tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca-fr/topics/animal-behaviour-2158/articlesAnimal behaviour – La Conversation2024-02-13T15:20:48Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2232482024-02-13T15:20:48Z2024-02-13T15:20:48ZHow to help children and the family dog stay safe when they play together<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575295/original/file-20240213-28-rl6h25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C37%2C5034%2C3328&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dog-ball-running-child-playing-catch-596137544">alexei_tm/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s no wonder owning a family dog <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/13/6/1072">is popular</a> in the UK – research shows that <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08927936.2016.1152721?casa_token=0RjI6Y1Cr5sAAAAA:6StzU9JXuiAK3V1BpK-ym6L2wHfLg65_sKZ-zjfGA7D0IQ-d26jD1vZf4jF0IEqL0Mf39wl5o76Neg">our wellbeing</a> can increase with dog ownership, and there’s even evidence that <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41390-020-1007-2">children’s development</a> can benefit if they share their home with a dog. </p>
<p>Unfortunately though, hospital admissions for dog bites are more likely to be <a href="https://bmjpaedsopen.bmj.com/content/4/1/e000726">children than adults</a>. The majority of bites on children are from a dog <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1558787817301168">known to them</a>. And many bites happen while <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2017.00130/full">a parent or caregiver is actually present</a>. </p>
<p>Popular representations of dogs as the perfect addition to a family are everywhere, from the 1904 JM Barrie Novel Peter Pan <a href="https://peterpan.fandom.com/wiki/Nana">and Nana</a>, to today’s children’s television. The movie, <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt5113040/">The Secret Life of Pets 2</a> opens with Max, the charismatic terrier complaining that he doesn’t personally love kids and is grateful for not living with them and being “piled on” by “hordes of children”. Max is soon faced with a new child in the family, Liam, and he laments he doesn’t feel safe in his own home.</p>
<p>Although Max’s predicament is played for laughs, the truth is children can make dogs’ lives difficult and uncomfortable. We certainly don’t want our children to be bitten. But it’s easy to overlook the dog’s perspective. </p>
<h2>Power of play</h2>
<p>Safe play means no shouting or roughness. Fetch, for example, can be great but be mindful if your dog is “guarding” by not relinquishing or snapping for their favourite toys. You and your children should <a href="https://www.dogstrust.org.uk/dog-advice/training/basics/leave-training">teach your dog</a> a leave command by trading toys for treats. Immediately throwing a second toy as soon as they bring the first back can also discourage guarding. My own son finds this game lots of fun with our dog. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman holding a child and shaking a dog's paw" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574919/original/file-20240212-30-nubo36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574919/original/file-20240212-30-nubo36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574919/original/file-20240212-30-nubo36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574919/original/file-20240212-30-nubo36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574919/original/file-20240212-30-nubo36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574919/original/file-20240212-30-nubo36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574919/original/file-20240212-30-nubo36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Supervising play is important.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-woman-little-girl-dog-outdoors-29925649">Alena Ozerova/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>During play all four paws <a href="https://www.dogstrust.org.uk/dog-advice/training/outdoors/jumping-up-training">should be on the floor</a>. If your dog becomes over excited during play, for example jumping up or <a href="https://www.dogstrust.org.uk/dog-advice/training/unwanted-behaviours/stop-your-dog-chewing-mouthing#:%7E:text=Dogs%20and%20puppies%20use%20their,chewing%20us%20or%20our%20belongings.">mouthing</a>, it’s better to just ask your child to step away and both have a bit of a time out, than shouting or punishing your dog. </p>
<p>But that doesn’t mean children should be discouraged from playing with the family dog. Play is something children are usually better at <a href="https://psychcentral.com/blog/the-importance-of-play-for-adults">than adults</a>. Parents I interviewed for my research into children’s interactions with a family dog said their kids <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/hai.2023.0042">don’t tire of throwing</a> a ball or playing tug. And for dogs, play is a natural behaviour that they <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635714002289?casa_token=Am6cWW7sVq4AAAAA:MkFoAt2uCcZ0-PYiPHQ-ToZCvISguCm7yvWSTx3Z06WmYWSiiOt-ZY-gHwbL9LlQO8iuNCCQtN8">don’t grow out of</a>.</p>
<h2>Cuddles aren’t always cute</h2>
<p>While thousands of animal cuddly toys are squished by children the world over, it’s worth remembering that cuddling is a <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/715754">mostly human behaviour</a>. </p>
<p>Research has shown that some dogs can learn to tolerate cuddles, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/175303712x13316289505468?casa_token=a1Z8-vDAitUAAAAA:4uFCEi_Pq2jI0eoNJ_mup7gU66tWjQW6oVen-hgGeaUiaOWrvCkedVZKAFA_fUPrJczVyu1h2SQjQg">some even enjoy them</a>. But they are not something that dogs innately find enjoyable and research shows that many dogs don’t get an oxytocin (cuddle hormone) <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/9/10/792">response to it</a>. </p>
<p>Close physical contact between children and the family dog is <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/hai.2023.0042">a common reason</a> dogs show aggression towards a child. So children should be discouraged from putting their arms around a dog, leaning on, or picking them up, in favour of other ways of showing affection in which the dog has more freedom of choice. </p>
<h2>A dog needs freedom of choice</h2>
<p>It’s impossible to allow dogs to do whatever they like all the time. Their behaviour has to fit into what we are willing to accept as their human owners after all. Nonetheless dogs living with children can react aggressively if children <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/hai.2023.0042">restrict their ability</a> to choose what they want to do, for example physically restrictive cuddles, or interrupting them when they are in the middle of resting, eating or playing alone.</p>
<p>It isn’t difficult to allow your dog some choice in affectionate interactions from children. Simply encouraging the kids to call the dog over to them where they are sitting, rather than approaching the dog themselves, can make a difference. And remind children not to follow the dog if he or she moves away from them. <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/hai.2023.0042">In my recent study</a> parents also found that their dogs were more likely to value their space from the kids at night time or when they were tired. </p>
<h2>Don’t expect children to read dogs</h2>
<p>Dogs can’t talk. Imagine if they could. Perhaps then we’d be better at understanding their needs. Instead, they mostly use their bodies to communicate. </p>
<p>Research has shown that young children are <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08927936.2019.1598656">generally not good at</a> recognising dog body language or facial expressions. My 2023 study of UK families showed that even if they could recognise their dog was unhappy about an interaction, it didn’t make the child <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/hai.2023.0042">stop it</a>. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08927936.2016.1228750?casa_token=Q7kmHelju5YAAAAA:xo3Iez6cAIp3piNnWSgTzxGK9dxtI_qg1zQWd7DtYkUELGbFi-bpe_6DBuAOnaL8fOzl5Ha3_jOt5Q">And a 2016 study found</a> that parents who owned a dog didn’t notice common signs of anxiety, such as a dog licking their lips or nose, wide eyes, yawning out of context or leaning away from the child. </p>
<p>If your child can learn how to spot how dogs show certain emotions that’s great. There’s lots of <a href="https://www.bluecross.org.uk/advice/dog/behaviour-and-training/be-safe-with-dogs#:%7E:text=Relaxed%3A%20My%20body%20is%20relaxed,jaw%20and%20a%20hanging%20tongue.">resources available online</a> . But don’t expect that alone to be a panacea of all interaction problems or risks.</p>
<p>The fact that dogs have emotions too means there is always a possibility an interaction might not go well. Which is why it is not just supervision, but involved supervision that will help your dog and kids become best of friends.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223248/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Baatz receives funding from Dogs Trust Canine Welfare Grants. </span></em></p>People often think about how it’s good for children to have a pet dog around. But what about the dog?Anna Baatz, PhD Candidate and Associate Lecturer in human-animal interactions, University of SalfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2220912024-02-01T14:50:17Z2024-02-01T14:50:17ZHermit crabs find new homes in plastic waste: shell shortage or clever choice?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571882/original/file-20240129-15-j4gupx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Scientists have found that hermit crabs are increasingly using plastic and other litter as makeshift shell homes</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hermit-crab-carrying-plastic-bottle-cap-1962035515">metamorworks/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Land hermit crabs have been using bottle tops, parts of old light bulbs and broken glass bottles, instead of shells. </p>
<p>New research by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723075885">Polish researchers</a> studied 386 images of hermit crabs occupying these artificial shells. The photos had been uploaded by users to online platforms, then analysed by scientists using a research approach known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016953472030077X">iEcology</a>. Of the 386 photos, the vast majority, 326 cases, featured hermit crabs using plastic items as shelters. </p>
<p>At first glance, this is a striking example of how human activities can alter the behaviour of wild animals, and potentially the ways that <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2022.893453/full">populations and ecosystems function</a> as a result. But there are lots of factors at play and, while it’s easy to jump to conclusions, it’s important to consider exactly what might be driving this particular change. </p>
<h2>Shell selection</h2>
<p>Hermit crabs are an excellent model organism to study because they behave in many different ways and those differences can be easily measured. Instead of continuously growing their own shell to protect their body, like a normal crab or a lobster would, they use empty shells left behind by dead snails. As they walk around, the shell protects their soft abdomen but whenever they are threatened they retract their whole body into the shell. Their shells act as portable shelters.</p>
<p>Having a good enough shell is critical to an individual’s survival so they acquire and upgrade their shells as they grow. They fight other hermit crabs for shells and assess any new shells that they might find for suitability. Primarily, they look for shells that are large enough to protect them, but <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2010.0761">their decision-making</a> also takes into account the type of snail shell, its condition and even its colour – a factor that could impact how conspicuous the crab might be.</p>
<p>Another factor that constrains shell choice is the actual availability of suitable shells. For some as yet unknown reason, a proportion of land hermit crabs are choosing to occupy plastic items rather than natural shells, as highlighted by this <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723075885">latest study</a>. </p>
<h2>Housing crisis or ingenious new move?</h2>
<p>Humans have intentionally changed the behaviour of animals for millennia, through the process of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2213305413000052">domestication</a>. Any unintended behavioural changes in natural animal populations are potentially concerning, but how worried should we be about hermit crabs using plastic litter as shelter? </p>
<p>The Polish research raises a number of questions. First, how prevalent is the adoption of plastic litter instead of shells? While 326 crabs using plastic seems like a lot, this is likely to be an underestimation of the raw number given that users are likely to encounter crabs only in accessible parts of the populations. Conversely, it seems probable that users could be biased towards uploading striking or unusual images, so the iEcology approach might produce an exaggerated impression of the proportion of individuals in a population opting for plastic over natural shells. We need structured field surveys to clarify this. </p>
<p>Second, why are some individual crabs using plastic? One possibility is that they are forced to due to a lack of natural shells, but we can’t test this hypothesis without more information on the demographics of local snail populations. Or perhaps the crabs prefer plastic or find it easier to locate, compared with real shells? As the authors point out, plastic might be lighter than the equivalent shells affording the same amount of protection but at lower energy cost of carrying them. Intriguingly, chemicals that leach out of plastic are known to attract marine hermit crabs by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X21005671#:%7E:text=Our%20findings%20show%20that%20the,the%20artificial%20feeding%20stimulant%20betaine">mimicking the odour of food</a>. </p>
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<img alt="Hermit crab using red plastic bottle cap as a shell, walking across beach surface covered in sand and seaweed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572811/original/file-20240201-23-4epat6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572811/original/file-20240201-23-4epat6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572811/original/file-20240201-23-4epat6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572811/original/file-20240201-23-4epat6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572811/original/file-20240201-23-4epat6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572811/original/file-20240201-23-4epat6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572811/original/file-20240201-23-4epat6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">As hermit crabs adapt to an increase in plastic pollution, more research is needed to investigate the nuances.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hermit-crab-plastic-shell-zanzibar-2270754839">Bertrand Godfroid/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>This leads to a third question about the possible downsides of using plastic. Compared to real shells plastic waste tends to be brighter and might contrast more with the background making the crabs more vulnerable to predators. Additionally, we know that exposure to microplastics and compounds that leach from plastic can change the behaviour of hermit crabs, making them <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36978596/#:%7E:text=Plastic%2Dexposed%20hermit%20crabs%20were,exposure%20disrupting%20hermit%20crab%20cognition">less fussy</a> about the shells that they choose, less adept at <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8511743/">fighting for shells</a> and even changing their personalities by making them more prone to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666911020300058">take risks</a>. To answer these questions about the causes and consequences of hermit crabs using plastic waste in this way, we need to investigate their shell selection behaviour through a series of laboratory experiments.</p>
<h2>Pollution changes behaviour</h2>
<p>Plastic pollution is just one of the ways we are changing our environment. It’s by far the most <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X14008571">highly reported form</a> of debris that we have introduced to marine environments. But animal behaviour is affected by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723059879?via%3Dihub">other forms of pollution</a> too, including microplastics, pharmaceuticals, light and noise, plus the rising temperatures and ocean acidification caused by climate change. </p>
<p>So while investigating the use of plastic waste by hermit crabs could help us better understand the consequences of certain human impacts on the environment, it doesn’t show how exactly animals will adjust to the Anthropocene, the era during which human activity has been having a significant impact on the planet. Will they cope by using plastic behavioural responses or evolve across generations, or perhaps both? In my view, the iEcology approach cannot answer questions like this. Rather, this study acts as an alarm bell highlighting potential changes that now need to be fully investigated.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Briffa works for the University of Plymouth. He receives funding from the UK BBSRC. </span></em></p>Hermit crabs have been using plastic waste such as bottle tops as homes instead of empty snail shells.Mark Briffa, Professor of Animal Behaviour, University of PlymouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2215472024-01-31T12:02:05Z2024-01-31T12:02:05ZWhy monkeys attack people – a primate expert explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570907/original/file-20240123-15-jwdv0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5159%2C3429&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/monkeys-open-mouth-see-horrible-teeth-1156580965">Witsawat.S/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Wildlife tourism thrives on our fascination with animals and primates are particularly attractive animals to tourists. With their human-like faces, complex family dynamics and acrobatic antics, they are a joy to behold.</p>
<p>But recent stories have emerged that portray monkeys in a more sinister light. Reports of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jul/25/monkey-attacks-injure-people-japanese-city-yamaguchi-tranquilliser-gun">“monkey attacks”</a>, <a href="https://metro.co.uk/video/devil-monkeys-push-driver-160ft-hillside-attack-thailand-2994905/">“devil monkeys”</a>, or even <a href="https://www.dailystar.co.uk/news/latest-news/what-face-ripping-bone-biting-31631055">“face-ripping, bone-biting monkeys”</a> have become common in the media. Have our primate cousins turned on us?</p>
<p>The recent monkey attacks involve a variety of species in different countries. They include the <a href="https://metro.co.uk/2024/01/16/thailand-monkeys-turn-tourists-start-attacking-beach-20120135/">long-tailed macaque</a> and the <a href="https://metro.co.uk/2023/08/09/thailand-devil-monkeys-pushed-driver-down-hill-and-attacked-him-19307282/">pig-tailed macaque</a> in Thailand, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jul/25/monkey-attacks-injure-people-japanese-city-yamaguchi-tranquilliser-gun">Japanese macaques</a> in Japan, and <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/boy-killed-monkey-attack-india-intestines-ripped-2023-11?r=US&IR=T">Hanuman langurs</a> in India.</p>
<p>Most of these species are macaques, which are a diverse group of monkeys. But all macaques are sociable, intelligent, relatively large (between 4kg and 9kg), and comfortable travelling on the ground. They have a flexible diet, but prefer fruit. They also have cheek pouches that allow them to gather food quickly and carry it to a safe place to eat.</p>
<h2>Over-habituation</h2>
<p>Regardless of species or location, a major factor in monkey bites and attacks is “over-habituation”. Habituation is a process used by animal researchers to gain animals’ trust so they can follow and record their behaviour, with limited impact of the researchers’ presence. </p>
<p>But animals can become unintentionally habituated. Squirrels in a city park who have grown accustomed to handouts are one example, but others include urban foxes in the UK, bears in North America, and, in many parts of the tropics, monkeys.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/three-surprising-reasons-human-actions-threaten-endangered-primates-197850">Three surprising reasons human actions threaten endangered primates</a>
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<p>When animals lose their fear of humans and become a nuisance, they are over-habituated. In nearly all cases of over-habituation, the main factor is human food. What people eat is irresistible to wildlife. It is nutrient-dense, easy to digest and is available in rubbish bins, unattended backpacks, or even directly from people. </p>
<p>From an ecological point of view, animals have every incentive to take advantage of this high-quality resource. So, it’s no surprise that animals will adjust their fear and natural behaviour accordingly.</p>
<p>While over-habituation due to associating tourists with food is certainly the main driver for the reported monkey attacks, that does not mean that every person bitten or threatened by a monkey is guilty of feeding or teasing them. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A long-tailed macaque sits on a red footbridge while a cyclist rides past." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572224/original/file-20240130-23-bkbzlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572224/original/file-20240130-23-bkbzlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572224/original/file-20240130-23-bkbzlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572224/original/file-20240130-23-bkbzlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572224/original/file-20240130-23-bkbzlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572224/original/file-20240130-23-bkbzlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572224/original/file-20240130-23-bkbzlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A contemplative long-tailed macaque in Singapore.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/long-tailed-macaques-crossing-bridge-singapore-2364831037">Tan Yong Lin/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Monkeys are very smart, have a long memory and learn from each other. Many groups have grown so accustomed to human foods that they have learned to harass tourists to get it. Some monkeys have become so adept at this that they know which items are valuable to tourists, which they will <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2019.0677">“trade” for food</a>. In other words, they’ll steal your mobile phone but then drop it when you throw them some food. </p>
<p>Another important factor in monkey attacks at tourist sites is an unawareness of the animals’ body language, facial expressions and vocalisation. Even highly habituated monkeys will normally give a warning before attacking someone. But people inexperienced with monkey behaviour will often <a href="https://peerj.com/blog/post/115284879374/experience-based-human-perception-of-facial-expressions-in-barbary-macaques/">misinterpret</a> a threatening facial expression for a friendly one. This can lead to dangerous encounters.</p>
<h2>Advice</h2>
<p>Wildlife tourists cannot be expected to understand every species’ typical expressions and body postures. But some things can help tourists be more safe and responsible, regardless of the primate species they are viewing.</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Give them space. According to the <a href="https://human-primate-interactions.org/responsible-primate-watching-for-tourists/">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a>, a network of environmental organisations, keeping a distance of seven metres (23 feet) from the animals is recommended. This helps the animals not feel threatened and also reduces the risk of disease transmission.</p></li>
<li><p>Do not stand between the animals and their route to safety, or between adults and young.</p></li>
<li><p>Avoid direct eye contact or showing your teeth because monkeys may perceive this as aggressive.</p></li>
<li><p>For many primate species, common threats include bared teeth (including some yawns), direct stares with a lowered head, and short lunges or slapping the ground with the hands. If an animal does any of these things, quietly back away.</p></li>
<li><p>Do not feed the monkeys.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Wildlife tourism contributes <a href="https://wttc.org/Portals/0/Documents/Reports/2019/Sustainable%20Growth-Economic%20Impact%20of%20Global%20Wildlife%20Tourism-Aug%202019.pdf">more than US$100 billion</a> (£786 billion) per year to the global economy. It is also immensely rewarding and can offer many benefits to wildlife and the communities of people who live near them. But we should all be <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-ways-to-be-a-responsible-wildlife-tourist-118869">responsible tourists</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221547/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tracie McKinney is affiliated with the IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group's Section for Human-Primate Interactions (SHPI).</span></em></p>Tourists can do a number of things to avoid dangerous encounters with monkeys.Tracie McKinney, Senior Lecturer in Biological Anthropology, University of South WalesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2208042024-01-16T21:51:20Z2024-01-16T21:51:20ZFowl language: AI is learning to analyze chicken communications to help us understand what all the clucking’s about<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569623/original/file-20240116-21-fbzgp8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C17%2C6000%2C3970&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Chickens are vibrant communicators.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you ever wondered what chickens are talking about? Chickens are quite the communicators — their clucks, squawks and purrs are not just random sounds but a complex language system. These sounds are their way of interacting with the world and expressing joy, fear and social cues to one another. </p>
<p>Like humans, the “language” of chickens varies with age, environment and surprisingly, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010639">domestication</a>, giving us insights into their <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11020434">social structures</a> and behaviours. Understanding these vocalizations can transform our approach to poultry farming, enhancing chicken welfare and quality of life.</p>
<p>Our research at Dalhousie University applies artificial intelligence (AI) to decode the language of chickens. It’s a project that’s set to revolutionize our understanding of these feathered creatures and their communication methods, offering a window into their world that was previously closed to us.</p>
<h2>Chicken translator</h2>
<p>The use of AI and machine learning in this endeavor is like having a universal translator for chicken speech. AI can analyze vast amounts of audio data. As our research, yet to be peer-reviewed, is documenting, our algorithms are learning to recognize patterns and nuances in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.12.26.573338">chicken vocalizations</a>. This isn’t a simple task — chickens have a range of sounds that vary in pitch, tone, and context. </p>
<p>But by using advanced data analysis techniques, we’re beginning to crack their code. This breakthrough in animal communication is not just a scientific achievement; it’s a step towards more humane and empathetic treatment of farm animals.</p>
<p>One of the most exciting aspects of this research is understanding the emotional content behind these sounds. Using Natural Language Processing (NLP), a technology often used to decipher human languages, we’re learning to interpret the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/s21020553">emotional states of chickens</a>. Are they stressed? Are they content? By understanding their <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12060759">emotional state</a>, we can make more informed decisions about their care and environment.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569656/original/file-20240116-23-oqw734.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a person in a white hazmat suit holding an ipad while surrounded by chickens" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569656/original/file-20240116-23-oqw734.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569656/original/file-20240116-23-oqw734.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569656/original/file-20240116-23-oqw734.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569656/original/file-20240116-23-oqw734.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569656/original/file-20240116-23-oqw734.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569656/original/file-20240116-23-oqw734.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569656/original/file-20240116-23-oqw734.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Understanding how chickens express themselves will impact how they are farmed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Non-verbal chicken communication</h2>
