not be underestimated. </p>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40279-015-0334-7">The majority of injuries in the novice skier</a> occur as a result of a fall. In the more experienced skier, it’s most likely to happen when landing from a jump. But the good news is there are steps you can take to condition your body in readiness for your winter sports holiday – which will help to reduce your risk of knee injury. </p>
<p>Here’s our guide to getting ski ready. And although strength and conditioning feature heavily, it’s also important to think about cardiovascular fitness before you hit the slopes – as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17457300500480955?needAccess=true&redirect=1">many injuries occur as a result of fatigue</a>.</p>
<h2>Things to do before you go</h2>
<p>You should aim to start these exercises before the trip – ideally at least six weeks prior to skiing. All of the below exercises should be attempted for a minute initially with the aim to increase as you improve. </p>
<p><strong><em>Balance</em></strong></p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This will help work on your balance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With any snow sport good balance is essential with particular focus on dynamic balance so the ability to stay upright while on the move. Standing on one leg, reach for the points of an imaginary clock face. Swap legs and do it again. </p>
<p><strong><em>Lateral jumps</em></strong></p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bend your knees as you land to support your joints and aim to land on the balls of your feet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This exercise conditions the body to absorb shock, particularly useful in landing with an emphasis on a lateral direction weight shift. You should bend your knees to lower yourself into a squatting position. Keep your weight evenly distributed through both of your feet. Maintain a straight spine and a flat back. Avoid arching or curving your back and losing form while you jump to the side and then back again.</p>
<p><strong><em>Parallel rotation jumps</em></strong></p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Aim to keep your torso straight and use your arms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This promotes greater trunk strength and control while keeping the lower limb in a position conducive to parallel turns. Start from a squatting position and jump turn from side to side landing on the balls of your feet. Let your knees bend to absorb the shock and ensure that you keep your chest facing forwards throughout. </p>
<p><strong><em>Lunges with rotation</em></strong></p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=725&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=725&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=725&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Keep your front foot flat and bend into your knee.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This exercise for quadriceps with trunk rotation allows the body to fix in one area while being able to move in another. Starting from standing step straight forwards on one leg letting your knees bend. Once complete twist your upper body to the side and back again before returning to the start position. Repeat on the other leg. </p>
<p><strong><em>Calf stretches</em></strong></p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Use a wall for support and alternate these two stretches.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Flexibility in the calves is important when skiing as it to enables you to lean forward into your boots to keep a downward force on the front of your skis. Lack of flexibility means the ankle’s range of movement is more limited and may lead to excessive weight bearing through the heel – which can lead to a leaning back posture. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51783269_Events_leading_to_anterior_cruciate_ligament_injury_in_World_Cup_Alpine_Skiing_A_systematic_video_analysis_of_20_cases">Leaning backwards is one the main contributors</a> to falls leading to knee ligament injuries. </p>
<p><strong><em>Cardiovascular</em></strong></p>
<p>You should also aim to boost your cardiovascular fitness before you hit the slopes, to help your body deal with all the extra activity. You could use a cross trainer, attend a spinning class or even just start running. Interval training would also prepare you for the slopes as skiing involves bursts of activity over a longer duration of time. </p>
<h2>Things to do on the trip</h2>
<p>Warm up properly every day and wear appropriate clothing to keep you warm. Studies have shown that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21477163">you are more likely to get injured on colder days</a>. It’s also sensible to try and limit your alcohol intake, as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17457300500480955?needAccess=true&redirect=1">studies have shown</a> alcohol increases risk taking behaviour and reduces coordination increasing the likelihood of injury in skiers. And if you do drink, remember you may still be vulnerable the morning after. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Skiing can be exhilarating, but can also easily cause injury.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s also important to take regular breaks during the day. Take a rest day and make sure you get some sleep. Fatigue is not perceived to be a significant risk factor amongst skiers yet has been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17457300500480955?needAccess=true&redirect=1">linked to increased injury risk</a>. </p>
