tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca-fr/topics/ice-skating-9006/articlesIce skating – La Conversation2024-03-20T17:58:18Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2260472024-03-20T17:58:18Z2024-03-20T17:58:18ZThe sticking point: why physicists are still struggling to understand ice’s capacity to adhere and become slippery<p>Whether in the form of frost or a smooth, transparent ice cube, ice adheres spontaneously and even quite strongly to many solid surfaces. However, as any careless person who has skidded on winter sidewalk can testify, ice can also be very slippery. In fact, ice can be both sticky <em>and</em> slippery.</p>
<p>This versatility has long puzzled scientists. To begin with, they have been attempting to crack the secret behind ice’s slipperiness for more than 150 years. Among them have been famous physicists such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Thomson-Baron-Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Michael-Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>. The latter, better known for his work in electromagnetism, was the first to envisage the presence of a thin layer of liquid water covering ice, even well below 0°C. At the time, he reasoned that the contact of a solid object against the surface layer prompted it to act as a lubricant, greatly reducing friction on the ice. The existence of this liquid layer was confirmed by experiment more than a century later.</p>
<h2>A slippery matter</h2>
<p>To answer the question “Why is ice slippery?” we first need to understand how this thin layer of liquid water onto the frozen surface has come into being.</p>
<p>As water is denser in its liquid phase than in its icy state, it was long thought that the melting of the ice surface was linked to <a href="https://www.aldebaran.cz/bulletin/2016_05/2005_Rosenberg.pdf">excess pressure</a> – for example, due to the weight of the skater on the small surface area lying beneath her or his skates. By compressing the ice further, the skater would cause it to melt, rendering it liquid and slippery. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.aldebaran.cz/bulletin/2016_05/2005_Rosenberg.pdf">Others believe</a> heat is released by friction as the object moves over the ice, causing the surface to melt. Much as when you rub your hands together to warm them, when you rub one solid against another, they heat up.</p>
<p>However, these two mechanisms do not explain why ice remains slippery below -20°C. At such temperatures, it would take considerable pressure – around 500 times that exerted by an ice skate – to cause it to melt.</p>
<p>In the 1960s, more than a century after Faraday, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14786436308211151">J.W. Telford and J.S. Turner slowly pulled a wire through “cold” ice</a> (below -20°C) to reveal that it remained slippery down to -35°C, at which point the heat released by friction no longer sufficed to melt the ice.</p>
<p>It was only about a century after Faraday’s intuition that we were able to demonstrate this liquid layer indirectly, by measuring a value specific to the surface and not the volume, which is quite comparable to that of liquid water.</p>
<p>Techniques involving proton or X-ray scattering, usually used to study the structure of crystals, have made it possible to estimate the thickness at between one and several hundred nanometres. Some studies have even suggested that this thickness diverges as the temperature approaches 0°C.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582939/original/file-20240319-9954-q4sh2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582939/original/file-20240319-9954-q4sh2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582939/original/file-20240319-9954-q4sh2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582939/original/file-20240319-9954-q4sh2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582939/original/file-20240319-9954-q4sh2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=386&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582939/original/file-20240319-9954-q4sh2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582939/original/file-20240319-9954-q4sh2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582939/original/file-20240319-9954-q4sh2u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Modelling of the structure of ice where we can see the structural disorder specific to liquids over a thickness of one to two molecules. Deeper into the ice, we find the ordered (crystalline) structure of ice.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Philippe Brunet, adapted from T. Ikeda-Fukazawa and K. Kawamura</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More recently, simulations have made it possible to <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/jcp/article-abstract/120/3/1395/186402/Molecular-dynamics-studies-of-surface-of-ice-Ih">better represent the structure of this liquid layer</a>. Subsequently, this layer was referred to as “pseudo-liquid” or “quasi-liquid” to differentiate it from the true liquid phase. Such theoretical work has shown that in this surface layer, the molecules are able to move more freely, confirming its role as a lubricant. Nevertheless, the molecular structure is not exactly the same as that of liquid water, which has consequences for the mechanical properties of this pseudo-liquid layer.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jpclett.8b01188">recent study</a> showed a strong correlation between the individual mobility of the molecules and the macroscopic coefficient of friction (the lower the coefficient, the easier it is to glide), suggesting that it is not so much the thickness of the layer that matters for gliding but rather the individual movement of the molecules. The minimum value of the coefficient of friction is measured at -7°C, known as the optimal temperature for skiers and skaters.</p>
<p><a href="https://journals.aps.org/prx/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevX.9.041025">Other research</a> went to the heart of the pseudo-liquid layer using a nano-probe, the tip of an atomic force microscope. By vibrating this tip connected to an extremely precise force sensor, measuring the friction between the tip and the liquid in the layer, the authors measured that this liquid can be 50 times more viscous than liquid water, and that it also possesses elasticity (a property more associated with the solid state). This viscosity is similar to that of your edible oils, making the pseudo-liquid layer an excellent lubricant.</p>
<p>To sum up: ice slips because a liquid layer of about 1 to 100 nanometres thick forms on its surface. Its mechanical properties (viscosity, elasticity), which are different from those of liquid water, and the mobility of the molecules that make it up, which is much greater than that of solid ice, give it its exceptional lubricating properties.</p>
<h2>Why does ice stick?</h2>
<p>Ice’s stickiness, however, continues to confound scientists, notwithstanding 70 years of experiments. During the latter, scientists have tended to make use of a rather simple kit: a piston connected to force sensor pushes a block of ice, itself stuck to a solid object. When the ice cube breaks away, the force recorded by the sensor suddenly becomes zero, and the maximum value before this breakaway is measured. But these results have shown sometimes contradictory trends, and a fairly wide dispersion.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254214058_Ice_Adhesion_-Theory_Measurements_and_Countermeasures">recent review</a> on the subject concluded that the adhesion force of ice </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“depends not only on the chemical composition, surface roughness, mechanical and thermal properties of the substrate [but] also depends critically on the temperature and even on the experimental device for measuring adhesion”.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>To be a little more precise, when we explore the literature on the subject over the last 60 years, we note that the strength with which ice sticks to a solid depends strongly on temperature in a range between -20°C and 0°C (ice sticks harder to a colder solid). As for the role of surface roughness, it is ambivalent: for some solids (particularly metals), ice sticks more strongly to a rougher substrate, whereas on some plastics it’s the other way round…</p>
