tag:theconversation.com,2011:/au/topics/teach-for-america-15846/articlesTeach for America – The Conversation2019-05-15T10:45:09Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1161242019-05-15T10:45:09Z2019-05-15T10:45:09ZButtigieg’s call for universal public service would mark a big departure from historically small volunteer programs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273651/original/file-20190509-183077-1qg6gi0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">JFK shaking hands with one of the first Peace Corps volunteers in 1961</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Watchf-AP-A-DC-USA-APHS263798-John-F-Kennedy/d451bebc52a541e285e608e18048a33b/1/0">P Photo/William J. Smith</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Democratic presidential candidate <a href="http://time.com/longform/pete-buttigieg-2020/">Pete Buttigieg</a> recently proposed massively expanding <a href="https://www.politico.com/story/2019/04/15/pete-buttigieg-national-service-program-1277274">national service</a> programs. </p>
<p>The South Bend, Indiana, mayor told <a href="http://www.msnbc.com/transcripts/rachel-maddow-show/2019-04-15">MSBNC journalist Rachel Maddow</a> he thinks it should be “not legally obligatory, but certainly a social norm that anybody after they’re 18 spends a year in national service.”</p>
<p>Buttigieg’s concept draws on the benefits he feels he derived from his own military experience. He believes that giving more young Americans a chance to <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-national-service-help-heal-americas-divisions-76833">serve their country</a> in roles like teaching at-risk children and building homes for those in need might help bridge some of the nation’s political, economic and cultural divides.</p>
<p>I research the <a href="https://holycross.academia.edu/ChrisStaysniak">history of U.S. volunteer service programs </a>, including the <a href="https://www.peacecorps.gov/">Peace Corps</a> and <a href="https://www.nationalservice.gov/programs/americorps">AmeriCorps</a>. The evidence that these programs help volunteers is stronger than proof that they make a significant difference for the communities served. To me, it’s clear that by mobilizing millions of young people rather than thousands, Buttigieg’s plan would exacerbate this problem. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273652/original/file-20190509-183096-uax48z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273652/original/file-20190509-183096-uax48z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273652/original/file-20190509-183096-uax48z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273652/original/file-20190509-183096-uax48z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273652/original/file-20190509-183096-uax48z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273652/original/file-20190509-183096-uax48z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273652/original/file-20190509-183096-uax48z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273652/original/file-20190509-183096-uax48z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Buttigieg is making a call for national service part of his presidential bid.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Election-2020-Pete-Buttigieg/982008f0021c4f4ca08630e1c3646169/11/0">AP Photo/Meg Kinnard</a></span>
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<h2>Pacifist roots</h2>
<p>The American philosopher William James planted the intellectual seeds for national service programs in 1910. In an essay demanding a “<a href="https://www.uky.edu/%7Eeushe2/Pajares/moral.html">moral equivalent to war</a>,” he argued for a new kind of national non-military service for young men. </p>
<p>This concept first appealed to pacifists. Beginning in the 1930s, the American Friends Service Committee, a Quaker group, organized “<a href="https://www.afsc.org/content/archive-highlights-us-and-international-work-camps">work camps</a>,” which had high school and college-aged students assist low-income U.S. communities as unpaid volunteers.</p>
<p>On top of creating new infrastructure, like building community centers, or working in hospitals, the <a href="https://peaceworks.afsc.org/appalachian-self-sufficiency">early camps</a> were also designed to be an educational experience. Participants tended to be from privileged backgrounds and eager to <a href="https://peaceworks.afsc.org/us-work-camps-strive-justice-3rd-try-firefox">become more aware</a> of social issues such as poverty and race relations.</p>
<p>After World War II, various denominations began to organize work camp and relief projects in France, Japan, Egypt and other countries. They did everything from <a href="http://sth-archon.bu.edu/motive/issues/1950_March/assets/basic-html/page-36.html#">rebuild homes for displaced persons</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/pech.12187">teach farming techniques</a> to help rebuild war-ravaged areas and improve prospects for peace.</p>
