tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca-fr/topics/race-and-education-13116/articlesRace and education – La Conversation2022-11-10T13:43:35Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1919902022-11-10T13:43:35Z2022-11-10T13:43:35ZDisparities in advanced math and science skills begin by kindergarten<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492335/original/file-20221028-40936-xe5ijo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=63%2C18%2C5975%2C3992&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A child's family background has a lot to do with how advanced their math knowledge is in kindergarten.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/side-view-of-a-cheerful-african-american-4-5-years-royalty-free-image/1310735857">Nitat Termmee/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>Racial and ethnic disparities in advanced math and science skills occur far earlier in the U.S. than previously known. Our new study finds that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00169862221128299">13% of white students and 16% of Asian students</a> display advanced math skills by kindergarten. The contrasting percentage for both Black and Hispanic students is 4%.</p>
<p>These disparities then continue to occur throughout elementary school. By fifth grade, 13% of white students and 22% of Asian students display advanced math skills. About 2% of Black students and 3% of Hispanic students do so. Similar disparities occur in advanced science skills. </p>
<p>What explains these disparities? Factors that consistently explain these disparities include the family’s socioeconomic status – such as parental education and household income – and the student’s own understanding of math, science and reading during kindergarten. </p>
<p>We observed these findings in analyses of a nationally representative sample of about 11,000 U.S. elementary school students. The students were followed from the start of kindergarten until the end of fifth grade.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p><a href="https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf19304/digest/employment">Fewer than 10%</a> of U.S. scientists and engineers are Black or Hispanic. </p>
<p>Racial and ethnic disparities in advanced math and science skills are constraining the country’s <a href="https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/134/2/647/5218522">scientific innovation</a> and <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/12984/expanding-underrepresented-minority-participation-americas-science-and-technology-talent-at">economic competitiveness</a>. Students who display advanced math skills early are more likely to later obtain doctoral degrees in science, technology, engineering and math fields – collectively called STEM – and to become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1257/aeri.20190457">scientists</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjy028">inventors</a>. </p>
<p>Yet little has been known about how early racial and ethnic disparities in advanced math and science skills emerge. This information could help inform <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986216673449">efforts to support students of color</a> at a <a href="https://joanganzcooneycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/jgcc_stemstartsearly_final.pdf">key</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X16633182">time</a> of child development.</p>
<p>Currently, most efforts by <a href="https://www.air.org/event/using-research-inform-policies-and-practices-stem-education">researchers</a> and <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/204/text">policymakers</a> to address Black and Hispanic underrepresentation in STEM begin in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-018-9493-3">high</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/hsj.2020.0004">school</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.029">college</a>. Yet minority students’ <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/desc.12837">interest</a> in STEM careers begins to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21231">decline</a> by middle school, with many students viewing scientists as stereotypically white.</p>
<p>Recent work suggests that racial and ethnic disparities in advanced math skills are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X19864116">increasing in size</a> in the U.S. by the upper elementary grades. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>We were able to identify the factors that mostly explained disparities in advanced math or science skills between Hispanic and white students during elementary school. These factors included the family’s socioeconomic status, the student’s emerging bilingualism, and the student’s early knowledge about math, science and reading. However, these same factors explained only some of the disparities between Black and white students.</p>
<p>Other factors we did not study could be involved, including the greater likelihood of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1162/003465304323031049">Black students</a> to attend <a href="https://pricetheory.uchicago.edu/levitt/Papers/FryerLevittFallingBehind2004.pdf">lower-quality</a> <a href="https://www.epi.org/publication/poor-black-children-are-much-more-likely-to-attend-high-poverty-schools-than-poor-white-children/">schools</a>. The emerging bilingualism of many Hispanic students may help facilitate advanced STEM skills through greater <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.12.007">mathematical reasoning</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2014.07.005">procedural learning</a> and problem-solving. </p>
<p>To increase STEM representation in high school, college and the workforce, efforts by educators and policymakers to support talented students of color may need to begin by the elementary grades.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191990/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul L. Morgan receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Education, and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. </span></em></p>By kindergarten, white and Asian students are three to four times as likely as Black and Hispanic students to display advanced math skills.Paul L. Morgan, Harry and Marion Eberly Fellow, Professor of Education and Demography, Department of Education Policy Studies, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1615032021-06-03T15:04:18Z2021-06-03T15:04:18ZHow young Santomean immigrants in Portugal deal with identity and language<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/403590/original/file-20210531-27-1xyyz7e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Street mural by Nomen in Quinta do Mocho, Lisbon, to highlight immigrant experiences in Portugal.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">PATRICIA DE MELO MOREIRA/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>‘My teacher always tells me, “Ah Clara, Clara, Claaaara, you have to speak like <em>this</em>!"’</p>
<p>Clara is a young Santomean woman who immigrated to Portugal to pursue her senior high school education. She grew up in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sao-Tome-and-Principe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a>, a group of islands in the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa. She was a key participant in my <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15348458.2021.1878359">study</a> on this immigrant experience.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1763/the-portuguese-colonization-of-sao-tome-and-princi/">Colonised</a> by the Portuguese in the 1490s, the islands <a href="https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-183">became independent</a> in 1975. The new republic adopted Portuguese as its sole official language. </p>
<p>Today, Portuguese is the language spoken by over 98% of the Santomean population. The remainder are mostly elders who speak one of four creole languages. In post-colonial times, Portuguese universities have continued to receive students from the Portuguese-speaking countries of Africa.</p>
<p>Clara speaks Portuguese as her first and only language. But, she says, her teachers often comment on the way she speaks it. European Portuguese and Santomean Portuguese are very similar. They could be likened to British and American English. For example, there are some differences in vocabulary, pronunciation and sentence structure. </p>
<p>The fact that Clara’s Portuguese teacher picks her out about her pronunciation is not surprising. It reflects the idea that one variety of language is superior to others. This has implications for people’s identify and sense of self.</p>
<p>In my <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15348458.2021.1878359">study</a> I found that a crucial issue for Santomean students who immigrate to Portugal is that identifying as both Portuguese native speakers and as Black Africans means negotiating two potentially conflicting identities – in a place where most native speakers are white. This means they also have to adapt to deal with racism. </p>
<h2>Forming identities</h2>
<p>As a sociolinguist, my <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15348458.2021.1878359">research</a> set out to explore the use of Santomean Portuguese among young immigrants in Portugal and how this is linked with their identity. </p>