<p>Finally, at a chemical level, liquid water may be able spread out better on some surfaces than others. For example, water spreads very well on clean glass, while some surfaces are hydrophobic, such as Teflon.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582940/original/file-20240319-9877-i4f5th.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582940/original/file-20240319-9877-i4f5th.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582940/original/file-20240319-9877-i4f5th.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=170&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582940/original/file-20240319-9877-i4f5th.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=170&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582940/original/file-20240319-9877-i4f5th.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=170&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582940/original/file-20240319-9877-i4f5th.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=214&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582940/original/file-20240319-9877-i4f5th.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=214&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582940/original/file-20240319-9877-i4f5th.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=214&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ice adheres better to a surface that isn’t hydrophobic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Philippe Brunet</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/am1006035">recent study</a> has shown that the more water in its liquid state spreads over the surface of a solid, the more ice will adhere to this solid. Conversely, a surface with little affinity for liquid water will also have little adhesion for ice.</p>
<p>Why this relationship between the spread of water and the adhesion of ice? First, for ice to adhere to a cold solid, water in its liquid state must have been able to freeze on contact with the solid. Here’s a simple experiment that anyone can do:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Place a metal plate in the freezer or in your ice cube tray.</p></li>
<li><p>Take an ice cube and place it on the plate without taking the whole thing out of the freezer: it won’t stick.</p></li>
<li><p>Take another ice cube and let it melt slightly at room temperature (by taking it out of the freezer for a few seconds, for example), then place it on the cold plate. This time it sticks!</p></li>
</ol>
<p>What can we conclude? Intuitively, the greater the affinity of the water for the surface, the more easily the liquid water seeps into the roughness and gaps on the surface of the solid, increasing the contact surface between it and the ice after solidification, thus consolidating the adhesion. This experiment also demonstrates the role of liquid water as an adhesive. When you use a conventional adhesive – say, liquid glue – to join two parts together, it is when the parts solidify (by the evaporation of a solvent in the glue) that the strong, definitive adhesion takes place. The same thing happens when liquid water cools on contact with a cold solid and solidifies. The layer of frozen water then plays the role of one of the solids.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568665/original/file-20240110-20-a7b0za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568665/original/file-20240110-20-a7b0za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568665/original/file-20240110-20-a7b0za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568665/original/file-20240110-20-a7b0za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=454&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568665/original/file-20240110-20-a7b0za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568665/original/file-20240110-20-a7b0za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568665/original/file-20240110-20-a7b0za.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=571&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An ice cube stuck to a cold metal bar (taken out of the freezer).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Philippe Brunet</span>, <span class="license">Fourni par l'auteur</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How can the ice be made less adhesive?</h2>
<p>We can’t explain ice adhesion in detail, but we can try to reduce its strength.
Anti-stick coatings do this by spreading chemical microstructures onto the substrate in a bid to keep water on top of them. The hitch is that water can also fall in within those structures in instances where the surface shows defects. More promising solutions involve spreading a thin layer of oil or a hydrogel over the surface, but there are still problems with their stability over large areas.</p>
<p>Another approach is to use active de-icing methods. One such technique is surface ultrasound, which generates “micro-earthquakes” on the solid surface and can cause the ice to break away. We are currently studying this method in the MSC laboratory.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226047/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philippe Brunet has received funding from the French National Research Agency (ANR).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pierre-Brice Bintein ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>How can the same material, ice, have diametrically different physical properties - sticking and sliding?Philippe Brunet, Directeur de recherches CNRS, Docteur en physique, HdR, Université Paris CitéPierre-Brice Bintein, Docteur en sciences physiques, Université Paris CitéLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2024822023-04-16T12:19:07Z2023-04-16T12:19:07ZTo change for the better, Canadian sport needs leadership from the bottom up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520063/original/file-20230410-7479-agkvcs.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=84%2C9%2C6145%2C4240&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Efforts are underway to clean up sport in Canada, but if sporting bodies and athletes want to prevent abuse from occurring, we must re-engineer the structures, policies and practices that lead to abuse in the first place.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Frank Gunn</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2023/jan/27/abuse-canada-sport-inquiry-hockey-gymnastics-soccer">Canadian sport</a> has been rocked by a series of scandals in recent years. National sporting bodies that govern <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/bobsleigh-canada-skeleton-athlete-safety-racial-abuse-1.6383602">bobsleigh and skeleton</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/winter/alpine-skiing/sexual-assault-victims-suing-alpine-canada-1.4942675">alpine skiing</a>, <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/former-members-of-canada-s-national-water-polo-team-have-filed-a-5-5m-lawsuit-against-the-federation-alleging-abuse-1.6128677">water polo</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/summer/boxing/boxing-canada-resignation-investigation-1.6440793">boxing</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/gymnastics-canada-resignation-moss-1.6731050">gymnastics</a>, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-national-synchronized-swimming-program-overhauls-its-safety-policies/">artistic swimming</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/soccer/canada-soccer-women-pay-equity-parliament-1.6773010#:%7E:text=The%20governing%20body%20says%20the,competing%20and%20representing%20our%20country.%22">soccer</a>, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-hockey-canada-says-it-paid-out-76-million-worth-of-settlements-with/">hockey</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/rugby/rugby-sevens-women-let-down-rugby-canada-bullying-harrassment-policy-1.6005901">rugby</a> and <a href="https://www.sportsnet.ca/olympics/article/report-reveals-toxic-culture-within-rowing-canadas-high-performance-program/">rowing</a> have all faced major criticism for abuse, neglect and discrimination.</p>