<p>Representative <a href="https://stanforddailyarchive.com/cgi-bin/stanford?a=d&d=stanford19640407-02.2.6">Henry Reuss</a> of Wisconsin, a Democrat, encountered an inter-denominational team from the International Voluntary Service building schools on a trip to Cambodia 1957. He <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/15/us/henry-reuss-liberal-in-congress-dies-at-89.html">proposed a government-sponsored program</a> that would serve the same purpose in 1959.</p>
<p>Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey, a Democrat, picked up on that idea when the advocated for the formation of what he called a “<a href="https://www.visitthecapitol.gov/exhibitions/artifact/s-2000-peace-corps-bill-introduced-senator-hubert-h-humphrey-june-1-1961">Peace Corps</a>” during his failed bid for his party’s presidential nomination in 1960. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273851/original/file-20190510-183096-11ml2ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273851/original/file-20190510-183096-11ml2ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273851/original/file-20190510-183096-11ml2ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273851/original/file-20190510-183096-11ml2ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273851/original/file-20190510-183096-11ml2ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273851/original/file-20190510-183096-11ml2ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273851/original/file-20190510-183096-11ml2ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273851/original/file-20190510-183096-11ml2ku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Quaker work camp volunteers helped install a water system for Pennsylvania coal miners in 1934.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://peaceworks.afsc.org/us-work-camps-strive-justice-3rd-try-firefox">American Friends Service Committee</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<h2>Peace Corps and VISTA</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.peacecorps.gov/about/history/founding-moment/">John F. Kennedy</a> first embraced the idea as well in an impromptu speech – at 2 a.m. – he made on October 14, 1960, on the cusp of the presidential election that brought him to the White House. He established the Peace Corps by <a href="https://www.archives.gov/historical-docs/todays-doc/?dod-date=922">executive order in March 1961</a>. </p>
<p>Americans immediately embraced it. A January 1961 Gallup Poll showed that 71% of Americans supported the idea and <a href="https://www.jfklibrary.org/learn/about-jfk/jfk-in-history/peace-corps">thousands of students</a> declared their readiness to participate. </p>
<p>The Peace Corps was meant to aid developing countries by teaching English, improving farming practices and providing other hands-on training. Within two years it had dispatched <a href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/peace-corps-established">7,000 volunteers to 44 developing countries</a>. By <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/research/reconsidering-the-peace-corps/">1966 it reached its peak participation</a> of 15,000 volunteers. </p>
<p>“In the American mind, it took its place somewhere between the Boy Scouts and motherhood,” said the late <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F000271626636500102">Harris Wofford</a>, who helped create the Peace Corps and later ran the Corporation for National and Community Service, the federal agency that runs several national service programs.</p>
<p>The initial popularity of the Peace Corps led the Kennedy administration to explore creating a <a href="https://www.jfklibrary.org/asset-viewer/archives/JFKWHSFLCW/012/JFKWHSFLCW-012-003">domestic counterpart</a> to aid “the entire needy segment of our population.” An early concept paper described how its “exemplary” volunteer “corpsmen” would inspire local communities to do a better job of helping themselves. </p>
<p>After JFK’s assassination, <a href="https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-members-vista-volunteers-service-america">President Lyndon Johnson</a> realized this aim by establishing Volunteers in Service to America, or VISTA, in 1964. It soon stationed about 3,500 volunteers on the front lines of LBJ’s <a href="http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/poverty/index.html">War on Poverty</a> in places ranging from <a href="https://www.wvpublic.org/post/inside-appalachia-what-happened-when-vistas-came-wva-mining-town-1960s">rural West Virginia</a> to urban <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/576807">Houston</a> and <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/576807">Detroit</a>.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">AmeriCorps, explained – including how to pronounce its name.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Less enthusiasm</h2>
<p>Before long, enthusiasm for both programs waned, dashing hopes some Americans harbored for a national program on a grander scale.</p>
<p>One initial purpose of the Peace Corps was increasing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.155">U.S. popularity and influence</a> at the height of the Cold War as a diplomatic tool. The program became less popular among college graduates due in part to widespread concerns over U.S. foreign policy, especially the Vietnam War. Even some of the <a href="http://www.poshcorps.com/podcast-1">volunteers themselves joined the criticism</a>.</p>