<p>How do Santomeans in Portugal negotiate being both native speakers of Portuguese and Black Africans? Answering this question is key to understanding the role that language plays in racial boundary-making and identity processes.</p>
<p>To address the question, I conducted in-depth interviews with 18 Santomean immigrant youth (7 women and 11 men) in two towns in Central Portugal. Clara was one of them. </p>
<p>Identity is created at multiple levels at the same time. It becomes meaningful only when we engage in processes called alignment (Do I identify with this person?) and authentication (Is this real and genuine?). For example, think about your school or peer group experience and the different cliques that exist – the nerds, the popular kids, the jocks, the loners. All acquire meaning in relation to the other groups. </p>
<p>So how do Santomeans in Portugal self-identify? My research showed that young Santomeans identified on three levels: their language use and practices, racial categorisation, and the PALOP social category. </p>
<p>"PALOP” stands for <em>Países Africanos de Língua Oficial Portuguesa</em>, which means Portuguese-speaking countries of Africa. It refers to the six African countries in which Portuguese is an official language – Angola, Cabo Verde, Guinea Bissau, Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe, and Equatorial Guinea. Santomeans use this term to describe people from these countries.</p>
<p>I examined each level of identity formation. </p>
<h2>Language use and practices</h2>
<p>One could say that Santomeans linguistically align with Portuguese nationals since they speak the same language. But from a Portuguese perspective, the variety of Portuguese spoken by the African students is problematic. For the Santomeans a poor command of the language is often considered to be one of the main elements that hinders their success at school. Not being understood by the Portuguese is detrimental to Santomeans’ integration. </p>
<p>But many Santomeans found strategies to be understood by the Portuguese. The most common is imitation, highlighted by one of the participants in the study: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>We have to speak in a way that they… like, try to imitate them so they can understand us.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>But even so, Santomeans said they were frequently reminded that they spoke differently based on three main characteristics: slang words, speech rate and a different pronunciation of the r-sounds. </p>
<p>Based on these elements, Santomeans did not feel that they aligned with Portuguese nationals even though they spoke the same language.</p>
<h2>Racial categorisation</h2>
<p>When it comes to racial categorisation, Santomeans did not align with the Portuguese either, but with other African students.</p>
<p>For Santomeans, the racial conversations and practices in Portugal differed from their experiences back home. The focus in São Tomé was not on the common Black/white distinction, but rather on distinctions among local ethnolinguistic groups (groups unified by both a common ethnicity and language). All these groups identified as Black. </p>
<p>A few of the Santomean participants expressed how strange and uncomfortable it was for them to be part of a visible minority in Portugal. Santomeans in Portugal learnt that they were seen as Black, and what this meant in a dominantly white society. This process was mainly derogatory, as there are few benefits of being Black in Portugal.</p>
<h2>Portuguese-speaking countries of Africa</h2>
<p>Finally, there was the positioning of identity through the social category of belonging to an African Portuguese-speaking country. Here the affiliation was not as clear-cut. </p>
<p>Sometimes, Santomeans included themselves in the category and sometimes they didn’t. Santomeans often referred to <em>Países Africanos de Língua Oficial Portuguesa</em> students as being Portuguese-speaking Africans who also have a home language other than Portuguese. The Santomeans I interviewed lived together with Guineans and Cabo Verdeans, most of whom spoke a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/creole-languages">creole</a> as their first language. </p>
<p>In contrast, most young Santomeans typically didn’t have a common language other than Portuguese. As such, Santomeans didn’t always align with other members of the category of belonging to an African Portuguese-speaking country in relation to language use.</p>
<h2>Why this matters</h2>
<p>These findings reflect two main divisions: authentic versus inauthentic speakers of Portuguese; and white versus Black individuals. </p>
<p>What does this mean and why does it matter? </p>
<p>Beliefs, likely perpetuated since colonial times, indicate that “authentic” speakers of Portuguese are white individuals, and “inauthentic” speakers of Portuguese are Black individuals. But Santomeans are Black individuals and speak Portuguese as their first (and often only) language. Therefore, young immigrant Santomeans in Portugal have to adapt to align with different categories according to their needs. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-dimensions-of-human-inequality-affect-who-and-what-we-are-137296">How the dimensions of human inequality affect who and what we are</a>
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<p>My findings served to highlight the importance of race in the process of identity formation among these Santomeans. It creates challenges which can result in lower achievement in school and lower chances of good employment. Santomeans in Portugal learn that they are being seen as Black, and discover what this means in a dominantly white society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161503/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marie-Eve Bouchard received funding from the Swedish Wenner-Gren Foundations and the Department of Romance Studies and Classics at Stockholm University. </span></em></p>Students from São Tomé and Príncipe must negotiate being both native speakers of Portuguese and Black Africans. And how they speak Portuguese is perceived as an issue.Marie-Eve Bouchard, Assistant professor, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/936072018-04-06T10:55:52Z2018-04-06T10:55:52ZWhy a post-racial British society remains a myth – even in universities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211706/original/file-20180323-54878-1clhlju.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/home">via shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Racism is truly alive and kicking in British society, not least in liberal, progressive universities. This was evident in early March when a black female student <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-nottinghamshire-43342058">released a video</a> of people shouting “we hate the blacks” outside her room in her halls of residence. Unfortunately, this incident is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/mar/11/racist-universities-not-tolerant-rugaro-chisango-nottingham-trent">far from</a> isolated. </p>
<p>In my new <a href="https://policypress.co.uk/white-privilege">book</a>, I examine how race and racism continue to disadvantage those from black and minority ethnic backgrounds both in universities and wider society. By virtue of their racial identity, such groups are positioned as outsiders in a society which values and privileges whiteness.</p>
<p>In Britain, policies that attempt to be inclusive actually portray an image of a post-racial society, in which racial inequalities and racism no longer exist. In reality vast inequalities between white, black and minority ethnic communities continue to exist. They <a href="https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/race-report-healing-divided-britain">exist</a> in the access to the labour market, in schools – and in higher education. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211708/original/file-20180323-54875-skid9j.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211708/original/file-20180323-54875-skid9j.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211708/original/file-20180323-54875-skid9j.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211708/original/file-20180323-54875-skid9j.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211708/original/file-20180323-54875-skid9j.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211708/original/file-20180323-54875-skid9j.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211708/original/file-20180323-54875-skid9j.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">White students are more likely to get a first or a 2:1.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.ecu.ac.uk/publications/equality-in-higher-education-statistical-report-2017/">Equalities Challenge Unit</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Bastions of whiteness</h2>