<p>University sport teams have also faced their share of scandals including <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/4406312/harassment-lawsuit-university-lethbridge-hockey-pronghorns/">Lethbridge</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/st-fx-women-s-basketball-coach-suspended-1.5013056">St. Francis Xavier</a>, <a href="https://windsor.ctvnews.ca/lancer-hockey-coach-faces-allegations-of-verbal-abuse-from-players-1.4351228">Windsor</a>, <a href="https://rowingcanada.org/uploads/2021/04/Full-Written-Decision-with-Reasons-on-Complaints-Against-Barney-Williams.pdf">Victoria</a> and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/former-u-of-g-track-coach-accused-of-harassment-sexual-harassment-athletics-canada-says-1.5449370">Guelph</a>. And <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/amateur-sport-abuse-local-clubs-1.5006510">amateur clubs</a> <a href="https://macleans.ca/longforms/gymnastics-abuse-scandal-canada/">aren’t immune</a> either.</p>
<p>Athletes often recount how, at the very least, sport built their character and at the very most, saved their lives. But currently, Canadian sport itself needs rebuilding.</p>
<h2>Imbalance of power</h2>
<p><a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/9239000/sport-abuse-women-study-hockey-canada/">Efforts are underway</a> to clean up sport in Canada, but if sporting bodies and athletes want to prevent abuse from occurring, we must re-engineer the structures, policies and practices that lead to abuse in the first place.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-clean-up-hockey-canada-financial-transparency-is-a-must-192705">To clean up Hockey Canada, financial transparency is a must</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black bobsleigh on the ice with a red maple leaf and the word Canada on it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520298/original/file-20230411-797-d5321z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Several Canadian sporting bodies have been rocked by a series of scandals in recent years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Oksana Dzadan)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the core of abuse is an <a href="https://calgaryjournal.ca/2018/03/06/sexual-abuse-in-sports-calgary-professor-explains-power-dynamics-between-elite-athletes-and-those-in-power-2/">imbalance of power</a> where one person, group or body controls all the resources, decision-making and information. </p>
<p>Total control can only be achieved through a lack of accountability, and examples exist at all levels in Canada:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>Hockey Canada lacked a system of accountability to members, professional principles, or an overarching governing body. This led to their board and CEO controlling the money, information and decision-making and quickly devolved into <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/hockey-canada-funding-sex-assault-1.6795229">corruption, and protectionism</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>The same lack of accountability exists at university level sport which can lead to a toxic mix of <a href="https://doi.org/10.15763/issn.2376-5267.2020.1.8.34-54">intergroup dynamics and groupthink</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>At the club level, volunteer burnout and resource scarcity causes a gap in oversight, accountability and transparency and leads to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.03.001">an environment that tolerates or even rewards abuse</a>.</p></li>
<li><p>A team without strong <a href="https://athletescan.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/atheletescan_ar_guide_book_vf.pdf">athlete representation</a>, transparent and independent avenues for feedback, or powerful coaches or sport leaders can foster <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.05.007">susceptible followers</a> who soon become colluders, conformers or abusers.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Most of the abuse issues in Canadian sport stem from <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/winter/canadian-bobsleigh-skeleton-athletes-calls-to-sports-minister-st-onge-1.6549392">failures of leadership</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L6EGvl8-nA4">governance</a>, and most of the change has been driven by athlete <a href="https://www.gymnasts4changecanada.com/">movements</a> and <a href="https://athletescan.ca/">associations</a>, <a href="https://www.tsn.ca/rick-westhead-1.88451">journalists</a>, <a href="https://www.thesheldonkennedyshow.com/podcast/episode-2/">academics</a> and <a href="https://globalnews.ca/news/5179352/whitecaps-fan-groups-plan-walkout-abuse-allegations/">fans</a>. The most productive and promising source of positive change in sport continues to come from the bottom up.</p>
<h2>Change from the bottom up</h2>
<p>A great deal of change has been sparked by this bottom-up movement including a new <a href="https://sportintegritycommissioner.ca/files/UCCMS-v6.0-20220531.pdf">Universal Code of Conduct</a>, an independent <a href="https://sportintegritycommissioner.ca/">Office of the Sport Integrity Commissioner</a> and a more trauma-informed <a href="https://sportintegritycommissioner.ca/osic-processes">complaint process</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cces.ca/true-sport">True Sport</a> is a bottom-up initiative by the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport designed to help Canadians reclaim the promise of sport. Canadian academics have <a href="https://abuse-free-sport.ca/symposium">led the way</a> in understanding abuse problems in sport. Yet, sport in Canada is currently caught in a <a href="https://www.aicd.com.au/corporate-governance-sectors/types/sports/morals-or-medals-governance-drugs-and-sport.html">hierarchical system</a> that fosters power imbalance and thus perpetuates the abuse at all levels.</p>
<p><a href="https://sportandsociety.com/journal/awards">Our research</a> at Royal Roads University highlights the need for <a href="https://viurrspace.ca/bitstream/handle/10613/25708/WatchamRoy_royalroads_1313O_10816.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">accountability frameworks</a>, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/2152-7857/CGP/v12i02/81-104">power-balanced organizational structures</a> and processes, and <a href="https://viurrspace.ca/handle/10613/26013">educational programming</a> for all sport participants. </p>
<p>While removing bad apples from the barrel is necessary, we must then refine the barrel itself. Every sport participant has the power to build a safe, quality, fun and exciting sport system in Canada.</p>
<p>Sport leaders can start by learning from sport itself. At its heart, sport is a collaborative endeavour for the mutual benefit of all. The word compete is <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/compete">derived from the Latin <em>competere</em></a> which means strive together. </p>