<p>VISTA volunteers had their own predicaments. Whether working in rural Appalachia or urban neighborhoods, they often found themselves <a href="https://ugapress.org/book/9780820346717/a-peoples-war-on-poverty/">embroiled in conflicts with local politicians</a> due to their roles as <a href="https://www.kentuckypress.com/live/title_detail.php?titleid=2263#.XNnOX45KhPY">community organizers</a> in areas riddled with political and economic injustices.</p>
<p>As a result, the two flagship national service programs lost funding and support during the Nixon administration. But both kept going, attracting enough ambitious volunteers <a href="https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/why-job-candidates-peace-corps-americorps-are-good-business/">destined for leadership</a> in politics and business later in their careers to remain prestigious. Both welcome <a href="https://www.peacecorps.gov/stories/serving-older-american-insights-and-tips-field/">older volunteers</a>, as well as young people.</p>
<p>By late 2017, <a href="https://www.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=817862">7,376 Peace Corps volunteers</a> were serving in 65 nations while <a href="https://www.nationalservice.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CNCS-Fact-Sheet-2018-AmeriCorps_May.pdf">75,000 Americans</a> volunteered at least part-time through AmeriCorps. </p>
<p>The Trump administration has sought to <a href="https://www.peacecorpsconnect.org/articles/president-trump-recommends-____-funding-cut-for-peace-corps">trim Peace Corps spending</a> and <a href="https://thinkprogress.org/trump-white-house-2020-budget-scraps-americorps-senior-corps-799fd69177e0/">stop funding</a> AmeriCorps – which replaced VISTA and includes funding for the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0013124514541463">Teach for America</a> program that puts young college graduates in low-income classrooms. </p>
<p>Congress has so far rebuffed those requests, leaving roughly <a href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1043235/">US$400 million budgets</a> for both programs intact. </p>
<h2>Dreaming on</h2>
<p>Aspirations to expand national service programs have <a href="https://democracyjournal.org/magazine/33/a-nation-in-service/">cropped up before</a>. Presidents <a href="http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2019/04/blast-from-the-past-buttigieg-embraces-national-service.html">George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton and Barack Obama</a> all expressed that goal. </p>
<p>Liberals, in particular, have periodically cast it as more than just a practical way to fight poverty. Like the Quakers who organized work camps for decades and still <a href="https://www.afsc.org/document/its-my-life-guide-to-alternatives-after-high-school">encourage youth community service</a>, they see advantages for society – such as less bigotry and more compassion for the poor – when affluent and highly educated volunteers connect with lower-income Americans, often across class and racial lines. </p>
<p>Buttigieg, in his call for civilian national service cited the same rationale: that it would aid “social cohesion.” <a href="https://www.johndelaney.com/2019/04/14/delaney-announces-national-service-and-climate-corps-plan-in-new-hampshire/">John Delaney</a>, a former Congressman from Maryland, also favors a robust national service program. Now running a low-profile bid for the Democratic Party’s presidential nomination, Delaney says more universal service would “restore a sense of common purpose.” </p>
<p>Volunteers, including those who take part in Teach for America do get more familiar with the <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-national-service-help-heal-americas-divisions-76833">problems faced by the communities they assist</a>. They also benefit personally excel at attaining <a href="https://www.nationalservice.gov/sites/default/files/evidenceexchange/AlumniMediaBriefingContent-01122017-1541_0.pdf">their career goals</a>.</p>
<p>But how effective are these programs at making things better for the people they serve? </p>
<p>The evidence is far less compelling. A large body of literature, for instance, shows that the impact of Teach for America on struggling schools is <a href="https://nonprofitquarterly.org/2015/09/11/after-25-years-teach-for-america-results-are-consistently-underwhelming/">marginal</a> at best.</p>
<p>That is partly why Teach for America is encountering growing resistance from groups ranging from parents, to politicians and teacher unions. A bill pending in the California legislature would <a href="https://www.kcrw.com/news/shows/press-play-with-madeleine-brand/how-did-measles-return-to-southern-california/a-push-to-ban-teach-for-america-in-california">ban its teachers from its public schools</a>. </p>
