tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca-fr/topics/space-exploration-9492/articlesSpace exploration – La Conversation2024-03-27T17:07:01Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2265582024-03-27T17:07:01Z2024-03-27T17:07:01ZThe total solar eclipse in North America could help shed light on a persistent puzzle about the Sun<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584141/original/file-20240325-24-ot473c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/totality-during-2023-australian-total-solar-2344355767">aeonWAVE / Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/types/#hds-sidebar-nav-1">total solar eclipse</a> takes place on <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2024/">April 8 across North America</a>. These events occur when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth, completely blocking the Sun’s face. This plunges observers into a darkness similar to dawn or dusk.</p>
<p>During the upcoming eclipse, the path of totality, where observers experience the darkest part of the Moon’s shadow (the umbra), crosses Mexico, arcing north-east through Texas, the Midwest and briefly entering Canada before ending in Maine.</p>
<p>Total solar eclipses occur roughly <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/solar-eclipse-guide.html">every 18 months at some location on Earth</a>. The last total solar eclipse that crossed the US took place on August 21 2017. </p>
<p>An international team of scientists, led by Aberystwyth University, will be conducting experiments from <a href="https://www.fox4news.com/news/2024-eclipse-dallas-crowds-traffic">near Dallas</a>, at a location in the path of totality. The team consists of PhD students and researchers from Aberystwyth University, Nasa Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, and Caltech (California Institute of Technology) in Pasadena. </p>
<p>There is valuable science to be done during eclipses that is comparable to or better than what we can achieve via space-based missions. Our experiments may also shed light on a longstanding puzzle about the outermost part of the Sun’s atmosphere – its corona.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Eclipse shadow" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584503/original/file-20240326-18-9yqs13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584503/original/file-20240326-18-9yqs13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584503/original/file-20240326-18-9yqs13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584503/original/file-20240326-18-9yqs13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584503/original/file-20240326-18-9yqs13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584503/original/file-20240326-18-9yqs13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584503/original/file-20240326-18-9yqs13.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The path of eclipse totality passes through Mexico, the US and Canada.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/5186/">NASA's Scientific Visualization Studio</a></span>
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<p>The Sun’s intense light is blocked by the Moon during a total solar eclipse. This means that we can observe the <a href="https://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/corona.shtml">Sun’s faint corona</a> with incredible clarity, from distances very close to the Sun, out to several solar radii. One radius is the distance equivalent to half the Sun’s diameter, about 696,000km (432,000 miles).</p>
<p>Measuring the corona is extremely difficult without an eclipse. It requires a special telescope <a href="https://www.space.com/what-is-a-coronagraph.html">called a coronagraph</a> that is designed to block out direct light from the Sun. This allows fainter light from the corona to be resolved. The clarity of eclipse measurements surpasses even coronagraphs based in space.</p>
<p>We can also observe the corona on a relatively small budget, compared to, for example, spacecraft missions. A persistent puzzle about the corona is the observation <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781119815600.ch2">that it is much hotter</a> than the photosphere (the visible surface of the Sun). As we move away from a hot object, the surrounding temperature should decrease, not increase. How the corona is heated to such high temperatures is one question we will investigate.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Solar eclipse." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584507/original/file-20240326-20-xairh2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584507/original/file-20240326-20-xairh2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584507/original/file-20240326-20-xairh2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584507/original/file-20240326-20-xairh2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584507/original/file-20240326-20-xairh2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584507/original/file-20240326-20-xairh2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584507/original/file-20240326-20-xairh2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/solar-eclipse-diagram-1146598682">Andramin / Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>We have two main scientific instruments. The first of these is Cip (coronal imaging polarimeter). Cip is also the Welsh word for “glance”, or “quick look”. The instrument takes images of the Sun’s corona with a polariser. </p>
<p>The light we want to measure from the corona is highly polarised, which means it is made up of waves that vibrate in a single geometric plane. A polariser is a filter that lets light with a particular polarisation pass through it, while blocking light with other polarisations. </p>
<p>The Cip images will allow us to measure fundamental properties of the corona, such as its density. It will also shed light on phenomena such as the solar wind. This is a stream of sub-atomic particles in the form of plasma – superheated matter – flowing continuously outward from the Sun. Cip could help us identify sources in the Sun’s atmosphere for certain solar wind streams.</p>
<p>Direct measurements of the magnetic field in the Sun’s atmosphere are difficult. But the eclipse data should allow us to study its fine-scale structure and trace the field’s direction. We’ll be able to see how far magnetic structures called large “closed” magnetic loops extend from the Sun. This in turn will give us information about large-scale magnetic conditions in the corona.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Coronal loops." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584489/original/file-20240326-24-zlpsmc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584489/original/file-20240326-24-zlpsmc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584489/original/file-20240326-24-zlpsmc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584489/original/file-20240326-24-zlpsmc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584489/original/file-20240326-24-zlpsmc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584489/original/file-20240326-24-zlpsmc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584489/original/file-20240326-24-zlpsmc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coronal loops are found around sunspots and in active regions of the Sun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/coronal-loops-an-active-region-of-sun/">NASA/Solar Dynamics Observatory</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The second instrument is Chils (coronal high-resolution line spectrometer). It collects high-resolution spectra, where light is separated into its component colours. Here, we are looking for a particular spectral signature of iron emitted from the corona. </p>