<p>Sport can build great people, communities and nations. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2U7ZgCMLjHc">Nelson Mandela</a> described sport as a tool against racism:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y1-7w-bJCtY">Sport has the power to change the world</a>. It has the power to inspire. It has the power to unite people in a way that little else does… It laughs in the face of all types of discrimination.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The <a href="https://invictusgamesfoundation.org/">Invictus Games</a> were founded upon this principle of recovering from violence, rebuilding trust and regenerating hope with fellow athletes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A hockey player in a Canada shirt" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520064/original/file-20230410-26-h8jro5.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=561&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Every sport participant has the power to build a safe, quality, fun and exciting sport system in Canada.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jeff McIntos</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Inclusive environment</h2>
<p>Likewise, sport leaders at all levels can lean on these principles of sport to shape the sport environment in ways that balance power and ensure better experiences for all sport participants with the following strategies:</p>
<p>Language — State the purpose of sport verbally, visually, and structurally:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>A sport organization should be open to <a href="https://youtu.be/2kvlJiFbSh8?list=PL_F04p4cdLDlXQ2Zgq07f">all abilities</a> and for the sake of individual and community development.</p></li>
<li><p>Be guided by the values of equity, friendship, and integrity and reflect regularly on whether we are living these values fully.</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://youtu.be/CXvHVQcWz6k?list=PL_F04p4cdLDlXQ2Zgq07focUzst5HJI78&t=3790">Frame challenges as opportunities to make the team, club or system better</a> just as we do on the field or court.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Practice — Function in a way that honours everyone:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>There are multiple ways to participate in our sport.</p></li>
<li><p>The goal is for every sport participant to have an excellent experience.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Structures — Build an environment that promotes equity:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The CEO, head coach, or club manager, like a team captain, is a coordinator of activities and people — not the boss.</p></li>
<li><p>The <a href="https://youtu.be/3Z1H5kaUv34?list=PL_F04p4cdLDlXQ2Zgq07focUz">board’s role, like a coach</a>, is to set, support and monitor the standards of practice for the organization, not to run the race.</p></li>
<li><p>Forums, surveys and communication channels are pathways to question and learn together as a whole organization.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>We know from research on <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2022.823488">psychological safety</a> that a safe environment is crucial to excellent sport experiences. Psychological safety hinges on leadership and the ability to <a href="https://youtu.be/9WYsazDCwDo?t=6">foster an environment</a> where participants feel they belong and are safe to contribute, express ideas, learn, experiment and grow individually and collectively.</p>
<p>Cultural integrity, values alignment, or walking the talk of human and social development builds trust in the leaders and environment and gives people the safety and confidence to truly excel. </p>
<p>Canadians can reclaim sport by prioritizing individual and community development over dominance and control. This can be done at any level through our words, actions and structures. </p>
<p>By creating sport environments that actively welcome people, invite contribution, see failure and mistakes as learning opportunities, and provide avenues and opportunities to challenge the system as a whole, we will be true sport leaders.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202482/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Walinga receives funding from Royal Roads University, SSHRC, SDRCC and CAC.</span></em></p>Athletes often recount how, at the very least, sport built their character and at the very most, saved their lives. But currently, Canadian sport itself needs rebuilding.Jennifer Walinga, Professor, Communication and Culture, Royal Roads UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2006222023-03-16T19:57:32Z2023-03-16T19:57:32ZThe Rideau Canal Skateway: How can we promote resilience in the face of a changing climate?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515295/original/file-20230314-1765-t25qdd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=279%2C203%2C5363%2C3553&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Even if we achieve our global commitment to limit temperature increase to less than 2 C this century, climate change will continue to impact the culturally significant Rideau Canal Skateway.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://ncc-ccn.gc.ca/places/history-rideau-canal-skateway">Rideau Canal Skateway</a>, the 7.8 kilometre ice path winding through the Canadian capital city of Ottawa, is a <a href="https://www.pc.gc.ca/culture/spm-whs/sites-canada/sec02n">National Historic Site of Canada</a> and a <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1221">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>. </p>
<p>This winter, for the first time, the Rideau Canal Skateway <a href="https://ncc-ccn.gc.ca/news/ncc-efforts-to-open-the-rideau-canal-skateway-come-to-an-end">did not open</a>.</p>
<p>Although transforming the Rideau Canal waterway into the winter skateway — which typically welcomes more than 21,000 visitors on average per day — requires considerable <a href="https://ncc-ccn.gc.ca/blog/rideau-canal-behind-the-ice">engineering and logistical effort</a>, the ice cover growth is ultimately governed by the ambient environmental conditions.</p>
<p>Even if we achieve our <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/paris-agreement">global commitment to limit temperature increase to less than 2 C this century</a>, climate change will continue to impact this culturally significant Canadian heritage site. <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/ar6-syr/">Global warming is known to impact</a> our ecosystems, biodiversity, food security and infrastructure. </p>
<p>Recent studies have observed decreases in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.8068">seasonal duration</a> and area coverage of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0393-5">lake and river ice</a>, with long-term negative impacts projected for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2465">recreational facilities</a>.</p>
<p>And while the National Capital Commission (NCC) has been working towards advancing sustainable adaptation strategies that promote the resilience of such climate change-impacted areas, it needs to be supported with informed decision-making. Our research at Carleton University, in collaboration with the NCC, will establish an adaptive framework to support this strategy.</p>
<h2>Effects of the changing climate</h2>
<p>Since 1971, the average Rideau Canal Skateway season lasted 57 days. Over the past five seasons (2017-22) the average season length dropped down to 47 days. The longest season of 90 days took place in the winter of 1971-72, while the shortest season lasted 29 days in 2021-22. However, last winter, the full 7.8 kilometre stretch of the Skateway was accessible on opening day (Jan. 14, 2022) for the first time in over two decades.</p>
<p>This winter, the Rideau Canal Skateway <a href="https://ottawa.ctvnews.ca/rideau-canal-skateway-won-t-open-for-1st-time-in-53-year-history-1.6287966">never opened</a>. This can be attributed to warmer temperatures and twice the typical snowfall when compared with the climate normal from <a href="https://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html">1981-2010</a>. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, Ottawa-Gatineau’s Winterlude festival was delayed by one day due to <a href="https://www.pressreader.com/canada/ottawa-sun/20230205/281505050370569">extreme cold conditions</a> with a mean temperature of -26 C and average windchill of -34 C on Feb. 4, 2023. This was despite the region experiencing warmer than normal temperatures in 2022-23.</p>