<p>In addition to vocalizations, our research also delves into non-verbal cues to gauge emotions in chickens. Our research has also explored chickens’ eye blinks and facial temperatures. How these might be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.01.31.478468">reliable indicators</a> of chickens’ emotional states is examined in a preprint (not yet peer reviewed) paper.</p>
<p>By using non-invasive methods like video and thermal imaging, we’ve observed changes in temperature around the eye and head regions, as well as variations in blinking behaviour, which appear to be responses to stress. These preliminary findings are opening new avenues in understanding how chickens express their feelings, both behaviourally and physiologically, providing us with additional tools to assess their well-being.</p>
<h2>Happier fowl</h2>
<p>This project isn’t just about academic curiosity; it has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.31.502171">real-world implications</a>. In the agricultural sector, understanding chicken vocalizations can lead to improved farming practices. Farmers can use this knowledge to create better living conditions, leading to healthier and happier chickens. This, in turn, can impact the quality of produce, animal health and overall farm efficiency. </p>
<p>The insights gained from this research can also be applied to other areas of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2022.110819">animal husbandry</a>, potentially leading to breakthroughs in the way we interact with and care for a variety of farm animals.</p>
<p>But our research goes beyond just farming practices. It has the potential to influence policies on animal welfare and ethical treatment. As we grow to understand these animals better, we’re compelled to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering5010032">advocate for their well-being</a>. This research is reshaping how we view our relationship with animals, emphasizing empathy and understanding.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569662/original/file-20240116-15-c9v7e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a man reaches into a chicken coop filled with chicken" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569662/original/file-20240116-15-c9v7e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569662/original/file-20240116-15-c9v7e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569662/original/file-20240116-15-c9v7e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569662/original/file-20240116-15-c9v7e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569662/original/file-20240116-15-c9v7e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569662/original/file-20240116-15-c9v7e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569662/original/file-20240116-15-c9v7e6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Understanding animal communication and behaviour can impact animal welfare policies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Unsplash/Zoe Schaeffer)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Ethical AI</h2>
<p>The ethical use of AI in this context sets a precedent for future technological applications in animal science. We’re demonstrating that technology can and should be used for the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s44230-023-00050-2">betterment of all living beings</a>. It’s a responsibility that we take seriously, ensuring that our advancements in AI are aligned with ethical principles and the welfare of the subjects of our study.</p>
<p>The implications of our research extend to education and conservation efforts as well. By understanding the communication methods of chickens, we gain insights into avian communication in general, providing a unique perspective on the complexity of animal communication systems. This knowledge can be vital for conservationists working to protect bird species and their habitats.</p>
<p>As we continue to make strides in this field, we are opening doors to a new era in <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.740253">animal-human interaction</a>. Our journey into <a href="https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202309.1714.v1">decoding chicken language</a> is more than just an academic pursuit: it’s a step towards a more empathetic and responsible world. </p>
<p>By leveraging AI, we’re not only unlocking the secrets of avian communication but also setting new standards for animal welfare and ethical technological use. It’s an exciting time, as we stand on the cusp of a new understanding between humans and the animal world, all starting with the chicken.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220804/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suresh Neethirajan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Artificial intelligence can process large amounts of chicken vocalizations, identifying patterns in the birds’ communications.Suresh Neethirajan, University Research Chair in Digital Livestock Farming, Dalhousie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2180332024-01-15T00:27:05Z2024-01-15T00:27:05ZTikTok says orange cats are ‘dumb’, and tortoiseshell cats have ‘an attitude’. But how true is that?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560110/original/file-20231117-29-fv986f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C15%2C5048%2C3340&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve watched cat videos on social media lately, you may have encountered the idea a <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@shop2daybycbph/video/7227729130438069509?is_from_webapp=1&sender_device=pc&web_id=7311132537870452242">cat’s coat colour</a> tells us something about their personality. </p>
<p>Orange cats are supposedly “dumb”, always <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@winniegingercat/video/7235730348087299333?is_from_webapp=1&sender_device=pc&web_id=7311132537870452242">falling off beds</a> or getting themselves stuck in awkward places. Tortoiseshell cats are often said to have a strong-willed attitude (sometimes referred to as “<a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@shop2daybycbph/video/7227729130438069509?is_from_webapp=1&web_id=7311132537870452242">tortitude</a>”). <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/@thisisdhayes/video/7167064678177295662?q=black%20cats%20smarter&t=1702356432918">Black</a> cats are “smarter”, if social media is to be believed.</p>
<p>The idea a cat’s personality is linked to their coat colour isn’t new. <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/judging-a-cat-wrongly-by-the-color-of-its-coat-97549864/">In 2012</a> a study of human perceptions of cats reported people generally believe ginger cats are friendly, while tortoiseshell cats are seen as aloof and intolerant. </p>
<p>It’s important to note this is a reflection people <em>believe</em>, rather than how cats <em>are</em>. So what does the research actually say?</p>
<h2>Surveys on cat personality are filled out by people</h2>
<p>Research suggests that cats, like people, have different personality types. One study proposed the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0183455">“feline five”</a> personality traits for cats: neuroticism, extraversion, dominance, impulsiveness and agreeableness. </p>
<p>The researchers linked “neuroticism” in cats with being anxious, insecure, fearful of people and tense. Cats low in neuroticism were associated with being stable, trusting, calm and self-assured. </p>
<p>Cats categorised as impulsive scored highly for being erratic, reckless and distractible, while those low in impulsivity were considered to be predictable and constrained.</p>
<p>You might get a sense from these studies that these are not terms cats would choose for themselves, and you’d be right. </p>
<p>Surveys on cat personality are filled out by people. As such, results are affected by human perspectives, projections and biases. </p>
<p>Indeed, a review of methods used to define <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/10/9/1516">personality in cats</a> concluded studies reporting differences in personality due to coat colour were likely to be affected by owner bias. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Three kittens - one orange, one grey and one calico - frolic in grass." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566193/original/file-20231218-23-agqln9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Studies reporting differences in personality due to cat coat colour were likely to be affected by owner bias.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/three-kittens-different-colors-on-grass-2118477416">Irina Makushina/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Breed personality</h2>
<p>Instead of colour, it’s possible breed is more important when it comes to cat personality.</p>
<p>One <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-44324-x">study</a> found British Shorthair cats were least likely to seek human contact, while Korat and Devon Rex cats were most likely.</p>
<p>Another study, however, found <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-44324-x">substantial variation exists within breeds</a>, suggesting a cat’s breed may not fully explain personality.</p>
<p>Both of these studies were once again survey-based and so, again, human bias is likely affecting the results. </p>
<h2>If it’s not coat or breed, what else is it?</h2>
<p>Genetics is not the only factor influencing personality. The environment and how an animal is raised also has a big effect.</p>
<p>If kittens are not socialised with people by the age of <a href="https://vetfocus.royalcanin.com/en/scientific/feline-developmental-stages">around nine weeks</a>, they are more likely to be anxious and shy around humans and other animals. </p>
<p>Whether your cat was hand-reared, purchased from a breeder or found in a box, they will likely behave differently depending on time spent with their mother.</p>
<p>In reality, humans tend to ascribe certain meanings to particular behavioural traits.</p>
<p>For instance, if a cat is fearful, they may come across as lacking intelligence because they are less likely to interact with their environment in ways we recognise as “smart”. </p>
<p>On the flip side, confident cats comfortable in their environment may seem “dumb”, as they act in a carefree way that registers as “stupid” to the human eye. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An orange cat appears to be stuck inside a jar." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566196/original/file-20231218-21-mdxtlx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A cat that is bold and confident may look ‘dumb’ to humans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/orange-tabby-cat-stuck-inside-glass-2109878690">perezoo/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Don’t judge a book by its cover – or a cat by it’s colour</h2>
<p>While funny social media videos linking personality with cat coat colour might be harmless, the biases they create can have more harmful results. For instance, black cats take longer to adopt <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/the-modern-heart/202010/3-reasons-people-dont-adopt-black-cats">from a shelter</a> than cats of other colours, and so are at higher risk of being euthanised. </p>
<p>Black animals are more difficult to photograph, meaning they may not look as attractive in adoption photos. Some people also believe black cats symbolise bad luck, or are associated with witchcraft or evil. Stereotypes of black cats being less friendly may also stem from facial expressions on darker fur being harder to read. </p>
<p>Before you dismiss this as speculation, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0033294119844982">a study</a> did confirm human bias against black cats using photos of cats of different colours.</p>
<p>We shouldn’t be surprised people make judgements about cats based on their coat colour. We also make judgements based on human hair colour – take the baseless “dumb blonde” and “fiery redhead” <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/speaking-in-tongues/202104/examination-stereotypes-about-hair-color#:%7E:text=Over%20time%2C%20specific%20hair%20colors,and%20redheads%20have%20fiery%20tempers.">stereotypes</a>, for example. </p>
<p>And just like with human stereotypes, putting our cats into arbitrary boxes isn’t useful for anyone.</p>
<p>Instead, it’s best to think of your cat, and any cat, as the individuals they are. </p>
<p>Cats are much more than their coats. People and cats <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(19)31086-3.pdf">form</a> <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/11/6/1601">close emotional bonds</a>.</p>
<p>A cat can be the reason somebody gets up in the morning. Cats can also be fiercely <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/cat-waiting-window-every-day-dead-owners-return-breaks-hearts-1736479">loyal</a>, unwavering companions, friends and family. Let’s not reduce their complex, wonderful individuality to just a colour or type.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218033/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Hazel receives funding from the Waltham FoundationTM and is a member of the Dog & Cat Management Board of South Australia, RSPCA South Australia and Animal Therapies Ltd. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julia Henning does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Surveys on cat personality are filled out by people. As such, results are affected by human perspectives, projections and biases.Susan Hazel, Associate Professor, School of Animal and Veterinary Science, University of AdelaideJulia Henning, PhD Candidate, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2187452024-01-04T12:51:25Z2024-01-04T12:51:25ZSpiders really may be more scared of you than you are of them<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566276/original/file-20231218-23-ws5uv6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C12%2C8191%2C5456&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Spiders often act passively in response to humans. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/jumping-spider-human-hand-2360829801">Jimmy_Chan/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Spiders have evolved creative strategies to allow them to thrive in habitats across the globe. The one thing that seems to elude them though, is the ability to charm the humans that they encounter. </p>
<p>But what about the spider’s perspective of humans when they find a new home near us? It’s not possible to read a spider’s mind, but research has uncovered some surprising insights about how they behave around humans. </p>
<p>Take the Jorō spider, <em>Trichonephila clavata</em>. News reports have <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K1ZXH_eT9c8">spread alarm</a> about the palm-size Jorō spider recently settling in parts of the US. </p>
<p>This spider is native to part of eastern Asia but over the last decade has established itself in the US, following its cousin, the golden silk spider <em>Trichonephila clavipes</em>, which arrived <a href="https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/phen.12385">around 160 years ago</a>. </p>
<p>But its behaviour suggests it may be more worried about us than the other way around. The Jorō spider has a tendency to play dead. This ploy is known as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5769822/">thanatosis</a> among scientists. It is a response to threats used by many creatures in the animal world, including other arachnids such as scorpions. </p>
<h2>Playing dead</h2>
<p>It’s common for spiders to do this in response to a potential hazard, or even as part of their mating strategy. What is unusual about the Jorō spider though, is just how long it keeps up the act. A <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2813-3323/1/2/9">2023 study</a> of ten spider species found most spiders froze for about a minute in response to a few rapid puffs of air. Jorō spiders lay motionless for more than an hour. </p>
<p>Playing dead at specific times is an <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/19/3/546/185057">advantageous strategy</a>. It reduces the chances of being eaten by predators or potential mates, such as cannibalistic <em>Pisaura mirabilis</em> (European nursery web spider) females.</p>
<p>It might come with a cost such as missing out on a passing feast in the form of a flying insect. But playing dead is probably a more energy efficient way of staying safe from a predator than active defensive strategies. For example, <em>Pholcus</em> cellar spiders will spend far more energy trying to confuse and deter predators by whirling around in their webs.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/punk-hairstyles-and-pirouettes-why-theres-more-to-spiders-than-people-think-189801">Punk hairstyles and pirouettes: why there's more to spiders than people think</a>
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<p>Aggressive responses spiders use include raising their legs and moving their fangs to scare off other animals. More often though, responses to perceived threats – including an approaching human – <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.12177">are passive</a>. Examples include hiding or camouflaging against a background, masquerading as a different species, or even hiding behind other predators. The latter is adopted by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-014-1690-2">tiny jumping spiders</a> that take refuge from spiting spiders by hiding in ant nests.</p>
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<img alt="Japanese yellow joro spider in the web close up" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562382/original/file-20231129-21-i6inhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562382/original/file-20231129-21-i6inhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562382/original/file-20231129-21-i6inhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562382/original/file-20231129-21-i6inhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562382/original/file-20231129-21-i6inhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562382/original/file-20231129-21-i6inhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562382/original/file-20231129-21-i6inhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Joro spiders aren’t exactly inconspicuous.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-japanese-yellow-joro-spider-net-2228441763">Photo Spirit/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>But the Jorō spider has a conspicuously coloured, gold and black body, and builds large webs one metre in diameter. It’s too large to hide and too distinctive to masquerade or mimic so must rely on other strategies, including playing dead. </p>
<h2>Who is scared of who</h2>
<p>It’s not clear why we are so susceptible to arachnophobia, but studies show humans have similar emotive reactions to very different animals (wolves, crows, spiders). Scientists suggest these fear responses to other animals are driven by a need to control our <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2021.593501">ecological environment</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.10143">News stories</a> fuel people’s assumptions that spiders have bad intentions towards us. And these sentiments are reinforced by the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-9940273/Creepy-crawlies-Homes-invaded-thousands-spiders-mating-season-kicks-UK.html">seasonal appearances</a> of big spiders in our gardens and under the sofa. </p>
<p>Some spiders, such as the recluse spiders of the US, have a bite that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6628458/">sometimes needs medical treatment</a> but even then, the threat they pose is <a href="https://www.wired.com/2013/11/poor-misunderstood-brown-recluse/">often exaggerated</a>. To put it in context, no spider appears on the WHO’s <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/animal-bites">list of dangerous animals</a> but domestic dogs and cats do. </p>
<p>Tens of millions of people are reportedly injured by domestic dogs each year. Stories about the benefits of spider venom, for example as templates for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6551028/">new medicines</a> that may one day be used to treat pain and diseases such as cancer, get a lot less media attention than spider bites.</p>
<p>People are also almost certainly more dangerous to spiders than the other way around. This is because our food production systems rely on insecticides that are lethal to spiders and are probably contributing to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-29003-2">their widescale decline</a>. This is a problem for humans because spiders have an important role in agriculture, eating pest insects. Their decline might have long-term consequences for what you put on your table. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/studying-the-stomach-contents-of-spiders-shows-how-they-help-control-crop-pests-201066">Studying the stomach contents of spiders shows how they help control crop pests</a>
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<p>As a biologist, I can’t help but feel impressed by the imaginative solutions spiders use to cope with the world around them. They construct <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221959568_The_Role_of_Behavior_in_the_Evolution_of_Spiders_Silks_and_Webs">elaborate silken structures</a> – from giant orb webs complete with decorations (called stabilimenta), to cunningly disguised trapdoors in the ground. </p>
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<p>Spider silk allows them to live everywhere from the <a href="https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2017/05/cave-spiders/">cold depths of deep caves</a>, to the <a href="https://www.cumbriawildlifetrust.org.uk/wildlife-explorer/invertebrates/spiders/water-spider#:%7E:text=The%20water%20spider%20is%20the%20only%20spider%20that%20spends%20its,Males%20are%20larger%20than%20females.">underwater realms</a> of ponds, to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/tarantulas-spiders-new-species-high-elevation-news">high altitudes in the mountains</a>. </p>
<p>When small, spiderlings can travel thousands of kilometres by wind, using silken sails. In the same way that our life experiences shape us, the spider’s journey also shapes its future. This is because the environments young spiders experience during development, such as temperature or the amount of food available, can influence later life strategies, <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.12512">for example when foraging</a> or deciding whether to stay somewhere or move away.</p>
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<img alt="White silk spiral." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562369/original/file-20231129-22-ulz8qc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562369/original/file-20231129-22-ulz8qc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562369/original/file-20231129-22-ulz8qc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562369/original/file-20231129-22-ulz8qc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562369/original/file-20231129-22-ulz8qc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562369/original/file-20231129-22-ulz8qc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562369/original/file-20231129-22-ulz8qc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=525&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Spiders can spin elaborate webs: the spiral stabilimentum of Japanese spider Octonoba yaeyamensis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Octonoba.yaeyamensis.stabilimentum.1.-.takinawa.jpg">Akio Tanikawa/WikiMedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<p>The Jorō is also capable of flying in the air as a spiderling, but its recent arrival in the US is probably the result of human activity. For example, hitching a ride in your luggage or on commercially transported goods. And our concern about their spread is best focused not on the spider itself, but on potential ecosystem disruption lower down the food chain.</p>
<p>New arrivals to an area – including this spider – might compete with resident species for food, or influence other types of plant or animal in unexpected ways. In Florida, for example, invasive <em>Cyrtophora</em> spiders sometimes spin so much silk that they cause problems for host plants, potentially <a href="https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/MISC/SPIDERS/Cyrtophora_citricola.htm">damaging farmers’ crops</a>. </p>
<p>This example serves as a reminder that the consequence of a spider’s actions might be more complicated than it first appears – passive or not. We benefit from improving our understanding of spiders. This will be easier if we can stop viewing them through an emotive lens.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218745/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sara Goodacre has received funding from NERC, BBSRC, Wellcome and the Royal Society. She is a member of the British Arachnological Society and the European Society for the study of Arachnology</span></em></p>An expert on why spiders are misunderstood and their fascinating survival strategies.Sara Goodacre, Professor of Evolutionary Biology and Genetics, University of NottinghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2199892023-12-27T09:09:09Z2023-12-27T09:09:09ZWhich zoo animals are most active in winter and what times are best to see them?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566032/original/file-20231215-15-11mkge.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C67%2C4970%2C3261&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Amur tigers are evolved for winter weather</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/snowflakes-wild-cat-tiger-winter-nature-1231255066">Ondrej Prosicky/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The temperature has dropped, the nights have drawn in. The winter holidays have started, families are gathered – so where can you go to fuel the imagination and get some fresh air? A zoo might not be your first thought – but with some offering reduced ticket prices and smaller crowds than in summer, your nearest zoo on a cold, crisp winter’s day might be just the place.</p>
<p>We might think that their most popular animals, large mammals, are only active in summer, because that time of year suits us better. However, not all animals love sunshine and the hot days of summer. Some prefer cooler weather and are more active in colder temperatures. Here are ten animals to look out for on a winter visit to the zoo:</p>
<h2>1. Amur tiger</h2>
<p>In the wild, Amur tigers live in northern China and Russia so are used to the cold, making them more active during our winter months. These endangered animals are crepuscular (<a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jzo.12622?casa_token=TyJcM9gUMaMAAAAA%3AoVnzcHYYTEod9Eg8s_eQgr8XANC9hekc7rGkYultZ3ecCqRzAU469_oW_j5vaDEQeqqhyzBel4FY0mQ">active at dawn and dusk</a>), so I would head over to see them towards the end of your day at the zoo. There are currently 40 Amur tigers living in 17 UK zoos.</p>
<h2>2. Grey wolf</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/3746/247624660">Native to</a> Eurasia, the US, Canada and Greenland, the grey wolf lives in many different habitats, including places where temperatures drop as low as -40°C. Grey wolves can communicate across up to ten miles using <a href="https://y86aca.p3cdn1.secureserver.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Spontaneoushowling.pdf">individually recognisable howls</a>. They also howl during the breeding season (February-March), so you might be lucky and hear them in the zoo during late winter or early spring.</p>
<h2>3. Bison</h2>
<p>In the wild, bison live in <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/2814/45156279">northern Europe and Russia</a> as well as in the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/2815/123789863">US and Canada</a>, so they cope well in UK winters. These animals <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00265-003-0599-y">will be foraging</a> for most of the day, and are likely to be out in all weathers.</p>
<h2>4. Red panda</h2>
<p>Wild red pandas live in the forests of the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/714/110023718">Himalayas and China</a>, between 2,500m and 4,800m above sea level. These endangered animals will be active around feeding time – check the zoo’s schedule so you can time your visit to watch them climb down from their treetop snooze spot.</p>
<h2>5. Red squirrel</h2>
<p>Native to the UK, these cute mammals are already used to British winter conditions. There are still places where you can see them in the wild, such as the Isle of Wight and Scottish woodlands. But their numbers have <a href="https://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/43424/1/1450935_Fingland.pdf">been in decline</a> since grey squirrels from the US were introduced in the 19th century. Some zoos in the UK are part of a <a href="https://www.dudleyzoo.org.uk/red-squirrel-success/">captive breeding</a> and release programme, working to restore their numbers in the wild.</p>