<p>It comprises three spectral lines, where light is emitted or absorbed in a narrow frequency range. These are each generated at a different range of temperatures (in the millions of degrees), so their relative brightness tells us about the coronal temperature in different regions. </p>
<p>Mapping the corona’s temperature informs advanced, computer-based models of its behaviour. These models must include mechanisms for how the coronal plasma is heated to such high temperatures. Such mechanisms might include the conversion of magnetic waves to thermal plasma energy, for example. If we show that some regions are hotter than others, this can be replicated in models. </p>
<p>This year’s eclipse also occurs during a time of heightened solar activity, so we could observe a <a href="https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/phenomena/coronal-mass-ejections">coronal mass ejection (CME)</a>. These are huge clouds of magnetised plasma that are ejected from the Sun’s atmosphere into space. They can affect infrastructure near Earth, causing problems for vital satellites. </p>
<p>Many aspects of CMEs are poorly understood, including their early evolution near the Sun. Spectral information on CMEs will allow us to gain information on their thermodynamics, and their velocity and expansion near the Sun.</p>
<p>Our eclipse instruments have recently been proposed for a space mission called <a href="https://www.surrey.ac.uk/research-projects/feasibility-study-moon-enabled-sun-occultation-mission-mesom">Moon-enabled solar occultation mission (Mesom)</a>. The plan is to orbit the Moon to gain more frequent and extended eclipse observations. It is being planned as a UK Space Agency mission involving several countries, but led by University College London, the University of Surrey and Aberystwyth University.</p>
<p>We will also have an advanced commercial 360-degree camera to collect video of the April 8 eclipse and the observing site. The video is valuable for public outreach events, where we highlight the work we do, and helps to generate public interest in our local star, the Sun.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226558/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Huw Morgan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The eclipse will allow scientists to get rare measurements of the Sun’s atmosphere.Huw Morgan, Reader in Physical Sciences, Aberystwyth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2076982024-03-12T12:29:40Z2024-03-12T12:29:40ZNASA’s search for life on Mars: a rocky road for its rovers, a long slog for scientists – and back on Earth, a battle of the budget<p>Is or was there life on Mars? That profound question is so complex that it will not be fully answered by the <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/">two NASA rovers now exploring it</a>. </p>
<p>But because of the literal groundwork the rovers are performing, scientists are finally investigating, in-depth and in unprecedented detail, the planet’s evidence for life, known as its “<a href="https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/education/alp/what-is-a-biosignature/">biosignatures</a>.” This search is remarkably complicated, and in the case of Mars, it is spanning decades. </p>
<p><a href="https://geology.ufl.edu/people/faculty/dr-amy-j-williams-2/">As a geologist</a>, I have had the extraordinary opportunity to work on both the Curiosity and Perseverance rover missions. Yet as much as scientists are learning from them, it will take another robotic mission to figure out if Mars has ever hosted life. That mission will bring Martian rocks back to Earth for analysis. Then – hopefully – we will have an answer. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578822/original/file-20240229-16-zmsstx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A photograph of the planet Mars, showing white caps and the reddish Martian surface." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578822/original/file-20240229-16-zmsstx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578822/original/file-20240229-16-zmsstx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578822/original/file-20240229-16-zmsstx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578822/original/file-20240229-16-zmsstx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578822/original/file-20240229-16-zmsstx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578822/original/file-20240229-16-zmsstx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578822/original/file-20240229-16-zmsstx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A photograph of Mars, the fourth planet from the Sun, taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://science.nasa.gov/image-detail/amf-gsfc_20171208_archive_e000019/">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From habitable to uninhabitable</h2>
<p>While so much remains mysterious about Mars, there is one thing I am confident about. Amid the thousands of pictures both rovers are taking, I’m quite sure no alien bears or meerkats will show up in any of them. Most scientists doubt the surface of Mars, or its near-surface, could currently sustain even single-celled organisms, much less complex forms of life. </p>
<p>Instead, the rovers are acting as extraterrestrial detectives, hunting for clues that life may have existed eons ago. That includes evidence of long-gone liquid surface water, life-sustaining minerals and organic molecules. To find this evidence, <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/msl/home/">Curiosity</a> and <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/">Perseverance</a> are treading very different paths on Mars, more than 2,000 miles (3,200 kilometers) from each other. </p>
<p>These two rovers will help scientists answer some big questions: Did life ever exist on Mars? Could it exist today, perhaps deep under the surface? And would it be only microbial life, or is there any possibility it might be more complex? </p>
<p>The Mars of today is nothing like the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/nasa-funded-study-extends-period-when-mars-could-have-supported-life/#:%7E">Mars of several billion years ago</a>. In its infancy, Mars was far more Earth-like, with a thicker atmosphere, rivers, lakes, maybe even oceans of water, and the essential elements needed for life. But this period was cut short when Mars <a href="https://mgs-mager.gsfc.nasa.gov/#:%7E">lost its magnetic field</a> and nearly all of its atmosphere – now only 1% as dense as the Earth’s. </p>