<p>On the one hand, universities position themselves as bastions of equality and diversity, liberal in their outlook and at the forefront of instigating change in their contributions to knowledge and adding to the experiences of students. Yet, on the other hand, they fail to represent the ethnic diversity of the student body, with the vast majority of the most senior positions occupied by white people. And they continue to be dominated by those from white, middle-class backgrounds.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ecu.ac.uk/publications/equality-in-higher-education-statistical-report-2017/">Recent evidence</a> from the Equality Challenge Unit, which works to further equality and diversity for staff and students at UK universities, suggests that black, minority ethnic staff are under-represented in the highest contract levels and over-represented in the lowest, making up only 1.6% of heads of institutions and only 2.9% working as senior managers and directors. There are only 80 black professors in the UK compared to 13,295 who are white – or 0.6%. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211707/original/file-20180323-54869-1klluc6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211707/original/file-20180323-54869-1klluc6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211707/original/file-20180323-54869-1klluc6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211707/original/file-20180323-54869-1klluc6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211707/original/file-20180323-54869-1klluc6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211707/original/file-20180323-54869-1klluc6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211707/original/file-20180323-54869-1klluc6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">92% of professors are white.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.ecu.ac.uk/publications/equality-in-higher-education-statistical-report-2017/">Equalities Challenge Unit</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A <a href="https://www.ucu.org.uk/media/7861/The-experiences-of-black-and-minority-ethnic-staff-in-further-and-higher-education-Feb-16/pdf/BME_survey_report_Feb161.pdf">2016 survey</a> conducted by the Universities College Union found that 72% of black academics reported having experienced some form of bullying and harassment from colleagues. They also found themselves excluded from decision making by being a token person on committees and subject to cultural insensitivity.</p>
<h2>Not treated as racism</h2>
<p>In research for my book among people who work in higher education, I’ve found that racist behaviour manifests itself in subtle, nuanced and covert ways and is sometimes dismissed and ignored by senior managers who fail to take it seriously. One woman I interviewed experienced subtle micro-agressions such as not being addressed in meetings, not being given eye contact or asked for her opinion. She also witnessed derogatory remarks made in public about minority ethnic groups from the person who she alleged was racially bullying her. </p>
<p>When complaints of racism are made, I’ve been told of instances where they weren’t treated as racist. The acceptance of such covert racism undermines the position of the victim and questions whether such behaviour is genuine. This perpetuates white privilege in which mechanisms are used to ensure that those from black and minority ethnic backgrounds are positioned as outsiders in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/whiteness-characterises-higher-education-institutions-so-why-are-we-surprised-by-racism-93147">white space of the academy</a>.</p>
<p>I’ve heard about some senior managers in universities who were reluctant to recognise or address racism, refusing to accept it can take place in the corridors of the liberal academy. One person I interviewed spoke of negative and derogatory comments that were made to her and about other minority ethnic groups. She complained to her manager who said it was probably a “clash of personalities” rather than racism.</p>
<p>The idea that racism could not take place in higher education is related to a refusal to accept its existence. And it reinforces the protection of white identities which <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01425692.2015.1073099">mask covert acts of racism</a>. If a senior manager refuses to accept such behaviour as racism, they are in fact dismissing such behaviour and discouraging others from complaining about racism. Given that senior management roles are occupied by white people, this behaviour works to reinforce and privilege whiteness. This process allows white people to actively protect and perpetuate their own position of privilege and the whiteness of institutions.</p>
<h2>Exacerbating inequalities</h2>
<p>Some policies designed to address these issues have in fact exacerbated rather than addressed inequalities. On the face of it, policy making on inclusion in higher education paints a positive picture of equity. Most universities have specific policies on equity and inclusion. And, bearing in mind that universities, just like other organisations, are legally bound to comply with the <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/contents">2010 Equality Act</a>, this should be relatively simple to deliver. </p>
<p>The most important development of the Equality Act was its inclusion of “protected characteristics” – one of which is race. It placed a <a href="http://www.pfc.org.uk/pdf/equality-duty.pdf">general duty</a> on schools and higher education institutions to have due regard to eliminate discrimination, harassment and victimisation to advance equality of opportunity and foster good relations. </p>
<p>But in its attempts to protect individuals from racism and discrimination, the Equality Act has actually marginalised the very people it was designed to help. The law brought together all previous legislation into one single act to provide a legal framework to protect people’s equal rights. Before this, individual legislation such as the <a href="https://www.universities-scotland.ac.uk/raceequalitytoolkit/legislation.htm">Race Relations Amendment Act</a> focused on race. This has now been amalgamated with other legislation under the Equality Act. In doing so, the attention given to racial inequalities has been eroded. </p>
<p>Within the culture of higher education, this means that white privilege is often protected and whiteness is reinforced in a way that can fail to acknowledge racism. Until higher education institutions wake up to this realisation, black and minority ethnic groups will be continue to experience racism whether it’s in halls of residence or the corridors of academic institutions.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93607/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kalwant Bhopal has recently received funding from the British Academy/Leverhulme exploring the Athena Swan and Race Equality Charter and the Universities and College Union to exmaime the impact of the Race Equality Charter. </span></em></p>Racist behaviour in universities manifests itself in nuanced and covert ways.Kalwant Bhopal, Professor of Education and Social Justice, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/596152016-08-15T11:40:24Z2016-08-15T11:40:24ZWhy we should talk to children about race<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/133260/original/image-20160805-478-g68myz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s a situation that many parents dread. Encountering a black man in the street for the first time, a white child might loudly ask something like: “Mummy, why does that man have dirty skin?” After cringing, shushing, or offering a distraction, parents may wonder where this kind of question has come from, how to deal with the situation or indeed avoid it in the future.</p>
<p>From a surprisingly early age, children can distinguish between faces from different racial groups. By the time they are three months old, experiments have shown that white, black, and Asian infants <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16466424">tend to look longer at faces from their own racial group</a> or familiar racial groups compared to faces from other, less familiar racial groups. By three to four years old, children <a href="http://spp.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/08/03/1948550615598379.abstract">can consistently and accurately identify others by race</a>. The ability to differentiate between people on the basis of race improves with age, with <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2010-02829-002">teenagers</a> and adults <a href="http://psych.colorado.edu/%7Etito/Ito%26Urland2003.pdf">automatically and effortlessly categorising others</a> on the basis of skin colour.</p>
<h2>Choosing to be colourblind</h2>
<p>In many societies there is a widespread belief that individuals should receive the same treatment regardless of their race, ethnicity, gender, and ability. Partly in an attempt to appear egalitarian, many adults adopt a <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/culturally-speaking/201112/colorblind-ideology-is-form-racism">“colourblind”</a> approach to race – avoiding mentioning race under the guise that if one doesn’t “see” race, then one cannot be considered racist. For example, <a href="http://pss.sagepub.com/content/17/11/949.short">in studies</a> using a photo identification game, white participants asked to identify a particular face from an array of faces are less likely to use race to describe the faces, particularly when paired in the task with a black partner. </p>