<p>These erratic weather patterns, occurring due to climate change, may become a more significant factor affecting the season start and ice-building processes in the future.</p>
<h2>Sustainable development strategy</h2>
<p>The National Capital Commission, in collaboration with local municipalities and government agencies, established a <a href="https://ncc-ccn.gc.ca/our-plans/climate-change-adaptation#doc1">sustainable development strategy</a> to evaluate the risk of climate change effects on infrastructure and heritage buildings, natural resources and parks. </p>
<p>This adaptation strategy has three phases: 1) climate projections, 2) vulnerability and risk assessment and 3) adaptation strategy.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Winter in Ottawa." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515301/original/file-20230314-6289-ldh9c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/515301/original/file-20230314-6289-ldh9c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515301/original/file-20230314-6289-ldh9c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515301/original/file-20230314-6289-ldh9c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515301/original/file-20230314-6289-ldh9c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515301/original/file-20230314-6289-ldh9c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/515301/original/file-20230314-6289-ldh9c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In a high emission scenario, winters in the Ottawa region have been estimated to be five weeks shorter by 2050.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of the key findings of the first phase is that, in a high emission scenario, winters in the Ottawa region would be five weeks shorter by 2050 with 35 per cent fewer days below -10 C. The climate projections also estimated a decrease in annual snowfall by 20 per cent with an increase in freezing rain.</p>
<p>An outcome from the second phase was to address the climate hazards impacting infrastructure, heritage buildings, natural resources and parks, like the Rideau Canal Skateway, and advance possible adaptation strategies.</p>
<h2>Multi-disciplinary approach</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://ncc-ccn.gc.ca/blog/tackling-climate-change-on-the-rideau-canal-skateway">National Capital Commission</a> teamed up with <a href="https://newsroom.carleton.ca/story/rideau-canal-skating-changing-climate/">Carleton University</a> to develop an improved understanding of the climate-related hazards and find potential adaptation strategies to mitigate the effect of climate change and make the Rideau Canal Skateway more resilient.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://carleton.ca/geirg/about/climate-change-effects-rideau-canal-skateway/">multidisciplinary team</a> at Carleton has integrated researchers across the fields of physical geography, cryospheric science, civil and mechanical engineering and remote sensing. In collaboration with the NCC, we have begun a four-year research project with this goal in mind.</p>
<p>This project aims to:</p>
<p>1) improve our knowledge base on the physical environment of the Rideau Canal Skateway</p>
<p>2) use this data to simulate the effects of climate change projected forward over the next 10, 20 and 30 year periods</p>
<p>3) assess what makes the Skateway vulnerable to the effects of climate change</p>
<p>4) conduct pilot studies to evaluate possible adaptation strategies</p>
<p>5) refine and optimize the promising adaptation strategies that can help address the uncertain evolution of climate change in the future</p>
<p>We will explore what promotes ice growth at the beginning of the season when the environmental conditions are more favourable and the ice cover is too thin for supporting conventional equipment and techniques. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1601284163113742336"}"></div></p>
<p>The initial pilot studies will focus on the use of <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/ski-resorts-are-spending-big-on-snow-making-to-keep-ahead-of-climate-change-44e0931f">snow fans</a> or slush canons to promote ice growth (ice catching), reduced scale autonomous snow blowers (snow management) and heat exchangers, such as thermosyphons, that help cool the water below the ice (thermal management). </p>
<p>A dynamic pathway based on these studies will help the National Capital Commission to implement effective and sustainable adaptation strategies that maintain or improve the current levels of service for the next 30-year window.</p>
<h2>Broader view with global action</h2>
<p>The iconic significance of the Rideau Canal Skateway makes it an integral part of Ottawa’s cultural identity and our project aims to find climate change adaptation strategies to keep this intact.</p>
<p>Underpinning this research is the overarching need for a concerted <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange">global community</a> response to the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/services/environment/weather/climatechange/climate-plan/national-adaptation-strategy.html">challenges of climate change</a>. </p>
<p>Such challenges also present <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesfinancecouncil/2022/02/11/the-climate-fight-presents-massive-opportunity-for-businesses-investors/?sh=346331124055">opportunities</a> like economic growth and technology development in the energy transition market, which in turn has other benefits ranging from improved public health to job creation. Leveraging these benefits of <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/top-10-benefits-climate-action">climate action</a> can become the cornerstone of our climate change adaptation strategies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200622/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>As part of the NSERC Alliance grant, which leveraged funding from the National Capital Commisssion, the Principal Investigator Shawn Kenny consults with the National Capital Commission on the project outcomes to facilitate knowledge transfer and translation. </span></em></p>Erratic weather patterns occurring due to climate change may become a more significant factor affecting the season start and ice-building processes in the future.Shawn Kenny, Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1500292020-11-18T19:32:29Z2020-11-18T19:32:29ZWinter drownings may increase in northern countries as ice thins with climate change<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370149/original/file-20201118-15-m61hic.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=71%2C113%2C3922%2C2544&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Winter drowning rates are highest in countries with strong ice-fishing cultures and temperatures that hover near freezing.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every winter, the ice that forms on lakes, rivers and oceans, supports communities and culture. It provides <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/19/world/canada/ice-roads-ease-isolation-in-canadas-north-but-theyre-melting-too-soon.html">transportation across winter roads</a>, hunting and fishing, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.13020/3j5g-kc72">recreational activities</a>, such as <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-melting-ice-sculptures-warm-weather-harbin-winter-festival-climate-change-a8786436.html">lake ice festivals</a>, skating, <a href="https://www.si.com/nhl/2019/04/22/climate-change-canada-winter-sports-hockey-backyard-rinks">hockey</a> and ice fishing. </p>