<p>Helmets are also a must. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0363546512472045">Head injury is significant risk</a> with any snow sport and is the third most common injury occurring in both skiers and snowboarders – and the consequences can be life changing. </p>
<p>It’s also important to make sure all your gear is fitting properly. Make sure your bindings (which connect your boot to your skis) are set right and regularly checked – and are appropriate for you proficiency level. People with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5733917/">incorrectly bound skis</a> are more likely to incur a knee injury, so this is a point worth remembering.</p>
<p>Yes, you might be on holidays and yes, skiing is fun, but accidents can and do happen quickly – so it’s worth spending a bit of time before you go getting your body ready for all the different movements it will need to make. This will help you to enjoy your time on the slopes, feel less tired and hopefully come home without any injuries.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/108219/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A few visits to the gym or a short jog around the block in the week before departure isn’t enough preparation.Paul Millington, Lecturer in Physiotherapy, University of BradfordColin Ayre, Lecturer in Physiotherapy, University of BradfordJamie Moseley, Lecturer in Sport Rehabilitation, University of BradfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/903602018-02-22T14:36:25Z2018-02-22T14:36:25ZOperation Gunnerside: The Norwegian attack on heavy water that deprived the Nazis of the atomic bomb<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207345/original/file-20180221-132642-1euc63m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C174%2C3626%2C2293&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Nazi atomic effort relied on work done in this remote lab.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vemork_Tinn.jpg">grob831</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>After handing them their suicide capsules, Norwegian Royal Army Colonel Leif Tronstad informed his soldiers, “I cannot tell you why this mission is so important, but if you succeed, it will live in Norway’s memory for a hundred years.”</p>
<p>These commandos did know, however, that an earlier attempt at the same mission by British soldiers had been a <a href="http://sciencenordic.com/heavy-water-mission-failed">complete failure</a>. Two gliders transporting the men had both crashed while en route to their target. The survivors were quickly captured by German soldiers, tortured and executed. If similarly captured, these Norwegians could expect the same fate as their British counterparts, hence the suicide pills.</p>
<p>Feb. 28 marks the 75th anniversary of Operation Gunnerside, and though it hasn’t yet been 100 years, the memory of this successful Norwegian mission remains strong both within Norway and beyond. Memorialized in <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0059263/">movies</a>, <a href="http://nealbascomb.com/books-bascomb/the-winter-fortress/">books</a> and TV <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/watching/recommendations/the-heavy-water-war">mini-series</a>, the winter sabotage of the Vemork chemical plant in <a href="https://www.citypopulation.de/php/norway-admin.php?adm1id=08">Telemark County</a> of <a href="http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/world-war-two-in-western-europe/the-attack-on-western-europe/the-occupation-of-norway/">Nazi-occupied Norway</a> was one of the most dramatic and important military missions of World War II. It put the German nuclear scientists months behind and allowed the United States to overtake the Germans in the quest to produce the first atomic bomb.</p>
<p>While people tend to associate the United States’ atomic bomb efforts with Japan and the war in the Pacific, the <a href="http://www.history.com/topics/the-manhattan-project">Manhattan Project</a> – the American program to produce an atomic bomb – was actually undertaken in reaction to <a href="https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/german-atomic-bomb-project">Allied suspicions that the Germans were actively pursuing such a weapon</a>. Yet the fighting in Europe ended before either side had a working atomic bomb. In fact, a <a href="https://www.army.mil/article/148701/100_ton_event_served_as_dress_rehearsal_for_trinity_site">rehearsal for Trinity</a> – America’s first atomic bomb test detonation – was conducted on May 7, 1945, the very day that Germany surrendered.</p>