<p>The norms enforced by this behaviour have now become so entrenched that adults tend to find situations that force them to talk about race extremely <a href="http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/psp954918.pdf">uncomfortable and anxiety-provoking</a>, leading to a complete avoidance of the topic in social interactions. </p>
<p>Even when interacting with their young children, parents avoid race. In one study that observed the way parents read a storybook created to raise issues about race relations and racial prejudice with their four to five-year-olds, the majority of parents tended <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22537347">not to mention race</a>, despite it being the theme of the book. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129391/original/image-20160705-823-1t9c2o1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129391/original/image-20160705-823-1t9c2o1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129391/original/image-20160705-823-1t9c2o1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129391/original/image-20160705-823-1t9c2o1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129391/original/image-20160705-823-1t9c2o1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129391/original/image-20160705-823-1t9c2o1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129391/original/image-20160705-823-1t9c2o1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Let’s talk about race.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-388495138/stock-photo-geography-worldwide-explorer-continent-country-concept.html?src=ZSfWBS-PFMPybiHZj3gxdA-1-59">www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But ignoring race does not make it go away. Like adults and older children, young children are aware of race even if no one seems to be talking about it. This may lead young children to ask questions about racial differences, which are sometimes embarrassing and untimely, in order to gain a better understanding of the world around them. </p>
<p>Only after having acquired a better understanding of social norms regarding race, at around ten years old, do <a href="http://www.ase.tufts.edu/psychology/sommerslab/documents/raceInterApfelbaumDevPsych2008.pdf">children also begin to show colourblind behaviour</a> and avoid using race to identify the target in a photo identification task. Like adults, older children avoid mentioning race even at the expense of how well they might perform in the task at hand. </p>
<p>But taking a colourblind approach to race is not the best way to promote equality and reduce racial prejudice. Studies with white people who avoid talking about race <a href="http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/psp954918.pdf">show less friendly behaviour</a> when playing a photo identification task with a black partner compared to a white partner. Like adults, nine to 12-year-olds also tend to find situations where they have to talk about race <a href="http://spp.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/08/03/1948550615598379.abstract">uncomfortable, nerve-wracking, and unpleasant</a>.</p>
<h2>A new approach</h2>
<p>But if colourblindness – and the tendency to avoid talking about race – impacts on relationships between diverse people, what approach should we take in order to resolve racial inequalities? The answer lies in embracing and celebrating our racial differences instead of minimising or even altogether ignoring them. </p>
<p>Fully recognising the multiculturalism in our society appears to be a better strategy. For example, in one study children who were read a story that placed value in racial diversity were found to be <a href="http://pss.sagepub.com/content/early/2010/09/28/0956797610384741.abstract">more likely to identify acts of racial discrimination</a> and more likely to sit next to racially diverse peers in the school lunch room. In another study, white adults who adopted a multicultural approach (as opposed to a colourblind approach) <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002210311100240X">showed less prejudiced behaviour when conversing with an Asian partner</a> about racism and diversity. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129388/original/image-20160705-817-81ja50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/129388/original/image-20160705-817-81ja50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129388/original/image-20160705-817-81ja50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129388/original/image-20160705-817-81ja50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129388/original/image-20160705-817-81ja50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=792&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129388/original/image-20160705-817-81ja50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=792&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/129388/original/image-20160705-817-81ja50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=792&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We need to see the world in colour.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-101952727/stock-vector-a-colorblind-world.html?src=dt_last_search-5">www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our concerns about discussing race can be reduced by placing more value in racial diversity, resulting in <a href="http://pss.sagepub.com/content/20/7/838.abstract">less stressful and more successful interactions</a> with people from racial groups different from our own. As a caveat, most of the research mentioned in this article has focused primarily on the reactions of white participants. So there is more work to do researching attitudes and behaviour in diverse contexts with individuals who identify as racial minority group members. </p>
<p>For children, curiosity about their surroundings and the people they meet comes naturally. Rather than brushing aside children’s questions about race in an attempt to avoid social embarrassment, we ought to embrace and celebrate the differences that make us unique, remarkable, and that colour the world we live in. </p>
<p>Talking with children about race from an early age may not only derail embarrassing questions, but may, more importantly, serve to increase children’s comfort when interacting with people from different racial and ethnic groups – and increase the comfort of those they are interacting with too. </p>
<p>Given that we live in a society that is becoming increasingly diverse, children will be expected to interact with individuals from many racial and ethnic backgrounds. Children need to be prepared for this future – one way to do this is to encourage them to see this diversity as a positive feature of their worlds. It’s time to talk about race.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/59615/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanda Williams does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As they grow up, children learn not to talk about race, but a positive emphasis on diversity is better than teaching colourblindness.Amanda Williams, Lecturer in Psychology of Education, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/496352015-11-17T11:02:18Z2015-11-17T11:02:18ZAre Texas textbooks making cops more trigger-happy?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101758/original/image-20151112-9400-1x0szog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Are textbooks having an impact on the framing of race issues?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/thefuturistics/3433367251/in/photolist-6eoUt6-aHkDq-8Pq3AD-5s4rom-a6uxGP-5ARCL9-49Bxe4-4DX1uB-wbt8X4-5fpdU8-6WEyNP-6R8GC1-aDhKm7-o8SL53-oq6kUR-oq6pq8-o8SZbK-o8SqPm-aPD3Q-6Ffq2Q-e88ekw-5myzaa-8hpwV-exYUot-5B458o-jGpeW-7GWSGL-vyRHtA-6DmXxF-792dMH-8kcmbn-9d75aM-dghBWj-67GiC6-5v71PY-7iiWkG-4BmTmt-6sThC-bYhfi3-6t2VUt-7Mio86-bYhfms-bYhfk5-5zvW6T-3Z6JSb-8HFHUk-a1s28E-bWH4pS-5zAeaq-272njD">thefuturistics</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Perusing a passage on the Civil War in a high school student’s history textbook in Texas might leave you wondering if black Americans were ever enslaved and if there really is any truth to <a href="http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentID=15592">anti-black racism</a> at all.</p>
<p>A natural question is, are these textbooks having an impact in framing issues of race on the reader? </p>
<p>The fact is that Texas’ size and buying power <a href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2012/jun/21/how-texas-inflicts-bad-textbooks-on-us/">influence</a> how <a href="http://philpapers.org/rec/APPTPO">textbooks get written</a> for children throughout the nation.</p>
<p>As an ethnographic researcher of race and education in Texas for the last 10 years, I have come to recognize that the US history textbook materials available to high school students can end up perpetuating damaging images of blackness. </p>
<p>Textbook language may not exactly pull the trigger of a police officer’s gun, but it could very well drive the thinking involved in the act of shooting an unarmed black male. </p>
<p>This becomes evident during depositions on <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-32740523">police brutality</a> by law enforcement officials. Many of these police officers describe their fear of the black male victims. They often said they anticipated violence and presented black aggression as their justification for firing. The expressed beliefs of these officers about black males sound very similar to the language authored by writers and publishers of <a href="http://historynewsnetwork.org/blog/153644">many Texas textbooks</a>. </p>