<p>There are, likewise, few if any objective assessments attesting to the <a href="https://www.cgdev.org/sites/default/files/1424955_file_Kenny_Peace_Corps_FINAL.pdf">Peace Corps’ impact</a>. <a href="https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/peace-corps-fantasies">Bolivia</a>, <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/12/28/peace.corps/index.html">Russia</a> and <a href="https://www.fff.org/explore-freedom/article/forgotten-failures-peace-corps/">dozens of other countries</a> have opted out.</p>
<p>Buttigieg’s call for a national service program would require a scale beyond than anything seen before. Should the federal government ever seek to realize his grand ambition, it ought to first answer some long-deferred tough questions about the real purposes and benefits of this kind of volunteering.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116124/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher Staysniak does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>No matter how well-intentioned, volunteers who may be inexperienced can’t solve the entrenched and complex social problems low-income communities endure.Christopher Staysniak, Visiting Assistant Professor of History, College of the Holy CrossLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/768332017-05-31T02:11:25Z2017-05-31T02:11:25ZDoes national service help heal America’s divisions?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/171381/original/file-20170530-25261-dg10nv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Teach For America teacher Sergio Santiago looks over an assignment with a student.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/hssiv1">pennstatenews/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>President Donald Trump’s budget proposes getting <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/25/us/politics/trump-budget-americorps-peace-corps-service.html?_r=0">the government out of the business of national service</a>. This comes at a time when the election has divided Americans like few in history. And individuals from different walks of life in our fractured nation have <a href="http://bowlingalone.com">fewer opportunities to have genuine encounters with one another</a>.</p>
<p>Civilian national service typically requires participants to work on a social ill and immerse themselves in vulnerable communities. New research demonstrates that national service programs like Teach For America can bring people together. They cultivate civic responsibility and a shared identity with the communities they serve. </p>
<h2>Divided by class and color</h2>
<p>Important class and racial divisions came into clear view during the 2016 election cycle. Notably, beliefs about the causes of inequality and poverty differ significantly by both <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Beliefs_About_Inequality.html?id=rdzmjrv74w8C">class</a> and <a href="http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/D/bo3620441.html">race</a>. These differences have led to disagreement on what policies can best solve pressing issues ranging from education to health. </p>
<p>The more advantaged – the wealthy, more educated and <a href="http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10831.html">politically connected</a> – typically believe in the fairness of the current economic, social and political system. The advantaged see hard work as key to achieving their privileged positions. In contrast, disadvantaged Americans tend to believe that while hard work is important, it is simply not enough to get ahead in an unfair system. </p>
<p>What happens when the most advantaged members of our society participate in national service, immersing themselves in the lives of struggling members of our society? Do they learn to see the world differently?</p>
<h2>Cultivating understanding</h2>
<p>Early advocates of national service programs pointed to the power of national service in cultivating understanding between groups. In <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/books/00/07/16/specials/buckley-gratitude.html">“Gratitude,” William F. Buckley</a> recalled how his wartime experience was a poignant reminder of the “pulsation of consanguinity” that united the “Laramie cowboy” and the “litterateur in Greenwich Village.” Service for one’s country, he argued, can “ever so slightly elevate us from the trough of self-concern and self-devotion.” </p>
<p>Reflecting on the effects of military service, <a href="http://laphamsquarterly.org/states-war/proposing-moral-equivalent-war">U.S. philosopher William James</a> argued for civilian national service. The U.S. government could enlist young Americans to work among the poor. James noted that civilian national service can foster “healthier sympathies,” which are necessary in healthy democracies. </p>
<p>Decades later, President John F. Kennedy famously said “ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.” This was a rallying cry for over a million Americans to serve, and ultimately contributed to the creation of organized national service like the <a href="https://www.peacecorps.gov">Peace Corps</a> and <a href="https://www.nationalservice.gov/programs/americorps">AmeriCorps</a>.</p>