<p>The change from habitable to uninhabitable took time, perhaps hundreds of millions of years; if life ever existed on Mars, it likely died out a few billion years ago. Gradually, Mars became the cold and dry desert that it is today, with a landscape comparable to <a href="https://www.alluringworld.com/mcmurdo-dry-valleys/">the dry valleys of Antarctica</a>, without glaciers and plant or animal life. The average Martian temperature is minus 80 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 62 degrees Celsius), and its meager atmosphere is nearly all carbon dioxide. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579676/original/file-20240304-28-76rhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The Perseverance rover, dusty and dirty, parked in a patch of Martian soil." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579676/original/file-20240304-28-76rhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579676/original/file-20240304-28-76rhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579676/original/file-20240304-28-76rhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579676/original/file-20240304-28-76rhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=551&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579676/original/file-20240304-28-76rhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=692&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579676/original/file-20240304-28-76rhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=692&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579676/original/file-20240304-28-76rhqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=692&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Mars rover Perseverance has taken over 200,000 pictures, including this selfie from April, 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/25790/perseverances-selfie-with-ingenuity/">NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Early exploration</h2>
<p>Robotic exploration of the Martian surface began in the 1970s, when life-detection experiments on the <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mars-exploration/missions/viking-1-2/">Viking missions</a> failed to find any conclusive evidence for life. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mars-pathfinder-sojourner-rover">Sojourner, the first rover</a>, landed in 1997 and demonstrated that a moving robot could perform experiments. In 2004, <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/">Spirit and Opportunity</a> followed; both found evidence that liquid water once existed on the Martian surface. </p>
<p>The Curiosity rover <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/msl/home/">landed in 2012</a> and began ascending Mount Sharp, the 18,000-foot-high mountain located inside Gale crater. There is a reason why NASA chose it as an exploration site: The mountain’s rock layers show <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/mars-rover-views-spectacular-layered-rock-formations">a dramatic shift in climate</a>, from one with abundant liquid water to the dry environment of today. </p>
<p>So far, Curiosity has found evidence in several locations of past liquid water, minerals that may provide chemical energy, and intriguingly, a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JE007107">variety of organic carbon molecules</a>. </p>
<p>While organic carbon is not itself alive, it is a building block <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/nasas-curiosity-takes-inventory-of-key-life-ingredient-on-mars/">for all life as we know it</a>. Does its presence mean that life once existed on Mars?</p>
<p>Not necessarily. Organic carbon can be abiotic – that is, unrelated to a living organism. For example, maybe the organic carbon came from a <a href="https://www.livescience.com/tissint-meteorite-organic-compounds">meteorite that crashed on Mars</a>. And though the rovers carry wonderfully sophisticated instruments, they can’t definitively tell us if these organic molecules are related to past life on Mars.</p>
<p>But laboratories here on Earth likely can. By collecting rock and soil samples from the Martian surface, and then returning them to Earth for detailed analysis with our state-of-the-art instruments, scientists may finally have the answer to an age-old question.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YPNVVDphQVc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">An animation of the proposed Mars Sample Return mission.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Perseverance</h2>
<p>Enter Perseverance, NASA’s <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/">newest flagship mission to Mars</a>. For the past three years – it landed in February 2021 – Perseverance has been searching for signs of bygone microbial life in the rocks within Jezero crater, selected as the landing site because it once contained a large lake. </p>
<p>Perseverance is the first step of the <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/msr/">Mars Sample Return</a> mission, an international effort to collect Martian rock and soil for return to Earth.</p>
<p>The instrument suite onboard Perseverance will help the science team choose the rocks that seem to promise the most scientific return. This will be a careful process; after all, there would be only <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/msr/multimedia/videos/?v=523">30 seats on the ride back to Earth</a> for these geological samples.</p>
<h2>Budget woes</h2>
<p>NASA’s original plan called for returning those samples to Earth by 2033. But work on the mission – now estimated to cost between US$8 billion to $11 billion – has slowed <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/losangeles/news/jpl-to-lay-off-more-than-500-employees/">due to budget cuts and layoffs</a>. The cuts are severe; a request for $949 million to fund the mission for fiscal 2024 <a href="https://www.latimes.com/science/story/2024-03-06/nasa-budget-deal-hope-for-mars-sample-return-mission-jpl">was trimmed to $300 million</a>, although efforts are underway to <a href="https://spacenews.com/congressional-letter-asks-white-house-to-reverse-msr-spending-cuts/">restore at least some of the funding</a>. </p>
<p>The Mars Sample Return mission is critical to better understand the potential for life beyond Earth. The science and the technology that will enable it are both novel and expensive. But if NASA discovers life once existed on Mars – even if it’s by finding a microbe dead for a billion years – that will tell scientists that life is not a fluke one-time event that only happened on Earth, but a more common phenomenon that could occur on many planets.</p>