<p>For many communities, ice cover had been stable and predictable for generations. But no ice-covered body of water is without risk. Falls through the ice are especially dangerous because the cold water temperature can lead to shock, which can rapidly lead to unconsciousness, irregular heartbeats and death. </p>
<p>An international interdisciplinary team investigated the effects of climate change on winter drownings across northern countries. We expected that there would be more drownings in warmer winters because climate change is leading to precarious ice cover. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241222">new study</a> documents over 4,000 winter drownings that occurred during the past 10-30 years in 10 countries, including Canada, United States, Finland, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, Russia, Italy, Germany and Japan. Alarmingly, Canada had the highest number of winter drownings each year. </p>
<h2>Increased drownings in warmer winters</h2>
<p>Winter drownings were more common in warmer winters for these northern countries, occurring five times more frequently when mean winter air temperatures approached 0 C. Generally, most drownings occurred when mean winter air temperatures were between -5 C and 0 C. The higher likelihood of extremely warm days and rain-on-snow events in warm winters contributes to thinner, weaker and less stable ice.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="people walking on a frozen lake with a danger 'thin ice' sign in the foreground" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370148/original/file-20201118-23-14e0jw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=57%2C74%2C3780%2C2480&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370148/original/file-20201118-23-14e0jw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370148/original/file-20201118-23-14e0jw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370148/original/file-20201118-23-14e0jw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370148/original/file-20201118-23-14e0jw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370148/original/file-20201118-23-14e0jw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370148/original/file-20201118-23-14e0jw4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">With climate change, temperatures are increasing most rapidly in the winter, but people aren’t adapting their behaviours.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The highest number of drowning events occurred at the beginning and end of winter when ice cover is most precarious. The dates on which ice forms and melts are most affected by climate change, such that warming temperatures lead to delayed ice formation, earlier ice break-up, thinner ice and increased freeze-thaw events. </p>
<p>In addition, the warmer weather and longer daylight hours of early spring draw more people outside, which increases the risk of drowning. In a changing climate, winter drownings will likely increase because temperatures are increasing most rapidly in winter, while human awareness and behaviours are not adapting sufficiently. </p>
<h2>Drowning risk factors</h2>
<p>Cultural factors may also influence winter drowning rates. For example, Indigenous communities in northern Canada and Alaska suffer the <a href="https://www.redcross.ca/crc/documents/3-3-4_ws_final_m2_english2006_04_19.pdf">highest rates of winter drowning</a> because of their dependence on ice cover for subsistence and travel, leading to long hours on the ice. Similarly, winter drowning rates are very high in Estonia and Latvia, partly as a result of a strong ice fishing culture and mean winter air temperatures just below 0 C. </p>
<p>On the other hand, winter drowning rates are close to zero in Germany and northern Italy where laws and regulations prohibit ice fishing and allow ice skating only when local authorities deem the ice to be safe. </p>
<p>We recommend using local cultural and traditional knowledge in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8433">dialogue with community stakeholders</a> to design and implement water safety programs, empowering communities with the capacity to adapt to the regional impacts of climate change. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman balances on a frozen river" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370151/original/file-20201118-23-1q9gv7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370151/original/file-20201118-23-1q9gv7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370151/original/file-20201118-23-1q9gv7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370151/original/file-20201118-23-1q9gv7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370151/original/file-20201118-23-1q9gv7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370151/original/file-20201118-23-1q9gv7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370151/original/file-20201118-23-1q9gv7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Alcohol can increase risk-taking behaviour on the ice.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sadly, children and young adults are at the highest risk of drowning. Kids under nine years old accounted for 44 per cent of drowning fatalities while playing on ice. Young adults between the ages of 15 to 29 had high rates of drowning when ice fishing or snowmobiling. </p>
<p>Alcohol consumption can further contribute to increased risk-taking behaviour on the ice. </p>
<h2>Reduce the risk of winter drowning</h2>
<p>This winter, more people will likely take part in winter outdoor activities because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Forecasts suggest a <a href="https://www.accuweather.com/en/winter-weather/accuweathers-2020-2021-canada-winter-forecast/830229">warmer and wetter winter</a> lies ahead for Ontario and Québec, which may yield unsafe ice conditions.</p>
<p>Safety equipment, such as ice picks, flotation devices and hypothermia protective clothing can help lower the risk of drowning. Integrating winter safety education into swimming lessons is an effective way to keep children from drowning.</p>
<p>Barbara Byers, the chief research officer of the <a href="https://www.lifesavingsociety.com/">Lifesaving Society</a> in Ontario, recommends evaluating the quality of the ice, and its type, before venturing onto it. Ice should be clear, hard and new. </p>
<p>“Avoid slushy ice; ice on or near moving water, like rivers and currents; ice that has thawed and refrozen; and layered or rotten ice caused by sudden temperature changes.”</p>
<p>Byers cautions people to look out for other factors that weaken or “rot” ice, such as snow on ice that acts as a blanket and prevents it from hardening, or pressure ridges formed by wind or current pressure. </p>
<p>“It is important to keep away from unfamiliar paths or unknown ice. Avoid travelling on ice at night. Never go on the ice alone. A buddy may be able to rescue you or go for help in case you get into difficulty,” said Byers. “No ice is without some risk. Minimize your risk.”</p>