<p>But how can we know if these national service really foster understanding and shared purpose? According to <a href="https://my.vanderbilt.edu/ceciliamo/">recent research I conducted</a> with <a href="http://www.cpre.org/katharine-katie-conn">Katharine Conn from Columbia University</a>, national service addressing issues of inequality and poverty can have powerful bridging effects. </p>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.vanderbilt.edu/csdi/includes/WP2017_3_Mo.pdf">study</a> focused on <a href="https://www.teachforamerica.org">Teach For America</a>. TFA is a national service program that integrates top college graduates into low income communities for two years. While TFA is <a href="http://teachforall.org/en/news/teach-america-welcomes-its-most-diverse-teaching-corps">incredibly diverse</a>, we consider it a corps of “advantaged” individuals because each participant is a top college graduate. Only <a href="https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2016/demo/p20-578.pdf">33 percent of Americans hold a college degree</a> in contrast to 100 percent of TFA participants. TFA is also a highly selective program. </p>
<p>We collected survey responses from over 32,000 TFA applicants between 2007 and 2015, and implemented a “<a href="https://www.princeton.edu/%7Edavidlee/wp/w14723.pdf">regression discontinuity design</a>” to determine the effects of participating in TFA. Simply put, we compared the responses of people who were barely admitted into TFA to those who were barely rejected, as the two groups are similar apart from their participation in the program. </p>
<p>We find that national service has profound and lasting effects on its participants.</p>
<h2>Building empathy</h2>
<p>TFA participants are more likely to empathize with poor families, and be attuned to injustices faced by low-income Americans. </p>
<p>For example, TFA participants are 7.4 percentage points more likely to believe that systemic injustice contributes to the income-based education achievement gap. The <a href="https://cepa.stanford.edu/content/widening-academic-achievement-gap-between-rich-and-poor-new-evidence-and-possible">income-based “achievement gap”</a> in education refers to the disparity in academic performance between high- and low-income students. </p>
<p>TFA participants are 8.5 percentage points more likely to agree that poor families value education just as much as richer families. And they are 11.3 percentage points more likely to believe that low-income students have fewer opportunities than high-income students.</p>
<p>When thinking about low-income Americans, participants of TFA have less “actor-observer bias.” This psychology term refers to a tendency to attribute one’s own setbacks to external factors like an unfair process, and attribute another person’s setbacks to traits like laziness. </p>
<p>In other words, TFA participants are more likely to attribute poverty to underlying systemic issues rather than to a lack of individual effort. We also saw an uptick in the belief that government should take more responsibility to ensure everyone is provided for. There is an increased sense that hard work is not enough to bring about success, and that people are poor because of an unfair society as opposed to laziness and lack of willpower.</p>
<p>TFA participation is also linked with less racial resentment and greater dissatisfaction with the treatment of minority groups. In other words, TFA participants are more likely to attribute racial inequality to systemic and historical factors as opposed to lack of effort on the part of black Americans. For instance, they are 12 percentage points more likely to attribute difficulty in social mobility on the part of black Americans to generations of slavery and racial discrimination. </p>
<p>We also find evidence of decreased racial prejudice. TFA participants have less <a href="https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/selectatest.html">implicit skin-color bias</a> than nonparticipants.</p>
<p>Participation in TFA translates to feeling closer to racial minorities. Those who served a majority African American student population expressed a 19 percentage point increase in feelings of closeness to the African American community. Those who taught in majority Hispanic regions expressed a 14.5 percentage point increase in feelings of closeness to the Hispanic community.</p>
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<p>In a fractured nation, national service programs that enable participants to confront issues of poverty and develop deep connections between different groups can enhance empathy and understanding. They can push individuals to reexamine their assumptions and think critically about effective public policy.</p>
<p>Before Lyndon B. Johnson was the 36th U.S. president, he served as a teacher, working with low-income children of Mexican-American farm workers. He worked in a community much like the communities that TFA and other national service programs serve in today.</p>
<p>It is perhaps not a coincidence that he went on to pass the Economic Opportunity Act, which, among other things, created Volunteers in Service to America, a domestic counterpart to the Peace Corps. </p>