<h2>Perpetuating fear and ignorance</h2>
<p>Research has shown that fear and a lack of understanding of the context in which other people live (especially racial context) can have fatal outcomes. </p>
<p>Former Professor of Sociology <a href="http://barryglassner.com/">Barry Glassner</a> <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=B9AWBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=glassner+2010&ots=wPlsRoOi4T&sig=RtK6KUa23HjupKo-TtfbzLULiT8#v=onepage&q=glassner%202010&f=false">explains</a> how such fears are perpetuated. Glassner shows how politicians and other opinion leaders emphasize the violence perpetuated by black males over the arguably greater amount of violence black males suffer themselves. </p>
<p>This ends up fostering a fear of black men in American minds and consequently in white police officers’ imaginations.</p>
<p>Further, Glassner notes, much of what is believed about black males comes from “omissions” made in the media and in news reports about black victims of crimes. Similar omissions occur in textbook passages as well and students are left thinking that during slavery white suffering outweighed black suffering.</p>
<p>This makes it difficult to connect a history of servitude and oppression to current day inequality.</p>
<h2>Connections with today’s violence</h2>
<p>Consider the language authored by writers and publishers of many Texas textbooks, specifically <a href="http://historynewsnetwork.org/blog/153644">David Kennedy</a>, the author of 15 editions of the nationally used advanced placement text, The American Pageant. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101747/original/image-20151112-9369-1hcjlgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101747/original/image-20151112-9369-1hcjlgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101747/original/image-20151112-9369-1hcjlgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101747/original/image-20151112-9369-1hcjlgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101747/original/image-20151112-9369-1hcjlgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101747/original/image-20151112-9369-1hcjlgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101747/original/image-20151112-9369-1hcjlgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The language in some books perpetuates stereotypical images.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/smichael/4563914649/in/photolist-7XifPB-97apY9-sKzMF-JKY7K-JKZ9k-5Tfugo-9gbuW-8atxJD-38wtvn-9gbuU-8WzZvT-9cnGN-76RW2m-76N3gg-76RWJE-76RWBG-473PX3-46YFTK-asUdtJ-asUgh3-76N3qr-jsrTQP-gymF1g-9acf3H-aFonfx-96Fsth-6yTaFB-76N3nz-6vouPh-8atykn-4MuaYs-7EJEN-9Rwwft-6eYBaF-7FkcGW-6eYB5M-6Z17DN-6MUipK-8awNTE-6Z19wd-473Lhy-6eYBJH-8atzNg-6Z17GE-6YW6w6-46YL98-6eYBEr-8atzqt-6f3MbQ-6f3MfY">Sarah Browning</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Kennedy perpetuates stereotypical images associated with black people such as laziness and black male aggression. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.scuc.txed.net/webpages/cbaker/files/chapter%2016%20testing%20the%20new%20nation.pdf">following passage</a> highlights anti-white language and even blames black slaves for the perpetuation of these words. Notice that it omits common racial epithets for black slaves. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Many of the poorer whites were hardly better off economically than the slaves; some indeed, were not so well off…some of the least prosperous non-slaveholding whites were scorned even by slaves as “poor white trash.” Known also as “hillbillies,” “crackers,” or “clay eaters,” they were often described as listless, shiftless, and misshapen. Later investigations have revealed that many of them were not simply lazy but sick, suffering from malnutrition and parasites…“ </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Or, the <a href="http://www.scuc.txed.net/webpages/cbaker/files/chapter%2016%20testing%20the%20new%20nation.pdf">following</a> that suggests that white racial beliefs of black laziness are rooted in black people actually avoiding work, and not in racist notions of superiority:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Not surprisingly, victims of the "peculiar institution” devised countless ways to throw sand in the gears. When workers are not voluntarily hired and adequately compensated, they can hardly be expected to work with alacrity. Accordingly, slaves often slowed the pace of their labor to the barest minimum that would spare them the lash, thus fostering the myth of black “laziness” in the minds of whites. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Or, yet <a href="http://www.scuc.txed.net/webpages/cbaker/files/chapter%2016%20testing%20the%20new%20nation.pdf">another quote</a>, that suggests that black slaves were given more freedoms than we are typically aware of and that these freedoms were willingly granted by white slave owners:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Within this paternalistic system, black slaves were able to make reciprocal demands on their white owners and to protect a “cultural space” of their own in which family and religion particularly could flourish. The crowning paradox of the slaveholder paternalism was that in treating their property more humanely, slave-owners implicitly recognized the humanity of their slaves and thereby subverted the racist underpinnings upon which their slave society existed. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Now consider how law enforcers such as <a href="http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/08/10/the-cop">Darren Wilson,</a> the infamous cop who shot and killed Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, in 2014 <a href="http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2014/11/darren_wilson_s_racial_portrayal_of_michael_brown_as_a_superhuman_demon.html">described</a> his altercation with Brown. He said it made him “fearful” – like “a five-year-old child fighting <a href="http://marvel.com/characters/25/hulk">The Hulk</a>.” He insisted that he had never seen such “evil.” He said Brown behaved in a “monstrous” fashion that made him fear for his life. </p>
<p>Wilson’s language demonstrates the commonalities among racial profiling of black youth by police officers and the revisionist historical narrative of blackness in the United States that is available in the textbooks.</p>
<p>What Wilson did not mention was that he cursed at Brown and harassed him prior to the altercation that resulted in the teen running from a hail of bullets, as reported by Brown’s friend, eyewitness <a href="http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/eyewitness-michael-brown-fatal-shooting-missouri">Dorian Johnson</a>.</p>
<h2>How violence of black lives is omitted</h2>
<p>This is not all. Texas history textbooks are replete with such revisionist history. </p>
<p>Consider the <a href="http://www.scuc.txed.net/webpages/cbaker/files/chapter%2016%20testing%20the%20new%20nation.pdf">following interpretation</a> of <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p1518.html">Nat Turner’s rebellion</a> from <a href="http://www.scuc.txed.net/webpages/cbaker/ap_us_history.cfm?subpage=40296">The American Pageant</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The state’s response to abolition was to strengthen the slave codes and moments like “Nat Turner’s rebellion in 1831 sent a wave of hysteria sweeping over the snowy cotton fields and planters in growing numbers slept with pistols by their pillows.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The violence and fatal anti-black oppression that historians argue had fueled the uprising <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=iVL74heFU-AC&oi=fnd&pg=PP16&dq=nat+turner+black+resistance&ots=DCDdhJoW3F&sig=XeNoen4RNr94ySgZukq8Z5G7Iy0#v=onepage&q=nat%20turner%20black%20resistance&f=false">were left out</a>. Instead, the “fear” and “anxiety” Turner purportedly put in the “hearts of white Americans” “causing them to sleep with their guns under their pillows” is the only description available. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101748/original/image-20151112-9400-b4pb9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/101748/original/image-20151112-9400-b4pb9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101748/original/image-20151112-9400-b4pb9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101748/original/image-20151112-9400-b4pb9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101748/original/image-20151112-9400-b4pb9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101748/original/image-20151112-9400-b4pb9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/101748/original/image-20151112-9400-b4pb9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some books omit the violence in black lives.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/peskylibrary/1403426466/in/photolist-391VN3-ahMdtU-7AdSCZ-93ubki-8GnaRo-7AhC65-7AhvC1-3cDw3j-3cDw33-3cDw39-7AdGvk-7AdHnT-bihuKk-4XfjkY-73Gkqp-7AdRwD-7AhvRm-7AdHyK-7AdRQp-7AdGWg-7AdHbt-qZAQDS-7tA8xf-7twauZ-7tA8zA-76VtMk-7AdHVn-7AhBPW-7AdHHZ-6h3GqB-7tA8w9-6h7SMC-7tA8wy-caGvyU-npGqZ5-caGnC5-76Z9wm-76ZgtL-76ZgT5-76VkSg-76VjWK-76Zfyj-76Zhum-76ZhZS-76Vo6M-boKnnJ-61zmr5-61v6QV-61v7zn-61v75B">Pesky Librarians</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This potentially translates into narratives that are absorbed and expressed by law enforcers such as Wilson. Whether or not Darren Wilson was actually scared is not the point. The more telling detail is that he comes up with a narrative of his own victimization that sounds all too familiar. </p>
