tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca-fr/topics/mumbai-42606/articlesMumbai – La Conversation2022-10-19T16:52:55Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1923562022-10-19T16:52:55Z2022-10-19T16:52:55ZFacing the dual threat of climate change and human disturbance, Mumbai – and the world – should listen to its fishing communities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489362/original/file-20221012-24-hll9p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Koli community depend on fishing, but fish stocks off Mumbai's coast have been declining.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mumbai-india-september-10-2017-south-1749662051">Akella Srinivas Ramalingaswami/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Coastal cities and settlements are at the forefront of climate disruption. Rising sea levels, warmer seas and changes in rainfall patterns are together creating conditions that mean misery for coastal dwellers.</p>
<p>Disasters triggered by extreme weather often make headlines, but many problems linked to the climate are harder to see. These include the effects of warmer sea temperatures on marine ecosystems, the encroachment of seawater into once-fertile land, and coastal erosion.</p>
<p>Climate risks vary for coastal cities around the world. But according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, people living in coastal settlements with high social inequality <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-ii/">are particularly at risk</a>. This includes cities with a high proportion of informal settlements and those built near river deltas.</p>
<p>The Koli people are one such community. As the original inhabitants of Mumbai, they are spread across a number of historic fishing villages on the city’s coast. But they have steadily been marginalised. Mumbai’s <a href="https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/EODB/Construction%20Permit/Related%20Circulars/DCPR-%202034%20and%20Notification.pdf">official development plan</a> ignores the role of the Koli, and the ecosystems they depend on, in reducing the climate risks facing the city. </p>
<p>This has forced the community to take risk mitigation into their own hands. Through our work with the Koli community, we have seen how their response to human threats has the potential to create a city more resilient to environmental change.</p>
<h2>Mumbai’s environmental problem</h2>
<p>In Mumbai, enormous wealth co-exists with poverty. Largely built on reclaimed land, the city has undergone rapid development.</p>
<p>Poor waste management, property development and increasingly frequent extreme weather have reduced mangrove cover and polluted the city’s coastal waters. Mangroves are important breeding grounds for a diverse range of aquatic species. Many of these species, such as the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2013/mar/22/bombay-duck-mumbai-fish">Bombay Duck</a> and <a href="https://ruralindiaonline.org/en/articles/the-shrinking-pomfret-of-suburban-mumbai/">Pomfret</a>, are vital sources of income for Koli fishers and are key to mangrove biodiversity.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="4 rows of bombay duck, a local fish, hanging to dry in front of a calm sea." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Bombay duck, a vital source of income for the Koli community, drying on a beach.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mumbai-india-bombil-bombay-duck-kept-1750309199">Akella Srinivas Ramalingaswami/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>But fish stocks are disappearing fast. Environmental degradation combined with intensive trawling has led to <a href="https://www.cmfri.org.in/uploads/files/Attachment%201.%20Major%20Research%20Achievemnt_Mumbai.pdf">declining catches</a> for traditional fishers. This has affected livelihoods, with Koli women feeling the impact particularly strongly due to their prominent role in processing and selling fish.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1385110121001684">Studies</a> have also shown that mangrove forests protect coastal areas from storm surges and coastal erosion. Reduced mangrove cover means extreme weather events now inflict <a href="https://www.indiaspend.com/climate-change/exposed-at-sea-fishers-need-better-insurance-to-manage-climate-risks-781266">severe damage to fishing infrastructure</a>. <a href="https://moes.gov.in/sites/default/files/RS-in-English-4026-07042022.pdf">Cyclone Tauktae</a> in 2021 inflicted losses of 10 billion rupees (£109,000) to coastal fishers – damage to fishing boats alone was worth 250,000 rupees (£2,700).</p>
<h2>Taking the initiative</h2>
<p>Following <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148325/cyclone-tauktae-strikes-india">Cyclone Tauktae</a>, the Koli produced reports documenting the changing frequency and intensity of cyclones affecting the region. These reports, supplemented by <a href="https://qz.com/india/2030290/mumbais-koli-fishermen-cope-with-climate-change-and-cyclones/">media coverage</a>, have raised awareness of the community’s vulnerability towards climate change.</p>
<p>This has allowed the Koli to collaborate with various groups to reduce their vulnerability. We have been working with the Koli community through our own research project, <a href="https://tapestry-project.org/">Tapestry</a>. Our research has involved creating photographs and maps with the community to build a more comprehensive understanding of the consequences of climate change and environmental degradation for the region. This has highlighted the importance of mangroves for marine biodiversity and flooding protection.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aerial shot of a mangrove forest in the foreground of a large sprawling city." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mumbai’s mangrove forests are crucial for marine biodiversity and flood prevention.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/view-boats-mangroves-gorai-mumbai-india-1008986491">Viren Desai/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>The efforts of the <a href="https://cat.org.in/">Conservation Action Trust</a>, a Mumbai-based non-profit organisation that aims to protect forests and wildlife, have also been key in protecting mangroves. They found that mangroves were being cleared to make way for golf courses, residential buildings, rubbish dumps and transport infrastructure. They were instrumental in the development of the <a href="https://mangroves.maharashtra.gov.in/">Mangrove Cell</a>, a government agency that monitors efforts to conserve and enhance mangrove cover in India’s western Maharashtra state.</p>
<p>Addressing water pollution also emerged as a priority through discussions with the Koli community. Our project partner <a href="https://bombay61.blogspot.com/">Bombay61</a> has since implemented measures to <a href="https://tapestry-project.org/2022/08/08/catching-plastic-mumbais-koli-community-uses-fishing-nets-to-tackle-pollution/">improve water quality</a>. Over three days, a pilot trial of net filters collected around 500kg of waste from a single creek. This initiative also challenges the perception of creeks as “drains” or “sewers”.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A cluster of plastic bottles and litter floating in brown water." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The coastal waters the Koli depend on are heavily polluted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mumbai-india-november-11-2017-rubbish-759116230">TK Kurikawa/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Engagement between the Koli community, environmental organisations, government officials and local public events and exhibitions has allowed more equitable solutions to human threats to be explored. These highlight the importance of local communities to resource governance and urban planning, and could help dissuade the government from destructive future development plans.</p>
<p>The lessons from the Koli experience extend beyond just Mumbai. While each coast and city will face different threats, the seeds of responses can be found in the people who know and understand the environments in which they live. Working with grassroots methods and groups can reveal how action can respond to local needs and address more than just physical climate risks.</p>
<p>If local strategies can be scaled up, they could transform urban planning and climate change mitigation. These strategies must address the need to adapt to climate change and minimise human disturbance. Paying attention to local people’s struggles and harnessing their ideas can be an essential part of creating cities that are more resilient to future threats.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192356/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lyla Mehta has based this article on research conducted for the Tapestry project. This project is financially supported by the Belmont Forum and NORFACE Joint Research Programme on Transformations to Sustainability, which is co-funded by ESRC, ISC, JST, RCN and the European Commission through Horizon 2020 under grant agreement No 730211</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>D Parthasarathy receives funding from Belmont Forum and International Science Council Paris. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shibaji Bose receives funding from Belmont-funded Tapestry project</span></em></p>Facing human threats, Mumbai’s Koli community are taking risk reduction into their own hands – other vulnerable coastal settlements should take note.Lyla Mehta, Professorial Fellow, Institute of Development StudiesD Parthasarathy, Professor of Sociology, Indian Institute of Technology BombayShibaji Bose, PhD Student in Community Voices, National Institute of Technology DurgapurLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1375042020-05-20T20:03:34Z2020-05-20T20:03:34ZHow Mumbai’s poorest neighbourhood is battling to keep coronavirus at bay<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333924/original/file-20200511-49579-1y1vmrv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1109%2C0%2C3942%2C2277&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Aerial view of Shivaji Nagar.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Informal settlements are experiencing <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/04/16/are-slums-more-vulnerable-to-the-covid-19-pandemic-evidence-from-mumbai/">a greater surge in COVID-19 cases than other urban neighbourhoods</a> in Mumbai, India. Their high density, narrow streets, tight internal spaces, poor access to water and sanitation leave residents highly vulnerable to the spread of coronavirus. </p>