<p>It is also perhaps not a coincidence that he signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. At the heart of the legislation was Title I, which earmarked federal funding for poor children. “By passing this bill,” Johnson noted, “we bridge the gap between helplessness and hope for more than 5 million educationally deprived children.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76833/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cecilia Hyunjung Mo has recently received funding from Humanity United, USAID, US Department of Labor, Vanderbilt University and the World Bank. She was also a 2002 Teach For America Corps Member in Los Angeles, California.</span></em></p>Teach for America was created to bring more resources to disadvantaged communities. New research shows that the participants also learn a few things.Cecilia Hyunjung Mo, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Vanderbilt UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/376952015-04-02T05:11:56Z2015-04-02T05:11:56ZWith its high teacher cost, is Teach for America a viable option for schools?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76645/original/image-20150331-1263-1r75p9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There has been a steady decline in the enrollment for Teach for America.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&searchterm=teach%20for%20america&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=138148625">Girl Image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.teachforamerica.org/">Teach for America (TFA)</a>, which has trained more teachers than any other US teacher preparation program, has been heralded by school districts across the country. But, a question being asked is whether the value of a Teach for America workforce matches its cost? </p>
<p>What has been of concern is that TFA has been showing a steady decline in its enrollment since 2010. Though the improving economy might play a role in this shift, factors such as the short-term commitment requirements of TFA members, the placement of inexperienced teachers in high-needs and hard-to-staff schools, and the increasing number of alternative certification programs, have all contributed to this drop.</p>
<p>As researchers involved in the “Recruiting, Preparing, and Retaining Excellent Teachers for High-Needs Schools” <a href="http://issuu.com/tlac_onward/docs/fall_2014_tlac_onward">project</a>, we have looked at many of the issues that are making TFA less attractive to school districts. This research is also based on our experience as teachers for elementary and secondary schools. </p>
<h2>Is an improving economy the sole reason for declining numbers?</h2>
<p>Started by <a href="http://www.makers.com/wendy-kopp">Wendy Kopp</a> in 1989, the goal of TFA was to provide high-quality teaching in some of the most troubled school districts. As a step towards that, young college graduates aim to participate in the scheme by signing up to a two-year teaching commitment, mostly for difficult-to-staff positions. </p>
<p>In the past, TFA has consistently received a <a href="http://medillonthehill.net/2013/03/teach-for-america-gains-record-number-of-applicants/">large number</a> of applications from graduating students. However, since 2010, the number of applicants and subsequently the number of corps members have decreased. As of January 2015, TFA applications were <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/06/education/fewer-top-graduates-want-to-join-teach-for-america.html?_r=0">down 10% from the previous year</a>. </p>
<p>So, what led to this drop in applications?</p>
<p>While these decreases can likely be attributed to the improved <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/06/education/fewer-top-graduates-want-to-join-teach-for-america.html?_r=0">career opportunities </a> in an improved economy, other factors have played an important role as well. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76647/original/image-20150331-1266-138ud4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/76647/original/image-20150331-1266-138ud4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76647/original/image-20150331-1266-138ud4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76647/original/image-20150331-1266-138ud4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76647/original/image-20150331-1266-138ud4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76647/original/image-20150331-1266-138ud4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/76647/original/image-20150331-1266-138ud4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">It costs schools more to hire Teach for America teachers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&searchterm=teacher%20classroom&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=253355233">Teacher image via www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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<p>One, TFA teachers are expensive and cost school districts anywhere from US $4,000 to US $10,000 to hire in addition to their regular salaries and benefits. Districts who take advantage of TFA’s services have to negotiate contracts with the organization for non-refundable fees that they will pay each year of the two-year commitment for each teacher. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://prospect.org/article/true-cost-teach-americas-impact-urban-schools">fee</a> – that could range from $2,000 to $5,000 per teacher per year – is largely dependent upon the bargaining power of the individual school districts. </p>