<p>That knowledge would revolutionize the way human beings see ourselves and our place in the universe. There is far more to this endeavor than just returning some rocks.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207698/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy J. Williams receives funding from NASA Participating Scientist grants associated with the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover and the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover. </span></em></p>Determining whether or not life exists on another planet is an extraordinarily complicated – and expensive – scientific endeavor.Amy J. Williams, Assistant Professor of Geology, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2250942024-03-07T18:23:33Z2024-03-07T18:23:33ZWe’re working out how to solve crimes in space – the final frontier of forensic science<p>Nasa’s Artemis program is scheduled to <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">return astronauts to the Moon</a> and establish a permanent orbiting laboratory by the end of the decade. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, private companies are making significant steps in taking paying customers further into space. As humanity’s footprint expands beyond the familiar terrains of Earth to the Moon and possibly beyond, an intriguing new field emerges from the final frontier: astroforensics. </p>
<p>This discipline, still in its infancy, is propelled by the inevitability of human nature. Space presents a unique and harsh environment for forensic investigations. Settings that present altered gravity, cosmic radiation, extremes in temperature, and the need for oxygen-providing climate systems provide a few examples of the unearthly variables that are faced by future explorers. </p>
<p>Unlike Earth, where gravity, a constant force, shapes many aspects of our reality, the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/glenn/what-is-microgravity/">significant reduction of gravity in space</a> introduces novel challenges in understanding how evidence behaves. This shift is crucial for forensic sciences like bloodstain pattern analysis, which relies heavily on gravitational effects to determine the circumstances under which blood stains are formed.</p>
<p>The thought of gravity in space immediately conjures images of astronauts hauntingly suspended in the void of space or floating gymnastics in the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/">International Space Station (ISS)</a>. </p>
<p>However, true zero gravity exists far away from any celestial bodies. When close to a body such as a Moon or a planet, there will be a gravitational influence, including when in orbit around a planet like Earth. </p>
<p>Therefore, most environments in space have low or microgravity rather than zero gravity. Given that gravity is ubiquitous and largely constant, we pay very little attention to it, usually automatically factoring it in to calculations as a constant without a second thought. </p>
<h2>Altered gravity</h2>
<p>But for a forensic science discipline like bloodstain pattern analysis, gravity
plays a critical role in how airborne liquid blood interacts with a surface and creates stain patterns. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodstain_pattern_analysis">Bloodstain pattern analysis</a> is the use of fluid dynamics, physics, and mathematics to understand the flight and origin of blood and interpret how it was deposited on a surface in criminal investigations.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2665910724000070">In a recently published study</a>, we and our colleagues sought to understand the beginning principles of how the altered gravity environment of space will affect future forensic science disciplines. </p>
<p>For this study, published in Forensic Science International: Reports, we used a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/parabolic-flight/">parabolic flight research plane</a> that induces short periods of microgravity because of its up-and-down flight path. This type of flight has colloquially been referred to as the “vomit comet”. </p>
<p>During this period of freefalling microgravity, a number of blood drops would be projected onto a piece of paper, and the resulting bloodstain was then analysed using routine earthbound protocols. While the concept sounds simple, there was a challenge in creating a safe and controllable area to conduct experiments in a plane that was basically falling to Earth for 20 seconds. </p>
<p>Therefore, the experimental environment had to be attached to the cabin of the
research plane, and all bloodstain generation and documentation made easily controllable. Experiments were conducted inside a repurposed paediatric incubation chamber, referred to as a glove box. This chamber is used in space medicine research for studying haemorrhage control. </p>
<p>A synthetic analogue of blood was used instead of real blood due to biohazard concerns in the cabin of the plane. This analogue substitute mimicked the physical properties of blood’s viscosity and surface tension. To initiate the experiment, the analogue blood was loaded into a syringe, and once microgravity was induced in free-fall, the syringe was manually depressed to project the blood across 20cm onto a sheet of white paper. </p>
<p>While this bears little resemblance to true criminal scenarios, it is the interaction between the blood and the surface that is of interest to the forensic investigator –- rather than the actual mechanism of projection. The blood-stained papers were then photographed and analysed as per normal procedures.</p>
<p>We found that microgravity does indeed change the behaviour of the blood
drops and the stains they create. On Earth, blood tends to fall in a parabolic manner, with gravity pulling down on it until it strikes a surface. But in this case, the blood continued to travel in a straight line until it hit the surface.</p>
<p>This straight-line flight path is a fluid example of inertia in action. However, with a distance of only 20cm, this had minimal effect on the subsequent pattern. </p>
<p>This difference would become more apparent over larger distances, but the operational limitation of the parabolic research aircraft means it would be difficult to recreate effectively. The second key observation was the spreading action of the blood upon striking the surface. </p>
<p>In the typical gravity environment of Earth, liquid blood drops will undergo a series of stages in the stain creation process. This entails the droplet’s collapse, the formation of a small wave, and the spread into a final stain shape. </p>
<p>However, when gravity is eliminated from this action, the spreading action is inhibited by the dominating force of surface tension and cohesion, resulting in a stain shape and size that is smaller than its terrestrial twin.</p>
<p>We are at the beginning of a new research era, exploring the impact of the extra-
terrestrial environment upon the behaviour of forensic evidence. Still, the impact of this research is not only limited to forensic sciences but more traditional natural sciences as well, such as <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19890015838">fluid dynamics in spacecraft design</a> and analysing faults in space forensic engineering following a spacecraft malfunction. </p>