<p>One of Mumbai’s <a href="https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai/dumped-by-the-municipal-body/story-QD7603JFG09pUVjHzS3NkO.html">poorest and most underdeveloped</a> neighbourhoods, Shivaji Nagar, is one of three informal settlements I have been studying. More than a month before the Indian government imposed a national lockdown, Shivaji Nagar residents, supported by the NGO <a href="https://www.giveindia.org/nonprofit/apnalaya">Apnalaya</a>, adopted their own measures to counter the pandemic.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333524/original/file-20200507-49573-3x2fll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333524/original/file-20200507-49573-3x2fll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333524/original/file-20200507-49573-3x2fll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333524/original/file-20200507-49573-3x2fll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333524/original/file-20200507-49573-3x2fll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=330&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333524/original/file-20200507-49573-3x2fll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333524/original/file-20200507-49573-3x2fll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333524/original/file-20200507-49573-3x2fll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Satellite image of Shivaji Nagar and neighbouring areas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Google Earth</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Here, 600,000 people, <a href="https://apnalaya.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Situational-Analysis.pdf">11.5% of Mumbai’s informal settlement population</a>, are crowded into an area of 1.37 square kilometres next to <a href="https://thewire.in/environment/deonar-mumbai-slum-waste-dumping-ground">Asia’s largest dumping ground</a>. There is <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thane/raising-a-stink-145-people-compete-for-one-toilet-seat-in-govandi-slums/articleshow/66685546.cms">one toilet for every 145 people</a> and <a href="https://idronline.org/ground-up-stories/building-connections/">60% of residents have to buy water</a>. There is a <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/m-east-ward-records-highest-covid-19-fatality-rate/article31578172.ece">severe lack of health facilities</a>. </p>
<p>Unsurprisingly, residents’ health suffers. The settlement is a <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/in-tb-hotspot-m-east-ward-fear-of-more-lethal-covid-19-spread/article31334974.ece">tuberculosis hotspot</a>. Respiratory illness makes COVID-19 even more threatening for residents. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335762/original/file-20200518-83357-xrj25y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335762/original/file-20200518-83357-xrj25y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335762/original/file-20200518-83357-xrj25y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335762/original/file-20200518-83357-xrj25y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335762/original/file-20200518-83357-xrj25y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335762/original/file-20200518-83357-xrj25y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335762/original/file-20200518-83357-xrj25y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335762/original/file-20200518-83357-xrj25y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Left: COVID-19 hotspots in Mumbai as of April 14 2020. Right: COVID-19 health facilities in Mumbai as of May 18 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/04/16/are-slums-more-vulnerable-to-the-covid-19-pandemic-evidence-from-mumbai/">Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai, Author provided</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>By April 13, Shivaji Nagar had 86 COVID-19 cases – an increase of 30 in two days – making it one of Mumbai’s hotspots. As the virus started spreading rapidly, COVID-19 data for individual areas became hard to get. The release of cumulative data for the entire city was much less useful for understanding the growth in cases. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333955/original/file-20200511-49546-1iesjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333955/original/file-20200511-49546-1iesjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333955/original/file-20200511-49546-1iesjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333955/original/file-20200511-49546-1iesjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333955/original/file-20200511-49546-1iesjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333955/original/file-20200511-49546-1iesjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333955/original/file-20200511-49546-1iesjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333955/original/file-20200511-49546-1iesjbi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ward-level data was available until April 25 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation</span></span>
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<h2>The lockdown begins</h2>
<p>On March 24, the Indian government announced a <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-52698828">national lockdown</a>. Barricades were installed on Shivaji Nagar’s main streets to curb people’s movement. TV and radio broadcasts urged residents to stay at home, practise good hygiene and regularly sanitise shared toilets and main streets. </p>
<p>Once the first few COVID-19 cases were detected in Shivaji Nagar, the government shifted patients and their families to isolation facilities outside the settlement. Fever camps were set up in parts of the settlement to screen people with symptoms. While the lockdown allowed essential services to continue, vegetable markets were shut down as cases increased. </p>
<p>After facing a backlash for not considering the impacts on the poor, the government eventually announced a nationwide relief package. Residents could receive free food by producing their ration cards. </p>
<p>Some measures worked while others created new problems. Quarantining people outside the settlement was effective (since home quarantine was not possible), as was setting up fever camps. However, the stigma and fear of being COVID-19-positive stopped many people from coming forward. </p>
<p>The sudden lockdown and market closures left most residents without food, water and medicines. Some <a href="https://twitter.com/ApnalayaTweets/status/1258409949736112133">35% of Shivaji Nagar residents</a> didn’t have the ration cards needed to get free food. Enforcing social distancing and stopping people from venturing out of their homes, by beating them, didn’t work either. </p>
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<h2>NGO fills the gap</h2>
<p>The lack of official figures on case numbers and testing rates made it hard to track the spread of the virus in Shivaji Nagar. Volunteers working for Apnalaya kept track on the ground. </p>
<p>As early as the second week of February, before India’s borders closed, Apnalaya had decided to drastically reduce contact between the residents and outsiders. The aim was to minimise residents’ risk of contracting the virus. </p>
<p>Apnalaya enrolled 40-50 volunteers from the neighbourhood to distribute relief supplies instead of bringing in staff. It <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/caring-for-their-own-while-caring-for-others/article31561805.ece">arranged a year’s health insurance</a> for all volunteers. Elderly and pregnant women were encouraged to stay home and contact the volunteers for help with their daily needs. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1261335917186428930"}"></div></p>
<p>Even before the government announced its relief package, Apnalaya was providing food and essentials to residents. Distribution began within the containment zones, but later extended to the entire settlement. </p>
<p>Funds for these activities were raised in several ways: <a href="https://milaap.org/fundraisers/support-people-of-shivaji-nagar?utm_source=shorturl">a crowdfunding campaign</a>, an <a href="https://twitter.com/ApnalayaTweets/status/1254718748453371907">alliance between multiple organisations</a> and collaboration with the government. </p>