<p>So the U.S. atomic bomb arrived weeks too late for use against Germany. Nevertheless, had the Germans developed their own bomb just a few months earlier, the outcome of the war in Europe might have been completely different. The months of setback caused by the Norwegians’ sabotage of the Vemork chemical plant may very well have prevented a German victory.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207351/original/file-20180221-132657-aojb25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207351/original/file-20180221-132657-aojb25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207351/original/file-20180221-132657-aojb25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207351/original/file-20180221-132657-aojb25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207351/original/file-20180221-132657-aojb25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207351/original/file-20180221-132657-aojb25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207351/original/file-20180221-132657-aojb25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207351/original/file-20180221-132657-aojb25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Norwegian saboteurs’ target.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vemork,_Rjukan_-_no-nb_digifoto_20151127_00149_NB_MIT_FNR_14085.jpg">Jac Brun</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Nazi bomb effort relied on heavy water</h2>
<p>What Colonel Tronstad, himself a prewar <a href="https://www.ntnu.no/forskning/kjentealumni/tronstad">chemistry professor</a>, was able to tell his men was that the Vemork chemical plant made “heavy water,” an important ingredient for the Germans’ weapons research. Beyond that, the Norwegian troops knew nothing of atomic bombs or how the heavy water was used. Even today, when many people have at least a rudimentary understanding of atomic bombs and know that the source of their vast energy is the splitting of atoms, few have any idea what heavy water is or its role in splitting those atoms. Still fewer know why the German nuclear scientists needed it, while the Americans didn’t.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207357/original/file-20180221-132642-1netn5x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207357/original/file-20180221-132642-1netn5x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207357/original/file-20180221-132642-1netn5x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207357/original/file-20180221-132642-1netn5x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207357/original/file-20180221-132642-1netn5x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207357/original/file-20180221-132642-1netn5x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207357/original/file-20180221-132642-1netn5x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207357/original/file-20180221-132642-1netn5x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Normal hydrogen, left, has just a proton; deuterium, the heavy form of hydrogen, right, has a proton and a neutron.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Izotopii_hidrogenului.png">Nicolae Coman</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>“Heavy water” is just that: water with a molecular weight of 20 rather than the normal 18 atomic mass units, or amu. It’s heavier than normal because each of the two hydrogen atoms in heavy H2O weighs two rather than one amu. (The one oxygen atom in H2O weighs 16 amu.) While the nucleus of a normal hydrogen atom has a single subatomic particle called a <a href="http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/proton">proton</a>, the nuclei of the hydrogen atoms in heavy water have both a proton and a <a href="http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/neutron">neutron</a> – another type of subatomic particle that weighs the same as a proton. Water molecules with heavy hydrogen atoms are extremely rare in nature (less than one in a billion natural water molecules are heavy), so the Germans had to artificially produce all the heavy water that they needed.</p>
<p>In terms of their chemistries, heavy water and normal water behave very similarly, and you wouldn’t detect any differences in your own cooking, drinking or bathing if heavy water were to suddenly start coming out of your tap. But you would notice that <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VLiirA5ooS0">ice cubes made from heavy water sink</a> rather than float when you put them in a glass of normal drinking water, because of their increased density.</p>
<p>Those differences are subtle, but there is something heavy water does that normal water can’t. When fast neutrons released by the splitting of atoms (that is, nuclear fission) pass through heavy water, interactions with the heavy water molecules cause those neutrons to slow down, or <a href="http://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Neutron_moderator">moderate</a>. This is important because slowly moving neutrons are more efficient at splitting uranium atoms than fast moving neutrons. Since neutrons traveling through heavy water split atoms more efficiently, less uranium should be needed to achieve a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/critical-mass">critical mass</a>; that’s the minimum amount of uranium required to start a spontaneous chain reaction of atoms splitting in rapid succession. It is this chain reaction, within the critical mass, that releases the explosive energy of the bomb. That’s why the Germans needed the heavy water; their strategy for producing an atomic explosion depended upon it.</p>