<p>In order to expand research in this new forensic discipline, larger microgravity environments will be required and the authors would be more than happy to operate the galaxy’s first extraterrestrial forensic science laboratory.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225094/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Zack Kowalske received funding from the International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts' Dan Rahn Research Grant. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Graham Williams does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If we need to use forensic techniques in space, we’ll need to understand how things behave differently in microgravity.Graham Williams, Professor of Forensic Science, University of HullZack Kowalske, PhD Researcher, Staffordshire UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243872024-03-06T17:45:13Z2024-03-06T17:45:13ZSpacesuits need a major upgrade for the next phase of exploration<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579865/original/file-20240305-18-mik4ri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C0%2C3822%2C2160&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-taps-axiom-space-for-first-artemis-moonwalking-spacesuits/">NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Humans have long dreamed of setting foot on the Moon and other planetary bodies such as Mars. Since the 1960s, space travellers have donned suits designed to protect them from the vacuum of space and stepped out into the unknown.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://spacenews.com/polaris-dawn-private-astronaut-mission-slips-to-mid-2024/">the Polaris Dawn mission</a>, which is to include the first spacewalk organised by a private company, has been delayed. This is due to complications with the design and development of a suitable spacesuit. </p>
<p>Moon suits are also one of the key elements of Nasa’s Artemis lunar programme that have yet to be delivered. A report released in November 2023 said that the contractor making the suits is having <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-24-106256#:%7E:text=To%20develop%20Artemis%20space%20suits,report%20examining%20the%20Artemis%20enterprise.">to revisit aspects of the design provided by Nasa</a>, which could introduce delays.</p>
<p>Yet <a href="https://time.com/5802128/alexei-leonov-spacewalk-obstacles/">the first spacewalk</a>, by the Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, took place in 1965. Later, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/the-apollo-program/">12 Nasa astronauts would walk on the lunar surface</a>, between 1969 and 1972, using technology that would be eclipsed by today’s smartphones. So it’s not unreasonable to ask why it can still be difficult to design and build spacesuits to do the same thing.</p>
<p>Much has changed since the Apollo missions planted flags on the Moon. The <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/video/2024/01/20/us-china-india-japan-and-others-are-rushing-back-to-the-moon.html">geopolitics driving space travel have shifted</a>, and spacesuits are no longer expected to be just a form of protection. Instead, they are a critical way to improve the productivity of astronauts. This involves a rethink of not just the suits themselves, but the technology that supports them.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Crew Dragon approaching the ISS" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Polaris Dawn mission uses modified version of the Crew Dragon spacecraft to perform the first commercial spacewalk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/view-of-spacex-crew-dragon-endeavour-approaching-station/">Nasa</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An array of powerful telecommunications technologies to connect astronauts with space stations and ground control sits alongside multisensory cameras, temperature readers and proximity sensors in present-day spacesuits.</p>
<p>Situational awareness – understanding key elements in the environment, such as the health of an astronaut – is a core tenet for modern spacesuit design and critical for the operator’s safety. The ability of a suit to track heart rate and other vital signs is important in a vacuum, where levels of oxygen need constant monitoring. </p>
<p>Expectations around the risks astronauts take have changed for the better. And the level of investment it takes to produce a spacesuit necessitates that it can be used for future tasks that may include lunar settlement in the next few decades.</p>
<p>The trade off that engineers must make when incorporating wearable technology like those already mentioned is weight. Will greater situational awareness result in a spacesuit that is too heavy to move in effectively? </p>
<p>When Elon Musk first hinted at challenges with the extravehicular activity spacesuit for Polaris Dawn <a href="https://twitter.com/SpaceX/status/1745941814165815717">in a presentation to SpaceX employees in January</a>, it was not difficulties with connected technology that he discussed, but of redesigning “the suit so that you actually move around in it”.</p>
<h2>Situational awareness</h2>
<p>However, when talking about mobility in a spacesuit, you need to consider the tasks that you want that mobility to support. </p>
<p>Before the advent of modern spacesuits, Apollo astronauts struggled to carry out missions. When drilling into the surface of the Moon with a hand drill to collect samples, astronauts found it difficult to provide enough downwards force to counteract the Moon’s weaker gravity. It was not until the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0094576522002879">invention of a zero-gravity drill</a>, decades later, that this problem would be addressed.</p>
<p>The current exploration of <a href="https://digital-library.theiet.org/content/books/ce/pbce131e">pneumatic exoskeletons</a>, providing the support necessary for movement in low gravity could be part of a solution. However, newer spacesuits may also need to interface with hardware, like robotic drills that exist outside the suit. This will also necessitate more mobility in spacesuits. </p>
<h2>Working with robots</h2>
<p>Offloading tasks, previously carried out by humans, to robots will be part of the future of space exploration. It’s a primary way that engineers will also be able to enhance the mobility of astronauts in spacesuits.</p>
<p>For example, when an astronaut goes on a spacewalk to inspect the condition of part of a space station and make any possible repairs, they are supported by a robotic arm that ensures they don’t float off into space. While jointed, this arm is rigid and can limit an astronaut’s movement.</p>
<p>An approach currently being explored to extend this range of movement is a climbing robot, that is attached to both the astronaut and the space station, that an individual can control through their spacesuit. This would allow the astronaut to move around the space station faster and with a greater range of movement than before, allowing them to reach and repair hard-to-access areas like corners.</p>
<p>While the eventual hope is that robots themselves can assess any damage to the space station and repair it, due to possible disruptions in normal operations, humans must be ready to step in. Possible disruptions could be natural, like a small meteor shower damaging the robot, or human-made, like hacking carried by a hostile group or state.</p>