<p>A dashboard was used to document, plan and monitor the distribution of relief supplies. As the government’s relief scheme excluded one in three residents, Apnalaya’s door-to-door relief delivery ensured no family was left behind. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333957/original/file-20200511-49546-w9637l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333957/original/file-20200511-49546-w9637l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333957/original/file-20200511-49546-w9637l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333957/original/file-20200511-49546-w9637l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333957/original/file-20200511-49546-w9637l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333957/original/file-20200511-49546-w9637l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333957/original/file-20200511-49546-w9637l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Volunteers from the settlement distribute relief.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Apnalaya</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Apnalaya’s permanent staff members were now managing everything from outside. The telephone became a medium to reach families who didn’t have a TV or a radio and to monitor the situation. Staff regularly phoned residents to give advice on hygiene and how to get essentials and contact doctors for other ailments. </p>
<p>Not everyone was in their database, but this didn’t matter. The residents played their part too. </p>
<h2>Community comes together</h2>
<p>As residents, the volunteers were committed to their community even when facing extreme hardships. Relief distribution was particularly tricky in areas where drains had overflowed on streets and foundations built on garbage had slipped. Yet these volunteers reached all residents, knowing they relied on their efforts. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333961/original/file-20200511-49565-1onm7bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333961/original/file-20200511-49565-1onm7bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333961/original/file-20200511-49565-1onm7bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333961/original/file-20200511-49565-1onm7bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333961/original/file-20200511-49565-1onm7bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=304&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333961/original/file-20200511-49565-1onm7bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333961/original/file-20200511-49565-1onm7bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333961/original/file-20200511-49565-1onm7bt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Narrow internal lanes in the settlement.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The community even found a temporary way to deal with the water shortage. Parts of the settlement with piped water <a href="https://idronline.org/ground-up-stories/building-connections/">shared it with neighbours</a> who previously had to buy water from private suppliers. One supplier, a resident of the settlement, now <a href="https://idronline.org/ground-up-stories/building-connections/">provided water free of charge</a>. </p>
<h2>Lessons from Shivaji Nagar</h2>
<p>Shivaji Nagar’s story offers some important lessons. While the government acted pre-emptively, it failed to consider local conditions and needs. Apnalaya filled the gaps. </p>
<p>But the NGO’s reach was limited, too, and the resident volunteers became the missing link. Acting as community leaders, they took stock of the situation on the ground and reported back to the NGO’s office. </p>
<p>Some of the strategies that have worked have been tailored to local conditions and adapted to the evolving crisis. But the shortage of health facilities and lack of data transparency pose a great challenge. </p>
<p>Mumbai’s M East Ward, which includes Shivaji Nagar, now has the highest COVID-19 death rate in Mumbai. <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/m-east-ward-records-highest-covid-19-fatality-rate/article31578172.ece">At 9.7%, it’s more than double the city’s overall rate</a>. Can Shivaji Nagar withstand the storm?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/137504/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ishita Chatterjee does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Long before the Indian government responded to the threat of COVID-19 with a lockdown, residents of Shivaji Nagar, with the support of a local NGO, were protecting and helping one another.Ishita Chatterjee, PhD Candidate, Informal Urbanism (InfUr-) Hub, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1336052020-04-17T12:11:15Z2020-04-17T12:11:15Z1918 flu pandemic killed 12 million Indians, and British overlords’ indifference strengthened the anti-colonial movement<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327346/original/file-20200412-8893-1ihy43t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C56%2C4200%2C4011&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cremation on the banks of the Ganges river, India.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/crémation-sur-les-bords-du-gange-à-benarès-inde-circa-1920-news-photo/833384176?adppopup=true">Keystone-France via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In India, during the 1918 influenza pandemic, a staggering <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-012-0116-x">12 to 13 million people died</a>, the vast majority between the months of September and December. According to an eyewitness, “There was none to remove the dead bodies and the jackals made a feast.” </p>
<p>At the time of the pandemic, India had been under British colonial rule for over 150 years. The fortunes of the British colonizers had always been vastly different from those of the Indian people, and nowhere was the split more stark than during the influenza pandemic, as I discovered while researching <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=zQnyI1cAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">my Ph.D. on the subject</a>. </p>
<p>The resulting devastation would eventually lead to huge changes in India – and the British Empire. </p>
<h2>From Kansas to Mumbai</h2>
<p>Although it is commonly called the Spanish flu, the 1918 pandemic likely <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-american-history/americas-forgotten-pandemic-influenza-1918-2nd-edition?format=PB">began in Kansas</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwy191">killed between 50 and 100 million people</a> worldwide. </p>
<p>During the early months of 1918, the virus incubated throughout the American Midwest, eventually making its way east, where it <a href="https://www.army.mil/article/210420/worldwide_flu_outbreak_killed_45000_american_soldiers_during_world_war_i">traveled across the Atlantic Ocean</a> with soldiers deploying for WWI. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327347/original/file-20200412-138728-1tayb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327347/original/file-20200412-138728-1tayb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327347/original/file-20200412-138728-1tayb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=639&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327347/original/file-20200412-138728-1tayb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=639&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327347/original/file-20200412-138728-1tayb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=639&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327347/original/file-20200412-138728-1tayb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=803&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327347/original/file-20200412-138728-1tayb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=803&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327347/original/file-20200412-138728-1tayb5b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=803&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Indian soldiers in the trenches during World War I.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/indian-soldiers-in-the-trenches-world-war-i-1914-1918-news-photo/463957843">Print Collector / Contributor via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Introduced into the trenches on Europe’s Western Front, the virus tore through the already weakened troops. As the war approached its conclusion, the virus followed both commercial shipping routes and military transports to infect almost every corner of the globe. It <a href="https://www.macmillanlearning.com/college/us/product/Influenza-Pandemic-of-1918-1919/p/0312677081">arrived in Mumbai in late May</a>.</p>
<h2>Unequal spread</h2>
<p>When the first wave of the pandemic arrived, it was not particularly deadly. The only notice British officials took of it was its effect on some workers. A report noted, “As the season for cutting grass began … people were so weak as to be unable to do a full day’s work.” </p>
<p>By September, the story began to change. Mumbai was still the center of infection, likely due to its position as a commercial and civic hub. On Sept. 19, an English-language newspaper reported 293 influenza deaths had occurred there, but assured its readers “The worst is now reached.” </p>
<p>Instead, the virus tore through the subcontinent, following trade and postal routes. Catastrophe and death overwhelmed cities and rural villages alike. Indian newspapers reported that crematoria were receiving between 150 to 200 bodies per day. According to one observer, “The burning ghats and burial grounds were literally swamped with corpses; whilst an even greater number awaited removal.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327348/original/file-20200412-1397-po6zou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327348/original/file-20200412-1397-po6zou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327348/original/file-20200412-1397-po6zou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327348/original/file-20200412-1397-po6zou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327348/original/file-20200412-1397-po6zou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327348/original/file-20200412-1397-po6zou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327348/original/file-20200412-1397-po6zou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327348/original/file-20200412-1397-po6zou.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Members of the British Raj out for a stroll, circa 1918.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/members-of-the-british-raj-walking-together-in-an-indian-news-photo/3398825?adppopup=true">Fox Photos/Stringer via Getty images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But influenza did not strike everyone equally. Most British people in India lived in spacious houses with gardens and yards, compared to the lower classes of city-dwelling Indians, who lived in densely populated areas. Many British also employed household staff to care for them – in times of health and sickness – so they were only lightly touched by the pandemic and were largely unconcerned by the chaos sweeping through the country. </p>