<p><em>Simon R. Watson co-authored this article. He was previously a research associate at York University.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150029/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sapna Sharma receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, Ontario Ministry of Research, Innovation, and Science, Genome Canada, York University Research Chair Programme, Ontario Ministry of Environment, Conservation, and Parks, and York University. She is affiliated with the Royal Canadian Institute for Science.</span></em></p>Winter drownings become more common on warmer days or when rain has fallen on snow, leaving the ice thinner, weaker, and less stable.Sapna Sharma, Associate Professor and York University Research Chair in Global Change Biology, York University, CanadaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/540112016-02-03T12:46:56Z2016-02-03T12:46:56ZCycling should take a lead from F1 as hidden motor scandal emerges<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109974/original/image-20160202-32254-1o5v08j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Taking it too far? No hiding this bike motor.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/paulk/4245168889/in/photolist-7t8AP4-7t8CFR-7vdrig-MWUHm-9TtZ26-dHXjAi-jNMD8w-MWUHU-efBbZG-6ZUPsu-74iWLC-ef6S9a-efczUQ-6ZQRNt-9TwP35-4FGyt5-6ZUQ1y-dmzjJB-aBY26t-o4kXyB-atMzJj-pDB9wE-dyH9uG-9TtViT-7gmwKz-nRCz8V-6kzUbx-6QRwsA-2dEjgm-7h5bqn-8D3Stu-8ybbHS-8YNhT6-6kA5oZ-iSSc8j-6kE4BL-9UYiPC-fuBLCj-8ndkkZ-595SGc-9TtVyH-dvWdpC-9TwKzN-NU2Ei-NTvbU-4eEVBJ-4eEWcU-oShCgV-NTtK9-NU4ex">Paul Keller</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Canadian cyclist Ryder Hesjedal crashed on a descent in the Tour of Spain back in 2014 he sparked a fascinating sporting conspiracy theory. As he scrambled to recover, Hesjedal’s bike appeared to rotate away from him as it lay on the floor. For some, it was evidence of “mechanical doping” – the use of small, hidden battery packs to add power to a rider’s output.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://velonews.competitor.com/2015/05/news/hesjedal-bike-tested-for-motor-its-the-most-ridiculous-thing-ive-ever-heard-of_372016">defence from Hesjedal</a> and his team was robust, and <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/latest-news/ryder-hesjedals-clockwork-cervelo-uci-checks-garmin-sharp-bikes-134803">more than a little mocking of the furore that followed</a>. In truth, the accusations didn’t make any sense. The back wheel was simply rolling down the slope in an arc; the cranks weren’t turning; and why would a motor be engaged on an easy downhill section anyway? Swiss rider Fabian Cancellara had been <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/cycling/7798626/Fabian-Cancellara-denies-using-a-motorised-bike-to-win-races-in-the-spring.html">forced to deny</a> similar accusations four years earlier, but this time the claims did prompt the sport’s governing body to check out the team’s bikes (nothing was found). It was the first glimpse of a new scandal in a sport that has had more than its fair share.</p>
<p>The Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) has since started regular testing, and may have just uncovered some genuine evidence.</p>
<h2>Denial</h2>
<p>At the <a href="http://www.uci.ch/cyclo-cross/news/">World Cyclo-Cross championships</a> in Zolder, Belgium, the UCI revealed it had discovered a motor <a href="http://www.uci.ch/pressreleases/uci-statement-174751/">in a frame</a> being used by one of the pre-race favourites and current European Champion, Femke van den Driessche.</p>
<p>Van den Driessche, 19, who was taking part in the under-23 women’s race, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cycling/35452791">has strenuously denied</a> that she knew anything about the motor. She told reporters that the bike belonged to a friend who had left it with her mechanics, who wrongly thought it was hers. </p>
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<p>This may prove to be true, but the inescapable fact is that the technology is available, and effective. The power output varies, and can reach up to 200 watts. But even a modest boost of 20-50 watts could offer a race-winning advantage, or make the difference for a rider seeking a new contract.</p>
<p>For some, any teams and individuals proved to be using such technology intentionally will be regarded as cheats – and the act may even be compared to the doping culture embodied by Lance Armstrong, which was widespread in the sport. We can also view it as part of a technological arms race which sees bike manufacturers and professional teams fight for marginal gains. And it is a story which extends out into other sports too.</p>
<h2>Lightweight</h2>
<p>Since the <a href="http://www.mudsweatngears.co.uk/page_2473200.html">beginnings of the bicycle industry</a> in the 1860s, cycle racing has trialled new machines and ideas to try and maximise performance. Perhaps the most straightforward of these inventions was the air-filled tyre, now ubiquitous, that increased speed by reducing rolling resistance and greatly improved comfort. Jump ahead 150 years and you can now buy a road bike that <a href="http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/latest-news/merida-launches-worlds-lightest-production-bike-171066">weighs just 4.5 kilos</a>. </p>
<p>Sport habitually wrestles with the line between technological advancements and unfair advantages. The UCI, for example, imposes a weight restriction which is a full two kilos more than the bike mentioned above. Others too have sought to stop technology dominating athletics performances. For example, <a href="http://www.fina.org/">Swimming’s governing body, FINA,</a> banned <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/swimming/8161867.stm">full-body swimsuits</a> in 2010 following an unprecedented level of world records. Swimmers’ bodies were moulded into a stable, bullet-like shape by the suits, which <a href="http://www.smarterthanthat.com/physics/olympic-controversy-how-does-the-space-age-swimsuit-work/">also repelled water</a> to reduce drag. The view was taken that the suits did not allow an athlete’s raw ability to determine performance results.</p>
<h2>New skills</h2>
<p>Sometimes, however, the introduction of a new technology or piece of equipment can be a form of “reskilling”, where an athlete’s skill increases as a result of learning to use it. </p>
<p>One example was the <a href="http://regressing.deadspin.com/how-a-century-old-skate-design-completely-changed-moder-1504286074">introduction of the “Klapskate”</a> in speed skating in the late 1990s which enabled athletes to stay in contact with the ice slightly longer, meaning they could extend the duration of their push. Manufacturers defended this on the basis that athletes had to learn to skate differently. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109883/original/image-20160201-32247-1y7tcw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109883/original/image-20160201-32247-1y7tcw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/109883/original/image-20160201-32247-1y7tcw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109883/original/image-20160201-32247-1y7tcw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109883/original/image-20160201-32247-1y7tcw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109883/original/image-20160201-32247-1y7tcw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109883/original/image-20160201-32247-1y7tcw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/109883/original/image-20160201-32247-1y7tcw0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Suited and booted. Klapskates in action.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/archeon/4113190730/in/photolist-4XWtLT-7gtbiy-2jK6uL-vfRBRy-aeMKWa-rpYmkr">Hans Splinter</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>At first glance, the idea of motors in bike frames seems a very different prospect, but just as there are arguments for a more <a href="https://theconversation.com/athletics-doping-report-should-spark-radical-rethink-on-drugs-in-sport-50376">flexible approach to doping</a>, so there is room to consider where this latest technological advance might have a place.</p>
<p>Cycling is a brutal sport, demanding regular feats of endurance, speed and power. Reducing the burden on fragile bodies might just help to loosen the hold of doping on those attempting to build successful careers. And there might even be room for the kind of “reskilling” we saw above if motors found their way into the sport.</p>
<h2>Strategic advantage</h2>
<p>Clearly we couldn’t end up with a situation where wealthy teams lord it over the others by way of pure mechanical advantage, but there is a useful comparison to be made with Formula One, where the <a href="https://www.formula1.com/content/fom-website/en/championship/inside-f1/understanding-f1-racing/Overtaking_and_the_DRS.html">DRS (Drag Reduction System)</a> makes temporary use of a technological advantage (aerodynamics in the rear wing) to make overtaking easier. </p>