<h2>6. Polar bear</h2>
<p>It won’t come as a surprise that this much-loved winter animal is on our list – and you should see playful polar bears swimming and splashing around in their pools a lot more in winter. Four UK zoos house them: Peak Wildlife Park near Stoke-on-Trent, Yorkshire Wildlife Park in Doncaster, Highland Wildlife Park in Cairngorms National Park, and Jimmy’s Farm & Wildlife Park in Ipswich.</p>
<h2>7. Snow leopard</h2>
<p>The name gives this one away as another big cat that likes the cold. Snow leopards live in the rugged mountains of central Asia. They are <a href="https://snowleopardconservancy.org/pdf/Jackson%20PhD%20thesis%20+%20photo.pdf">quite elusive</a> so spotting them, even in zoos in the winter, may be a challenge. However, if you aim for late afternoon, you’re more likely to be rewarded.</p>
<h2>8. Penguin</h2>
<p>A lot of penguins found in UK zoos are not from the freezing Antarctic. African and Humboldt penguins, for example, are from much warmer regions of the southern hemisphere. But that doesn’t stop them wanting to engage with zoo visitors through the windows while swimming in winter – just like those from colder climates, such as the gentoo penguins shown here at Belfast Zoo.</p>
<h2>9. Reindeer</h2>
<p>The reindeer you see at the zoo may be getting some rest before they make their estimated <a href="https://inews.co.uk/inews-lifestyle/christmas/santas-reindeer-would-have-to-travel-a-distance-of-over-41-million-miles-to-deliver-presents-238014">31-hour journey of 41 million miles</a> to deliver all the presents on Christmas Eve. Males shed their antlers in autumn and winter, while females keep theirs until spring – meaning that Santa’s sleigh is probably pulled by female reindeer.</p>
<h2>10. Reptile house (to defrost)</h2>
<p>There is nothing better than a reptile house or aquarium to help you defrost after being outside. The animals housed here need warm conditions to survive, so the whole area normally feels warm. They will also be more peaceful places given the lower zoo visitor numbers at this time of year, so you can take your time looking at these fascinating animals.</p>
<p>You may be wondering how animals from warmer climates cope with British winters. Zoos should always be conscious of animal welfare and this includes providing heated indoor areas. The best way for zoos to maintain high animal welfare is to let the animals decide where they want to go. Inside with protection from the weather, or outside in the fresh cold air – the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/9/6/318">choice should be theirs</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219989/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Samantha Ward does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Not all animals retreat to their shelters in cold weather.Samantha Ward, Associate Professor of Zoo Animal Welfare, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2197262023-12-21T16:07:15Z2023-12-21T16:07:15ZCats like to play fetch, as long as it’s on their terms – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565558/original/file-20231213-19-gdxrq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C53%2C5973%2C3934&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Surprised that cats like to play fetch too? </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/portrait-cute-scottish-fold-cat-sitting-1466349110">Tzido Sun/Shuttestock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cats have a reputation <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0185599">for being aloof</a> (some may even say lazy) – but our <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-47409-w">new research</a> has found they <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982219310863?via%3Dihub">interact with their owners</a> in surprising ways. What we discovered also shows how important this <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2021.650143/full">kind of interaction</a> can be for cats’ wellbeing.</p>
<p>Fetching behaviour in domestic cats has been <a href="https://gwern.net/doc/cat/psychology/1996-voith.pdf">reported to be</a> more common than coming when called, meowing on command, or playing games. There may also be breed differences in fetching (at least among purebreds). For example, <a href="https://tica.org/breeds/browse-all-breeds?view=article&id=1227:the-siamese-breed&catid=48">Siamese cats</a> and their crossbreed variations are known for being proficient fetchers.</p>
<p>We wanted to know more about how and why cats fetch. In an online survey, we asked owners of cats who play fetch about this behaviour. Almost all of these cats (94.4%) had not been trained to fetch, and most were young (less than one year old) when their owners first noticed they could fetch.</p>
<p>At the time of our survey, these cats had on average fetched for approximately four years. But there was a lot of variation – some were new fetchers, while others had played fetch for their whole lives. </p>
<h2>What we learned</h2>
<p>We discovered that cats prefer to be in control of their fetching sessions. According to their owners, the cats that usually initiate fetching sessions seem more enthusiastic about it. These cats both had more fetching sessions per month and retrieved the object more times in a single play session.</p>
<p>Most of the cats in our sample were mixed breed (86%). Out of the purebreds, Siamese were the most common (22.5%), supporting their reputation as fetchers.</p>
<p>Fetching cats preferred to play fetch with toys such as imitation mice and catnip toys. But they also made the most of their surroundings and would opportunistically fetch items such as crumpled paper, hair ties or bottle caps.</p>
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<img alt="Tabby long-haired kitten playing in a paper bag with crumpled paper, peeking out" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565560/original/file-20231213-15-eewqnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some cats prefer to play with crumpled paper.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cute-cheeky-tabby-longhaired-kitten-playing-1724286601">Pocket Canyon Photography/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Overall, the owners reported lots of differences in fetching behaviour. Some cats bring the object to their owner first, while others respond to their owner throwing an object first. Some cats only bring the object back halfway. Some are fussy with the objects they want to play with, and some will only fetch at certain times or in particular areas of the house (like up and down the stairs).</p>
<h2>Playful cats</h2>
<p>When cats play, they look similar to when they hunt. For example, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0003347279901295">chasing, biting, leaping</a> and stalking their prey or object of choice. Hunting is a natural behaviour for cats, so they need an outlet for it. </p>
<p>Play has important benefits for pet cats in terms of preventing aggression towards humans, and acting as a <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(20)31896-0">substitution for predation on live animals</a>.</p>
<p>Owners can also learn about <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1558787822000533">the needs of their cats through play sessions</a>, such as how long they like to play for, and thus help strengthen their bond. Young cats are most likely to be playful, both with objects and littermates. But we don’t know much about how play in adult cats differs from play in kittens or young cats, because there is only limited <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159118304556">research into how adult cats play</a>. </p>
<p>While there also hasn’t been a lot of research into the bond between cats and their owners, some studies have shown this relationship is an important one. For example, a <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0185599">2017 study in Sweden</a> found that cats sought more social contact with their owner after being left alone for 30 minutes – they coped well on their own, but their behaviour changed when their owner returned home. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Black cat stares down toy mouse" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565563/original/file-20231213-19-21bdwi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Playtime is good for cats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cat-hunting-toy-mouse-home-burmese-1957926694">Viacheslav Lopatin/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s important for owners to put time aside to play with their cat each day. Short periods of play a few times a day are enough – and it doesn’t have to be a game of fetch. If cats enjoy playing fetch on their own terms, that probably applies to all kinds of play. Generally, they prefer toys that have features of prey – for example, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159118304556">toys that can break or pull apart</a>, or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376635716303424">that move erratically</a> (like toys on a rod).</p>
<p>Owners can learn and understand what their cat’s behavioural signals mean during a play session. When a cat wants their owner to play with them, they might bring a toy to their owner or sit next to a toy and stare expectantly at their owner. Examples of behaviour that shows a cat wants to end the play session include lying down, walking away from the area, or no longer chasing after a toy when it’s thrown. </p>
<p>If owners can read and interpret the body language of their cat and know when to start or end a play session, the cat will enjoy this experience and may open up more playing opportunities in the future – perhaps even building up to fetch!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219726/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There hasn’t been a lot of research into adult cat play, but a new study shows it’s not just dogs who like to play fetch.Elizabeth Renner, Lecturer of Psychology, Northumbria University, NewcastleJemma Forman, PhD Candidate in Psychology, University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2159452023-12-20T16:05:41Z2023-12-20T16:05:41ZCan seabirds hear their way across the ocean? Our research suggests so<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556160/original/file-20231026-17-8u6y4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C11%2C2500%2C1736&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wandering albatrosses can cover huge distances in a single trip. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/wandering-albatross-flying-above-ocean-bay-389163982">MZPhoto.cz/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Animals cover astonishing distances when they are looking for food. While caribou, reindeer and wolves clock up impressive mileage on land, seabirds are unrivalled in their travelling distances. <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Arctic_Tern/overview">Arctic terns</a> travel from the Arctic to Antarctica and back as part of their annual migration. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022098113003602">Wandering albatrosses</a> (<em>Diomedea exulans</em>) fly the equivalent of ten times to the Moon and back over their lifetimes. </p>
<p>There has been a lot of research into how seabirds choose their flight paths and find food. They seem to use their sight or <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-09738-5">sense of smell</a> to assess local conditions. </p>
<p>Wandering albatrosses <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/wildlife/albatross/">can travel more than 10,000km</a> in a single foraging trip, though, and we don’t know much about how these birds use mid- and long-range cues from their environment to decide where to go. </p>
<p>For the first time, however, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2314980120">my team’s recent study</a> gives an insight into how birds such as wandering albatrosses may use sound to determine what conditions are like further away.</p>
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<h2>How seabirds use low-frequency sound</h2>
<p>Previous research has shown that seabirds not only <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347223000362">seek information</a> about where to find food, but how to do so efficiently. We discovered that the way wandering albatrosses use their sense of sound may be crucial. </p>
<p>Our study looked at how these birds respond to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079610706000848">very low-frequency</a> type of sound called infrasound, which can travel for thousands of kilometres. </p>
<p>While it’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15273023/">typically inaudible to humans</a>, we know that some animals can hear infrasound. When waves crash together or against coastlines, they create a frequency of infrasound called <a href="https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/221/1/569/5700715">microbarums</a>. This was the type of infrasound our study looked at. </p>
<p>We know that areas of high wave activity can be associated with <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/upwelling.html#:%7E:text=Upwelling%20is%20a%20process%20in,winds%20blow%20along%20the%20shore.">upwellings</a> – where fish are brought to the surface. Infrasound could provide information about where these areas are, and inform birds of good foraging patches. </p>
<p>Efficient foraging is particularly important for large seabird species like the wandering albatross, which have a wing span of 3.5 metres. Their size means they <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/media-post/albatrosses-fine-tuned-to-wind-conditions/">rely on wind</a> to take off and fly efficiently, unlike smaller birds such as puffins, which <a href="https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/facts/atlantic-puffin#:%7E:text=Well%20adapted%20for%20their%20home,arms%20in%20one%20minute%3F">flap their wings</a> up to 400 times a minute. </p>
<p>High wave activity also indicates strong winds. Given we know that wandering albatrosses depend on wind to fly efficiently, my team’s study suggests that infrasound could give them a long-range cue for where optimal foraging conditions may be. </p>
<p>Infrasound is also generated when <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2005GL025085">waves crash against coastlines</a>, and we know that many coastal seabirds <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8825984/">use the coast</a> to select their flight paths and find their way back to their breeding colonies. So, infrasound could reveal the location of static features like coastlines, giving seabirds important information across long distances. </p>
<p>Despite the <a href="https://www.cdip.ucsd.edu/themes/media/docs/publications_references/journal_articles/Measuring_Infrasound_from_the_Maritime_Environment.pdf">potential of this cue</a> for seabirds, our paper (published in PNAS) is the first evidence that seabirds may respond to infrasound, which is monitored globally through a network of sensors installed by the <a href="https://www.ctbto.org/">Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization</a> (CTBTO).</p>
<p>This system was installed to detect nuclear tests, but its byproduct is huge amounts of data which scientists can use. We combined the CTBTO’s records with our own GPS tracking data from 89 wandering albatrosses to compare microbarums and the birds’ movements. </p>
<h2>What we learned</h2>
<p>This allowed us to isolate data that showed how these albatrosses appeared to make decisions about where to go next. Our findings showed they chose the direction with the loudest infrasound. This suggests the birds could use infrasound to find food or to minimise the energy they use on their travels. However, we are not able to say for sure why louder areas are better.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556163/original/file-20231026-21-emtopk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Young wandering albatross displaying open wings, with blue sky and mountain background," src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556163/original/file-20231026-21-emtopk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556163/original/file-20231026-21-emtopk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556163/original/file-20231026-21-emtopk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556163/original/file-20231026-21-emtopk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556163/original/file-20231026-21-emtopk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556163/original/file-20231026-21-emtopk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556163/original/file-20231026-21-emtopk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Wandering albatross have a huge wing span.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-wandering-albatross-displaying-open-wings-372098686">MZPHOTO.CZ/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our findings may also give scientists insights into how other birds make decisions on medium- and long-distance journeys. </p>
<p>As with many studies testing a hypothesis for the first time, my team’s study raises as many questions as it answers. If seabirds respond to infrasound, they must be able to hear it and know where it is coming from. Lab studies have found evidence that <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/brv.12596">some birds can hear infrasound</a>, but there have been no tests on seabirds.</p>
<p>Taking a wandering albatross into a lab and creating a sound chamber large enough to run experimental tests seems unlikely in the near term, but other seabird species <a href="https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/604">can live in captivity</a> and research could focus on this. </p>
<p>Weather changes driven by climate change, and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/seabirds-can-starve-when-hit-by-repeated-severe-storms-but-we-still-dont-know-why-177569">damaging effects</a> these are having on seabirds as well as many other plants and animals, are well documented – making it harder for them to find food, for example. </p>
<p>As humans alter ocean habitats, infrasound may help birds adapt by aiding them to find food, even as stocks diminish. Or human activity, such as more noise, could mask this kind of essential information, with harmful consequences for wildlife. Either way, understanding how and why seabirds use infrasound will help scientists understand its importance in the climate crisis.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215945/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Samantha Patrick receives funding from the Human Frontier Science Program</span></em></p>Scientists have long been baffled by how seabirds decide where to go on their long journeys. Our study of wandering albatrosses offers new clues.Samantha Patrick, Reader in Marine Biology, University of LiverpoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2150352023-11-13T13:33:33Z2023-11-13T13:33:33ZClimate change is altering animal brains and behavior − a neuroscientist explains how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558492/original/file-20231108-17-uomc0i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1998%2C1501&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Animal nervous systems may lose their adaptive edge with climate change.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/melting-brain-royalty-free-image/1279693246">PM Images/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Human-driven climate change is increasingly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0104">shaping the Earth’s living environments</a>. Rising temperatures, rapid shifts in rainfall and seasonality, and ocean acidification are presenting altered environments to many animal species. How do animals adjust to these new, often extreme, conditions?</p>
<p>Animal nervous systems play a central role in both enabling and limiting how they respond to changing climates. Two of my main research interests as a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=qFFX_9KiimwC&hl=en">biologist and neuroscientist</a> involve understanding how <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271250">animals accommodate</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cois.2017.06.004">temperature extremes</a> and identifying the forces that shape the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blx150">structure and function of</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-022-00873-5">animal nervous systems</a>, especially brains. The intersection of these interests led me to explore the effects of climate on nervous systems and how animals will likely respond to rapidly shifting environments.</p>
<p>All major functions of the nervous system – sense detection, mental processing and behavior direction – are critical. They allow animals to navigate their environments in ways that enable their survival and reproduction. Climate change will likely affect these functions, often for the worse.</p>
<h2>Shifting sensory environments</h2>
<p>Changing temperatures shift the energy balance of ecosystems – from plants that produce energy from sunlight to the animals that consume plants and other animals – subsequently altering the sensory worlds that animals experience. It is likely that climate change will challenge all of their senses, from sight and taste to smell and touch. </p>
<p>Animals like mammals perceive temperature in part with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02732">special receptor proteins</a> in their nervous systems that respond to heat and cold, discriminating between moderate and extreme temperatures. These receptor proteins help animals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07001">seek appropriate habitats</a> and may play a critical role in how animals respond to changing temperatures.</p>
<p>Climate change disrupts the environmental cues animals rely on to solve problems like selecting a habitat, finding food and choosing mates. Some animals, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinsphys.2017.04.010">mosquitoes</a> that transmit <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.584846">parasites and pathogens</a>, rely on temperature gradients to orient themselves to their environment. Temperature shifts are altering where and when mosquitoes search for hosts, leading to changes in disease transmission.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/aYH-KYdgXag?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Climate change is pushing more and more mosquitoes to take humans as their preferred hosts.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>How climate change affects the chemical signals animals use to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12128">communicate with each other</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/EN13055">harm competitors</a> can be especially complex because chemical compounds are highly sensitive to temperature.</p>
<p>Formerly reliable sources of information like seasonal changes in daylight can lose its utility as they become uncoupled. This could cause a breakdown in the link between day length and <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/1773/37034">plant flowering and fruiting</a>, and interruptions to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-physiol-021909-135837">animal behavior</a> like hibernation and migration when day length no longer predicts resource availability.</p>
<h2>Changing brains and cognition</h2>
<p>Rising temperatures may disrupt how animal brains develop and function, with potentially negative effects on their ability to effectively adapt to their new environments. </p>
<p>Researchers have documented how temperature extremes can alter individual neurons at the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jez.b.22736">genetic and</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0400773101">structural levels</a>, as well as how the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-016-0993-2">brain is organized</a> as a whole.</p>
<p>In marine environments, researchers have found that climate-induced changes of water chemistry like ocean acidification can affect animals’ general cognitive performance and sensory abilities, such as odor tracking in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2195">reef fish</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12678">sharks</a>.</p>
<h2>Behavior disruptions</h2>
<p>Animals may respond to climate adversity by shifting locations, from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12439">changing the microhabitats</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.13309">they use</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1316145111">altering their</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-016-0504-0">geographic ranges</a>. </p>
<p>Activity can also shift to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00359-005-0030-4">different periods of the day</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.1768">or to</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/cr00713">new seasons</a>. These behavioral responses can have major implications for the environmental stimuli animals will be exposed to.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558495/original/file-20231108-27-homplj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Green snake slithering out of a nest after eating a bird" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558495/original/file-20231108-27-homplj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558495/original/file-20231108-27-homplj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558495/original/file-20231108-27-homplj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558495/original/file-20231108-27-homplj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558495/original/file-20231108-27-homplj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558495/original/file-20231108-27-homplj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558495/original/file-20231108-27-homplj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shifting climates are driving some snake species into forested habitats, and the subsequent increased predation on nesting birds may push above sustainable levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/green-pit-viper-trimeresurus-full-up-after-ate-royalty-free-image/1148122650">Rapeepong Puttakumwong/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>For example, fish in warming seas have shifted to cooler, deeper waters that have dramatically different <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.0396">light intensity and color range</a> than their visual systems are used to. Furthermore, because not all species will shift their behaviors in the same way, species that do move to a new habitat, time of day or season will <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2015.05.031">confront new ones</a>, including food plants and prey animals, competitors and predators, and pathogens. </p>
<p>Behavioral shifts driven by climate change will restructure ecosystems worldwide, with complex and unpredictable outcomes.</p>
<h2>Plasticity and evolution</h2>
<p>Animal brains are remarkably flexible, developed to match <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-022-00873-5">individual environmental experience</a>. They’re even substantially <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01558-7">capable of changing</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2004.6.2/fgage">in adulthood</a>. </p>
<p>But studies comparing species have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-016-1353-4">seen strong</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1159/000006666">environmental effects</a> on brain evolution. Animal nervous systems evolve to match the sensory environments of each species’ activity space. These patterns suggest that new climate regimes will eventually shape nervous systems by forcing them to evolve. </p>
<p>When genetics have strong effects on brain development, nervous systems that are finely adapted to the local environment may lose their adaptive edge with climate change. This may pave the way for new adaptive solutions. As the range and significance of sensory stimuli and seasonal cues shift, natural selection will favor those with new sensory or cognitive abilities.</p>
<p>Some parts of the nervous system are constrained by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jeb.14188">genetic adaptations</a> while others are more plastic and responsive to environmental conditions. A greater understanding of how animal nervous systems adapt to rapidly changing environments will help predict how all species will be affected by climate change.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215035/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sean O'Donnell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Rapidly changing temperatures and sensory environments are challenging the nervous systems of many species. Animals will be forced to evolve to survive.Sean O'Donnell, Professor of Biodiversity, Earth and Environmental Science and Biology, Drexel UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2167992023-11-12T14:02:46Z2023-11-12T14:02:46ZBirds’ nests express their unique style and past experiences<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558442/original/file-20231108-23-ci8gl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3303%2C2185&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Zebra finches learn from experience when it comes to building nests.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/birds-nests-express-their-unique-style-and-past-experiences" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Walking through a town or city, you will encounter buildings with diverse shapes and sizes. These unique styles exist in part because the buildings were constructed by different architects, engineers and builders. </p>