<p>For the types of activities we want to accomplish in the future, this human-robot collaboration will be instrumental. Building a base on the Moon, as both <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/four-things-weve-learned-about-nasas-planned-base-camp-on-the-moon-180980589/">the US</a> and <a href="https://spacenews.com/china-attracts-moon-base-partners-outlines-project-timelines/">China</a> plan to do, will involve construction work and drilling, which humans will not be able to accomplish alone. Modern spacesuits will need to provide an interface to work with this new technology, and we can expect the suits to evolve in step with robotics.</p>
<p>The relationship between humans and robots is changing. It will go beyond spacewalks and robots’ previous uses as limited tools, to a situation where they are cooperative partners in space. The objectives of ten or 20 years from now, like building lunar settlements, exploring mineral deposits on the Moon and efficiently repairing space station modules can only be achieved using robotics. </p>
<p>Modern spacesuits will be a key foundation of this collaborative relationship, forming the interface where astronauts and robots can work together to achieve shared goals. So when we do once again leave our footprints on other worlds, we will no longer be alone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224387/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yang Gao has received funding from UKRI, UKSA and ESA on conducting space related research. </span></em></p>The next generation of spacesuit needs to do more than simply protect an astronaut from the vacuum of space.Yang Gao, Professor of Robotics, Head of Centre for Robotics Research, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2246612024-02-28T16:52:45Z2024-02-28T16:52:45ZOdysseus moon landing: Jeff Koons has pulled off one of the great art stunts of the century<p>To <a href="https://www.creativereview.co.uk/refreshes-the-parts-other-beers-cannot-reach/">paraphrase</a> an old advertising slogan, <a href="https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/artist/jeff-koons">Jeff Koons</a> is the Heineken of the art world – a maverick who has always done his utmost to refresh the parts other arts cannot reach. Born in Pennsylvania in 1955, Koons has now achieved something truly out of this world: sending his art into space as part of the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/feb/22/us-moon-landing-odysseus-intuitive-machines">Odysseus moon landing</a> last week.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.pacegallery.com/journal/jeff-koons-moon-phases/#:%7E:text=The%20list%20of%20names%20is,and%20Helen%20Keller%20among%20them.">Moon Phases</a>, a cube-shaped transparent box containing 125 spherical mini-sculptures (each approximately 2.5cm in diameter) over five levels, landed on the lunar surface on February 22, on board the US spacecraft.</p>
<p>Each sphere contains the name of a (dead) human luminary, ranging from Aristotle to Ghandi, Ada Lovelace and David Bowie, all decided on solely by Koons. You can see the full list <a href="https://jeffkoonsmoonphases.com/explore">here</a>.</p>
<p>Moon Phases is now being described as the <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/jeff-koons-sculpture-first-artwork-on-the-moon-notable-figures-2024-2?r=US&IR=T">first “authorised” work of art on the moon</a>. Digital arts and technology company NFMoon and 4Space, a space company with strong links to NASA, approached Koons with the idea of sending his artwork to the moon <a href="https://www.pacegallery.com/journal/jeff-koons-moon-phases/">because</a> of “his ability to bridge art and science, reflecting the expansive possibilities of the humanities”. </p>
<p>Or perhaps the two companies understood well that the controversial American artist would provide some extra rocket fuel for their project. Koons is, after all, the man who <a href="https://www.theartstory.org/artist/koons-jeff/#:%7E:text=%22The%20job%20of%20the%20artist,That's%20where%20the%20art%20happens.%22">proclaimed</a>: “The job of the artist is to make a gesture and really show people what their potential is. It’s not about the object, and it’s not about the image; it’s about the viewer. That’s where the art happens.” </p>
<p>Still, it is hard to imagine – even ignoring the practical challenges – that this will lead to a whole host of artists queuing up and begging NASA to send their art into space, but it makes perfect sense for the hero of the hour.</p>
<p>Koons, who currently holds the world auction record for a living artist, courtesy of his <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/jeff-koons-rabbit-breaks-auction-record-most-expensive-work-living-artist-180972219/">Rabbit sculpture</a>, which sold for US$91.1 million (£72m) in 2019, has always been as much a media phenomenon as anything else. He is arguably more famous for having been married to Cicciolina, the Italian former porn star-turned politician, than for any of his creations. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578611/original/file-20240228-32-50c34x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A US spacecraft on legs designed to go to the moon." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578611/original/file-20240228-32-50c34x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578611/original/file-20240228-32-50c34x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578611/original/file-20240228-32-50c34x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578611/original/file-20240228-32-50c34x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=630&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578611/original/file-20240228-32-50c34x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=791&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578611/original/file-20240228-32-50c34x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=791&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578611/original/file-20240228-32-50c34x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=791&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Odysseus lunar landing craft.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IM-1#/media/File:Intuitive_Machines%E2%80%99_Nova-C_lunar_lander_(IM_00309)_(cropped).jpg">NASA Marshall Space Flight Center/Intuitive Machines / Wiki Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>He may sound kitschy and a bit ridiculous, but he is hard to resist. Having borrowed one of his pieces – Basketball (1985) – for a history of bronze sculpture over the last 5,000 years exhibition I organised at the Royal Academy in London in 2012, I ought to know. </p>
<p>However, recently his prices (as measured by auction sales, prices achieved in private sales are not in the public domain) have plummeted. In fact, last year almost 40% of the 292 Koons lots offered at auction <a href="https://news.artnet.com/market/jeff-koonss-art-is-on-the-moon-but-his-prices-have-cratered-can-power-players-reignite-his-market-2436175#:%7E:text=Last%20year%20was%20particularly%20bad,offered%20failed%20to%20find%20buyers.">failed to find buyers</a>. So he has every reason to want to revitalise his professional fortunes – his actual fortunes are probably less of a worry, given that estimates of his personal wealth hover around $400 million.</p>