<p>And so, cyclists might have finite battery power at their disposal, and choose where to deploy it, or like F1, it might be applicable only in certain zones. Riders might choose to use a set-up which suited their strengths, or which mitigated their weaknesses. This would make an appreciable strategic difference to how a bike race pans out. Victories might be secured on the canny use of a frame-mounted motor, as well as on raw power and race craft. </p>
<p>It seems far-fetched at this moment, but sport’s governing bodies are now being forced to face up to the existential threats that have chipped away at their credibility for years. Shaking up cycling by embracing so-called “cheating” tech might have purists choking on their chain lube, but with a bit of imagination, it might nip a new scandal in the bud while enhancing the spectacle for everyone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/54011/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charlotte Smith does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cycling has been on the look out for mini engines in bike frames, and it may have come up trumps. But it might be missing a trick to invigorate the sport.Charlotte Smith, Lecturer in Management , University of LeicesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/231442014-02-18T14:07:50Z2014-02-18T14:07:50ZLutz or flutz? The tricky physics of figure skating<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41693/original/htjpym8t-1392631843.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How do they do it?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Davies/PA Archive</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Figure skating is always the highlight of the Winter Olympics. With the introduction of a team competition this year, there are five figure skating events. And we’ve already seen much drama with records broken and the retirement of veteran showman Evgeni Plushenko. He <a href="http://www.thestar.com/sports/sochi2014/figureskating/2014/02/13/russian_figure_skater_plushenko_bows_out_of_sochi_with_melodrama_dimanno.html">pulled out</a> after badly landing a triple Axel – one of the sport’s signature jumps. </p>
<p>Spectators often take the grace and beauty of figure skating for granted. But many don’t realise the speed, power and strength needed to complete the jumps and spins. Gliding across the ice and then springing into the air to rotate three or four times before landing lightly on a single tiny blade and gliding off again is an exact science. There are many types of jumps and each jump may be done in combination with another, but two fan favourites are the Axel and Lutz.</p>
<h2>The Axel</h2>
<p>This is my favourite jump. The Axel is the only jump where the skater faces forward as they take off the ice. They start by gliding backward, but then step forward and jump into the air, driving forward and upward with their arms and leg. It is a powerful jump where athletes gain great heights.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41576/original/dd6njcz2-1392380254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/41576/original/dd6njcz2-1392380254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=177&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41576/original/dd6njcz2-1392380254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=177&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41576/original/dd6njcz2-1392380254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=177&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41576/original/dd6njcz2-1392380254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41576/original/dd6njcz2-1392380254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/41576/original/dd6njcz2-1392380254.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The axel jump.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Axel_Paulsen_jump_without_text.svg#filelinks">ErikHK</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>Because they are facing forward at take-off, the skaters have an extra half revolution to do before they land (all figure skating jumps land backward). So a triple Axel is really three and a half revolutions in the air. To turn so many times it is critical that skaters pull their arms and legs into a tight pencil like position. Crossing their ankles, pressing their legs tightly together and holding their elbows and hands tight against their chest, this minimises the resistance they create with the air. </p>
<p>The tighter a skater is, the faster they can rotate. If an arm or foot is sticking out, the mass of the arm or foot is too far from their axis of rotation and slows down the spin. Easy in principle, in reality they have to fight to keep their arms and legs in tight. Skaters must use their muscles to create centripetal force, which pulls objects towards the axis of rotation, keeping them on a circular path. If they relax, their arms and feet will want to keep moving straight and will get flung outward.</p>
<p>Men tend to perform triple Axels, women normally doubles. But look out for a triple Axel from Japan’s <a href="http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2014/02/14/2014021401885.html">Mao Asada</a>. She was the first woman to land a triple Axel in competition and plans to nail it again this year in pursuit of gold in the women’s free program.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">David Jenkins does a triple Axel for the cameras in 1957.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>The Lutz</h2>
<p>You will see triple and quadruple Lutzes. A feature of the Lutz that makes it challenging from a scientific standpoint is the entry. Skaters must do a long backward glide on the outside edge of one foot as they approach the jump, causing them to arc clockwise if they are on their left foot and anticlockwise if they are on their right. Then, they reach back with the other foot, tap the toe-pick into the ice and vault off it, turning in the opposite direction to the arc in the air. </p>
<p>This initial “counter rotation” helps skaters gain angular momentum for the jump. This is the rotational momentum of the skater about their axis of rotation – the imaginary line that runs up and down the centre of the body, which skaters spin around while in the air. Skaters get angular momentum from a twisting push off the ice as they rotate their body and arms when they jump. </p>
<p>In a Lutz, the counter rotation can increase the range of motion the skater turns through helping create more angular momentum for the jump. While this sounds advantageous, there is the added difficulty of staying on the outside edge as they start the counterclockwise rotation. A common problem is a “flutz”. If the skater falls or rolls onto the inside edge, it is not a true Lutz and points will be deducted.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A quadruple Lutz.</span></figcaption>
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<p>As you watch the games, listen to the announcers and see if you can identify the Axel and Lutz. Look for the arm and leg drive in forward take-off Axel that helps create power and jump height. Look for the long backward glide of the Lutz and the skater using the arms and rotation of the body to create angular momentum and rotation speed while staying on the outside edge leaning away from the rotation of the jump.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/23144/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Deborah King has received funding from United State Figure Skating and the United States Olympic Committee.</span></em></p>Figure skating is always the highlight of the Winter Olympics. With the introduction of a team competition this year, there are five figure skating events. And we’ve already seen much drama with records…Deborah King, Associate Professor, Department of Exercise and Sport Sciences , Ithaca CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.