<p>In his official correspondence in early December, the Lieutenant Governor of the United Provinces did not even mention influenza, instead noting “Everything is very dry; but I managed to get two hundred couple of snipe so far this season.”</p>
<p>While the pandemic was of little consequence to many British residents of India, the perception was wildly different among the Indian people, <a href="https://www.saada.org/item/20130823-3118">who spoke of universal devastation</a>. A letter published in a periodical lamented, “India perhaps never saw such hard times before. There is wailing on all sides. … There is neither village nor town throughout the length and breadth of the country which has not paid a heavy toll.” </p>
<p>Elsewhere, the Sanitary Commissioner of the Punjab noted, “the streets and lanes of cities were littered with dead and dying people … nearly every household was lamenting a death, and everywhere terror and confusion reigned.” </p>
<h2>The fallout</h2>
<p>In the end, areas in the north and west of India saw death rates between 4.5% and 6% of their total populations, while the south and east – where the virus arrived slightly later, as it was waning – generally lost between 1.5% and 3%. </p>
<p>Geography wasn’t the only dividing factor, however. In Mumbai, almost seven-and-a-half times as many lower-caste Indians died as compared to their British counterparts - <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/001946468602300102">61.6 per thousand</a> versus 8.3 per thousand. </p>
<p>Among Indians in Mumbai, socioeconomic disparities in addition to race accounted for these differing mortality rates.</p>
<p><iframe id="9Mq9o" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/9Mq9o/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>The Health Officer for Calcutta remarked on the stark difference in death rates between British and lower-class Indians: “The excessive mortality in Kidderpore appears to be due mainly to the large coolie population, ignorant and poverty-stricken, living under most insanitary conditions in damp, dark, dirty huts. They are a difficult class to deal with.” </p>
<h2>Change ahead</h2>
<p>Death tolls across India generally hit their peak in October, with a slow tapering into November and December. A high ranking British official wrote in December, “A good winter rain will put everything right and … things will gradually rectify themselves.” </p>
<p>Normalcy, however, did not quite return to India. The spring of 1919 would see the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Jallianwala-Bagh-Massacre">British atrocities at Amritsar</a> and shortly thereafter the launch of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/noncooperation-movement">Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement</a>. Influenza became one more example of British injustice that spurred Indian people on in their fight for independence. A <a href="https://www.saada.org/item/20130128-1271">nationalist periodical stated</a>, “In no other civilized country could a government have left things so much undone as did the Government of India did during the prevalence of such a terrible and catastrophic epidemic.”</p>
<p>The long, slow death of the British Empire had begun.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article has been updated to correct that the final quote is not from a periodical published by Mahatma Gandhi, but rather a separate nationalist publication of the same name based in New York.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133605/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Maura Chhun does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>When the 1918 influenza pandemic struck India, the death toll was highest among the poor.Maura Chhun, Community Faculty, Metropolitan State University Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1029712018-09-13T21:24:54Z2018-09-13T21:24:54ZTerrorism at the Taj: ‘Hotel Mumbai’ pulls no punches<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235898/original/file-20180911-144476-wzk6ci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'Hotel Mumbai' is a gripping film that provides a glimpse into the fear and brutality of terrorism but also the everyday bravery of its victims. Here Armie Hammer in 'Hotel Mumbai.'</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of TIFF</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Director Anthony Maras’ film <em>Hotel Mumbai</em> opens this week in theatres across North America. (It had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival in September). The film stars Dev Patel (<em>Slumdog Millionaire</em>), Armie Hammer (<em>Call Me By Your Name</em>), Jason Issacs <em>(Harry Potter</em>) and Anupam Kher (<em>The Big Sick</em>). </p>
<p>The movie depicts the <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2013/09/18/world/asia/mumbai-terror-attacks/index.html">Mumbai terror attacks</a> that took place Nov. 26-29, 2008, when 10 gunmen belonging to the Pakistan-based militant organization <a href="https://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/Listedterroristorganisations/Pages/Lashkar-e-Tayyiba.aspx">Lashkar-e-Taiba</a> staged a series of co-ordinated attacks across the city, ending with a multi-day siege of the luxurious Taj Mahal Hotel that left 164 dead and hundreds wounded. </p>
<p>Based on hundreds of hours of interviews with survivors and witnesses and told from the perspective of hotel guests, staff and to some extent the gunmen, the film sets out to recreate the attacks faithfully and authentically. </p>
<p>The film expertly ratchets up tension and confusion, drawing the viewer into a harrowing experience that is not broken up by lengthy plot digressions or exposition. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235902/original/file-20180911-144482-u55jiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235902/original/file-20180911-144482-u55jiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235902/original/file-20180911-144482-u55jiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235902/original/file-20180911-144482-u55jiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235902/original/file-20180911-144482-u55jiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235902/original/file-20180911-144482-u55jiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235902/original/file-20180911-144482-u55jiu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An Indian soldier takes cover as the Taj Mahal hotel burns during a gun battle between Indian military and militants in Mumbai, India, on Nov. 29, 2008.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/David Guttenfelder)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>Hotel Mumbai</em> provides a raw and rare look behind the curtain of a terrorist attack, inviting the audience to experience its unrelenting and gut-wrenching reality. The film doesn’t concern itself with the contextual details that emerge in the aftermath of a terror plot; instead it replicates the confusion, panic and genuine fear one would feel at the time.</p>
<p>For almost the entire two hour run-time, the viewer is left to struggle with the intensity of that confusion, not knowing when or if safety will materialize.</p>
<p>Since Sept. 11, 2001, popular media in North America has <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/terrorism-in-movies-pre-and-post-9-11/">moved from amorphous representations of political violence to a plot format</a> that explicitly uses terrorism, invokes real militant groups and focuses almost exclusively on <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2017/01/17/entertainment/terrorism-on-tv/index.html">the United States and Islamic extremism as their bread and butter</a>. Few films actually take the viewer inside the experience of terror plots as they happen; this is where <em>Hotel Mumbai</em> ushers in a new complex path with audiences.</p>
<p>The only potential drawback of this narrative style is that for viewers unfamiliar with the broader political context of terrorism in India — and in Western audiences they may be the majority — there is little information about where the attack comes from or how it fits into the larger story of the Indian subcontinent. </p>
<h2>Terrorism in India</h2>
<p>The Mumbai gunmen were trained in Pakistan and, as depicted in the film, carried out their attack with direction via mobile phones from planners in Pakistan’s metropolis port, Karachi. The gunmen were found to be members of Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), a Pakistan-based militant group that was also responsible for a <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/event/2001-Parliament-attack/articleshow/55053711.cms">2001 attack on the Indian Parliament</a> in New Delhi. </p>
<p>The existence of groups like LeT is a significant sore spot in India-Pakistan relations. India accuses Pakistan of enabling or even encouraging such groups and Pakistan consistently denies these allegations.</p>