<p>What’s more, terrestrial equivalents of the moon sculptures in the form of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are being offered by his gallery, Pace, and it may be assumed they are not exactly being given away. </p>
<h2>So who’s on the list?</h2>
<p>Arguably the most interesting thing about the whole circus is the fact that each sculpture carries somebody’s name (with the exception of one called Atom). At some level, the idea is that if aliens come upon Moon Phases, they will be equipped with a handy list of the best of the best in human history. In the meantime, the rest of us can brood on Koons’s choices. </p>
<p>The work itself explains neither their selection nor their configuration, but the vast majority fall into straightforward enough categories, such as religious leaders, rulers, philosophers and scientists. But there is also a striking US emphasis on abolitionists and black leaders. In the performers category – with the exception of Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova – are all either from the US or the UK.</p>
<p>Within each category, many of the choices are predictable enough (Jesus and Buddha, Plato and Aristotle, and so on), but others are more baffling. In the context of the arts, there are only four composers (JS Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Tchaikovsky), there are no novelists from the periods between Austen and Proust, and there is room for <a href="https://www.nga.gov/features/verrocchio-closer-look.html">Andrea del Verrocchio</a>, an important but slightly obscure 15th century Italian sculptor, but none for old masters like Vermeer or Velázquez.</p>
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<p>Last but not least, a very small section is avowedly given over to personal favourites, a selection that includes such oddities as actor Lucille Ball and art dealer Ileana Sonnabend.</p>
<p>The obvious party game here is compiling one’s own top 125 and seeing where it agrees and disagrees with Koons’. And it would be no less fascinating to speculate who might have made the list had one accompanied Neil Armstrong’s “one giant leap for mankind” on 20 July 1969. Intriguingly, explorers Columbus and Magellan, flight pioneer Amelia Earhart and 19th century Native American guide <a href="https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sacagawea#:%7E:text=Sacagawea%20was%20an%20interpreter%20and,River%20to%20the%20Pacific%20Coast.">Sacagawea</a> are in for Koons – but Armstrong doesn’t make the cut.</p>
<p>What is abundantly clear is that 55 years ago there would undoubtedly have been fewer women and people of colour included. Perhaps it could be said that our far-from-perfect species has managed to improve itself over the past half-century or so. </p>
<p>But in terms of art itself, this is a masterstroke of self-promotion on the part of Jeff Koons, and perhaps an achievement that will inspire the next generation of artists to view space as a new frontier for their work.</p>
<p>For the 69-year-old Koons, clearly fame is a seductive experience – perhaps wealth is not enough if you no longer feel relevant or important. It seems the kitschy New York artist has pulled off one of the great art stunts of the century. So far.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536131/original/file-20230706-17-460x2d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Ekserdjian does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Has Jeff Koons’ latest high-profile stunt just proved that space is the new frontier for art?David Ekserdjian, Professor of History of Art and Film, University of LeicesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2245642024-02-27T16:00:16Z2024-02-27T16:00:16ZA black hole discovery could force us to rethink how galaxies came to be<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578316/original/file-20240227-30-ntlqbc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3834%2C2155&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://webbtelescope.org/contents/media/images/2021/026/01F8QS893NVRJ6EYF0S46237KP?page=1&Tag=Active%20Galaxies/Quasars">NASA, ESA, Joseph Olmsted (STScI)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Peering deep into the infancy of the universe, the European Southern Observatory’s Very Large Telescope (VLT) recently confirmed the discovery of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02195-x">the brightest and fastest growing quasar</a>. Quasars are <a href="https://esahubble.org/wordbank/quasar/">luminous objects in the night sky</a> powered by gas falling into a large black hole at the centre of a galaxy. </p>
<p>The discovery of this record-breaking object was fascinating enough. But another crucial aspect to the announcement is that it raises big questions about galaxy formation in the early universe. In particular, it remains puzzling how this quasar, which existed less than two billion years after the Big Bang, could have grown so large so quickly. Probing this conundrum could even lead to a rethink of how galaxies came to be.</p>
<p>Black holes, the densest objects in the universe, are given this name because their gravitational pull is so incredibly strong that not even light can escape their grasp. How then, can a black hole be the origin of such an intense light source? </p>
<p>Well, in some galaxies, <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/universe/black-holes/">where the black hole is sufficiently large</a>, matter is being drawn in at a ferociously high rate. As it spirals in, violent collisions between gases, dust, and stars result in the emission of huge amounts of light energy. The bigger the black hole, the more violent the collisions and the more light is emitted.</p>
<p>The quasar that was the subject of the latest study, known as J0529-4351, has a mass equivalent to 17 billion suns and is incredibly large. There is a spiralling disk of matter spanning a width of seven light years at the centre of the galaxy and the black hole is growing by accreting (accumulating) this matter. The disk’s width is comparable to the distance between Earth and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Alpha-Centauri">the next nearest star system, Alpha Centauri</a>. </p>
<h2>Hiding in plain sight</h2>
<p>The black hole is growing rapidly by consuming a record-breaking amount of mass, equivalent to one sun each day. This intense accretion of matter releases an amount of radiative energy that’s equivalent to a quadrillion (thousand trillion) suns. </p>
<p>This raises the question of why an object so bright has only just been identified in the night sky, despite decades of astronomical observations. It turns out that this sneaky quasar had been hiding in plain sight.</p>
<p>Despite its astonishing luminosity, J0529-4351 is very distant, meaning that it seamlessly blends in among a sea of dimmer stars that lie much closer to Earth. In fact, this quasar is so far away that the light it emits takes a whopping 12 billion years to reach us here on Earth. </p>
<p>The age of the universe is around 13.7 billion years. So this quasar existed just 1.7 billion years after the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/universe/the-big-bang/">Big Bang, at the beginning of the Universe</a>. </p>