<p>Birds are also architects, engineers and builders. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.108194">Our research</a> finds that, similar to human architecture, individual birds build nests in their own unique style. Experienced birds build with more consistent style and use fewer material resources than inexperienced birds. </p>
<h2>Animal architecture</h2>
<p>Architecture impacts our everyday lives, allowing us to adapt to and thrive in various climates. Humans build different structures to achieve different goals: farms to grow and store food, castles and skyscrapers to display wealth, homes for shelter or as a place to raise a family. </p>
<p>The same is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.09.082">true for other species</a>. Bees build <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/946778/the-incredible-architecture-of-bees">hives and honey combs</a> to store and protect food. Spiders <a href="https://news.mit.edu/2021/considering-the-spiderweb-0810">spin webs</a> to catch prey. Beavers <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/buildabeaverdam.htm">build dams</a> to create a pool. Many species of birds <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.01.020">construct nests</a> for shelter or to raise their chicks.</p>
<p>Building architecture allows animals to shape their environments to better meet specific needs.</p>
<h2>Architectural styles</h2>
<p>Human structures look different, even when those structures share a similar purpose. This might reflect differences in culture and available resources.</p>
<p>In western societies, houses tend to be cuboids made from stone, wood and glass. Plains Indigenous Peoples make conical <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/folio/2018/05/tipi-raised-to-recognize-relationship-between-first-nations-u-of-a.html">tipis from wood and bison hides</a>. Inuit peoples use <a href="https://www.avataq.qc.ca/en/Nunavimmiuts/Puurtaq-Project/Life-in-an-igloo">ice and snow to make spherical igloos</a>. East African Maasai peoples build cylindrical <a href="https://friendsofnamuncha.org/clearing-the-smoke-from-manyattas/">manyatta huts from earth, grass and cow dung</a>.</p>
<p>There are differences in architectural style among individuals within the same culture using the same materials. </p>
<p>Visualize your home: the size and shape of each room, position of doors and windows, arrangement of furniture. Now compare your visualized blueprint to the blueprint of a friend’s house. They likely look quite different, as humans have individual variation in architectural style.</p>
<p>Our research suggests the same is true for animal architects: animals also build structures with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.108194">individual variation in architectural style</a>. </p>
<h2>Avian architects</h2>
<p>Birds are among the most <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.06.078">well-known builders in the animal world</a>. Many avian species build nests to create safe, warm environments to incubate their eggs and raise chicks. Nest building is a key task that individuals must complete to successfully reproduce. </p>
<p>Our team, the <a href="https://sites.psych.ualberta.ca/animal-cognition-ualberta/">Animal Cognition Research Group</a> in the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/psychology/index.html">Department of Psychology</a> at the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/index.html">University of Alberta</a>, ran an experiment testing whether birds built nests in their own individual style. </p>
<p>We studied <a href="https://ebird.org/species/zebfin2">zebra finches</a>, small songbirds native to Australia. Zebra finches have been bred in captivity for years and are common in pet stores and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/MUv110n3_ED">scientific research</a>. These birds are ideal for our test, as males build many nests in short periods of time using a range of materials.</p>
<p>We measured the sizes and shapes of multiple nests built by the same zebra finches. Comparing nests built by the same male found similarities in style. Comparing nests built by different males found dissimilarities in style. This shows individuals do build nests in their own unique and repeatable style.</p>
<h2>Psychology of style</h2>
<p>The minds of human architects can be studied through analyzing the style in which they build. This gives insights on their understanding of technology and their cultural influences or social values.</p>
<p>Some ancient structures, like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/685/1/012001">the pyramids of Giza, Stonehenge and Mayan structures</a>, are aligned to the sun and stars. This demonstrates ancient architects had the ability to precisely plan and execute designs with great detail. It also suggests that celestial bodies held some significance to these cultures, perhaps for mapping landscapes or the passage of seasons. </p>
<p>An individual architect might specialize in building structures of a particular style, such as <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/983605/the-origins-and-evolution-of-gothic-architecture">Gothic</a>, <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/972018/what-is-art-deco-architecture">Art Deco</a>, <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/774100/should-victorian-era-architecture-be-saved-at-all-costs">Victorian</a> or <a href="https://www.archdaily.com/957201/brutalism-the-architecture-style-we-love-to-love">Brutalist</a>. Their style might change over time as the architect learns and refines their skills through experience. </p>
<p>These examples show how the psychology of style can be analyzed in human architects. We wanted to investigate the psychology of style, specifically learning from experience, in our zebra finches.</p>
<h2>Style and experience</h2>
<p>We gave one group of zebra finches practise building five nests, giving each male opportunities to learn from this nest-building experience. A second group of zebra finches had no practise building. These males had never built a nest before the start of the experiment. Both groups then built nests so that we could compare the nest style built by the two groups.</p>
<p>Experienced birds had more consistent nest style and used less material compared to inexperienced birds. This indicates that learning opportunities influence nest style. </p>
<p>Practice building nests allows birds to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2011.06.011">develop motor skills</a> and better manipulate materials. Birds also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104336">remember past outcomes</a> of nests and will replicate successful design elements. </p>
<p>Individual style might develop from differences in learning opportunities. Maintaining a style might even be beneficial. Creating consistent nests while using fewer resources may be advantageous, especially if the style has been successful or resources are limited.</p>
<p>We can learn a lot about how both human and animal architects adapt and respond to their surroundings and culture by studying the structures they build. Our research also shows home isn’t just where the heart is … it’s also in the brain.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216799/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Birds’ nest-building skills are informed by their environment and experiences, and nests can reflect the individual styles of their builders.Ben Whittaker, Postdoctoral Researcher, Department of Psychology, University of AlbertaLauren Guillette, Assistant Professor & Canada Research Chair in Cognitive Ecology, Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, University of AlbertaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2160292023-10-25T16:02:13Z2023-10-25T16:02:13ZBed bugs are a global problem, yet we still know so little about how they spread<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555558/original/file-20231024-23-yod6s8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C5%2C3472%2C2323&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sleep tight...</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dr Richard Naylor</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Bed bugs have recently <a href="https://www.cntraveller.com/article/paris-bed-bugs-everything-you-need-to-know">exploded into the limelight</a> amid widespread reports of a major outbreak in Paris. The more people share photos of bed bug bites on social media, the more concerned we feel. That’s understandable, but the really worrying thing is the missing information – there is still no publicly available data about the infestations in Paris. </p>
<p>Indeed, data that confirms or denies the location and date of <em>any</em> bed bug cases is notoriously hard to find. The vast majority of people around the world go to the private sector for pest control, but data from this sector is often classed as “commercially sensitive” and not usually shared for research purposes.</p>
<p>Although it is not clear if the scale of the problem in Paris is real or social media hype, one thing is true: bed bugs are not just in the French capital. In fact, they are present in <a href="https://digitalmedia.sheffield.ac.uk/media/Bedbugs/1_fk8ko3mw/69389871">almost all human settlements</a> – there have been reports of bed bugs living with humans since our history began, with remains found in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234040076_Cimex_lectularius_L_the_common_bed_bug_from_Pharaonic_Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>. </p>
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<p>Unlike a lot of other countries, the UK does at least have some data about bed bug infestations, as most local authorities <a href="https://www.gov.uk/report-pest-problem">do some bed bug control</a> for commercial and domestic infestations. They are a good source of data due to the powers of the UK’s <a href="https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/foi-eir-and-access-to-information/guide-to-freedom-of-information/what-is-the-foi-act/#:%7E:text=The%20Freedom%20of%20Information%20Act%202000%20provides%20public%20access%20to,request%20information%20from%20public%20authorities.">Freedom of Information Act</a>.</p>
<h2>A seasonal spike</h2>
<p>I have researched the number of confirmed bed bug cases treated by local authorities in three major UK cities: Birmingham, Manchester and Sheffield. I used data on confirmed bed bug cases per month between 2009 and 2015, and ran this through a statistical model called a <a href="https://thedatalab.com/tech-blog/using-generalised-additive-mixed-models-gamms-to-predict-visitors-to-edinburgh-and-craigmillar-castles/">generalised additive mixed-effect model</a> (GAMM), which accounted for the size of each city and random variation between years. </p>
<p>The results showed a significant peak in bed bug cases around August and September each year (Figure 1), and also that bed bug numbers were steadily increasing (Figure 2). The same seasonal pattern and year-on-year increase was seen in the US city of Philadelphia between <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3955002/">2009 and 2011</a>, and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jme/article/52/1/76/873440?login=true">in two Chinese cities in 2012/13</a>. In New York between 2010 and 2020, the seasonal pattern was the same but the numbers <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0268798">did not increase</a>.</p>
<p>More recent studies have looked at a region’s internet search history as a proxy for the prevalence of bed bug cases. When you find what you think is a bed bug, the first thing most people do is search the internet for answers. Studies <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jme/article/53/1/116/2459664?login=true">from the US</a> and <a href="https://www.jaad.org/article/S0190-9622(16)30092-5/fulltext">Australia</a> both found the same seasonal pattern in internet searches for bed bugs, although the pattern in Australia was the opposite to the northern hemisphere. </p>
<p>However, in order to tackle infestations, we need to understand more about these creatures. </p>
<h2>What we know about bed bugs</h2>
<p>Bed bugs are small, flightless insects that feed on human blood. There are several species, but the one most people know is called <em><a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/take-part/identify-nature/common-insect-pest-species-in-homes/bed-bug-cimex-lectularius-identification-guide.html">Cimex lectularius</a></em>. The Romans called them <em>Cimex</em>, which means bug. It was much later in 1758 that the natural historian Carl Linnaeus added “lectularius” to their name, meaning bed or couch. </p>
<p>Our blood is their main source of nutrition, but they will <a href="https://www.nhbs.com/monograph-of-cimicidae-hemiptera-heteroptera-book#:%7E:text=book%20Related%20titles-,About%20this%20book,which%20includes%20human%20bed%20bugs">feed on other animals</a> if they have to, including birds, pets and bats. Bed bugs have a complex gut microbiota, which helps them extract all the nutrients they need from our blood. </p>
<p>Juveniles require a blood meal in order to develop from one life stage to another – so, to become adult, each bed bug will need <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781119171539.ch16">at least five blood meals</a>. Adult bed bugs, though, <a href="https://www.vdacs.virginia.gov/pdf/bb-biology1.pdf">can survive an entire year</a> without a meal. </p>
<p>They can’t fly. As you can imagine, walking doesn’t get them very far, but it does allow them to spread around apartment blocks. And bed bugs hitch-hike on humans to move greater distances, although scientists can’t agree about exactly how they do this – it’s one of the unanswered questions about their ecology. People assume they travel on luggage, but it’s never been proven. </p>
<p>My <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-11850-5">previous work in 2017</a> proved for the first time that they aggregate in dirty clothes in the absence of humans. My team put bed bugs in corrugated filter paper in the centre of a room, with clean and dirty clothes evenly spaced around them. The bed bugs all left the filter paper, and made a beeline for the dirty clothes nearly every time. This might explain how they get into our suitcases when we are travelling. </p>
<h2>How to stop their spread</h2>
<p>If we could understand more about bed bug dispersal and spatial distribution, we would stand a better chance of stopping their spread. </p>
<p>New York, which suffered a major outbreak <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/21/bedbugs-invaded-new-york">in the 2010s</a>, has shown it’s possible to tackle bed bug numbers if the public and private sectors work together. Pest control agencies <a href="https://www.npmapestworld.org/default/assets/file/newsroom/magazine/2015/nov-dec_2015.pdf">published data showing the scale of the problem</a> and <a href="https://www.nyc.gov/html/om/pdf/2010/dm_07-28-10.pdf">submitted a report</a> to officials with their recommendations for dealing with the outbreak. </p>
<p>According to the same <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0268798">report that confirmed the 2010 outbreak</a>, bed bug numbers in New York are declining. The researchers believe this is because of the pest management policies New York officials introduced from 2010. </p>
<p>First, they launched a <a href="https://www.nyc.gov/site/doh/health/health-topics/bedbugs.page">non-emergency helpline</a> for the public to call if they found bed bugs. The city also passed a policy where, from 2010, landlords were required to <a href="https://www.nyc.gov/site/doh/health/health-topics/bedbugs-information-for-landlords-and-building-managers.page#:%7E:text=New%20York%20City%20lists%20bedbugs,units%20from%20getting%20infested%20again.">report bed bug infestations</a> to prospective tenants. Since 2017, landlords must report all units that have bed bug infestations both to the local authorities and any residents sharing the same building as the infestation. </p>
<p>The future for bed bugs is unclear. Those we see today <a href="https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13071-017-2232-3">are resistant</a> to most pesticides, are <a href="https://www.terminix.com/bed-bugs/behavior/where-do-bed-bugs-live/#:%7E:text=Due%20to%20their%20small%20size,aid%20of%20a%20credit%20card.">masters of subterfuge</a>, and are not going anywhere. They have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982219304804">co-evolved with humans</a> – so our best option for reducing their impact on our lives is for researchers and pest control professionals to spend less time trying to kill them, and more time trying to understand how they function within our world. Maybe then, we will work out a way to limit or even remove them from our homes for good.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216029/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Hentley is affiliated with the University of Sheffield. He receives funding from the University of Sheffield.</span></em></p>The trouble is most countries don’t make bed bug infestation data available to researchers.William Hentley, Teaching Associate in Ecology, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2142132023-10-23T03:42:40Z2023-10-23T03:42:40ZFrom meerkat school to whale-tail slapping and oyster smashing, how clever predators shape their world<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555150/original/file-20231022-25-p1n5i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=56%2C12%2C4146%2C2546&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/family-meerkats-photographed-early-morning-taken-1222216888">Tswains, Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the 1980s a single humpback whale in the Gulf of Maine developed the “<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1231976">lobtail feeding method</a>”. This unique hunting method of slapping the water’s surface appears to drive fish into dense schools, making it easier to consume them. Lobtail feeding caught on. Now many humpback whales are doing it.</p>
<p>Ecologists have long thought animals acted on instinct alone. But a growing body of evidence shows many animals, much like us, have complex brains and social lives. </p>
<p>In our new <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/fulltext/S0169-5347(23)00243-4">research</a>, we argue the science of ecology can learn a great deal from the study of animal cognition and culture. Cognition is what goes on in the mind, which determines how animals perceive and respond to the world around them. Culture is the development and spread of socially learned behaviours. These are important – but generally overlooked – mechanisms influencing ecosystems. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552204/original/file-20231004-27-6j0ccn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Artwork by Keegan Currier showing a group of whales slapping their tails" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552204/original/file-20231004-27-6j0ccn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552204/original/file-20231004-27-6j0ccn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552204/original/file-20231004-27-6j0ccn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552204/original/file-20231004-27-6j0ccn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552204/original/file-20231004-27-6j0ccn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552204/original/file-20231004-27-6j0ccn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552204/original/file-20231004-27-6j0ccn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One whale invented the tail-slapping hunting strategy, which became part of whale culture in the Gulf of Maine over 30 years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Keegan Currier</span></span>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-smarter-the-magpie-the-better-they-can-handle-our-noisy-cities-214387">The smarter the magpie, the better they can handle our noisy cities</a>
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<h2>More than cogs in the eco-machine</h2>
<p>Research shows prey are adept at learning from previous encounters with predators. They remember what predators <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/brv.12087">look like, what they smell like</a> and the <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/fulltext/S0169-5347(22)00140-9">locations and times they are active</a>. </p>
<p>This means every time an animal encounters a predator they can gather knowledge about how to improve their chances of survival.</p>
<p>Predators learn as well. Meerkat pups go to meerkat “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=48rhtgtNxRI">school</a>”. Eating dangerous prey such as scorpions is challenging because scorpion toxin can be fatal. To overcome this, meerkat teach their young <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1128727">how to remove scorpion stingers</a>, allowing them to safely eat them.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552207/original/file-20231004-31-yuyulj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Artwork by Keegan Currier illustrates how meerkats school their children in scorpion hunting. A meerkat teacher demonstrates how to remove the stinger before eating the scorpion." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552207/original/file-20231004-31-yuyulj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552207/original/file-20231004-31-yuyulj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552207/original/file-20231004-31-yuyulj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552207/original/file-20231004-31-yuyulj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552207/original/file-20231004-31-yuyulj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552207/original/file-20231004-31-yuyulj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552207/original/file-20231004-31-yuyulj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Meerkats school their children in scorpion hunting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Keegan Currier</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Animal cognition and social learning allow problems solved and lessons learned during predatory encounters to be shared with friends and family. The development of these cultural behaviours <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352250X15002213">can spread across entire populations</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/an-arms-race-over-food-waste-sydney-cockatoos-are-still-opening-kerb-side-bins-despite-our-best-efforts-to-stop-them-189969">An arms race over food waste: Sydney cockatoos are still opening kerb-side bins, despite our best efforts to stop them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Shaping how ecosystems function</h2>
<p>Past experience and lessons learned from friends and family inform an animal’s capacity to make complex decisions.</p>
<p>When <a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/wolf-restoration.htm">wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park</a> in 1995, elk and deer had to learn how to avoid being eaten. <a href="http://science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1056466">While initially naive</a>, elk and deer shifted to new locations and changed the times they were active. As a result, these herbivores concentrated their foraging in specific areas, altering the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysa5OBhXz-Q">variety of plants</a> and even the physical environment. </p>
<p>Predator hunting cultures can also shape ecosystems. In Thailand’s Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park, long-tailed macaques use heavy rocks as stone tools to smash the shells of oysters and other shellfish open and access the food inside. Macaques can become so proficient at shellfish hunting they have driven <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/23647">island-wide declines</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552203/original/file-20231004-21-aqiy2p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Artwork by Keegan Currier illustrates how long-tailed macaques use stone tools to eat oysters. A single macaque holds a rock aloft while others look on." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552203/original/file-20231004-21-aqiy2p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552203/original/file-20231004-21-aqiy2p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552203/original/file-20231004-21-aqiy2p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552203/original/file-20231004-21-aqiy2p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552203/original/file-20231004-21-aqiy2p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552203/original/file-20231004-21-aqiy2p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552203/original/file-20231004-21-aqiy2p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stone tool use in long-tailed macaques allows them to eat oysters.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Keegan Currier</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Humans can erode animal culture</h2>
<p>Rapid environmental changes such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352154622000833">urbanisation</a>, <a href="https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wcc.713">climate change</a> and hunting or poisoning can influence animal cognition and animal culture.</p>
<p>Just as trauma, such as from war, influences <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6620122/#:%7E:text=The%20results%20suggest%20that%20experiencing,strength%20of%20the%20negative%20association.">human cognition</a> and <a href="https://www.uoc.edu/portal/en/news/entrevistes/2022/018-gloria-munilla.html">culture</a>, the targeted killing of animals can disrupt their cognition and culture. This has consequences for ecosystems. </p>
<p>Killing dingoes, Australia’s only mainland mammalian apex predator, disrupts their <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0006861">family groups</a>. This can result in the loss of important behaviours, including <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h9yRBkHk-r0">pack hunting</a>. This can then prevent dingoes from hunting prey larger than themselves, such as water buffalo and <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-should-enlist-dingoes-to-control-invasive-species-24807">foxes and cats</a>. In this way, the loss of pack hunting can drive changes in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01492.x">how ecosystems operate</a> and highlights the importance of animal culture as a unit of nature worth conserving. </p>
<h2>Changing our perceptions of ecology</h2>
<p>Longstanding notions in ecology and conservation biology claim ecosystems function due to evolutionary history alone. In this view, organisms evolve traits to allow them to coexist with each other, so newly arrived species can be fundamentally disruptive. The <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icb/advance-article/doi/10.1093/icb/icad122/7283147?login=false">inner lives of animals</a> complicate this worldview.</p>
<p>Recognising many animals possess and act upon their awareness of time, self and others, and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/20/magazine/animal-communication.html">may even have language</a>, invites us to reconsider ecological relationships might not be so static. Acknowledging animal cognition and culture in ecology means understanding ecological relationships are always changing and shifting. </p>
<p>By studying how the cognition and cultures of animals shape their ecology, we may shed light on the origins of animal intelligence and culture, their importance to life on Earth and how best to preserve non-human culture in an ever-changing world. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/organisms-without-brains-can-learn-too-so-what-does-it-mean-to-be-a-thinking-creature-214275">Organisms without brains can learn, too – so what does it mean to be a thinking creature?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The research behind this article was co-authored with Dr Kaitlyn Gaynor, Dr Alexandra Carthey, Dr Arian Wallach, Dr Lauren Stanton and Dr Daniel Ramp who all substantially contributed to the ideas presented throughout.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214213/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eamonn Wooster is supported by a Gulbali Institute Postdoctoral Fellowship.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erick Lundgren receives funding from the Villum Foundation (Villum Fonden, Denmark) and the Australian Research Council</span></em></p>Understanding how animals think, learn and interact with one another can inform the science of ecology, as predator and prey shape their world.Eamonn Wooster, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt UniversityErick Lundgren, Postdoctoral fellow, Aarhus University, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2153652023-10-18T16:02:46Z2023-10-18T16:02:46ZCompatible seabirds may make better parents, but personality clashes can lead to family tragedy and ‘divorce’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554256/original/file-20231017-27-6x6ank.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5455%2C3637&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Black legged kittiwakes often mate for life.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/blacklegged-kittiwake-rissa-tridactyla-iceland-polar-581886376">Frank Fichtmueller/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Is there anything worse than a disappointing first date? It is particularly disheartening when a potential partnership that had so much promise turns out to be one big personality clash. My team’s <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/eth.13405">recent study</a> suggests that other animals may also need to navigate personality clashes, or else face disastrous consequences if they pick the wrong partner. </p>