<p>LeT emerged out of the radicalization of the Kashmir conflict — a territorial dispute between India and Pakistan over which country has the right to govern the Muslim-majority Kashmir valley. This <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/10537286">conflict began with the 1947 partition of British colonial India</a> into the two sovereign nations of India and Pakistan and has gone through numerous phases of escalation and détente. </p>
<p>India’s continued military presence and <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/06/14/india-act-un-rights-report-kashmir">the human rights abuses</a> carried out by security forces in Kashmir provide a major source of grievance to some Indian and Pakistani Muslims. Although India is home to the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia, <a href="https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/indias-muslim-population">Muslims in India are heavily disadvantaged</a> in comparison to the Hindu majority. They also experience higher rates of poverty and lower literacy levels. </p>
<p>Despite this, the vast majority of Muslims — whether in India or elsewhere — consistently <a href="https://www.csis.org/analysis/islam-and-patterns-terrorism-and-violent-extremism">reject religious extremism</a>. </p>
<h2>Everyday heroism</h2>
<p>As a suspenseful and emotional snapshot of the events of November 2008, the film certainly succeeds. The audience’s applause felt genuine and visceral, not polite or obligatory. The cast themselves were visibly emotional on stage, notably when Maras revealed that one of the real-life survivors of the attack portrayed in the film was present in the audience. This survivor (unnamed here to avoid spoilers) received an immediate and emotional standing ovation.</p>
<p>The film is full of heroes, but not the kind that audiences are accustomed to seeing in movies about terror attacks. In <em>Hotel Mumbai</em>, heroes can die with the casual and unceremonious pulling of a trigger, just like anyone else. Though the film uses character archetypes, it does so in a way that disrupts common film tropes associated with the genre.</p>
<p>For example, the local police are brave but are hopelessly outgunned and out of their depth when faced by trained insurgents with automatic weapons. Armie Hammer’s character, the white American male that so often saves the day in Hollywood blockbusters, spends most of the film wanting to protect his family but having no real idea how to do so. </p>
<p>By contrast, Anupam Kher’s Chef Oberoi displays a quiet dignity by relinquishing his opportunity for escape in favour of protecting the hotel guests by calmly hosting them in one of the hotel’s hidden lounges. Dev Patel, as always, gives a memorable performance as a hotel staff member who just wants to get back to his family but displays remarkable courage and compassion along the way.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235901/original/file-20180911-144458-mjthl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235901/original/file-20180911-144458-mjthl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235901/original/file-20180911-144458-mjthl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235901/original/file-20180911-144458-mjthl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235901/original/file-20180911-144458-mjthl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235901/original/file-20180911-144458-mjthl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235901/original/file-20180911-144458-mjthl9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dev Patel in ‘Hotel Mumbai’</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy of TIFF</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Just as there is no Hollywood action hero ready to jump in and save the day, <em>Hotel Mumbai</em> also steers clear of depicting the kind of one-dimensional villains that dominate most films in the spy or terrorism genres. The attacks in the film (as in real-life) are brutal, shocking and almost casual in their indifferent disregard for human life. </p>
<p>But the gunmen themselves remain undeniably human. In one scene, we see the terrorists coldly gunning down unarmed civilians and in the next we see them teasing each other about whether there is pork in the canapés. Later, we see the inner conflict of one of the gunmen, who seems to be in over his head as he oscillates between crippling self-doubt and brutal determination. </p>
<p>It is the dissonance between these two dimensions that make this depiction of terrorism so compelling. We also see how the attack impacts each of the attackers in subtly different ways, reinforcing that each has been drawn into this act of horrific violence through their own distinct motivations, whether religious, political or socio-economic. </p>
<p>It is not necessarily that the gunmen in this movie are relatable or sympathetic in the traditional sense (for the most part they are not), but they are resolutely human and that is part of what makes their violence so disturbing. The viewer is asked to face the uncomfortable truth that the people who carry out these attacks might not be the monsters hiding in the shadows that we so often see depicted on screen, but are simply ordinary people carrying out extraordinary acts of brutality.</p>
<p>Despite the horror that this film paints with such gritty and meticulous attention to detail, <em>Hotel Mumbai</em> is ultimately not about violence as an act that is carried out upon passive victims. Instead, it is about the resistance, resilience and quiet heroism of people confronted by chaotic scenarios filled with impossible choices. </p>
<h2>Rising terrorism on ‘soft targets’</h2>
<p>The film asks us to challenge easy assumptions and to rethink any sensationalist preconceptions we may hold about how we would, or would not, react in such a crisis. </p>
<p><em>Hotel Mumbai</em> feels every bit as relevant today as if it had been released back in 2008 when the attacks occurred. If anything, the passage of a decade has perhaps made the tragedy of the Mumbai attacks resonate even more strongly with international audiences.</p>
<p>Massacres carried out by armed gunmen in “soft targets” such as hotels, train stations and shopping malls have become depressingly common in recent years. </p>
<p>Historically most of <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/major-al-qaeda-attacks/2011/05/02/AFB5QQbF_story.html?utm_term=.7b8806d33e19">al-Qaida’s most well-known attacks</a> have used explosives, making them devastating in their death tolls but also relatively difficult to plan and execute. </p>
<p>Since 2014, ISIS has popularized the strategy of using any and all weapons available to attack public spaces, making attacks carried out by their sympathizers incredibly challenging to prevent. This style of attack is widespread across the ideological spectrum with notable examples including the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-41678010">Norway massacre of 2011</a> and the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/08/03/635507299/las-vegas-shooting-investigation-closed-no-motive-found">Las Vegas shootings of 2017</a>.</p>
<p><em>Hotel Mumbai</em> is ultimately intended as an <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-filmfestival-tiff-hotelmumbai/hotel-mumbai-dubbed-an-anthem-of-resistance-idUSKCN1LP005">“anthem of resistance”</a> for those who survive such attacks, a quiet memorial of those who don’t and a sobering snapshot of the chaos of terrorism for those who, fortunately, have never found themselves inside its brutal plot.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102971/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joseph McQuade receives funding from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada. He is also a Senior Research Fellow and Co-Editor-in-Chief at the NATO Association of Canada.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily LeDuc received funding from The Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p>‘Hotel Mumbai,’ which premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival, is an ‘anthem of resistance;’ a film that highlights the things ordinary people can do in extraordinary circumstances.Joseph McQuade, SSHRC Postdoctoral Fellow, Centre for South Asian Studies, Munk School of Global Affairs, University of TorontoEmily LeDuc, Doctoral Candidate and Teaching Fellow, Queen's University, OntarioLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1017502018-08-30T11:30:41Z2018-08-30T11:30:41ZIndian women confined to the home, in cities designed for men<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234250/original/file-20180830-195331-o2022y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/kolkata-india-jan-22-dark-city-207930322?src=_Yz8xE-xqNjYsQIhactA_A-3-80">Radiokafka/Shutterstock.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The inequality between men and women in India is stark, and nowhere more so than on the streets of its cities, which are undeniably the domain of men. Of course, this is partly because there are fewer women in the population. With <a href="http://www.actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/child_sex_ratio_-_presentation_by_census_commissioner.pdf">940 women per 1,000 men</a>, the nation has a low sex ratio, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1881324/">stemming from</a> families’ preference for male children, as well as poor nutrition and health care for women. </p>
<p>What’s more, just <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS">27% of Indian women</a> participate in the work force, compared with <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.MA.ZS">79% of men</a>. This trend is <a href="http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/559511491319990632/pdf/WPS8024.pdf">most obvious</a> in urban areas. Although women in India mostly walk, cycle or use public transport <a href="http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/B-series/B_28.html">to go to work</a>, they are still much less visible in public spaces than men, because many do not have jobs to travel to at all. This has a significant impact on women’s health, and their opportunities in life. </p>