<p>The American scientists, in contrast, had chosen a different approach to achieve a critical mass. As I explain in my book, “<a href="https://press.princeton.edu/titles/10691.html">Strange Glow: The Story of Radiation</a>,” the U.S. atomic bomb effort used <a href="http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/conversion-enrichment-and-fabrication/uranium-enrichment.aspx">enriched</a> uranium – uranium that has an increased concentration of the easily split <a href="http://www.chemistrylearner.com/uranium-235.html">uranium-235</a> – while <a href="https://cen.acs.org/articles/93/i39/Nuclear-Forensics-Shows-Nazis-Nowhere.html">the Germans used unenriched uranium</a>. And the Americans chose to slow the neutrons emitted from their enriched uranium with more readily available graphite, rather than heavy water. Each approach had its technological trade-offs, but the U.S. approach did not rely on having to synthesize the extremely scarce heavy water. Its rarity made heavy water the Achilles’ heel of the German nuclear bomb program.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/FcOK87ev8jU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Norwegian army has a long history of soldiers on skis, which continues to the present day.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Stealthy approach by the Norwegians</h2>
<p>Rather than repeating the British strategy of sending dozens of men in gliders, flying with heavy weapons and equipment (including bicycles!) to traverse the snow-covered roads, and making a direct assault at the plant’s front gates, the Norwegians would <a href="https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol36no3/html/v36i3a11p_0001.htm">rely on an alternate strategy</a>. They’d parachute a small group of expert skiers into the wilderness that surrounded the plant. The lightly armed skiers would then quickly ski their way to the plant, and use stealth rather than force to gain entry to the heavy water production room in order to destroy it with explosives.</p>
<p>Six Norwegian soldiers were dropped in to meet up with four others already on location. (The four had parachuted in weeks earlier to set up a lighted runway on a lake for the British gliders that never arrived.) On the ground, they were joined by a Norwegian spy. The 11-man group was initially slowed by severe weather conditions, but once the weather finally cleared, the men made rapid progress toward their target across the snow-covered countryside.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207339/original/file-20180221-132660-172g8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207339/original/file-20180221-132660-172g8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/207339/original/file-20180221-132660-172g8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=922&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207339/original/file-20180221-132660-172g8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=922&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207339/original/file-20180221-132660-172g8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=922&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207339/original/file-20180221-132660-172g8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1158&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207339/original/file-20180221-132660-172g8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1158&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/207339/original/file-20180221-132660-172g8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1158&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bridge in to the Vemork site.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bridge_Vemork.jpg">martin_vmorris</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Vemork plant clung to a steep hillside. Upon arriving at the ravine that served as a kind of protective moat, the soldiers could see that attempting to cross the heavily guarded bridge would be futile. So under the cover of darkness they descended to the bottom of the ravine, crossed the frozen stream, and climbed up the steep cliffs to the plant, thus completely bypassing the <a href="https://video.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;_ylt=A0LEVitaYYNaHC4Aj80PxQt.?p=view+from+vemork+bridge&fr=yhs-Lkry-SF01&fr2=piv-web&hspart=Lkry&hsimp=yhs-SF01&type=Tarrv_A01IK_set_bfr#id=1&vid=d0a070170d1bd76ea7a80d96adc314d3&action=view">bridge</a>. The Germans had thought the ravine impassible, so hadn’t guarded against such an approach.</p>
<p>The Norwegians were then able to sneak past sentries and find their way to the heavy water production room, relying on maps of the plant provided by <a href="https://www.geni.com/projects/Norwegian-Resistance-Movements-during-WWII/25591">Norwegian resistance</a> workers. Upon entering the heavy water room, they quickly set their timed explosives and left. They escaped the scene during the chaotic aftermath of the explosion. No lives were lost, and not a single shot was fired by either side.</p>
<p>Outside the plant, the men backtracked through the ravine and then split into small groups that independently skied eastward toward the safety of <a href="http://www.historyisnowmagazine.com/blog/2017/12/18/was-sweden-really-neutral-in-world-war-two#.WoMRboJG0UE=">neutral Sweden</a>. Eventually, each made his way back to their Norwegian unit stationed in Britain.</p>
<p>The Germans were later able to rebuild their plant and resume making heavy water. Subsequent <a href="https://ww2db.com/facility/Vemork_Heavy_Water_Plant/">Allied bomber raids on the plant</a> were not effective in stopping production due to the plant’s heavy walls. But the damage had already been done. The German atomic bomb effort had been slowed to the point that it would never be finished in time to influence the outcome of the war.</p>