<p>My team found that seabirds, which usually practice lifelong monogamy, are more likely to lose their chicks when their partner has a dissimilar personality. This, in turn, increases the couple’s chances of re-pairing with other birds, for example through “divorce”. </p>
<p>Defined as “<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2010.0208">consistent differences in an individual’s behaviour</a>”, personality affects many aspects of an animal’s life, including mating. Previous research has shown that some animals, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/132/4/759/6133224">such as Montagu’s harrier</a>, choose a partner with a similar personality to themselves. Personality may also affect the likelihood of <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsbl.2022.0301">divorce</a>. In our <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/eth.13405">recent study</a>, we found that pairs of a black-legged kittiwakes, a type of seabird, with similar personalities make better parents and that this reduces the likelihood of re-pairing.</p>
<h2>Don’t seabirds mate for life?</h2>
<p>Divorce is widespread throughout the avian world and some species find a new partner with every breeding attempt. Seabirds are less fickle and rarely divorce but it does happen. They tend to be long-lived and raise only one or two chicks a year, in challenging conditions which preclude being a single parent. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Nesting kittiwake couple." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554257/original/file-20231017-25-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554257/original/file-20231017-25-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554257/original/file-20231017-25-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554257/original/file-20231017-25-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554257/original/file-20231017-25-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554257/original/file-20231017-25-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554257/original/file-20231017-25-d8q4j2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kittiwake populations are struggling to cope with climate change.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/nesting-kittiwake-norway-area-now-sadly-2338934141">Risto Raunio/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Seabirds do not have time to find a new beau every year and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347222003372">evidence suggests</a> that their partnerships find their rhythm over time, leading to stronger cooperation and higher breeding success. So it pays to stick together.</p>
<p>The death of a chick can trigger divorce in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ece3.7775">several seabird species</a>, such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347222002135">Magellanic penguins</a>. But my team were keen to know whether personality also played a role in this behaviour.</p>
<p>Despite looking similar my team’s study species, the <a href="https://www.birdlife.org/news/2021/10/06/seabird-of-the-month-black-legged-kittiwake-rissa-tridactyla/">black-legged kittiwake</a>, is different from the vagabond seagulls that steal your chips on the promenade. Kittiwakes visit land only to breed. Like swallows, they usually return to the same location every year to reunite with their long-term partner. In summer, you may see this handsome white and grey bird perched atop the UK’s cliffs on its jet black legs. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554259/original/file-20231017-17-6x6ank.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/554259/original/file-20231017-17-6x6ank.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554259/original/file-20231017-17-6x6ank.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554259/original/file-20231017-17-6x6ank.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554259/original/file-20231017-17-6x6ank.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554259/original/file-20231017-17-6x6ank.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/554259/original/file-20231017-17-6x6ank.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Black-legged kittiwake flock resting on ice floe in Svalbard,</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/blacklegged-kittiwake-rissa-tridactyla-flock-resting-1585868851">Altrendo Images/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although we have kittiwakes in the UK, for our study we needed to travel to Svalbard to visit their artic-dwelling cousins. The reason is accessibility. While most kittiwakes build their homes on treacherous cliffs, the Svalbard kittiwakes nest on the abandoned buildings of a Soviet ghost town. </p>
<p>This means researchers do not need to use boats and climbing gear to keep tabs on them, making it much easier to catch and observe the birds on a regular basis. Researchers return every breeding season to record detailed relationship histories. </p>
<h2>How do you give a bird a personality test?</h2>
<p>That’s where Butch the Penguin comes in. Kittiwakes feel differently about this little plastic toy depending on where they sit on the personality spectrum. We <a href="https://twitter.com/FR_McCully/status/1709841711524983256/video/1">observe each bird’s response</a> to Butch’s arrival at their nest to determine whether they are bold, shy or somewhere in between. After testing over 200 birds, we searched for links between the birds’ personalities and their success as parents and partners. </p>
<p>When bold mated with bold, and shy with shy, their chicks were more likely to survive. Bold and shy birds have different priorities when foraging at sea. <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2656.13106">For example</a>, bold kittiwakes tend to visit the same foraging locations repeatedly, while shy birds are quick to adjust their strategy in the face of environmental change. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QlKmE7SfnV4?wmode=transparent&start=1" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Butch the Penguin in action.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If pair members take foraging trips of different lengths, this may lead to one member working harder than the other, which is not ideal when you both need to be at the top of your game to breed in the unforgiving Arctic. Alternatively, couples with different personalities may find it harder to predict their partner’s behaviour, increasing the risk of breeding failure. </p>
<p>Of course the situation is complicated and there’s more than just personality at play when it comes to seabird breeding success. <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2019.00349/full">Environmental conditions</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016648006001110">breeding experience</a> and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/condor/article/103/4/793/5563011">predator attacks</a> are also influences on seabird parents. But perhaps having a partner with a compatible personality makes all these things slightly easier to manage. </p>
<p>As life in the modern world becomes harder and harder for seabirds, <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2021.2112">scientists</a> predict that this will cause divorce rates to rise. Globally, kittiwakes are already in trouble. Their numbers are in dramatic decline as they struggle to breed in a warming climate and empty seas. In Svalbard, the encroachment of warm waters from the south is leading to the “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-19118-8">Atlanticification</a>” of the Arctic ocean. This changes the building blocks of the Arctic ecosystem, making it harder for seabirds to find food, while rising temperatures put them at risk of <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/224/13/jeb242168/270771/Limited-heat-tolerance-in-a-cold-adapted-seabird">heat stress</a>. </p>
<p>My team’s findings suggest that humans and kittiwake relationships have more in common than you might think. We both thrive on <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2014-19904-008">compatibility and coordination</a>. And for kittiwakes, the stakes are becoming higher than they have ever been before.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215365/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fionnuala McCully has received funding from NERC via the ACCE DTP. </span></em></p>Like humans, seabirds seem less likely to part ways when they have relationships built on similar personalities.Fionnuala McCully, PhD candidate in behavioural ecology, University of LiverpoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1899322023-09-29T17:04:04Z2023-09-29T17:04:04ZJellyfish: our complex relationship with the oceans’ anti-heroes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513157/original/file-20230302-28-r91z9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C0%2C6699%2C4466&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The purple-striped Jellyfish (Chrysaora colorata)</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/purplestriped-jellyfish-chrysaora-colorata-isolated-on-1633522279">Lukas Gojda/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ding! The courier hands me an unassuming brown box with “live animals” plastered on the side. I begin carefully unboxing. The cardboard exterior gives way to a white polystyrene clamshell, cloistering a pearly sphere-shaped, water-filled bag. Lightly pulsing, I spot them: three cannonball jellyfish (<em>Stomolophus meleagris</em>). Each the size of a 50-pence coin. </p>
<p>After months of waiting, my first gelatinous companions had arrived and I was finally ready to begin my research on human connections with jellyfish.</p>
<p>Cannonball jellyfish are an unusual <a href="https://jellyfish-farm.com/en">pet choice</a>. Whether <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/jellyfish-beach-wales-ireland-b2117205.html">stinging</a> beachgoers, <a href="https://thebulletin.org/2021/10/jellyfish-attack-nuclear-power-plant-again/">clogging</a> power station intake pipes, or <a href="https://www.zawya.com/en/press-release/africa-press-releases/invasive-species-are-changing-the-nature-of-the-mediterranean-sea-ga0fbpdb">outcompeting</a> more popular ocean wildlife, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-012-1039-7">jellyfish</a> are often labelled <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/892429">nuisances</a>.</p>
<p>Despite their poor press, they have a growing community of admirers. Thousands of people drift to aquariums each year to admire jellyfish. Darting around and bumping into one another, tentacles circling or gently pulsing they inspire delight in their guests. The Californian Monterey Bay Aquarium’s <a href="https://zoolex.org/gallery/show/771/">Jellyfish: Living Art</a> was the organisation’s <a href="https://www.santacruzsentinel.com/2008/07/09/popular-jelly-fish-exhibit-to-end-its-run-at-monterey-bay-aquarium/">most popular and long-running</a> exhibit since opening in 1984. </p>
<p>Jellyfish not only have the ability to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1215/10407391-1892925">captivate</a> us. It may also <a href="https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2011.506">benefit our health</a>. A study has shown eating cannonball jellyfish, for example, can reduce the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011875720415">effects of arthritis</a> – albeit so far only in a small group of rats.</p>
<h2>A biological wonder</h2>
<p>Perhaps more importantly, however, we can learn a lot from studying the incredible biology of jellyfish. For example, immortal jellyfish (<em>Turritopsis dohrnii</em>) <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2118763119">sidestep the ageing process</a> by reverting to their polyp stage.</p>
<p>Crystal jellies’ (<em>Aequorea victoria</em>) <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/news.2008.1159">green fluorescent protein</a> (GFP), found in organs within the animal’s bell, allows scientists to study gene expression. Gene expression is the instruction manual DNA follows, for example, to become proteins. This process can be quite complex and difficult to follow. But the GFP lights up under ultraviolet light, which helps scientists map the different processes a cell goes through as it follows DNA instructions.</p>
<p>Jellyfish deserve more of the public’s attention. They are a major player in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/531432a">marine food web</a> and have complex relationships with other wildlife. For example, cannonball jellyfish have a fascinating relationship with young spider crabs (<em>Libinia spp.</em>) that live inside their bells. This gives the crabs security and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1656/058.019.0204">research suggests</a> jellyfish hosting crabs grow larger than those without, but it’s not clear why. </p>
<p>Some scientists say jellyfish are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-012-1039-7">climate-change survivors</a>, which they don’t mean as a compliment. Despite rising temperatures, they sometimes “<a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/01/listening-to-jellyfish/546542/">jellify</a>” the ocean because of their sudden population “blooms”. However, they have their own <a href="https://www.ladyscience.com/essays/the-professor-bringing-her-love-of-jellies-to-the-masses-2021">climate-change-related problems</a>.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0722-1_12">temperature increases</a> in Palau’s Jellyfish Lake in the South Pacific have been linked to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2005.0382">disappearance</a> of golden jellyfish (<em>Mastigias papua</em>). Jellyfish blooms are also often followed by crashes in their populations, which are caused by several <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7015-7_4">overlapping factors</a> such as food shortage, predation, parasites, disease, weather and getting stranded on beaches.</p>
<h2>Sea curiosities</h2>
<p>There are so many reasons humans should make an effort to understand jellyfish better. Research suggests <a href="https://oceanliteracy.unesco.org/resource/ocean-literacy-the-essential-principles-and-fundamental-concepts-of-ocean-sciences-for-learners-of-all-ages-2020/">ocean literacy</a> is best cultivated through <a href="https://doi.org/10.3354/esep00196">hands-on experience</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00288">personal interactions</a>. But the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00347112">technology</a> aquariums use to bring jellyfish to the masses limit how involved audiences can be with the animals. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Cannonball jellyfish floating in a kit aquarium" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513643/original/file-20230306-17-u0yla7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513643/original/file-20230306-17-u0yla7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513643/original/file-20230306-17-u0yla7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513643/original/file-20230306-17-u0yla7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513643/original/file-20230306-17-u0yla7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513643/original/file-20230306-17-u0yla7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513643/original/file-20230306-17-u0yla7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cannonball jellyfish in a kit aquarium.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Matthew Beach</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Although scientists have argued <a href="https://qz.com/1048433/technology-is-changing-our-relationship-with-nature-as-we-know-it/">technology</a> can <a href="https://time.com/4355523/digitization-of-nature/">damage</a> people’s relationships with other animals, it can help us reconnect with our environment too. </p>
<p>Because jellyfish are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/150234b0">95% water</a>, they are extremely sensitive to their surroundings. Most kit tanks (often referred to as <a href="http://www.bioflux.com.ro/docs/AACL_5.2.8.pdf">nano aquariums</a>) hold a small water volume, which makes it difficult to maintain the right conditions such as pH, ammonia levels and temperature.</p>
<p>Bacteria must be <a href="http://kb.rspca.org.au/knowledge-base/why-is-an-understanding-of-the-nitrogen-cycle-important-when-setting-up-a-fish-aquarium/">introduced into the tank</a> to control jellyfish waste (ammonia) by converting it into nitrite and then nitrate. These bacteria are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/ICBBE.2009.5163110">similar to the oxygen-producing microbes</a> in the ocean that form the basis of all <a href="https://oceanliteracy.unesco.org/principles/">ocean food webs</a>, and help maintain the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nmicrobiol.2017.58">ocean cycle</a>. The nitrate is removed by replacing small amounts of aquarium water with purified salt water. </p>
<p>As I discovered, if these conditions are not maintained, the jellyfish can suffer from <a href="https://doi.org/10.28991/esj-2018-01154">bell holes</a> (small circular tears in jellyfishes’ bells) and <a href="https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.70.9.1087">eversion</a> (when the outer portion of the bell inverts). When aquarium jellyfish <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025315405011495">suffer eversion</a>, high water temperature is often the culprit. Learning how to care for jellyfish in these kits is learning about their complex relationships to our oceans.</p>
<p>The closer we feel to our environment, the more likely we are to fight to protect it. So next time you visit the seaside or your local aquarium, try to slow down, absorb the experience and see if you can learn something new about jellyfish and wider ocean wildlife.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189932/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Beach receives funding from Queen Mary, University of London. He has also previously received funding from the Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers).</span></em></p>Jellyfish have a reputation to stinging wild swimmers and huge population “blooms”. But it’s a mistake to dismiss these animals as ocean pests.Matthew Beach, PhD Candidate, Geography, Queen Mary University of LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2136162023-09-28T10:59:19Z2023-09-28T10:59:19ZThe first dog-fox hybrid points to the growing risk to wild animals of domestic species<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550594/original/file-20230927-29-aemwmg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C17%2C2977%2C1971&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A pampas fox</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pampas-grey-fox-la-pampa-argentina-530636404">Foto 4440/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Next time you see a fox when out walking with your dog, pause for a moment and ponder their relatedness. Dogs and foxes are <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10577-007-1203-5">distinct but distantly related canine species</a>. </p>
<p>Until recently, scientists thought it was impossible for them to breed. However, the discovery of a dog-fox hybrid in Brazil suggests that The Fox and the Hound might sometimes be a little more Lady and the Tramp.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/13/15/2505">recent identification of the dog-fox hybrid</a> known as a “dogxim” (a cross between dog and <em>graxaim-do-campo</em>, the Portuguese name for pampas fox) in Brazil also raises concerns about the impact that our pet dogs might have on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03417.x">wild animal populations and their survival</a>. </p>
<p>This female, dog-like creature was first noticed when she was she was hit by a car and taken to a wildlife rehabilitation facility. The staff at the wildlife centre noticed she had a strange mix of <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/13/15/2505#B64-animals-13-02505">physical and behavioural characteristics</a>. </p>
<p>Her pricked ears and preference for eating small mammals seemed fox-like, but her barking was more reminiscent of a dog. Throughout the centuries there have been <a href="https://vethelpdirect.com/vetblog/2023/04/30/can-a-dog-and-a-fox-breed/">unverified reports</a> of fox-dog hybrids, but none have been confirmed before with genetic testing. </p>
<p>Genetic testing revealed that she was a hybrid between a female pampas fox (<em><a href="https://academic.oup.com/mspecies/article/doi/10.1644/820.1/2600864">Lycalopex gymnocercus</a></em>) and a male domestic dog <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=9615">(<em>Canis lupus familiaris</em>)</a>. This is the first documented case of a dog-fox hybrid. Genetic analysis revealed she had a total of 76 chromosomes, compared to the 78 chromosomes of the domestic dog and 74 of the pampas fox.</p>
<h2>What is a hybrid?</h2>
<p>Hybridisation is when <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2012.02599.x">two species mate and produce offspring with mixed genetic ancestry</a>. Normally, animals only mate with members of their own species. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/Chromosomes-Fact-Sheet">Differences in the number of chromosomes</a> (the structure in which DNA is packaged within the cell nucleus) often make species genetically incompatible with each other. Mating behaviour and courtship rituals tend to be individual to a species, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00114-021-01742-0">such as the vocalisations of rutting deer</a>, as is reproductive anatomy and physiology.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/KTCw5VkexbY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>Many well-known hybrids, such as <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2405-8440(20)32018-1">mules (horse and donkey)</a>, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/mrd.22074">ligers (male lion and female tiger) and tigons (male tiger and female lion)</a>, are a result of human intervention. A lion and tiger would never meet naturally in the wild, as their native ranges are too far apart. </p>
<p>The more closely related (and thus genetically alike) two species are, the higher the chance of successful hybridisation. For example, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004016">dogs (<em>Canis lupus familiaris</em>) and grey wolves (<em>Canis lupus)</em></a> only diverged between 11,000 and 35,000 years ago. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5978975/">Wolf-dog hybrids</a> are <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/eva.12595">relatively common</a> because their genetics, reproductive anatomy and behaviour are still fairly similar.</p>
<p>Most hybrids are sterile, meaning they are biological dead-ends. Even if differences in chromosome <a href="https://www.genome.gov/about-genomics/fact-sheets/Chromosomes-Fact-Sheet">numbers and behaviour</a> don’t prevent two species from producing young, it may <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mec.14471">make the hybrid infertile</a>. </p>
<h2>How common are hybrids?</h2>
<p>Hybrids are more widespread than you might think - they are all around us in the plant world, both natural and as a result of human intervention. </p>
<p>Research suggests that approximately <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8774782/">25% of plant and 10% of animal species</a> have been affected by interbreeding in the wild. </p>
<p>Many domesticated species can breed with their <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13364-017-0331-3">wild relatives</a> too. In Poland, a 2018 study found high numbers of free-living wild boars had domestic genes, for example.</p>
<p>Hybrid offspring are not always infertile, and some people are concerned about how this affects the long-term survival and purity of individual species. Hybrids <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/animals/2022/09/the-quest-to-save-the-worlds-rarest-canine-faces-setbacks">can outcompete and eventually even replace</a> their parent species. For endangered species with small, fragile populations, this is a serious threat. In the case of the dogxim, her fertility was not verified. Sadly, <a href="https://metro.co.uk/2023/09/19/dogxim-dog-fox-hybrid-mystery-brazil-19521745/">reports suggest she has since died</a>, so we will probably never know. </p>
<h2>Why are hybrids controversial?</h2>
<p>Hybridisation is important in the evolution of species, allowing populations to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-018-0777-y">adapt to changing environments</a>. Early humans are widely recognised in science to have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/genetics/article/218/1/iyab052/6205711?login=true">mated with Neanderthals</a>, helping our ancestors survive in some harsh environments. Long term, hybrids can lead to the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-020-1116-9">development of entirely new species</a>.</p>
<p>But there are also negative consequences. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy199031">Physical abnormalities are common in hybrids</a> including changes to skull, dental and horn structures, <a href="https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC96987">as seen in hybrid wildebeest</a>. </p>
<p>Hybridisation is also a problem for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02290-X">vulnerable populations or endangered species</a>, leading to reduced fitness and therefore the survival of individuals and even whole populations. The Scottish wildcat wild population, for instance, is now <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mec.16000">almost entirely made up of</a> wildcat-domestic cat hybrids. </p>
<h2>What does the dog-fox hybrid tell us?</h2>
<p>The dog-pampas fox hybrid strongly suggests that contact between wild and domestic species is increasing, possibly because of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gcb.16476">human settlements encroaching</a> on wild habitats. This can also <a href="https://www.scielo.br/j/bjb/a/3nNwm9ykHrD8KKrkfzxRCRJ/?lang=en">significantly increase disease transmission risks</a>.</p>
<p>The dogxim might well be a warning of the destructive impact humans and domesticated animals are having on biodiversity. We don’t know how many other hybrids may be living in the wild. Although the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?query=pampas%20fox&searchType=species">pampas fox is not considered endangered</a>, this example of hybridisation between a domestic and wild species signals the importance of monitoring interactions between different species, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/eva.12595">to protect vulnerable or numerically low populations</a>. </p>
<p>It is important to note that the pampas fox species is very different to the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=9627&lvl=3&lin=f">red fox (<em>Vulpes vulpes</em>)</a>. We probably do not need to worry about creating dog-fox hybrids on our daily dog walks, because of the genetic distance between the two. However, the dogxim should warn us that our dogs’ interactions with nature can have unexpected consequences.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213616/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacqueline Boyd is affiliated with The Kennel Club (UK) through membership, as Chair of the Activities Health and Welfare Subgroup and member of the Dog Health Group. Jacqueline also writes, consults and coaches on canine matters on an independent basis in addition to her academic affiliation.</span></em></p>Scientists had thought a ‘dogxim’ was impossible until one was discovered in BrazilJacqueline Boyd, Senior Lecturer in Animal Science, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2137702023-09-20T06:06:23Z2023-09-20T06:06:23ZThe social lives of kangaroos are more complex than we thought<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549238/original/file-20230920-21-193qnr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1126%2C406%2C1429%2C969&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Terry Ord</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you ever wondered what a kangaroo’s social life looks like? Well, kangaroos have stronger bonds to one another than you might think. </p>