<iframe src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/QvRzh/1/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" width="100%" height="421"></iframe>
<p>According to <a href="http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/B-series/B_28.html">India’s 2011 census</a>, only 17% of all people commuting to work in urban areas are women. Even in India’s large metropolitan cities, such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai, the proportion of women commuters never rises above 20%. Overall, there are nearly five men to every one woman who commutes to work. </p>
<h2>Staying home</h2>
<p>This inequality is also reflected <a href="https://data.gov.in/resources/stateut-wise-number-valid-drivers-licences-issued-during-2010-2011">in data</a> about drivers license holders, where men outnumber women by nine to one – compare this to the US, where <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/198017/total-number-of-us-licensed-drivers-in-2009-by-gender/">women outnumber men</a> (albeit by a small amount). Even with its rapidly growing economy, India’s level of vehicle ownership is still very low. There are only <a href="https://data.gov.in/catalog/total-number-registered-motor-vehicles-india">20 cars per 1,000 people</a> in India, compared with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0965856498000263">more than 400</a> in most high income countries. </p>
<p>This means that the vast majority of people travel on foot, cycle or take public transport – so <a href="http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/B-series/B_28.html">83% of those women</a> who commute to work in Indian cities will take one of these options. In England, only <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/national-travel-survey-statistics">27% of women</a> travel to work by one of these three modes of transport, and in the <a href="https://www.bts.gov/content/principal-means-transportation-work">US</a>, fewer still.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234254/original/file-20180830-195304-3u71wu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234254/original/file-20180830-195304-3u71wu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234254/original/file-20180830-195304-3u71wu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234254/original/file-20180830-195304-3u71wu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234254/original/file-20180830-195304-3u71wu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234254/original/file-20180830-195304-3u71wu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234254/original/file-20180830-195304-3u71wu.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">City of men.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rahul Goel/University of Cambridge.</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214140517305091">a travel survey</a> my colleagues and I conducted in Delhi in 2013 – which includes all journeys, and not just those to work – Indian men attain similar levels of physical activity through travel as those in the Netherlands, where cycling is very popular (though in Delhi its mostly from walking). Meanwhile, women are only half as active. </p>
<p>Given the evidence, it’s clear that this is not because women travel more by car – it’s because many women do not travel in the city at all. <a href="http://www.cedar.iph.cam.ac.uk/research/modelling/tigthat/">Our study</a> found that only 20% of all the trips in Delhi are made by women, and only 25% in Bengaluru city. With <a href="http://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity">lower levels of physical activity</a>, women are exposed to <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/news/lifestyle-and-exercise/lack-of-exercise-as-deadly-as-smoking/">higher risk</a> of heart disease, breast cancer and depression. </p>
<h2>Safer streets</h2>
<p>What’s more, <a href="http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/B-series/B_28.html">more than a third</a> of women who work in Indian cities do so from home. Confined to the home, women are socially excluded, which means they lose out on the benefits that often come from developing a social network, such as emotional or financial support, access to opportunities, or participation in <a href="http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/8903/1/8903.pdf">the social or political life of the community</a>. For women to willingly participate in activities outside home, streets, neighbourhoods and transport infrastructure must be designed to be sensitive to the needs of women. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234233/original/file-20180830-195313-nwbgmq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234233/original/file-20180830-195313-nwbgmq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234233/original/file-20180830-195313-nwbgmq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234233/original/file-20180830-195313-nwbgmq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234233/original/file-20180830-195313-nwbgmq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234233/original/file-20180830-195313-nwbgmq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234233/original/file-20180830-195313-nwbgmq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Getting out and about.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/luisenpics/36628102520/sizes/l">Luisen Rodrigo/Flickr.</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The safety of women in public spaces should not solely depend on stricter laws on <a href="https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/india-rape-law-victim-justice-hrw/">violence against women</a>, or better law enforcement – although this <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-stop-violence-against-women-in-india-it-starts-with-training-police-officers-90251">has a role to play</a>. Women’s right to move through public spaces without fear can also be safeguarded through the built environment, using principles such as “eyes on the street” – according to which <a href="http://thecityfix.com/blog/how-eyes-on-the-street-contribute-public-safety-nossa-cidade-priscila-pacheco-kichler/">people feel safer</a> in open, attractive streets with lots of other people around, while lonely streets instil fear. </p>
<p>Making streets safer for women would also help make public transport more accessible, as bus or train journeys typically involve walking at both ends. Stops and stations should be located in busy areas, and should be well lit at night. A <a href="https://wrirosscities.org/sites/default/files/Final_Report_30072015.pdf">plethora of other measures</a> – such as training for transport staff and more women employees – are also needed to make journeys by public transport safer for women, as harassment on buses and trains <a href="https://qz.com/india/1138346/data-shows-that-women-in-delhi-are-choosing-to-go-to-worse-colleges-than-men-for-their-own-safety/">remains a major social issue</a> (and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-women-france-sexcrimes/220000-women-sexually-harassed-on-public-transport-in-france-study-idUSKBN1EF2J2">not just in India</a>). </p>
<p>With the presence of street hawkers, high population density, narrow streets and a large number of people walking and cycling, Indian cities do have some of the liveliest neighbourhoods in the world, where <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4419521">women can feel safe</a>. But these neighbourhoods often exist in isolation, as cities grow in size. The challenge is to ensure safety by design at a much larger scale.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/101750/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rahul Goel receives funding from TIGTHAT, an MRC Global Challenges Project MR/P024408/1. </span></em></p>Staying at home puts women at greater risk of health problems – cities need to change to encourage them to go outside.Rahul Goel, Research Associate, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/930072018-03-08T05:08:24Z2018-03-08T05:08:24ZLeopards in a city park in India may help lower human injuries and deaths from stray dog bites<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209281/original/file-20180307-146700-1d14qrp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wild leopards in the Indian city of Mumbai may be helping to save people's lives.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steve Winter/National Geographic</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A fleeting glimpse of the black spots and gold fur of a leopard is not an uncommon sight at <a href="https://sgnp.maharashtra.gov.in/1210/Living-with-Leopards">Sanjay Gandhi National Park</a> in the Indian city of Mumbai.</p>
<p>Leopards are often thought of as a threat to humans, but rather than being a problem in Mumbai, they may actually be helping their human neighbours – even saving their lives – as we argue in our paper <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fee.1776">published today in Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.</p>