<p>Today, we don’t hear much about heavy water. Modern nuclear bomb technology has taken other routes. But it was once one of the most rare and dangerous substances in the world, and brave soldiers – both <a href="http://www.aircrashsites-scotland.co.uk/raf-skitten-meml.htm">British</a> and <a href="https://www.tracesofwar.com/sights/15603/Memorial-Resistance-Fighters-Vemonk.htm">Norwegian</a> – fought courageously to stop its production.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90360/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Timothy J. Jorgensen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Feb. 28 marks the 75th anniversary of Operation Gunnerside. A stealthy group of skiing commandos took out a crucial Nazi facility and stopped Hitler from getting the atomic bomb.Timothy J. Jorgensen, Director of the Health Physics and Radiation Protection Graduate Program and Associate Professor of Radiation Medicine, Georgetown UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/917172018-02-15T13:46:03Z2018-02-15T13:46:03ZHow the first Winter Games harnessed the publicity power of the Olympics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206413/original/file-20180214-174990-66okz2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Chamonix used the Winter Games to cement its reputation as a ski destination.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ski_de_fond_Chamonix_1937_-_4x10_km.jpg">BNF Gallica</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Beyond their cornerstone role in athletics, the Olympic Games have long been an event of economic and political importance. The recent decision by South and North Korea to compete under one united flag during this year’s competition shows the international relations possibilities the Olympics offer. The economic impact on the host city is also undeniable – although this can be positive or negative, as <a href="https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/economics-hosting-olympic-games">some Olympics cost more than they deliver</a>.</p>
<p>The competitive bidding process to host the Olympics means that national governments face a game of chicken-or-egg: do they put forward a city chosen for its robust infrastructure, or one that could use the Games to develop it? The London 2012 Olympic Games are an example, which saw an unloved, ex-industrial part of London entirely redeveloped in the course of preparations for the games. <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15387216.2015.1040432">Huge amounts of infrastructure</a> were also built in Sochi for the 2014 Winter Games.</p>
<p>This has been a feature since the first Winter Olympics, which opened in Chamonix-Mont-Blanc in the French Alps in 1924. The choice of Chamonix for what was originally known as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Chamonix-1924-Olympic-Winter-Games">International Winter Sports Week</a> was not an innocent one, and perfectly illustrates the line walked between choosing a place with a strong reputation, and harnessing the impetus of the games to improve it.</p>
<h2>First for Alpinists</h2>
<p>Once a small parish at the very top of the Arve valley, the first foreign travellers to write about the area were William Windham and Robert Pococke, who visited in 1741. Windham and Pococke were fascinated by the valley’s high peaks, numerous glaciers, unique wildlife and local communities. Soon Chamonix had become a must-see destination for travellers on their European “Grand Tour”, easily accessible from Geneva or on their way to Italy. </p>
<p>Perhaps the highlight of a visit is the sight of Mont Blanc, the Alps’ highest peak at 4,810 metres. Mont Blanc was first scaled in 1786 by Dr Michel-Gabriel Paccard and Jacques Balmat, his local guide. Since then, Chamonix has been regarded as the capital of Alpinism and mountaineering.</p>
<p>As the Enlightenment faded and the Industrial Revolution began, tourism went from a marginal pastime of elites to a booming mass market, supported by new developments such as railways and hotels. In many respects, the Swiss resorts such as Interlaken or St Moritz grew faster, as that country’s reputation developed into that of a mountainous nation, proud of its natural heritage.</p>
<p>After the Duchy of Savoy in which Chamonix resided was annexed by France in 1860, Chamonix continued to transition from a romantic travel destination to a place of mass tourism. A tourism board was founded in 1912 to deliver a consistent tourism policy in the entire valley, and in 1913 Bradshaw’s Continental Railway Guide and General Handbook described Chamonix as follows:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Chamonix, in Dept. Haute Savoie, is visited by an ever increasing number of travellers because of the surpassing grandeur of its mountain scenery; it has become a centre for winter sports.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206411/original/file-20180214-174969-1out4ys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206411/original/file-20180214-174969-1out4ys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206411/original/file-20180214-174969-1out4ys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=830&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206411/original/file-20180214-174969-1out4ys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=830&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206411/original/file-20180214-174969-1out4ys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=830&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206411/original/file-20180214-174969-1out4ys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206411/original/file-20180214-174969-1out4ys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206411/original/file-20180214-174969-1out4ys.