<p>Over six years, we monitored a population of around 130 eastern grey kangaroos near Wollar in New South Wales to see how their relationships changed over time. Keeping tabs on individual roos led to some surprising results. </p>
<p>We found that kangaroo mothers become more social when caring for joeys (which is the opposite of what we previously thought). We also uncovered new evidence that indicates kangaroos could potentially form long-term relationships. </p>
<p>This research, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347223001999#bib78">published in Animal Behaviour</a>, sheds new light on the behaviour of Australia’s most iconic animal. </p>
<h2>How to watch kangaroos</h2>
<p>Eastern grey kangaroos (<em>Macropus giganteus</em>) are found throughout the eastern third of Australia, and they are extremely social animals. </p>
<p>If you’re lucky enough to have some living near you, you’ll notice they are rarely alone. What you might not notice is how often their small groups (called mobs) fluctuate throughout the day. </p>
<p>Kangaroos have a loose “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347213004089">fission–fusion</a>” social structure, which means mobs often split and reform. Knowing this, we wanted to see just how strong kangaroo relationships actually are, and how these relationships changed over several years. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549244/original/file-20230920-17-ybhlcd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of a kangaroo with a joey in her pouch" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549244/original/file-20230920-17-ybhlcd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549244/original/file-20230920-17-ybhlcd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549244/original/file-20230920-17-ybhlcd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549244/original/file-20230920-17-ybhlcd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549244/original/file-20230920-17-ybhlcd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549244/original/file-20230920-17-ybhlcd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549244/original/file-20230920-17-ybhlcd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Individual kangaroos can be identified by the distinctive shapes of their ears.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Terry Ord</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To find out, we spent a few days each year taking photographs of every single kangaroo in our study population. We then used these photographs (all 3,546 of them!) to individually identify each kangaroo. </p>
<p>The best way to tell kangaroos apart (for humans) is the unique shape of their ears, because both the outline of the ears and the inner ear tufts remain very similar throughout the years. New scars can change the overall ear shape, but we were careful to watch out for those. </p>
<p>Using this method, we identified 130 individual kangaroos. We then looked at which kangaroos appeared next to each other in the same photograph to get an idea of what their social groups looked like. </p>
<p>We also gave each kangaroo a social score based on how many other kangaroos they associated with and how “popular” these associates were. </p>
<h2>Suprising sociability</h2>
<p>There are usually a couple of difficulties in this sort of long-term animal study, such as identifying individual animals and being able to follow the same population over several years. These problems are easily avoided with kangaroos, as our photographic survey let us identify animals <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/9/5/244">without invasive tagging</a>, and they tend to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347213005654">return to the same place</a> every day.</p>
<p>We could easily look at the short-term and long-term relationships of each kangaroo, as well as how these relationships varied with sex, age and reproduction.</p>
<p>Looking at sociability on an individual level produced some surprising results. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/animal-friendships-are-surprisingly-like-our-own-188120">Animal friendships are surprisingly like our own</a>
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</em>
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<hr>
<p>We discovered some kangaroos were just <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/26/2/639/259438?login=false">more social than others</a>. In some this was consistent, and in others it changed from year to year.</p>
<p>In fact, we found female kangaroos tended to be much more social in years when they had joeys. This is quite different from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347213005654">earlier research</a>, which suggested kangaroos actually tend to isolate from the rest of the population when they become mothers. </p>
<p>What we think is happening here is that, while mothers tend to spend time in smaller groups (which is what other studies have shown), those groups change often. As a result, mothers associate with more other kangaroos in total – which would account for their high social scores. </p>
<p>So kangaroos’ loose social structure allows them to adjust their sociability with their reproductive state. </p>
<h2>Long-term friendships?</h2>
<p>However, the fact the social structure is loose doesn’t mean it is simple. We found kangaroo relationships might be far more complex than previously thought. </p>
<p>Some of our kangaroos maintained friendships across multiple years, a phenomenon that was particularly common among females. Kangaroos that were more “popular” – as determined by the social score we calculated – were far more likely to have these friendships.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549245/original/file-20230920-17-rq3tla.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photo of several kangaroos" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549245/original/file-20230920-17-rq3tla.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549245/original/file-20230920-17-rq3tla.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549245/original/file-20230920-17-rq3tla.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549245/original/file-20230920-17-rq3tla.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549245/original/file-20230920-17-rq3tla.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549245/original/file-20230920-17-rq3tla.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549245/original/file-20230920-17-rq3tla.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Like other large herbivores, kangaroos may form long-term relationships.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Terry Ord</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is the first evidence for long-term relationships in macropods (the animal family that includes kangaroos as well as wallabies, quokkas and others). However, long-term relationships are common in other large, social herbivores such as <a href="https://bmcecol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6785-11-17">elephants</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347213003539">giraffes</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/oik.09511">ibex</a>. </p>
<p>We only looked at the kangaroos for a short time each year. To find out whether they really do form long-term relationships, we will need to do more research. However, we have shown such relationships are a possibility, which is itself a very exciting development in the study of kangaroo behaviour.</p>
<h2>The importance of social organisation</h2>
<p>So what’s next? The study of animal behaviour is constantly changing and there’s always lots more we can learn. </p>
<p>We have shown the benefits of looking at animal populations on an individual level, not just a species level. With this in mind, future research should investigate the existence of long-term relationships in kangaroos, as well as why female kangaroos might deliberately increase their sociability when they become mothers. </p>
<p>We often underestimate the importance of social organisation in animals. Further research into kangaroo behaviour can help us better appreciate the intelligence and social complexity of our favourite marsupials.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mother-roos-endanger-health-for-joeys-2219">Mother roos endanger health for joeys</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213770/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nora Campbell receives funding from the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship (RTP) at the University of New South Wales (UNSW). Funding for this research was provided by the School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences (BEES) and the Science Faculty at UNSW. </span></em></p>New research shows kangaroos may form long-term friendships.Nora Campbell, PhD Candidate, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2041642023-09-10T13:04:13Z2023-09-10T13:04:13ZThe nose knows: How microbiomes and the smells they produce help shape behaviour in bugs, birds, beasts and humans<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547261/original/file-20230908-27-yeuep5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=612%2C68%2C4958%2C3759&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The microbiome functions as an 'invisible organ' but it often makes its presence known by emitting sounds and smells.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/the-nose-knows-how-microbiomes-and-the-smells-they-produce-help-shape-behaviour-in-bugs-birds-beasts-and-humans" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Microbes are an integral part of most, if not all multi-cellular organisms. In fact, these organisms are the way they are because of the tiny partners they house within and on them. These microbes constitute the microbiome: an “invisible organ” weighing approximately <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7684-8">2.5 to three kilograms</a> in an adult human and much more in larger animals.</p>
<p>This unique body part was made visible with the advent of modern molecular imaging technologies. In my book <em><a href="https://www.routledge.com/Microbiomes-and-Their-Functions-Why-Organisms-Need-Microbes/Appanna/p/book/9780367749897">Microbiomes and their Functions</a></em>, I explore how it works in partnership with other visible organs and engages in a variety of physiological functions essential for the development and survival of the hosts. </p>
<p>Microbiomes have been part of all these organisms from the beginning, and have evolved in tandem with them, just as their visible organs have.</p>
<p>The digestive tract, with all its components, is a good example of how organs can be shaped by their microbial inhabitants. The digestive tract has markedly disparate features in a carnivore, an omnivore or a herbivore. Herbivores have the longest digestive tracts and <a href="https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/15-1-digestive-systems/">carnivores have the shortest</a>.</p>
<h2>The microbiome</h2>
<p>The bulk of microbiome is found in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7684-8_2">digestive tract</a>, where it helps extract nutrients from our diet. The diverse microbes constituting the microbiome not only contribute to optimal digestion, but also help prime our immune system, and produce hormones and neurotransmitters (or their precursors) that have profound influence on our behaviours.</p>
<p>The information-laden molecules generated by the microbiome play a crucial role in the body’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.00700">non-verbal communication</a>. These <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18871-1">microbiome-derived signals</a> can elicit a range of responses including hunger, satiety (feeling full), mood changes and social behaviour.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Human silhouette showing the gut-brain connection" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547017/original/file-20230907-29-lkr7n3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547017/original/file-20230907-29-lkr7n3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547017/original/file-20230907-29-lkr7n3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547017/original/file-20230907-29-lkr7n3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=796&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547017/original/file-20230907-29-lkr7n3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547017/original/file-20230907-29-lkr7n3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547017/original/file-20230907-29-lkr7n3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The information network between the gut microbiome and the brain is aided by the vagus nerve that connects these two organs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The information network between the gut microbiome and the brain is aided by the vagus nerve that <a href="https://routledge.pub/Microbiomes-and-Their-Functions">connects these two organs</a>.</p>
<p>Microbes like Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium residing in the gut secrete neurotransmitters known to influence human behaviour <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb44040096">such as GABA</a> (gamma-aminobutyric acid), acetylcholine, norepinephrine, oxytocin and indole metabolites. Indole derivatives are obtained when gut microbes metabolize the essential amino-acid, tryptophan.</p>
<p>For instance, the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4449495">neurotransmitter dopamine</a> is considered a “feel good” hormone and is often associated with positive emotions. However, low levels of this molecule may contribute to anxiety. On the other hand, indoles are linked to satiety, resulting in a tendency to eat less, and are associated with weight loss.</p>
<h2>Smelly signals</h2>
<p>Despite its invisible nature, the microbiome often makes its presence known by emitting sounds and smells. The latter can be powerful signals that can influence behaviour.</p>
<p>These smelly signals can, at a distance or at a close range, prompt happiness, enthusiasm, anxiety, attraction, fear or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7684-8">aggression</a>. The microbially-concocted odours are a very important tool in the communication arsenal that most organisms — including humans — rely on to send or receive non-verbal messages.</p>
<p>The human skin is home to a diverse range of microorganisms known to contribute to different odours. Bacteria like Staphylococcus and Corynebacterium lodge in the warm and moist underarm region of the skin where the apocrine glands, a source of chemicals, abound. The resident bacteria use these chemical nutrients to shape <a href="https://asm.org/Articles/2021/December/Microbial-Origins-of-Body-Odor">body odour</a>.</p>
<p>These apocrine glands generally produce odourless compounds. It is microbes that fashion those compounds into smell signatures characteristic of an individual. These odoriferous signals can serve to attract or repel people and modify social behaviours. For instance, the presence of select bacteria is known to process non-smelly steroids into compounds with a characteristic urine odour, not conducive to making friends. </p>
<h2>Chemical signals in animals, birds, plants, fungi</h2>
<p>In other mammals, odoriferous compounds like trimethylamine or pentanoic acid entice mates, while in animals endowed with a scent pouch, they lure prey, defend or mark territories. Some of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2017.00143">pungent chemicals</a> are notoriously reputed to keep <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/whats-that-smell-for-some-animals-their-stink-helps-keep-them-alive/2018/08/13/9058fc62-9678-11e8-810c-5fa705927d54_story.html">predators at bay</a>. </p>
<p>Birds have a special gland that hosts a diverse microbial population, which generates scent-releasing chemicals. These easily transmittable signals are aimed at repelling predators, attracting mates, recognizing kin, promoting parental care and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/10/science/birds-smell-bacteria.html">identifying proprietary nests</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man's hand holding a small shovel with a truffle on it, patting his truffle-hunting dog with his other hand" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547027/original/file-20230907-19-ya50zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547027/original/file-20230907-19-ya50zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547027/original/file-20230907-19-ya50zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547027/original/file-20230907-19-ya50zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547027/original/file-20230907-19-ya50zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547027/original/file-20230907-19-ya50zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547027/original/file-20230907-19-ya50zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Truffles — the highly sought-after edible fungus — recruit select microbes to generate aromatic alcohols that lure small mammals to dig them up, which promotes the dispersal of the truffle’s spores.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These smelly marks are also key to maintaining the social order of numerous insects. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-018-0588-z">These scents</a> can not only help camouflage the hosts, but can also convert loners to crowd-lovers. For instance, it is a scent that cajoles the solitary <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/insects11100655">locust</a> into a gregarious lifestyle during the feeding season and triggers an insatiable appetite for vegetation.</p>
<p>Some fungi are known to enlist the fragrance of vapour-like chemicals to assemble their microbiome, which in turn helps the host perform a variety of essential physiological functions.</p>
<p>Truffles — the highly sought-after edible fungus — are renowned for their distinctive smell, but they may be dependent on the microbiome to produce this sweet fragrance. In fact, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.01098-15">truffles recruit select microbes</a> to generate aromatic alcohols that lure small mammals to dig them up, which promotes the dispersal of the truffle’s spores.</p>
<p>Plants and algae are also dependent on microbe-derived odour prompts to assist them to survive, and even die and be scavenged. Plants depend on these smell signatures to communicate dangers lurking in their environment and even to fend off insects, birds or <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.772420">other predators</a>.</p>
<p>When some algae bloom beyond control due to environmental conditions, they plot their own demise with the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003166481">assistance of microbes</a>. Some of these microbes not only help the algae die, but are also responsible for producing distinctive odours that are detected and decoded as food by birds and fish. The result is a clean-up of the dead algae by feasting birds and fish.</p>
<p>The microbiome and its signature smells are crucial for most organisms, whether human, insect or plant. The silent signals sent by the microbiome are essential communications that influence behaviour, and have evolved to help the host survive and thrive.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204164/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vasu Appanna receives / has received funding from NATO, NSERC, NOHFC and FEDNOR</span></em></p>The microbiome and its signature smells are crucial for most organisms, whether human, insect or plant. The silent signals sent by the microbiome are essential communications that influence behaviour.Vasu Appanna, Professor, Biochemistry, Laurentian UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2071632023-08-08T15:20:14Z2023-08-08T15:20:14ZThe evolutionary reasons humans love pets – and nine benefits of having one<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540832/original/file-20230802-15-pgvczi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C38%2C5184%2C3352&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-rabbit-little-holding-cute-fluffy-1273693714">Evgeniy Goncharov photo/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>We’ve all read stories about owners’ love for their pets, but you might be taken aback to hear how some people are willing to spend thousands of pounds on vet care for small animals like guinea-pigs and hamsters. A Guardian journalist recently reported spending <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2023/may/22/the-pet-ill-never-forget-i-spent-2000-on-ruby-the-guinea-pigs-hysterectomy-and-i-dont-regret-a-penny">£2,000 on vet bills</a> for her guinea-pig, Ruby. </p>
<p>It really doesn’t matter what species an animal is if they meet a strong biological need. There may be deep-rooted biological reasons why we enjoy caring for pets. In fact, there are several evolutionary theories about why humans keep pets. </p>
<p>The connection between an owner and their pet is <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/19142387.pdf">typically a close emotional one</a>, and every bond is unique. When emotions are involved, relationships cannot be viewed in terms of their material worth. We should perhaps stop thinking about them in purely cold rational terms, as the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2864937/">human desire to care for another being</a> is a powerful one.</p>
<p>Evolutionary theories that seek to explain this bond range from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/biophilia-hypothesis">biophilia hypothesis</a> (humans have an intrinsic attraction to the natural world) to an inherent attraction or caring response to child-like characteristics such as a high forehead, large eyes and a shortened nose. </p>
<p>Evolutionary biologist <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/089279388787058470?journalCode=rfan20">Stephen Jay Gould argued that</a> the evolution of the appearance of Mickey Mouse follows exactly this trend. Animators made him increasingly expressive over time, giving him a larger head, higher forehead, and shorter nose and limbs to make him “cuter”. These features are common in many popular cartoon characters. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/k5yLBt2EfLc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/hai.2021.0006#:%7E:text='Life%20satisfaction'%20and%20cat%20human%20related%20activities&text=%E2%80%9CComing%20home%20and%20playing%20with,'cat%20bringing%20prey%20home'.">Care-soliciting behaviour</a> may strengthen this emotional bond. For example, guinea-pigs are known to “wheek” loudly in response to the sound of an opening fridge. </p>
<p>A stronger bond may form between owners and species or individual pets who require intense or special care, and show greater dependence on their human carer. But this doesn’t mean the more care a pet needs, the closer the bond its owner will feel for it. The emotional cost of problem behaviour, such as not being able to relax because a dog may spring at new people, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-68446-9">can marr the relationship</a>. </p>
<h2>A relationship booster that transcends species</h2>
<p>The cognitive ability of the species is largely irrelevant, so long as the owner can identify with their pets’ needs. The way we frame our relationship with a species is more important. For example, a mouse can be viewed as wildlife, a pet or a pest depending on the context, and we will treat it differently accordingly. </p>
<p>Caring for a pet is a relationship booster that seems to transcend species. My team’s <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/hai.2023.0008">recent work</a> tried to unpick what it is about being a pet owner that is good for our psychological wellbeing. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Guinea pig having a bath" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540833/original/file-20230802-17-qdnrrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540833/original/file-20230802-17-qdnrrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540833/original/file-20230802-17-qdnrrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540833/original/file-20230802-17-qdnrrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540833/original/file-20230802-17-qdnrrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540833/original/file-20230802-17-qdnrrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540833/original/file-20230802-17-qdnrrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The fact pets need us to care for them may be part of the charm.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/guinea-pig-cavia-porcellus-wet-pigs-1078835948">Rattanapon Ninlapoom/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Exactly how pet-related activities benefit us remains unknown – different processes might be happening in different people and several mechanisms might be operating at once, which can strengthen the bond. But our work has identified some recurring themes. If you are a pet owner, you might recognise many if not all of these.</p>
<h2>Nine benefits of having a pet</h2>
<ol>
<li><p><a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvk12s6h">Biophilia boost</a>: interacting with and immersing ourselves within the natural world can be intrinsically beneficial to us, given our evolutionary history.</p></li>
<li><p>Caring and attachment: tending for another creature is a <a href="https://oro.open.ac.uk/46771/">rewarding activity</a>. It makes us feel good and develop a stronger sense of purpose.</p></li>
<li><p>Social support: having a pet nearby <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9272860/">can reduce loneliness</a>. Often, we may interpret pet behaviour in a way that provides us with emotional support.</p></li>
<li><p>Social catalysts: pets can be a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J002v08n03_03#:%7E:text=Pets%20facilitate%20interaction%20by%20being,of%20functions%20as%20social%20catalysts.">social lubricant</a> in many contexts. This might not only improve our personal networks, but also (indirectly) increase our sense of social support from others. </p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01678/full">Emotional contagion</a>: many of our pets look happy and carefree much of the time, and that can be infectious. A pet can help us surround ourselves with a more upbeat social circle. </p></li>
<li><p>Routines: caring for pets can put <a href="https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10120264/1/published.pdf">structure into our days</a> and thus help reduce stress.</p></li>
<li><p>Exercise: many pets encourage us to <a href="https://files.core.ac.uk/pdf/2612/81561698.pdf">exercise more</a>, and this has neurophysiological as well as physical benefits.</p></li>
<li><p>Learning: finding out more about something, including animal behaviour, can be highly rewarding, especially when you achieve a degree of competence.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/293887213.pdf">Physical affection</a>: touch can have powerful effects on us, so petting may be psychologically very good for us.</p></li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Cat cuddled in blanket, hands in a heart shape around the cat's feet" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540834/original/file-20230802-27-bk9osn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540834/original/file-20230802-27-bk9osn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540834/original/file-20230802-27-bk9osn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540834/original/file-20230802-27-bk9osn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540834/original/file-20230802-27-bk9osn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540834/original/file-20230802-27-bk9osn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540834/original/file-20230802-27-bk9osn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It can feel hard to explain your bond with a pet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-hand-make-heart-shape-on-1886101987">Veronika Zelenina/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are also potential downsides to the processes that bring us closer to our pets. For example, you may experience social exclusion if your pet’s behaviour does not conform to social norms, such as being aggressive or pooping in the neighbour’s garden. </p>