<p>Darren Wilson and the white Americans who slept with their guns under their pillows during slavery become the focus. The lived reality of pain and violence of black victims is omitted.</p>
<h2>Some more examples</h2>
<p>Representations of race in American history textbooks have become more exclusionary as they show even <a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/13/education/13texas.html?_r=0">less</a> regard for an accurate historical portrayal of black oppression. </p>
<p>The Texas State School Board (SBOE) has been debating whether or not to even include the word “slave” in the textbook since 2010. Just recently <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/150-years-later-schools-are-still-a-battlefield-for-interpreting-civil-war/2015/07/05/e8fbd57e-2001-11e5-bf41-c23f5d3face1_story.html">Texas education officials suggested</a> that slavery should be considered only as a side issue when teaching the Civil War.</p>
<p>Another recent example comes from a Houston-area mom, who conducted a cogent analysis of her ninth-grade son’s geography book. She demonstrated why her son was so upset through tweets of video and photographs of the textbook’s <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2015/10/04/living/mcgraw-hill-slavery-textbook-mom-complaint-feat/">whitewashing language.</a> She shows that the geography text refers to black slaves as “workers.” </p>
<p>Once her pictures went viral on social media outlets, <a href="http://www.newsweek.com/company-behind-texas-textbook-calling-slaves-workers-apologizes-we-made-380168">David Levin</a>, the CEO of McGraw-Hill, the major textbook publisher responsible for the geography textbook, expressed promises of a better review process in the future. He called the word choice of workers a mistake and issued an apology.</p>
<p>However, the contention around Texas textbooks and race continues. </p>
<h2>How can we stop the next Mike Brown?</h2>
<p>If we are to truly move toward making black lives matter, we must start with how we talk about black people in history. And more importantly, who we allow to shape the conversation on that history.</p>
<p>Often we do not focus on the important role of civil servants on textbook adoption committees, but <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=5m2_xeJ4VdwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=loewen+2008&ots=Pz1wxn9Ssp&sig=uAYyhptxKjDPQSh-N4DaZpg61J0#v=onepage&q=loewen%202008&f=false">their choices</a> could well perpetuate racist beliefs and also lead to potentially fatal consequences. </p>
<p>As mentioned earlier, the decisions Texas makes matters beyond state boundaries. So, I suggest we start with a Texas State Board of Education that represents diverse racial perspectives. As <a href="http://tea.texas.gov/index4.aspx?id=2147506719">these officials</a> are elected, concerned citizens must support candidates that will bring a more critical eye to which materials are to be adopted into the schools. </p>
<p>I also suggest that we draft stronger policy restrictions on the materials that come out of major Texas publishing houses. </p>
<p>If public schools continue to teach police officers and members of society in general that black slaves and poor whites suffered the same conditions or that black resistance to unpaid labor and death was unnecessary and overly violent, how will we be able to stop the death of the next Mike Brown?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/49635/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Naomi Reed does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Textbook language can influence thinking. So, what do some textbooks say on issues of race?Naomi Reed, Post Doctoral Fellow, The University of Texas at AustinLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/498222015-10-28T05:31:24Z2015-10-28T05:31:24ZWill name-blind UCAS forms make university admissions fairer?<p>David Cameron has announced that applicants’ <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/oct/26/david-cameron-conservatives-party-of-equality">names will be removed from UCAS forms</a> from 2017 in an effort to combat ethnic inequalities in admissions to top universities. The prime minister’s announcement comes <a href="http://bit.ly/1RaCU2j">in response to evidence</a> that British ethnic minority applicants to highly selective universities are less likely to be offered places than white British applicants.</p>
<p>My own <a href="http://bit.ly/1RaCU2j">research on admission to Russell Group universities</a>, for example, found that offer rates were between seven and 16 percentage points lower for applicants from British ethnic minority backgrounds than for white British applicants after taking into account their A-level grades and the popularity of the courses applied for. Other studies also suggest that applicants from <a href="http://bit.ly/1RaCU2j">lower social class backgrounds, disadvantaged neighbourhoods and state schools</a> are less likely to be offered places by top universities than applicants with similar qualifications from more advantaged backgrounds.</p>
<h2>Unconscious bias</h2>
<p>As Cameron <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/oct/26/david-cameron-conservatives-party-of-equality">points out</a>, the reasons for these disparities in university offer rates “are complex, but unconscious bias is clearly a risk”. According to the <a href="http://www.ecu.ac.uk/guidance-resources/employment-and-careers/staff-recruitment/unconscious-bias/">Equality Challenge Unit</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Unconscious bias happens by our brains making incredibly quick judgements and assessments of people and situations without us realising. Our biases are influenced by our background, cultural environment and personal experiences. We may not even be aware of these views and opinions, or be aware of their full impact and implications.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Evidence from experiments carried out in the US suggests that unconscious bias can be triggered by names alone. One study showed that identical emails from prospective postgraduate students were more likely to receive a response from US college professors if the <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/apl-0000022.pdf">sender’s name indicated they were white</a> rather than African American, Hispanic, Indian or Chinese. In another study, identical applications for jobs as laboratory managers in US universities were rated more positively when the candidate had a <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/109/41/16474.abstract">male name rather than a female one</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99875/original/image-20151027-5001-11gx3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/99875/original/image-20151027-5001-11gx3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99875/original/image-20151027-5001-11gx3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99875/original/image-20151027-5001-11gx3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99875/original/image-20151027-5001-11gx3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99875/original/image-20151027-5001-11gx3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/99875/original/image-20151027-5001-11gx3u0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A fair chance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Students via Diego Cervo/www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To my knowledge, no study has explored whether unconscious bias affects UK university admissions decisions. But given that admissions selectors currently see applicants’ names on UCAS forms, the possibility that unconscious bias creeps into the decision-making process cannot be ruled out.</p>
<h2>Risk of unfairness lingers</h2>
<p>Removing names from UCAS forms will probably help eliminate ethnic and social disparities in university offer rates for comparably qualified candidates – but not as much as we might hope. </p>
<p>Admissions selectors will still see each applicant’s home address, the school they attended, what they have written about themselves in their personal statement and what their teacher has written about them in their reference. All of this may provide subliminal clues as to an applicant’s ethnic and social background. Where applicants are interviewed as part of the selection process, the scope for unconscious bias becomes wider still.</p>
<p>So simply removing names from UCAS forms will not be enough to safeguard against the risk of unfair admissions decisions. Effective strategies to eliminate the influence of unconscious bias on the admissions decision-making processes are also needed. This will require universities to improve the objectivity, transparency and accountability of their decision-making. They should also ensure that admissions selectors are <a href="http://www.spa.ac.uk/support/goodpractice/equality/bias">trained</a> to recognise and resist unconscious bias.</p>