<iframe src="https://www.google.com/maps/embed?pb=!1m14!1m8!1m3!1d230617.70621775818!2d72.88055560328759!3d19.114161201991212!3m2!1i1024!2i768!4f13.1!3m3!1m2!1s0x0%3A0xe0d36d489e1a14fa!2sSanjay+Gandhi+National+Park!5e0!3m2!1sen!2sau!4v1520404286469" width="100%" height="600" frameborder="0" style="border:0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<p>Recent studies suggest there may be <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/sgnp-census-confirms-41-leopards-27-of-them-new/articleshow/62812269.cms">as many as 41 leopards</a> roaming the 104km<sup>2</sup> park. That’s about two to three times the leopard density you’d find in some of the most productive savannas in Africa or Sri Lanka.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-shocking-facts-revealed-how-sharks-and-other-animals-evolved-electroreception-to-find-their-prey-91066">The shocking facts revealed: how sharks and other animals evolved electroreception to find their prey</a>
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<p><a href="http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2015/12/leopards-moving-to-cities-text">Mumbai’s leopards live alongside people</a>, mostly in informal settlements, and they hunt and kill dogs in and around their villages. On average, dogs make up about 40% of a Mumbai leopard’s diet.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/a75HUY8Q8TY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A walk in the park.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So what, you might ask. Leopards <a href="https://www.livescience.com/27403-leopards.html">are one of the world’s most adaptable</a> big cats, feeding on <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00139.x/abstract">more than 100 prey items</a> worldwide, so aren’t they just doing what an opportunist would do?</p>
<h2>A city of dogs</h2>
<p>If you’ve ever visited Mumbai, you’ll probably remember a few incredible sights: the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_of_India">Gateway of India</a>, Mumbai’s bustling city and teeming traffic – and its dogs.</p>
<p>Hundreds and thousands of dogs. On every street corner, in every alley. Recent surveys have shown that about <a href="http://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/MCGM%20Department%20List/Public%20Relation%20Officer/Press%20Release/07051425_Mumbai%20Dog%20Census%20report%20final%20jan%202014.pdf">95,000 dogs roam Mumbai</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209422/original/file-20180307-146694-16bqhob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209422/original/file-20180307-146694-16bqhob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209422/original/file-20180307-146694-16bqhob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209422/original/file-20180307-146694-16bqhob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209422/original/file-20180307-146694-16bqhob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209422/original/file-20180307-146694-16bqhob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209422/original/file-20180307-146694-16bqhob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209422/original/file-20180307-146694-16bqhob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The dogs of Mumbai.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steve Winter/National Geographic</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We wanted to delve deeper into the uncanny relationship Mumbai’s leopards have with the dogs. And what about bites, we asked. Do dogs bite people, and what about rabies risk?</p>
<p>After sifting through about 40 newspaper articles and online reports, we found that nearly 75,000 bites are recorded annually in the city (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1424765/">although many more are likely unreported</a>). <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Dog-bites-killed-more-than-2-terror-attacks/articleshow/51336536.cms">More than 420 people in Mumbai have died from rabies</a> as a result of stray dog bites over a 20-year period. </p>
<p>It was at that point we wondered whether leopards help to protect people from dog bites by keeping the dog population down – especially around the park where their diet is dominated by dogs.</p>
<p>Surveys performed by <a href="http://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/MCGM%20Department%20List/Public%20Relation%20Officer/Press%20Release/07051425_Mumbai%20Dog%20Census%20report%20final%20jan%202014.pdf">population biologist Lex Hiby</a> and <a href="https://sgnp.maharashtra.gov.in/Site/Upload/Pdf/Ecology_of_leopard_in_SGNP_2015-Nikit_Surve.pdf">Nikit Surve of the Wildlife Institute of India</a> around the park suggest that the answer is yes. Dog densities there are lower and, according to our analyses, citizens might experience only 11% of the bites compared with people who live further from the park.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209439/original/file-20180308-146661-e786l7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209439/original/file-20180308-146661-e786l7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209439/original/file-20180308-146661-e786l7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209439/original/file-20180308-146661-e786l7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209439/original/file-20180308-146661-e786l7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209439/original/file-20180308-146661-e786l7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209439/original/file-20180308-146661-e786l7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209439/original/file-20180308-146661-e786l7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The dogs bite people and can carry the deadly rabies virus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steve Winter/National Geographic</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Moreover, by consuming between 800 and 2,000 dogs per year, we calculate that the leopard population saves the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai about US$18,000 (A$23,000) in sterilisation costs (or 8% of the <a href="https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai/58-317-dog-bite-cases-in-mumbai-this-year/story-wR4lI5YiK5OWGyI8qhPBFO.html">municipality’s annual sterilisation budget</a>).</p>
<h2>If you remove the leopards</h2>
<p>The final piece of the puzzle was to model what a park with no leopards would look like – a sad prediction if increased urbanisation, deforestation and conflict occur over future decades.</p>
<p>Under one set of assumptions, we found dog bites could increase by between 140 to more than 5,000 per year as dog populations would grow in and around the park area. The medical costs for these bites could total as much as US$200,000 (A$256,000) per year.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209442/original/file-20180308-146666-1pdsrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209442/original/file-20180308-146666-1pdsrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209442/original/file-20180308-146666-1pdsrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209442/original/file-20180308-146666-1pdsrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209442/original/file-20180308-146666-1pdsrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209442/original/file-20180308-146666-1pdsrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209442/original/file-20180308-146666-1pdsrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209442/original/file-20180308-146666-1pdsrts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Leopards in the city help reduce the stray dog numbers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steve Winter/National Geographic</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our research puts a new twist on a large predator that has been persecuted for millennia, and which has generally been viewed as a nuisance to stock farmers globally and those living on the edge of Sanjay Gandhi National Park.</p>
<p>Leopards are believed to have <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/1974/">disappeared from about 63-75% of their global range</a>. We have to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-017-0421-2">think of large predators in a broader sense</a> – they can at times be helpful to farmers, ecosystems and even insurance companies.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209444/original/file-20180308-146645-1hcvokr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209444/original/file-20180308-146645-1hcvokr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209444/original/file-20180308-146645-1hcvokr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209444/original/file-20180308-146645-1hcvokr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209444/original/file-20180308-146645-1hcvokr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209444/original/file-20180308-146645-1hcvokr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209444/original/file-20180308-146645-1hcvokr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209444/original/file-20180308-146645-1hcvokr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Leopards prey on Mumbai’s dogs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steve Winter/National Geographic</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The big challenge in Sanjay Gandhi National Park is not only leopard attacks on the odd pig or cattle calf – leopards here sometimes kill people. Leopard attacks on people peaked at 25 cases in 2002. Most of these were attributed to leopards <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/27976435">moved from other forest patches</a> into Sanjay Gandhi, a kind of catch-and-dump scheme by local governments for problem animals.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-foe-to-friend-how-carnivores-could-help-farmers-92190">From foe to friend: how carnivores could help farmers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It’s thought this had a <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01599.x/abstract">chaotic effect on leopard home ranges and social structure</a> as leopards are territorial. But leopard attacks came to an almost complete halt for four years until 2017 when residents were <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/mumbai-leopard-attack-victims-yet-to-get-compensation-from-forest-dept/articleshow/63032029.cms">angered</a> by a <a href="https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/how-some-mumbai-hamlets-live-dangerously-close-to-leopards/story-Q2C4REMAF4fk4MXq93YrAI.html">spate of new attacks</a>.</p>