<p>But pets, regardless of their species, can be important not only to how we feel but our sense of purpose and broader satisfaction with life. So, we should not be surprised when an owner appreciates that financial cost is of little importance when it comes to securing these goals.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207163/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Mills does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s not just cats and dogs – we often feel a deep emotional bond with small animals like rabbits and guinea-pigs too.Daniel Mills, Professor of Veterinary Behavioural Medicine, University of LincolnLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2094262023-07-13T14:06:55Z2023-07-13T14:06:55ZMale rhesus macaques often have sex with each other – a trait they have inherited in part from their parents<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536818/original/file-20230711-17-aibxh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=941%2C102%2C3853%2C3154&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Male same-sex sexual behaviour was widespread in a population of rhesus macaques.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sam Edwards</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Homosexual behaviour is not limited to humans. Biologists have reported homosexual behaviour in many species of wild animal, ranging from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166024">bats</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.05.009">birds</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.03.014">dolphins</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163/1568539X-bja10062">primates</a>. </p>
<p>When animals engage in homosexual behaviour, one might assume that they invest less time and energy on reproduction. This suggests that there may be strong reproductive costs associated with such behaviour, such as having fewer offspring. So it raises the question of how homosexual behaviour manages to evolve and continue to exist within a population.</p>
<p>The underlying presumption is that there is not only a cost associated with engaging in homosexual activity, but also that variation in such behaviour is passed down from one generation to the next. Called heritability, this is essential for any evolution by natural selection to occur. </p>
<p>We set out to investigate these issues by studying 236 male <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/rhesus-monkey">rhesus macaques</a> living freely in a colony of 1,700 monkeys on the tropical island of Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico. We observed these monkeys for three years and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02111-y">found that</a> male same-sex sexual behaviour (SSB) was widespread. In fact, 72% of the males we observed mounted other males, while only 46% mounted females.</p>
<p>Critically, male SSB is not unique to this population of macaques. We saw similar behaviour in wild rhesus macaque populations in northern Thailand. And there have been <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Primate_Behavior/QingBAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0">previous reports</a> of SSB in this species from India, too.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A rhesus macaque colony." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536787/original/file-20230711-30-f7j44b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536787/original/file-20230711-30-f7j44b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536787/original/file-20230711-30-f7j44b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536787/original/file-20230711-30-f7j44b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536787/original/file-20230711-30-f7j44b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536787/original/file-20230711-30-f7j44b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536787/original/file-20230711-30-f7j44b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A rhesus macaque colony in Rajasthan, India.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/rhesus-monkey-colony-alwar-rajasthan-india-159063821">Attila JANDI/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From one generation to the next</h2>
<p>We also had access to pedigree records that traced the parentage of each macaque back to 1956. This allowed us to explore the effect of relatedness (heritability) on their behaviour, taking into account other factors that could influence the results, such as age and social group structure.</p>
<p>We found that the heritability of male SSB was 6.4%, meaning genetics do account for a small proportion of SSB – the rest is environmental.</p>
<p>We calculated “evolvability” to be 14.9%, giving the potential rate at which the trait can evolve per generation through natural selection. Evolvability is thought to be a more reliable indicator than heritability of the degree to which genetics can respond to evolutionary pressure, and provides us with further evidence that SSB can evolve through selection.</p>
<p>Our estimates align with what we would expect for a behavioural trait that is probably influenced by multiple genetic factors and environmental effects. They are also consistent with heritability values reported in studies of other social behaviour in primate species, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/evolut/qpad066">social grooming in baboons</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41437-022-00558-6">social proximity in capuchins</a>. </p>
<p>We also found a genetic correlation between the number of times a male was observed mounting another male and the number of times he was mounted by other males. This suggests that different forms of SSB in these monkeys share a common genetic basis.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two grooming chacma baboons on a tree." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536773/original/file-20230711-25-fgafa9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536773/original/file-20230711-25-fgafa9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536773/original/file-20230711-25-fgafa9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536773/original/file-20230711-25-fgafa9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536773/original/file-20230711-25-fgafa9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536773/original/file-20230711-25-fgafa9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536773/original/file-20230711-25-fgafa9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Two chacma baboons grooming eachother. Caprivi, Namibia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/two-grooming-chacma-baboons-papio-ursinus-2250991039">Fotografie-Kuhlmann/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What underpins this behaviour?</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat7693">Previous studies</a> on the heritability of SSB have primarily focused on humans. However, these studies often rely on self-reported data, which can introduce complications. The cultural stigma surrounding homosexuality, for instance, could lead to the underreporting of homosexual activity.</p>
<p>Heritability of SSB has also been found in some invertebrate species, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-016-0658-4">seed beetles</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2015.0429">fruit flies</a>. However, the pathways through which SSB develops in these species are thought to be different from those observed in social vertebrates like primates. For example, factors such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-013-1610-x">imperfect sex recognition</a> are believed to influence the development of SSB in invertebrates.</p>
<p>Demonstrating that SSB is heritable and its potential for evolutionary response to natural selection is an important first step towards understanding the factors that influence variation in this behaviour. </p>
<p>Many evolutionary theories for SSB in animals exist. But they all depend on the behaviour showing a degree of heritability. </p>
<p>One theory suggests that in some species, animals may engage in SSB because it serves a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.02.001">beneficial social function</a>. For example, it may strengthen the bonds between males, ultimately benefiting them during competition for mates and food. </p>
<p>In support of this theory, our research found that male rhesus macaques involved in SSB partnerships were more likely to support each other in conflicts with other individuals. This effect could be a way in which SSB benefits a macaque and its chances of producing offspring, thereby allowing the behaviour and the genes associated with it to persist within a population.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of macaques fighting." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536779/original/file-20230711-15-ln4ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536779/original/file-20230711-15-ln4ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536779/original/file-20230711-15-ln4ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536779/original/file-20230711-15-ln4ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=267&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536779/original/file-20230711-15-ln4ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536779/original/file-20230711-15-ln4ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536779/original/file-20230711-15-ln4ks.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rhesus macaques involved in SSB partnerships were more likely to support each other in conflicts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/group-macaques-fighting-1998316622">Di Qin/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Learning from primates</h2>
<p>So what can we learn from these findings about SSB across primate species, including humans?</p>
<p>A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat7693">previous study</a> examining SSB heritability in humans found significant reproductive costs associated with this behaviour. In contrast, we found no such costs in macaques. </p>
<p>This suggests that the costs associated with human SSB might arise from specific social factors unique to humans. However, more research is needed to explore this idea further.</p>
<p>Today, some people still believe that SSB is rare or the product of extreme and unusual environmental conditions, and selectively look to examples in nature to validate their view. Our results may help to challenge these beliefs and combat prejudice against homosexuality and bisexuality. However, society’s moral obligation to strive for more inclusivity and acceptance of different sexual orientations ultimately does not rely on observations from the natural world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209426/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jackson Clive received funding for this work from the UK Natural Environment Research Council, the American Institute of Bisexuality and the Genetics Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ewan Flintham receives funding from the UK Natural Environment Research Council
. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vincent Savolainen receives funding from NERC, the American Institute of Bisexuality and the Evolution, Education Trust. </span></em></p>Most of the males in a Puerto Rican monkey colony engaged in homosexual activity, a new study reveals.Jackson Clive, Postdoctoral Researcher, Imperial College LondonEwan Flintham, Postdoctoral Researcher, Université de LausanneVincent Savolainen, Professor of Organismic Biology, Imperial College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2089352023-07-13T01:11:11Z2023-07-13T01:11:11ZWhy does my cat pee on the rug? Are they trying to tell me something?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535190/original/file-20230703-132952-82o4mi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5422%2C3612&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/cute-fluffy-red-cat-on-soft-plaid-5921743/">Pexels/Helena Lopes</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As cat researchers, one of the most common complaints we hear is:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>My cat is a jerk! Whenever I do something he doesn’t like, he pees on my bed or the rug.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Often this complaint is based on an assumption the cat is seeking revenge or trying to send a message, The Godfather-style. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, a rhetoric has developed that cats are manipulative, vengeful, uncaring or even psychotic. This rhetoric means when cats do something we don’t like, it’s easy to reach for the idea they did it deliberately to hurt or annoy us.</p>
<p>But cats don’t behave the way humans do and their motives are not the same. They aren’t trying to irritate or punish us. So let’s forget the human rhetoric and delve into five reasons your cat might be peeing on your rug, bed or clothes. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A blue-eyed cat looks into a camera." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535454/original/file-20230704-19-96pt2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cats don’t behave the way humans do.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/close-up-of-a-blue-eyed-cat-16622468/">Pexels/Anya Juárez Tenorio</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-my-dog-eat-grass-and-when-is-it-not-safe-for-them-205658">Why does my dog eat grass? And when is it not safe for them?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>1. It could be a medical issue</h2>
<p>First, ask yourself: are they sick?</p>
<p>Many illnesses or injuries – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1098612X19831202">including</a> urinary tract infections, cystitis, diabetes and chronic pain – can cause a cat to have unusual urination behaviour.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2022.900847/full">Feline idiopathic cystitis</a> occurs in approximately 2-4% of cats worldwide. The exact causes are not known, although having an anxious or stressed cat increases the risk. </p>
<p>It’s often difficult to tell when a cat is sick. They are incredibly adept at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1098612X15578725">hiding pain</a>. </p>
<p>One clue is cats experiencing discomfort will want to pee somewhere they feel comfortable, often a place they associate with safety – such as your bed, your clothes or the rug. </p>
<p>One reason they may feel comfortable there is because it smells like you, someone they associate with positive feelings. </p>
<p>So if your cat pees somewhere odd, your first instinct should be to wonder if it’s time to contact your vet. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A patterned cat sits on a human bed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535450/original/file-20230704-15-v6w5ik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cats hide pain well.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/cat-lying-on-bed-10418616/">Pexels/Vikki</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>2. It could be short-term stress</h2>
<p>Has something changed in your household lately? Are you renovating? Are there loud noises? Did a new cat move in next door? Did your friend bring their dog to visit?</p>
<p>Situations like these could lead to your cat feeling stressed and peeing in an unexpected place. </p>
<p>Log the days your cat pees somewhere unusual and see if a pattern emerges.</p>
<p>If it correlates with something in particular – such as a friend visiting with their dog – try to adapt the house set-up to make your cat more comfortable.</p>
<p>For instance, keep the dog outside or put your cat in your room with their food, water and a litter tray. </p>
<p>Think about how to make your cat more comfortable (or remove the stressor itself). </p>
<h2>3. It could be chronic stress</h2>
<p>Unlike a short-term stressor, chronic stress is an ongoing issue that can’t simply be stopped or removed. </p>
<p>This could be an ongoing stress from living in a multi-cat household or with a dog, or it could from a condition such as anxiety.</p>
<p>While chronic stress can be trickier to handle, it’s important to identify it and seek help. </p>
<p>Ongoing stress can lead to serious health issues such as cystitis, which can cause a urinary blockage and be <a href="https://www.pdsa.org.uk/pet-help-and-advice/pet-health-hub/conditions/stress-cystitis-feline-idiopathic-cystitis-in-cats">life threatening</a>. If your cat visits the litter tray and is straining without any result, this is an emergency. They need to see a vet as soon as possible.</p>
<p>Keep a short daily log and try to identify areas that may be causing ongoing stress for your cat. </p>
<p>Adjust the environment to limit these stressors and if needed, seek a veterinary behaviourist’s advice about treating potential anxiety in your cat. </p>
<p>And if you are very stressed, this might make your cat <a href="https://www.fearfreehappyhomes.com/stressed-you-might-be-stressing-your-cat-as-well/#:%7E:text=If%20we're%20stressed%2C%20our,other's%20physical%20and%20emotional%20states">feel stressed</a>. Sometimes you both need to take a deep breath!</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A cat on a couch looks worried." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/535452/original/file-20230704-13224-qd7yu8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chronic stress can be tricky to handle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/cute-tabby-kitten-on-a-sofa-2194261/">Pexels/Tranmautritam</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-cats-and-dogs-get-the-zoomies-197790">Why do cats and dogs get the zoomies?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. It could be the litter</h2>
<p>Your cat’s “accidents” may be as simple as them not liking the substrate, tray or positioning of the litter they are given. </p>
<p>Cats want to feel comfortable and safe when they toilet. So they may not want to use it if:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>the substrate you’re using hurts their paws or is too deep and makes them slide around</p></li>
<li><p>the tray is too small or too covered or</p></li>
<li><p>the litter is positioned somewhere that is disturbed easily.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Each cat is an individual; what works for one may not work for another. That said, here are some general rules for providing a pleasant litter experience for your cat: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>provide one litter tray per cat plus an extra one for the household</p></li>
<li><p>litter depth should be enough to cover the bottom of the tray well but not so much that the cat’s weight makes them slip down into it </p></li>
<li><p>go for unscented litter (cats are very sensitive to smells)</p></li>
<li><p>place the tray in an area that has privacy and is away from any potential stressors such as children, dogs or loud noises</p></li>
<li><p>if possible, place the trays around the house in appropriate areas so your cat always has easy access when needed </p></li>
<li><p>scoop regularly and keep the tray clean.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>5. It could because your cat is a jerk</h2>
<p>Just kidding. This is never the reason.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208935/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Hazel is affiliated with the Dog and Cat Management Board of South Australia, RSPCA South Australia and Animal Therapies Ltd. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julia Henning does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Unfortunately, a rhetoric has developed within public discourse that cats are manipulative, vengeful, uncaring or even psychotic. But it’s unlikely they’ve deliberately peed on your rug to annoy you.Susan Hazel, Associate Professor, School of Animal and Veterinary Science, University of AdelaideJulia Henning, PhD Candidate, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2093512023-07-10T09:28:45Z2023-07-10T09:28:45ZWe found 176 bird species using human-made materials in their nests – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536424/original/file-20230709-21-po50zm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C15%2C5160%2C3430&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Gannets nesting on plastic waste in Heligoland, Germany.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Johnny Giese / shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Interactions between wildlife and plastic litter have been well documented in the sea. Think of seals entangled in netting or whales permanently attached to discarded fishing tackle, so-called “<a href="https://theconversation.com/740-000km-of-fishing-line-and-14-billion-hooks-we-reveal-just-how-much-fishing-gear-is-lost-at-sea-each-year-192024">ghost gear</a>”.</p>
<p>But it is birds that may encounter discarded human-made material the most of all animal groups, as they are extremely mobile and can be found almost everywhere in the world. There are many reports of seabird chicks dying after being entangled in old plastic and fishing nets, for instance.</p>
<p>Another cause of their deaths was documented in an upsetting <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/seabirds/laysan-albatrosses-plastic-problem">series of photographs</a> of Laysan albatrosses from Midway Atoll in the Pacific. Adult birds spend years in flight over the open waters, returning to land only to breed. Some had mistaken plastic for fish or squid, ingested it and then fed it to their young which then died. It seems that even these most enigmatic of seabirds – they live as long as we do and often breed with the same partner for life – are not immune from encounters with human-made materials.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536420/original/file-20230709-194667-ajhf4y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536420/original/file-20230709-194667-ajhf4y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536420/original/file-20230709-194667-ajhf4y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536420/original/file-20230709-194667-ajhf4y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536420/original/file-20230709-194667-ajhf4y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536420/original/file-20230709-194667-ajhf4y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536420/original/file-20230709-194667-ajhf4y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536420/original/file-20230709-194667-ajhf4y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An albatross carcass found filled with plastic debris.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usfwspacific/6722877633/">USFWS-Pacific</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Nest-building birds are adapting</h2>
<p>The media tends to focus on the accumulation of plastic on beaches and the resulting negative impacts on wildlife. But in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2022.0156">our latest research</a> we instead wanted to investigate how birds have actually adapted to live alongside such materials. </p>
<p>The breeding success of birds is often tightly linked to nest functionality, and we wanted to understand if human-made materials obtained by nest-building adults could be playing an important role. And if so, we wanted to know which birds use these materials, whether some materials are favoured over others and if biological characteristics of species – their size, experience, behaviour and so on – predispose them to using such materials in their nests.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536423/original/file-20230709-72726-fyr33g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Birds in nest" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536423/original/file-20230709-72726-fyr33g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536423/original/file-20230709-72726-fyr33g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536423/original/file-20230709-72726-fyr33g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536423/original/file-20230709-72726-fyr33g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536423/original/file-20230709-72726-fyr33g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536423/original/file-20230709-72726-fyr33g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536423/original/file-20230709-72726-fyr33g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">White stork chicks in a nest containing anthropogenic materials.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zuzanna Jagiello</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We searched more than a century of peer-reviewed scientific literature using terms such as “anthropogenic” or “artificial material” and “nest”, identifying 2,771 relevant papers. Retaining only those studies that described the use of human-made materials by nesting birds, we found evidence of this behaviour in almost 35,000 nests of 176 bird species, reported in 75 papers. These species occurred on all continents except Antarctica.</p>
<p>This suggests that such behaviour is widespread among birds, including ducks, birds of prey, gulls, cormorants and many songbirds. We were surprised to discover that the earliest observations were made back in the 1830s. We identified plastic as the most important type of material, but we also found evidence of cloth, paper, metal and more.</p>
<h2>Some birds are doing it intentionally</h2>
<p>To test several hypotheses that might explain this interesting behaviour we used statistical models which examined whether the use of anthropogenic nest materials was related to species’ biology. We found that plastic and other human-made products were more likely to be found in nests of species with larger differences in body size between males and females, and in those that build complex domed nests. Both findings supported the idea that nest materials signal the quality of breeding adults and would imply that human-made materials are being included in nests intentionally – the birds are showing off.</p>
<p>Although not in a nesting context, some support for these findings comes from the bowerbirds of New Guinea and Australia. The males now <a href="https://theconversation.com/headphones-saw-blades-coat-hangers-how-human-trash-in-australian-bird-nests-changed-over-195-years-164316">use human-made items</a> in their bowers (a specially built structure) to court females by demonstrating their “quality” as potential mates.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536421/original/file-20230709-17-j11cq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Bird in nest-like structure surrounded by blue things" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536421/original/file-20230709-17-j11cq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536421/original/file-20230709-17-j11cq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536421/original/file-20230709-17-j11cq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536421/original/file-20230709-17-j11cq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536421/original/file-20230709-17-j11cq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536421/original/file-20230709-17-j11cq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536421/original/file-20230709-17-j11cq9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A satin bowerbird in his bower with collected objects – including various bottle tops.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Luke Shelley / shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unexpectedly, neither how long a species lives for, nor whether a nest was built in
new human-made habitats, appeared to explain the presence of such materials in nests. It seems that experience does not favour the use of plastics and other materials in nests. We also found no separate and distinct evolutionary lineages that preferentially use human-made materials in nests, suggesting that many other bird species may have the potential to do so.</p>
<p>What next?</p>
<p>Many birds, including birds of prey, gulls and pigeons, are urban-adapted and breed successfully in cityscapes where human-made materials are readily available. The extent to which birds adapt to polluted environments remains underappreciated because a study like ours is only as good as the available data. We encourage researchers to collect data from nests of many more species but to do so in a standardised way to allow for sound comparisons between studies and species.</p>
<p>Of all animal species, birds are perhaps best placed as “bio-indicators” of environmental pollution. None of us wants wild animals to be forced to interact with human-made materials, of course. But these behavioural adaptations at least provide us ornithologists with a wonderful opportunity to monitor a changing environment.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
<br><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeTop">Get a weekly roundup in your inbox instead.</a> Every Wednesday, The Conversation’s environment editor writes Imagine, a short email that goes a little deeper into just one climate issue. <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/newsletters/imagine-57?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=Imagine&utm_content=DontHaveTimeBottom">Join the 20,000+ readers who’ve subscribed so far.</a></em></p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209351/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr S. James Reynolds receives funding from UKRI. He is affiliated with the Army Ornithological Society (AOS). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jenő Nagy and Zuzanna Jagiello do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It appears to be widespread among all sorts of different birds.S. James Reynolds, Assistant Professor in Ornithology and Animal Conservation, University of BirminghamJenő Nagy, Research Fellow, ELKH-DE Conservation Biology Research Group., University of DebrecenZuzanna Jagiello, Post-doctoral Research Assistant, Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of WarsawLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2043762023-06-19T15:04:29Z2023-06-19T15:04:29ZBackpack-wearing chickens are helping change the way we study animal welfare<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527531/original/file-20230522-26-6ra3o7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5184%2C3453&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/indoor-chicken-farm-feeding-broiler-1607067385">Iaroslav Konnikov/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The chicken sheds I conduct research in are enormous – over three-quarters the length of a football field and 20 metres wide. In each house, around 28,000 near-identical broiler chickens, which are the type we use for meat, are reared in six-week production cycles. </p>