<h2>Taken seriously at last</h2>
<p>Although name-blind UCAS forms will not eliminate the issue, the proposal is still a welcome development. It signals that the issue of ethnic inequalities in university admissions is finally being taken seriously. </p>
<p>Concerns about ethnic and social inequalities in offer rates from top universities have been dismissed <a href="http://russellgroup.ac.uk/news/research-on-university-access/">time</a> and <a href="http://russellgroup.ac.uk/news/university-access-research/">again</a> by the Russell Group of top UK universities. They have also been downplayed by UCAS in its own <a href="https://theconversation.com/fewer-top-university-offers-go-to-black-and-asian-students-but-ucas-research-doesnt-explain-why-47738">analysis of the data</a>. The prime minister’s announcement indicates that a head-in-the-sand response to ethnic inequalities in university admissions is no longer tenable.</p>
<p>If we want to know whether name-blind UCAS forms reduce ethnic and social inequalities in university admissions, researchers need access to complete and detailed anonymised UCAS data. For the past few years, UCAS has been unwilling to share this kind of data with researchers. </p>
<p>UCAS recently agreed it would begin sharing data from 2017, but only for applicants who <a href="https://www.timeshighereducation.com/letters/ucas-discerning-with-data">actively opt-in to share</a>. If a substantial number of applicants don’t choose to opt-in, researchers will only be able to access data for a distorted sample of applicants and any research results may well be inaccurate.</p>
<p>The upshot is that we cannot reliably assess whether or not name-blind admissions increase the fairness of university admissions until UCAS agrees to <a href="http://bit.ly/1RaCU2j">share fully representative and detailed non-personal data</a> with researchers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/49822/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vikki Boliver has received funding from the British Academy, ESRC and SFC.</span></em></p>Names of applicants will no longer be shown on university admissions forms from 2017. But will it help?Vikki Boliver, Senior Lecturer in Sociology and Social Policy, School of Applied Social Sciences, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/370732015-02-03T11:41:27Z2015-02-03T11:41:27ZUniversities must aim higher on ethnic equality and diversity<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70829/original/image-20150202-15894-15f4f5i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A happy place, for everyone. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/bruneluniversity/4811193101/sizes/l">Brunel University London</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Universities have a long way to go before they become exemplars of ethnic equality and diversity. That’s the thrust of a new report published by race equality think-tank, the <a href="http://www.runnymedetrust.org/">Runnymede Trust</a>. As David Lammy MP, chair of the <a href="http://www.runnymedetrust.org/projects-and-publications/parliament/appg-2.html">All Party Parliamentary Group on Race and Community</a>, puts it in his foreword to the volume:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Despite the lofty ideals of universities, they do no better – and are in fact doing worse – than many other institutions in British society when it comes to race equality. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The Runnymede <a href="http://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/Aiming%20Higher.pdf">publication</a>, brings together 15 short essays by academics and policy experts, outlining a number of major causes for concern. Ethnic minorities have <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-4446.12021/abstract">lower university admission rates</a> relative to comparably qualified white peers. They also have <a href="http://itooamoxford.tumblr.com/">poorer university experiences</a> as students, <a href="http://www.hefce.ac.uk/whatwedo/wp/ourresearch/degree/">lower degree results</a> than their A-level grades would predict, and more uncertain <a href="http://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/WhenEducationIsntEnough.pdf">graduate job prospects</a>. </p>
<p>There is also a <a href="http://blackbritishacademics.co.uk/2014/03/12/why-isnt-my-professor-black/">dearth of black and minority ethnic academics</a>, especially at senior levels. The report found there was just <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/student/news/uk-study-finds-just-17-black-female-professors-10019201.html">17 black female professors in the UK</a>. In spite of all of this, there is a low priority given to developing and implementing ethnic equality and diversity policies within universities. Addressing these problems requires radical change.</p>
<h2>Unfair admissions</h2>
<p>Empirical evidence presented in the <a href="http://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/Aiming%20Higher.pdf">report</a> shows that ethnic minorities are <a href="https://news.tes.co.uk/b/news/2015/01/30/black-and-ethnic-minority-students-get-less-elite-university-offers-than-white-peers-with-same-grades-report-shows.aspx">less likely to be offered places</a> at Russell Group universities than white applicants, even when they have the same grades and “facilitating subjects” at A Level. </p>
<p>The report shows that offer rates are 3-16 percentage points lower for ethnic minority applicants to Russell Group universities, after differences in A Level attainment have been taken into account.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70918/original/image-20150203-25516-11njktg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70918/original/image-20150203-25516-11njktg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/70918/original/image-20150203-25516-11njktg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70918/original/image-20150203-25516-11njktg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70918/original/image-20150203-25516-11njktg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70918/original/image-20150203-25516-11njktg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70918/original/image-20150203-25516-11njktg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/70918/original/image-20150203-25516-11njktg.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/Aiming%20Higher.pdf">Runnymede Trust</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even applicants from the high-performing Chinese and Indian group – which are well represented at Russell Group universities – are less likely to be offered places. These ethnic inequalities in admissions chances are shown to hold for other universities as well, not just the Russell Group institutions, indicating that this is in fact a sector-wide problem. </p>
<p>The report highlights a clear need for universities to undertake searching reviews of their admissions policies and practices. Steps must be taken to ensure that admissions decisions are not affected by unconscious bias, while positive action may be needed to address the chronic under-representation of some ethnic minority groups at some institutions. </p>
<p>Universities are being called upon to make their applications and admissions data available – in suitably anonymised form – for independent analysis by researchers. Open data is now widely considered to be a crucial ingredient in the accountability of public institutions, and universities are no exception.</p>
<h2>Poorer student experiences</h2>
<p>The report highlights the exclusion and rejection felt by many black university students as they navigate a mono-cultural curriculum, confront lower tutor expectations about their ability to do well in their studies and experience overtly racist interactions on campus. There is a clear need for universities to offer more culturally diverse curricula, to promote inclusive teaching and learning practices, and to become actively anti-racist institutions. </p>
<p>This means moving away from a “deficit model” which sees ethnic minority students as lacking in ability or aspiration. Instead, universities should see the barriers to full and equal participation in university life as needing to be dismantled rather than overcome. Crucially, it also means consulting with ethnic minority students about what needs to change rather than taking a purely top-down approach.</p>
<h2>Under representation in academia</h2>
<p>The report also reminds us that ethnic minorities are <a href="https://theconversation.com/there-are-fewer-than-100-black-professors-in-britain-why-24088">under-represented among academic staff</a>, especially in professorial roles and senior management positions. </p>
<p>Many ethnic minority academics report feeling untrusted and overly scrutinised by colleagues and managers, and overlooked when it comes to promotion. The solutions proposed range from solidifying career mentoring schemes for ethnic minority academics, to adopting quotas to ensure the inclusion of ethnic minority applicants on recruitment and promotion shortlists.</p>