<p>The big challenge is to evaluate the benefits of these leopards and similar large carnivores; it’s equally important to assess the costs of these species to local communities. The real issue is navigating the costs with the benefits, and identifying those cases of net-benefit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93007/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher O'Bryan receives funding from the Invasive Animals Cooperative Research Centre in Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexander Richard Braczkowski receives funding from National Geographic, the Scientific Exploration Society and a Rufford small grant for conservation. </span></em></p>Wild leopards that live in an Indian city park like to dine on stray dogs, which new research says may help reduce the number of potentially deadly dog bites on people.Christopher J. O'Bryan, PhD Candidate, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of QueenslandAlexander Richard Braczkowski, PhD Candidate - Wildlife Cameraman, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/833282017-09-01T14:31:00Z2017-09-01T14:31:00ZMumbai floods: what happens when cities sacrifice ecology for development<p>As the storm that was <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-blame-climate-change-for-the-hurricane-harvey-disaster-blame-society-83163">hurricane Harvey</a> deluged the areas around Houston, Texas, large parts of <a href="https://theconversation.com/devastating-himalayan-floods-are-made-worse-by-an-international-blame-game-83103">northern India, Nepal and Bangladesh</a> also experienced heavy rains. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/30/mumbai-paralysed-by-floods-as-india-and-region-hit-by-worst-monsoon-rains-in-years">And the city of Mumbai was hit by another major flooding espisode</a>. Several people have died in the city, many in the <a href="http://www.ndtv.com/mumbai-news/three-storey-building-collapses-in-mumbai-many-feared-trapped-1744236">collapse</a> of a four-storey building that is believed to have been weakened by the rains. </p>
<h2>Overcrowded cities</h2>
<p>Such loss of life in urban areas is often blamed on India’s overcrowding. Cities are growing at unprecedented rates. From a population of <a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=BeDhBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA229&lpg=PA229&dq=2.86+million+in+1950+mumbai&source=bl&ots=jE4AOv3YZd&sig=a5U_2yZYiSq8T9WbSyCCis4Qigk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjV36D-zoHWAhXD0RQKHQXEC1YQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=2.86%20million%20in%201950%20mumbai&f=false">2.86 million in 1950</a>, Mumbai is now home to more than 21 million people, and is expected to have almost <a href="http://sites.uoit.ca/sustainabilitytoday/urban-and-energy-systems/Worlds-largest-cities/population-projections/city-population-2050.php">28 million by 2030</a>.</p>
<p>Built along the coastline on a series of islands, the city is surrounded by water: in mudflats, lakes, creeks, rivers, and the ever-present coastline. </p>
<p>Given the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2015/apr/23/price-property-mumbai-in-pictures">astronomical land prices</a> in many parts of Mumbai, and the extreme scarcity of land, it is no surprise that Mumbai has sacrificed its ecology for development. Real estate projects, industry, and state infrastructure (railways, roads and the city’s airport) have built over, and choked, the city’s water networks at various strategic points. Every monsoon, the city floods. </p>
<p>Mudflats, wetlands, floodplains, mangroves and wooded vegetation <a href="https://www.nature.org/media/oceansandcoasts/mangroves-for-coastal-defence.pdf">once slowed down the flow of storm water</a>. The mangrove’s complex root systems and the branching architecture of trees acted as a natural barrier to reduce the force of water flow. But now, they are built over. Garbage spread everywhere clogs the waterways. Most channels and waterways that connect water bodies have been built over too, resulting preventing streams from easily reaching the sea – forcing it to spread out into the low lying areas of the city, adding to the severe flooding.</p>
<p>Mumbai’s extensive wetlands and mudflats, which had connected parts of the city <a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=pWhx56mvzYYC&pg=PA135&lpg=PA135&dq=mumbai+history+mudflats&source=bl&ots=-Q7ArESbR7&sig=gcmD4tIO2lPB9pfyU3As0DPcFJI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiki6_FvYPWAhVNsBQKHfcOD704HhDoAQglMAA#v=onepage&q=mumbai%20history%20mudflats&f=false">since the early 19th century</a>, have disappeared. Their presence would retain the rain water and soak it into the ground, recharging the wells and ground water table. </p>
<p>Today, with nothing but concrete all around, the city’s land surface <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01944369608975688">does not</a> allow water to soak into it. In especially intense periods of rain, the devastation is extreme – at least 5000 people are believed to have perished <a href="http://www.ndtv.com/photos/news/26july-2005-the-day-mumbai-stopped-11000">in the infamous floods of 2005</a>, and the economic damage was estimated at <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4737187.stm">30 billion rupees (US$690m)</a>. </p>
<h2>The need for introspection</h2>
<p>After the 2005 floods, a committee constituted by the government investigated the reasons for the devastation, concluding that there was an urgent need to restore Mumbai’s wetlands and water systems. In 2007, the municipality <a href="http://www.alnap.org/resource/7180">formulated the Greater Mumbai Action Plan</a>, which among other efforts had a major focus on the restoration of the city’s main river, the Mithi, which had become little more <a href="http://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/mumbai-s-mithi-is-more-sewer-than-river-now/story-sQhm1HYzYvu6oTND6YS51J.html">than a sewage channel</a> in parts. </p>
<p>Yet around the same time, the chair of the committee overseeing the plan, <a href="http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=161961">water expert Madhav Chitale</a> spoke publicly about the lack of progress in implementing its recommendations. He said that <a href="http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-economy/chitale-committee-report/article1734744.ece">the city lacked basic topographic data</a> which were essential to build pathways for rainwater flow – which could have prevented flooding in subsequent rains. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184231/original/file-20170831-22435-4feiod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184231/original/file-20170831-22435-4feiod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184231/original/file-20170831-22435-4feiod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184231/original/file-20170831-22435-4feiod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184231/original/file-20170831-22435-4feiod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184231/original/file-20170831-22435-4feiod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184231/original/file-20170831-22435-4feiod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Malad creek, suburban Mumbai, 2010.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ravikhemka/4588707292">Ravi Khemka/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In recent years, climate scientists, urban specialists and civic society groups warned repeatedly that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/nov/27/mumbai-flood-rain-monsoon-city-planning">Mumbai was heading for another heavy flood</a>. A combination of the greater likelihood of high rainfall events because of climate change, and an even more inadequately prepared city, created a situation ripe for a disaster in the making. These warnings came true this monsoon season. </p>
<p>Mumbai’s planners know that climate change is leading to increased likelihood of extreme rainfall, and that restoration of the city’s wetland, river and floodplain networks is central to flood control. Yet the rush to develop construction projections in the city has often disregarded these factors. <a href="http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/Money-can%E2%80%99t-replace-nature-in-cities/article15000625.ece">Money cannot replace nature in cities</a>. A careful reading of Indian urban history shows that <a href="https://youtu.be/Fz81-iunHu4">cities have historically grown with nature providing a support system</a>. When this system is eroded – as is seen in so many Indian cities today, including in Delhi, <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2016/07/can-nature-thrive-in-cities/">Bangalore</a> and Chennai – the very survival of the city is placed in question.</p>
<p>The story of Mumbai today is a reflection of the ills that plague many Indian cities – and those in other parts of the world as well, such as Miami and Houston.
In a wetter future, it is clearer than ever that cities need ecology to grow.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83328/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Harini Nagendra receives funding from Azim Premji University for her research on urban sustainability. </span></em></p>Flooding in India’s main financial hub is a reminder that urban growth has to work with nature.Harini Nagendra, Professor of Sustainability, Azim Premji UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.