<p>My research helps farms find ways to improve the welfare of these birds. This might involve <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/animal/article/abs/influence-of-the-provision-of-natural-light-and-straw-bales-on-activity-levels-and-leg-health-in-commercial-broiler-chickens/BCEA89CAEB95566593B9DC5E5FBE756C">adjusting their lighting</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159117303489?casa_token=R0d1IOfG9QwAAAAA:awiAJ18ysmuwH8fqLX8biTf-DO6L9JHeyM06sRjrcrJ10IaGEiAgt66kKC5ZeDW3WOmQY1Fz-wU">improving the design of perches</a> or <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0259333">seeing how different breeds compare</a>. With so many animals per house, it makes sense to consider how any change affects the flock as a whole.</p>
<p>Thinking about broilers as a group also makes sense because they are considered to be a pretty homogeneous bunch. One effect of selectively breeding these animals to maximise how much meat they produce is that they all reach slaughter weight at the same time and all look very similar. So, short of dispatching a student with very good eyesight to follow a single chicken around for weeks, monitoring an individual broiler under commercial conditions is impossible.</p>
<p>Researchers get around this by either monitoring 100 birds and assuming they represent the 28,000 or keeping 100 broilers in a pen, applying a change to them and hoping it is similar enough to commercial conditions to get valid results. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Inside a large barn with overhead lights, rows of feeders and chickens." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526001/original/file-20230512-23549-50hj2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526001/original/file-20230512-23549-50hj2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526001/original/file-20230512-23549-50hj2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526001/original/file-20230512-23549-50hj2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526001/original/file-20230512-23549-50hj2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526001/original/file-20230512-23549-50hj2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526001/original/file-20230512-23549-50hj2p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A typical broiler shed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://elements.envato.com/small-chickens-76RUCLM">Sebastian_Studio</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But what if we want to know how <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-34149-0">individual broilers experience their environment</a>? My colleagues and I in the Animal Welfare Unit at Queen’s University Belfast turned to developments in indoor tracking technology for help. Along with Icelandic software company Locatify, we have been working to adapt a commercial system that can show where individual chickens are in the house in real-time. By attaching backpacks to chickens, we discovered just how different each bird is – and it could help us learn to meet their needs better.</p>
<h2>Chicken backpacks</h2>
<p>The ultra-wideband tags we used to monitor the movements of the chickens are usually found tracking forklifts in warehouses or attached to lanyards to track people as they move around offices or museums. </p>
<p>Ultra-wideband is a radio technology that works by recording how long it takes for a signal to move from the transmitter (or tag) to a receiver. This data can be used to identify the object’s position to within 30cm. </p>
<p>Crucially, the tags were small enough that they could be placed inside specially designed backpacks for chickens to carry over several weeks. The system recorded their location and movement during this time, giving a clear view of how they used the house. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526002/original/file-20230512-23633-90trgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A chicken with a small, square wallet on its back." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526002/original/file-20230512-23633-90trgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526002/original/file-20230512-23633-90trgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=719&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526002/original/file-20230512-23633-90trgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=719&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526002/original/file-20230512-23633-90trgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=719&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526002/original/file-20230512-23633-90trgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526002/original/file-20230512-23633-90trgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526002/original/file-20230512-23633-90trgr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A chicken with the tracking tag in a small, square backpack.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-34149-0">Baxter & O'Connell (2023)/Scientific Reports</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When I explained this concept to one of the farmers, he waved an arm towards one corner of the house and told me he was certain he saw the same chicken in that corner every morning. Another farmer was convinced they roamed around as they pleased, using the whole house. </p>
<p>It turns out they were both right. </p>
<p>We were surprised to find that, despite how homogeneous the chickens and their environments are, there were still significant differences between their movement patterns. We followed 17 chickens in our first trial with the new tracking system and, while one spent the majority of its time within 10 metres of the area I originally tagged it in, another visited over 97% of the house across a week. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A heat map showing two separate patterns of movement." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526003/original/file-20230512-23549-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526003/original/file-20230512-23549-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526003/original/file-20230512-23549-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526003/original/file-20230512-23549-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=285&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526003/original/file-20230512-23549-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526003/original/file-20230512-23549-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526003/original/file-20230512-23549-o4s9gt.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How two tagged broilers moved around the house during one week.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-34149-0">Baxter & O'Connell (2023)/Scientific Reports</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We got another chance to see whether chickens really preferred one bit of the house to another when we penned and then released the tagged birds after the initial observation week. We wanted to see whether the chickens would return to the area we had collected them from, and a few did. Three out of nine chickens collected from the back of the house made their way back there within 24 hours. But five never returned to those original spots for the rest of the production cycle. </p>
<h2>Variety is the spice of life</h2>
<p>So why was there so much variation? There are a few obvious influences on broiler movement that we looked at first. Using one of the two methods outlined above, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00439339.2019.1680025">many studies</a> have found that heavier birds, older birds and those with leg issues are significantly less active. We struggled to match any of these issues conclusively with our tagged broilers. </p>
<p>The two heaviest broilers did roam around the house the least, but a number of lighter birds used less space than heavier ones. Our one lame tagged broiler was recorded in 69% of the house, while a lighter broiler with a better gait occupied 43%. We did see less activity as birds aged, but even this was not predictable and depended on the individual. </p>
<p>We couldn’t even nail down a link between space use and activity, meaning that broilers exploring less of the house were moving around in their area as much as broilers using a larger amount of space.</p>
<p>Although all of this didn’t produce the neat graphs I was hoping for, it did suggest that perhaps broilers aren’t as homogeneous as we thought. </p>
<p>Like most animals, it makes sense that chicken behaviour is influenced by each individual’s personality traits. Perhaps broilers that are bolder are more likely to explore the house in detail. Are more fearful chickens more likely to be startled by farm staff or other birds and so keep moving around? Do some chickens have better spatial awareness than others? Are some more likely to form social bonds than others?</p>
<p>We hope to continue using this tracking technology to delve deeper into why particular broilers use space the way they do – and what changes can be made to create the best possible environment for the group and for the individual.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204376/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mary Baxter receives funding from British Poultry Science Ltd and Moy Park Ltd. </span></em></p>Tracking data suggests individual chickens have very different movement patterns.Mary Baxter, Research Fellow in Animal Welfare, Queen's University BelfastLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2075142023-06-13T22:11:47Z2023-06-13T22:11:47ZLight pollution is taking the sparkle out of glow-worm mating<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531628/original/file-20230613-19-yocc54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5283%2C3519&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Female glow-worms attract males with a chemical reaction in their abdomen.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/closeup-shot-lampyris-noctiluca-glowworm-on-2010347432">Wirestock Creators/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The invention of electric light has extended our lives deeper into the night: street lamps help us travel more safely outdoors, while lighting indoors lets us work and play for longer. Entire stadiums are drenched in light so that people can watch sport at night. Even your garden may be lit up to accentuate its finer features.</p>
<p>Light generated outside of the natural cycle of the sun and moon can have unwanted effects, however, and is actually a form of pollution. Like other kinds, light pollution can harm animals, particularly nocturnal ones. Some predators which would otherwise turn in for the day are instead now choosing to <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0216">hunt after dusk</a> and disrupting entire food webs.</p>
<p>Artificial light at night can have particularly severe consequences for insects. For example, large numbers of moths distracted by the allure of street lighting were discovered to have been neglecting their nocturnal pollinating duties according to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.13371">one study</a>, with potentially severe consequences for the wider ecosystem.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fatal-attraction-how-street-lights-prevent-moths-from-pollinating-60331">Fatal attraction: how street lights prevent moths from pollinating</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>How some insects are responding to the sudden brightening of their night-time habitat is still poorly understood. Common glow-worms (<em>Lampyris noctiluca</em>) are another nocturnal insect and they use bioluminescent signalling during mating. Female glow-worms stay put and use a chemical reaction to produce green bioluminescence in their abdomen, which attracts flying males.</p>
<p>Several <a href="https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.229146">field studies</a> have shown that white light similar to that produced by modern LED street lighting can reduce the numbers of males that manage to find females. My research team and I wanted to find out what’s going on, so we brought <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/226/11/jeb245760/313487/Artificial-light-impairs-local-attraction-to">glow-worm mating into the lab</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A residential street with a row of lamp posts shining white light." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531662/original/file-20230613-29-hngfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531662/original/file-20230613-29-hngfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531662/original/file-20230613-29-hngfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531662/original/file-20230613-29-hngfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531662/original/file-20230613-29-hngfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531662/original/file-20230613-29-hngfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531662/original/file-20230613-29-hngfs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">White-light LEDS are replacing older lamps in many areas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/small-residential-street-modern-led-lights-782091265">Milan Noga/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Wherefore art thou?</h2>
<p>We collected male glow-worms from a meadow near our laboratory. Back in the lab, we transferred each male to a Y-shaped maze in the dark. One arm of the maze contained a green LED that acted as a dummy female. Once the LED was turned on, males typically hurried towards the glow. We then switched on a light that mimicked artificial lighting at night and repeated the experiment. </p>
<p>In darkness, the males could easily find the dummy female. But at the dimmest level of white light we used, which is roughly equivalent to street lighting, just 70% of males found the green LED. This dropped to 21% at the brightest light levels, which equates to the lighting used to illuminate monuments in town squares and parks.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531588/original/file-20230613-25-u9zbno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A composite image of a glow-worm on wood in bright light and one of a green, luminous abdomen in the dark." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531588/original/file-20230613-25-u9zbno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531588/original/file-20230613-25-u9zbno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531588/original/file-20230613-25-u9zbno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531588/original/file-20230613-25-u9zbno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531588/original/file-20230613-25-u9zbno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531588/original/file-20230613-25-u9zbno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531588/original/file-20230613-25-u9zbno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Not so alluring: a female glow worm lit by a camera flash (left) and in the dark (right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeremy Niven</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Monitoring male glow-worms in the Y-maze allowed us to examine their behaviour in detail. White light increased the time they took to reach the dummy female: males in darkness took around 48 seconds and about a minute at the lowest level of white light. </p>
<h2>Blinded by the light</h2>
<p>We also noticed that the males lingered before entering one of the arms when they were exposed to white light. These males spent just 32 seconds on average in the base of the Y-maze in darkness, but this increased to 81 seconds in the brightest white light. </p>
<p>This hesitance may be because the glow-worms were dazzled. The insects retracted their head and compound eyes beneath a shield-like structure on their head when they were exposed to white light. In darkness, the males kept their head beneath the eye shield for just 0.5% of a trial’s duration – this rose to 25% in white light. More than half of the males kept their head shielded throughout the lit trials. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A beetle on the stem of a plant." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531633/original/file-20230613-21-358kwd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531633/original/file-20230613-21-358kwd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531633/original/file-20230613-21-358kwd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531633/original/file-20230613-21-358kwd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531633/original/file-20230613-21-358kwd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531633/original/file-20230613-21-358kwd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531633/original/file-20230613-21-358kwd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">White light delayed the advances of male glow-worms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lampyris_noctiluca#/media/File:Lampyridae_-_Lampyris_noctiluca.JPG">Hectonichus/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We think the head shield acts like a pair of sunglasses, reducing how much light reaches the eyes. This may not be enough to protect them from the effects of the white light though, as males with their head retracted seemed far less likely to approach a dummy female. This suggests that artificial lighting at night could prevent a male from finding females, not only by making a potential mate’s bioluminescent signal harder to detect, but also by stunning them into stasis.</p>
<p>These sorts of detailed experiments into insect behaviour help us understand what glow-worms go through as a result of artificial lighting at night, complementing ecological studies that have been done in the field. Both lines of evidence tell us that reducing light pollution – by installing covers on street lights or changing the wavelengths of light they emit – can help insects go about their lives at night as we continue to go about ours.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremy Niven receives funding from UKRI (BBSRC). </span></em></p>Artificial light is making it harder for male glow-worms to find bioluminescent females.Jeremy Niven, Professor of Zoology (Evolution, Behaviour and Environment), University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1868752023-06-13T15:20:24Z2023-06-13T15:20:24ZOf mice and matriarchs: the female-led societies of the animal kingdom<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531349/original/file-20230612-19-2mtv89.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=52%2C69%2C5767%2C3560&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Meerkats live in matriarchal groups</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/three-suricate-standing-shortest-tallest-guarding-1454390834">Jason Boyce/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Queen Elizabeth II’s record-breaking long reign was exceptional in many ways - not least because England has been ruled by men for most of the last thousand years. Until recently, the crown was passed to the monarch’s eldest son and daughters were married off to royals in other countries.</p>
<p>But in most other social mammals, females commonly remain and breed in their birth groups, inheriting the status and territory of their mothers while sons <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(80)80103-5">leave to find unrelated partners elsewhere</a>. Social relationships between resident females vary but are often supportive. For example in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03797.x">African elephants</a>, females assemble in family groups and older females are usually dominant over younger ones.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A herd of elephant walk towards the camera with all of them moving their trunks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/486719/original/file-20220927-18-eelpht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/486719/original/file-20220927-18-eelpht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486719/original/file-20220927-18-eelpht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486719/original/file-20220927-18-eelpht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486719/original/file-20220927-18-eelpht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486719/original/file-20220927-18-eelpht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486719/original/file-20220927-18-eelpht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This family of elephants lives in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/herd-elephant-walk-towards-camera-all-215864620">Jonathan Pledger/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S000334720500312X?via%3Dihub">Overt competition is rare</a> and relationships between matriarchs and younger females are relaxed and supportive. Elephant matriarchs act as <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep27213">reservoirs of information</a> about where to find food and water and their presence is <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1057895">particularly important</a> in times of famine or drought.</p>
<p>Where species live in larger groups that include members of several families, as in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2009.0118">yellow baboons</a> and <a href="https://rep.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/rep/108/2/jrf_108_2_010.xml">spotted hyenas</a> competition for status and resources can be more common and females often support close relatives in clashes with other families. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Yellow baboon female sitting with her baby in Liwonde national park, Malawi" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/486720/original/file-20220927-14-kfwv23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/486720/original/file-20220927-14-kfwv23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486720/original/file-20220927-14-kfwv23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486720/original/file-20220927-14-kfwv23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486720/original/file-20220927-14-kfwv23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486720/original/file-20220927-14-kfwv23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/486720/original/file-20220927-14-kfwv23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=528&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Female yellow baboons are loyal to their closest relatives.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/yellow-baboon-female-sitting-her-baby-2084970610">Tukio/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Daughters frequently inherit their mother’s social rank. All members of some families may be consistently dominant to others, often enjoying higher breeding success and survival as a result. </p>
<h2>Murderous mothers</h2>
<p>But females aren’t always tolerant or supportive. In <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2000.1631">the meerkats that I have studied</a> in the Kalahari Desert in southern Africa for the last 30 years, one dominant female <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05386">monopolises breeding in each group</a>, producing up to three litters a year for up to ten years. Their daughters and sons <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11161200/">initially remain in their mother’s group</a> and help to feed and protect their younger siblings.</p>
<p>Queens go out of their way to prevent their daughters from breeding successfully. Early in my career, I was astonished to see one of my favourite meerkat queens emerge with blood on her muzzle from her group’s sleeping burrow, where her eldest daughter had just given birth. </p>
<p>This meerkat queen was pregnant at the time. She went back down and soon emerged with a dead pup that was still warm – then returned and brought up three more pups that she had just killed. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1998.0281">My team’s later work</a> showed that one of the most common causes of pup death was infanticide by pregnant females and <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-gb/Mammal+Societies-p-9781119095323">studies of several other social mammals</a> have revealed similar trends. </p>
<p>Killing your own grandchildren may not sound like a recipe for evolutionary success, but it often makes sense for pregnant female meerkats. If groups can only rear a small number of pups, queens will increase their genetic contributions to future generations if they suppress pups that will compete with their own offspring. </p>
<p>Daughters share 50% of their mother’s genes while grandchiLdren only share 25%, so it is in the queen’s best interests to make sure that their groups raise their daughters rather than their granddaughters.</p>
<p>When the daughters of meerkat queens are three to four years old, they become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1998.0281">potential rivals to the queen</a> and she <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05386">evicts them from her group</a>. As members of other meerkat groups don’t allow emigrating females to join them, evicted females either found new groups with wandering males or (commonly) die in the attempt.</p>
<p>When a queen eventually dies, the other females in her group fight to inherit her position. The oldest and heaviest female usually wins, taking over the queen’s status, breeding role and territory before starting to evict her sisters. </p>
<h2>Walkabout sons</h2>
<p>And what about the queen’s sons? In most mammals, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2012.05565.x">mating with a close relative</a> creates weaker and less healthy babies and reduces the breeding success of females. So female meerkats avoid mating with their sons, brothers and other relatives.</p>
<p>Males are usually less particular about who they mate with because they do not pay the same costs of raising young. However, where the females in their group are relatives and won’t mate with them, they need to leave their birth groups to find willing partners. </p>
<p>Unlike females, male meerkats voluntarily go walkabout, either replacing males in other groups or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12918">shacking up with evicted females</a> and attempting to found new groups. A similar tendency for females to avoid breeding with close relatives and for males to leave their birth groups to find willing partners elsewhere is common in many other mammals - including many species where males are substantially larger and stronger than females, like lions and baboons.</p>
<h2>Contrasts in succession</h2>
<p>But females don’t always stay at home - and males don’t always wander. There are some mammals where the situation is reversed. These include a number of bats, horses, monkeys - and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05232.x">all three African apes</a>. For example, female gorillas often leave their birth groups to breed in other groups while males may stay and breed there, inheriting the breeding position from their fathers.</p>
<p>A feature of many these species is that resident breeding males or groups of related males hold their positions for relatively long periods – longer than the age at which most females reach sexual maturity. So one explanation is that females need to leave their birth groups to find unrelated breeding partners. Males in these species don’t need to leave as immigrant females willingly mate with them.</p>
<p>A preference for male succession is widespread in many human societies and is often attributed to the need for monarchs to be battle leaders and the greater strength and fighting ability of males. </p>
<p>However, African apes are our closest living relatives and they all form groups where females leave but males remain. This suggests dispersing females and resident males may have been the ancestral norm in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.21300">hominin societies</a> too. If so, it may be because females dispersed to avoid inbreeding, rather than because of differences in strength and fighting prowess between the sexes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186875/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Clutton Brock's research on meerkats is funded by the European Research Council and was previously supported by Natural Environment Research Council, UK. I am a member of Cambridge University, an affiliate of the University of Pretoria, and a Fellow of the Royal Society UK. </span></em></p>If you think relationships between male and female animals are simple, it’s time to have a rethink.Tim Clutton Brock, Professor of zoology, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.