<p>Again, a major part of the solution requires recognising the need for institutional cultural change. The Equality Challenge Unit has <a href="http://www.ecu.ac.uk/publications/unconscious-bias-colleges-he-training-pack/">developed a training pack</a> designed to help university staff understand, recognise and resist unconscious bias. </p>
<p>It has also been trialling a <a href="http://www.ecu.ac.uk/equality-charter-marks/race-equality-charter-mark/">Race Equality Charter Mark</a> programme which would enable universities to gain accreditation for their efforts and successes in addressing ethnic equality and diversity concerns. The take-up of these policy initiatives by many universities represents a potentially significant step towards lasting institutional cultural change.</p>
<h2>Changing cultures</h2>
<p>Yet the Runnymede report highlights the ever-present risk that policies and programmes aimed at addressing equality and diversity issues may become substitutes for action – the goal becomes filling out the required paperwork rather than committing to make real changes. </p>
<p>When the passing of the <a href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/34/contents">Race Relations (Amendment) Act</a> in 2000 first required universities to develop and publish race equality policies, many universities were slow to comply. Since then, these requirements have been downgraded to mere guidance following the implementation of the 2010 Equality Act. </p>
<p>The genuine development and effective implementation of equality and diversity policies requires committed support on the part of university leaders to the idea that diversity is a valuable institutional asset and should be actively promoted as such. The time has come for universities and the public bodies that monitor and support them to pick up diversity and run with it.</p>
<hr>
<p>Next read: <a href="https://theconversation.com/race-and-academia-diversity-among-uk-university-students-and-leaders-24988">Race and academia: Diversity among UK students and leaders</a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/37073/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vikki Boliver was one of the contributing authors to the Runnymede Trust's publication, Aiming Higher: Race, Inequality and Diversity in the Academy. Her research on fair admissions has been supported by funding from the Economic and Social Research Council and the British Academy.</span></em></p>Universities have a long way to go before they become exemplars of ethnic equality and diversity. That’s the thrust of a new report published by race equality think-tank, the Runnymede Trust. As David…Vikki Boliver, Senior Lecturer in Sociology and Social Policy, School of Applied Social Sciences, Durham UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/332212014-10-27T05:53:26Z2014-10-27T05:53:26ZThe ‘racism talk’: how black middle-class parents are warning their children<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/62725/original/hr3n298z-1414152536.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C8%2C991%2C866&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We need to talk. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/cat.mhtml?lang=en&language=en&ref_site=photo&search_source=search_form&version=llv1&anyorall=all&safesearch=1&use_local_boost=1&search_tracking_id=EM-qZG-gprHWBXqkbqSXPQ&searchterm=black%20parents&show_color_wheel=1&orient=&commercial_ok=&media_type=images&search_cat=&searchtermx=&photographer_name=&people_gender=&people_age=&people_ethnicity=&people_number=&color=&page=1&inline=71136817">Black mother and child via Danie Nel/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One in three people in Britain describe themselves as being very or a little racially prejudiced, according to a recent <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-27599401">British Social Attitudes Survey</a>. How are middle-class black families coping with this rise in prejudiced attitudes and preparing their children for a society marred by such discrimination?</p>
<p>We carried out <a href="http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415809825/">research</a> with professional families of black Caribbean heritage across England and explored how they navigate their children successfully through school. </p>
<p>Our findings, based on 77 interviews, reveal that parents are engaged, involved and concerned about their children’s education success. But they often have to manage the lower expectations of success held by the school and work out how best to prepare their child for a society marked by racism. Parents were particularly concerned about how to ready and protect their children from racist stereotyping – and how and when to talk to them about the dangers of racism.</p>
<h2>The apparent threat of black boys</h2>
<p>While there are areas of overlap, different stereotypes are seen to exist for boys and girls. The parents we interviewed remained alert to societal stereotypes that seek to position black boys as troublesome, a danger or less smart. Richard, a director within the voluntary sector and the father of two primary school aged boys, worried about how to both prepare and protect his sons from racist encounters. Laughing sadly at the absurdity of the situation, he commented: “You can’t go around everywhere they go, when they go for a job interview, you can’t go ‘My son’s coming in, please don’t stereotype him.’” </p>
<p>Racism and racist stereotyping is understood by these parents to be a natural, inevitable part of everyday life – something that has to understood and survived. Even dress and appearance become a source of potential danger for their children. Simone, a senior policy adviser, describes trying to advise her son not to walk around with his hood up because while he sees nothing wrong with it, the “perception of hoodies in the press” is that “people find it intimidating”. </p>
<h2>Sterotypes of black women</h2>
<p>Parents with daughters tended to express concern about stereotypical portrayals of black girls and women in popular culture, where notions of beauty are often based on white female norms. Images of hypersexualised black women, black women with weave and lighter skin are seen to dominate music videos, television programmes and wider media to the detriment of a positive, healthy, black female identity. </p>
<p>Sandrine, a senior local government official with a 13-year-old daughter, argued that “sexiness” as marketised by Beyoncé and Rhianna has become synonymous with success. So much so that complex identities, where black women are educated and ambitious, are downplayed and regarded as less desirable, she argued, even by black girls themselves. </p>
<h2>Banning MTV</h2>
<p>Parents also express concerns about protecting their daughters from versions of beauty that indicate being of mixed heritage or lighter skinned is more desirable. Malorie, an education manager and mother of a 17-year-old daughter, argued: “If you are mixed race in some way you are [seen as] far more attractive than what I call a classic black woman.” </p>
<p>In attempting to police the boundaries of these negative black female stereotypes, Sandrine explained that her sister has responded with her own children by banning MTV – viewed as a major source of such imagery – in her house. Instead, Sandrine attempts to use television as a tool to facilitate debate (although not always welcomed) with her own daughter about individuality, “appropriate” forms of fashion and femininity.</p>
<h2>Battle against subtle racism</h2>
<p>In seeking to raise a black middle-class child who is confident and successful, parents focus not just on navigating the formal education system but also on how to manage and protect their children from racism. This is a precarious issue for parents. There is a tension between not wanting to talk about it – lest it become viewed as an excuse to give up – alongside an imperative to prepare the child for the reality of racism so that it is not internalised or allowed to affect their confidence.</p>
<p>It is important to note that the racism described by parents in the study is not necessarily the crude overt forms associated with far-right groups, it also refers to subtle, everyday acts evident through racist stereotyping and discriminatory actions. </p>
<p>How and when to talk to children about racism is an ongoing worry for black parents, yet remains a central requirement to preparing their child for wider society. The parents we spoke to were educated, qualified professionals with a range of financial and other resources at their disposal. Nonetheless they still experience racism; being middle class does not protect them nor their children from it.</p>
<p>Such insights not only challenge commonly held views that racism is no longer a key concern in British society but also highlight the range of complex responses and strategies required in order to manage and survive racism.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/33221/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>This project was funded by the Economic and Social Research Council RES 062 23 1880. </span></em></p>One in three people in Britain describe themselves as being very or a little racially prejudiced, according to a recent British Social Attitudes Survey. How are middle-class black families coping with…Nicola Rollock, Deputy Director, Centre for Research in Race & Education , University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.