<h2>TFA members have only a short-term commitment</h2>
<p>Two, in many districts TFA teachers have not honored their commitment of staying for two years. TFA members commit to a two-year stay in one school. However, in many regions, anywhere from 6% to 22% of TFA <a href="http://prospect.org/article/true-cost-teach-americas-impact-urban-schools">teachers have left</a> those placements after their first year. </p>
<p>The commitment required by TFA does little to help with the issue of teacher turnover in the difficult regions that they serve. It is estimated by some sources that <a href="http://harvardmagazine.com/2013/12/is-teach-for-america-good-for-america">72% of TFA corps members</a> leave the teaching profession within five years. This rate is higher than the national average of about 50% for high-poverty areas. </p>
<p>Three, TFA has been publicly criticized by teachers’ unions, teacher education programs, parents, and policy makers for placing inexperienced and less qualified teachers in the areas of the highest need. </p>
<p>These groups argue that the seven weeks of training that TFA members receive do not prepare them for the challenges of teaching, especially in the difficult school contexts. </p>
<p>As a result, many large school districts in regions such as Pittsburgh and Durham, among others, have decided to <a href="https://nonprofitquarterly.org/policysocial-context/24763-durham-school-district-declines-to-renew-teach-for-america-contract.htm">cancel their contracts</a> with TFA. </p>
<p>Once school districts, who have historically called on Teach for America, decide not to renew their contracts, funds earmarked by TFA for recruiting and training future corps members, are decreased. </p>
<h2>With more education services, TFA faces stiff competition</h2>
<p>In addition to these factors, with more services for education being offered, the education market is changing. </p>
<p>For instance, the number of <a href="http://www.educationdegree.com/programs/alternative-teacher-certification/">alternative certification programs,</a> that offer a teaching license without completing a traditional teacher certification program, and their graduates have skyrocketed since the Bush administration first published their <a href="http://www.archives.nysed.gov/edpolicy/research/res_essay_bush_ghw_amer2000.shtml">America 2000 educational strategic plan</a>, widely promoting their use to meet the growing need for certified teachers. </p>
<p>It is commonly agreed that the number of <a href="https://title2.ed.gov/Public/Home.aspx;%20https://title2.ed.gov/Public/Home.aspx">alternative certification programs competing with Teach for America is high</a> and becoming higher across the US. It is difficult for Teach for America to stay competitive in such a saturated market. </p>
<h2>New accountability standards will increase costs further</h2>
<p>Additionally, in 2013 the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP) approved a <a href="http://caepnet.org/news/">series of new standards </a>for teacher certification preparation programs that hold both traditional four-year university-based programs and alternative certification programs like TFA to the same standards. </p>
<p>Although these new standards are not expected to go into full effect until 2016, these standards will have a considerable impact on the recruitment, selection and assessment of candidates in the TFA pipeline.
Additionally, CAEP will have stricter requirements on the level of transparency they have for stakeholders at all levels. </p>
<p>Finally, the increase in cost per TFA corps member over the last 10 years has been exponential. The February, 2015 <a href="http://bellwethereducation.org/sites/default/files/Bellwther_TFA_Growth.pdf">Bellweather report</a> documenting TFA’s growth found that costs per corps members rose from $26,200 in 2001 to $56,600 in 2015.</p>
<p>New accountability requirements will undoubtedly increase the cost even further, straining their current funding sources and potentially impeding future investments in their alternative certification program. </p>
<p>Like all other educator preparation programs, Teach for America will have to provide these additional data points to remain a viable option for future teacher candidates.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/37695/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Teach for America applicant pool has been showing a steady decline since 2010. New research looks at the reasons why.Nancy D. Weber, Ph.D. Candidate; Researcher, Texas A&M UniversityHersh Waxman, Professor of Teaching, Learning and Culture, Texas A&M UniversityKenneth J. Fleming Jr., Researcher; Doctoral Student, Texas A&M UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.