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1044&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Poster for the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix-Mont-Blanc.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1924WOlympicPoster.jpg">Auguste Matisse/International Olympic Committee</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By the turn of the 20th century, Chamonix had become a model for Alpine tourism. The decision to hold the first Winter Olympics in Chamonix was therefore a result of this solid reputation, and also the desire to turn Chamonix into the leading venue for winter sports, ahead of other locations. </p>
<p>In 1921, ahead of the games, the town council of Chamonix decided to rename the town Chamonix-Mont-Blanc. This was officially to prevent confusion with other similar-sounding town names for the postal services, but clearly the real reason was for tourism promotion: Chamonix would become forever associated with the Alps’ highest peak. Chamonix remains a world-class mountain resort today, partly because its reputation is undeniably linked to these pioneering events, the first scaling of the mountain, and the first Winter Games.</p>
<h2>To have or to build</h2>
<p>This subtle balance can still be seen today: candidate cities play on their robust history of sports, leisure and tourism, but inevitably also apply in order to develop and bolster that reputation. The 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics, held as Crimea was plunged into a diplomatic crisis, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/that-sochi-olympic-boondoggle-russians-say-all-the-investment-is-paying-off/2017/11/13/65014bd0-b82c-11e7-9b93-b97043e57a22_story.html">revitalised the area’s reputation for tourism it had during the Soviet era</a>. It will even host football matches during the Russia 2018 FIFA World Cup. </p>
<p>For the current 2018 Winter Games underway in Korea, the fairly popular resort of Pyeongchang in the South has worked closely with local tourism authorities to turn the city into a global winter resort after this year’s games. Having lost out to London in 2012, Paris <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/paris-wins-2024-olympic-games-wjh2j7xqf">was last year awarded the 2024 Summer Olympics</a> with a bid that seduced the committee with Parisian magic and enthusiasm. The city will look forward to the economic boost required to renew the city’s infrastructure, while hoping to sweep aside memories of the huge cost overruns that marred France’s last hosted Olympics, Albertville in 1992.</p>
<p>Hosting the Olympics is a true test for a city’s claim for global recognition: confirming their membership of a small circle of “world cities”, or an opportunity to join the club. But just winning the Olympic bid is not success: the real feat lies in building and organising what is required for the games, and in making sure the outcome of these few weeks leaves a beneficial legacy. </p>
<p>In London, this has seen continued use of sporting venues and the Olympic village repurposed as badly-needed housing, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/jul/27/london-olympic-park-success-five-years-depends">although debate over who benefits remains</a>. In Athens, the venues lie rotting, unused, in the years since, while the <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-08-02/how-the-2004-olympics-triggered-greeces-decline">huge cost overrun arguably drove Greece to bankruptcy</a>. For the most part, except for coverage of the two weeks themselves, discussion of the Olympics deserves to be anywhere but a newspaper’s sports section.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91717/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jordan Girardin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>What’s in a name? Chamonix-Mont-Blanc was quick to harness the first Winter Olympics for its economic potential.Jordan Girardin, Associate lecturer, University of St AndrewsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/917432018-02-13T01:08:33Z2018-02-13T01:08:33ZWhat makes a winning mogul skier like Matt Graham?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206091/original/file-20180213-58312-19q1onl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What makes the mogul discipline distinctive is that it is both a judged event and a timed event.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Sergei Ilnitsky</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On Monday, <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-02-13/freestyle-skier-matt-graham-parties-after-winning-silver-medal/9425316">Matt Graham</a> won Australia’s first medal – a silver – at the Pyeongchang Winter Olympics in the freestyle moguls.</p>
<p>Graham’s second placing is the third time an Australian has won a medal in the event at a Winter Olympics. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Begg-Smith">Dale Begg-Smith</a> – who was also coached by Graham’s mentor, <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/sport/olympics/winter-olympics-2018-matt-graham-insists-moguls-king-mikael-kingsbury-is-beatable-20180211-h0vwpd.html">Steve Descovich</a> – won gold at the 2006 Turin Olympics and silver at the 2010 Vancouver Olympics.</p>
<h2>What is mogul skiing?</h2>
<p>There have been official mogul races since 1971. The <a href="http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/FreestyleSkiing/04/21/06/FreestyleSkiingJudgingandScoringHandbook2014v.1.0_English.pdf">International Ski Federation’s handbook</a> stipulates that a mogul competition:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… shall consist of one run of free skiing on a steep, heavily moguled course, stressing technical turns, aerial manoeuvres and speed. </p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/FreestyleSkiing/02/03/28/FS_FIS_FreestyleICRmarkedup201602.08.16_English.pdf">A mogul event</a> consists of one or more rounds (beginning with one run for all competitors), and a final phase of one or more rounds. Graham’s silver medal came after four runs on the Olympic course: one qualification round and three final rounds.</p>
<p>What makes the mogul discipline distinctive is that it is both a judged event <em>and</em> a timed event. </p>
<p>Athletes are given a score out of 100 for their overall time (20 points), and their technical ability in turning manoeuvres (60 points) and aerial manoeuvres (20 points). In the evaluation of turns, five judges determine “rhythmic changes in direction of travel”. Two judges evaluate the form and difficulty of a mogul skier’s aerial manoeuvres. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/FreestyleSkiing/04/21/06/FreestyleSkiingJudgingandScoringHandbook2014v.1.0_English.pdf">International Ski Federation’s judges’ handbook</a> provides very clear guidelines for awarding marks to athletes.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/7Lbf4yVkjCU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Matt Graham’s silver-medal-winning mogul skiing performance.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Physical demands</h2>
<p>Moguls skiers face several physical challenges in their discipline. They ski, at speed, downhill on a steep course and have to absorb the shock to their bodies of numerous artificially created undulations – known as moguls. </p>
<p>An <a href="https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/en/sports/freestyle-skiing">Olympic course</a> has:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… a slope, with an average tilt of 28 degrees, a difference in elevation of 110 metres, a course length of 250 metres, and a minimum course width of 18 metres. And the middle portion of the course has two jump sections. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>In training, athletes must grow accustomed to the forces they will experience at speed, and prepare them for two landings on a steep slope while attempting elevated aerial manoeuvres. </p>
<p>In Pyeongchang, athletes also had to deal with extremely low temperatures that changed the texture of the skiing surface.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/winter-olympics-how-athletes-adapt-to-competing-in-the-bitter-cold-91269">Winter Olympics: how athletes adapt to competing in the bitter cold</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Mental demands</h2>
<p>The decision to take part in mogul skiing requires athletes to develop their mental skills to deal with the volume of training required, the precision of their technical skills, and their ability to tolerate low temperatures on a snow surface that varies every time they ski. </p>
<p>As with all sports, athletes have to consider their exposure to injury – particularly to their lower limbs. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/44/11/803.short">2010 study of freestyle skiers</a> reported:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>… the injury rate among World Cup athletes in freestyle skiing is high, especially for severe injuries. The knee is the most commonly injured body part, also dominated by severe injuries.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_MXOwX3Ah6M?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Canada’s Michael Kingsbury won gold in the men’s mogul skiing.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The role of coaching</h2>
<p>Mogul skiing’s technical and tactical aspects create opportunities for coaches to develop a personal learning environment for athletes. </p>
<p>Australia has both a head coach (Desovich) and a jump coach (Jerry Grossi). Both work with athletes in a daily training environment that takes them all over the world. Graham has competed in world events since 2010; he was a finalist at the 2014 Sochi Olympics. </p>
<p>His silver medal at Pyeongchang is the culmination of support from his family and friends, years of training, and the insights of experienced coaches.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91743/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Keith Lyons does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Matt Graham’s silver medal in mogul skiing is the third time an Australian has won a medal in the event at a Winter Olympics.Keith Lyons, Adjunct Professor of Sport Studies, UC-RISE, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.