<p>The universe’s expansion following the Big Bang is what permits us to measure the distance to, and therefore the age of, this quasar. A long-known simple <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zphppv4/revision/3">formula called Hubble’s law</a>, states that knowing the velocity that an object is moving away from us allows us to calculate how far away it is.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Very Large Telescope" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578312/original/file-20240227-26-rw2ozs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/578312/original/file-20240227-26-rw2ozs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578312/original/file-20240227-26-rw2ozs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578312/original/file-20240227-26-rw2ozs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578312/original/file-20240227-26-rw2ozs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578312/original/file-20240227-26-rw2ozs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/578312/original/file-20240227-26-rw2ozs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The object was confirmed using the Very Large Telescope facility in Chile.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cerro-paranal-atacama-desert-chile-jan-750390019">Framalicious / Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The collisions that occur as matter spirals into this quasar’s black hole raise it to scorching temperatures of 10,000°C. Under these conditions, the atoms in the system emit a characteristic spectrum of light. </p>
<p>These discrete frequencies of light form a sort of barcode that astronomers can use to identify the elemental compositions of objects in the night sky. As an object that’s emitting light moves away from us, the frequency of that observed light undergoes a shift, much like how the sound frequency of an ambulance siren shifts depending on whether it is driving towards or away from you. </p>
<p>This shift seen in astronomical objects is <a href="http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/OJTA2dev/ojta/c2c/galaxies/expanding/lookback_tl.html">known as redshift</a>. This, along with Hubble’s Law, has permitted both the age and the distance (both these properties are linked in cosmology) of J0529-4351 to be confirmed.</p>
<p>This bright beacon from the early universe has raised an important question that is baffling astronomers: how could this black hole, in such a relatively short period of time, grow so fast into such a massive object? Under well accepted models of the early universe, it should have taken longer for it to grow to this size. </p>
<p>What’s more, by tuning the artificial intelligence (AI) models used to scan telescope data for these unusual objects, more could still be found in the coming years. If they resemble J0529-4351, physicists would need to seriously rethink their models of the early universe and galaxy formation.</p>
<p>The fastest-growing black hole ever observed will be the perfect target for a system <a href="https://www.mpe.mpg.de/ir/gravityplus">called Gravity+</a>, an upcoming upgrade to an instrument on the Very Large Telescope called an interferometer. This interferometer is an ingenious way of combining data from the four separate telescopes that actually make up the VLT. </p>
<p>Gravity+ is designed to accurately measure the rotational speed and mass of black holes directly, especially those that lie far away from the Earth. </p>
<p>Furthermore, <a href="https://elt.eso.org/">the European Southern Observatory’s’s Extremely Large Telescope</a>, a 39-metre diameter reflecting telescope, is currently under construction in the Chilean Atacama Desert. This is designed for detecting the optical and near-infrared wavelengths characteristic of distant quasars and will make identifying and characterising such elusive objects even more likely in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224564/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robin Smith does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The discovery raises big questions about widely accepted models of galaxy formation.Robin Smith, Senior Lecturer in Physics, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243182024-02-26T17:19:30Z2024-02-26T17:19:30ZA Nasa mission that collided with an asteroid didn’t just leave a dent – it reshaped the space rock<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577638/original/file-20240223-18-v91s4p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1917%2C1080&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/details/PIA25329">NASA/Johns Hopkins APL/Steve Gribben</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A frequent idea in sci-fi and apocalyptic films is that of an asteroid
striking Earth and causing global devastation. While the probabilities of this kind of mass extinction occurring on our planet are incredibly small, they are not zero. </p>
<p>The results of Nasa’s Dart mission to the asteroid Dimorphos <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02200-3">have now been published</a>. They contain fascinating details about the composition of this asteroid and whether we can defend Earth against incoming space rocks.</p>
<p><a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/dart/">The Double Asteroid Redirection Test (Dart)</a> was a spacecraft mission that launched in November 2021. It was sent to an asteroid called Dimorphos and commanded to collide with it, head on, in September 2022. </p>
<p>Dimorphos posed and poses no threat to Earth in the near future. But the mission was designed to see if deflecting an asteroid away from a collision course with Earth was possible through “kinetic” means – in other words, a direct impact of a human-made object on its surface. </p>
<p>Asteroid missions are never easy. The relatively small size of these objects (compared to planets and moons) means there is no appreciable gravity to enable spacecraft to land and collect a sample. </p>
<p>Space agencies have launched a number of spacecraft to asteroids in recent times. For example, the Japanese space agency’s (Jaxa) <a href="https://www.isas.jaxa.jp/en/missions/spacecraft/current/hayabusa2.html">Hayabusa-2</a> mission reached the asteroid Ryugu in 2018, the same year Nasa’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-space-exploration-missions-to-look-%20out-for-in-2023-195839">Osiris-Rex</a> mission rendezvoused with the asteroid Bennu.</p>
<p>The Japanese Hayabusa missions (1 and 2) fired a small projectile at the surface as they approached it. They would then collect the debris as it flew by. </p>
<h2>High-speed collision</h2>
<p>However, the Dart mission was special in that it was not sent to deliver samples of asteroid material to labs on Earth. Instead, it was to fly at high speed into the space rock and be destroyed in the process.</p>
<p>A high-speed collision with an asteroid needs incredible precision. Dart’s target of Dimorphos was actually part of a <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/asteroids/didymos/">double asteroid</a> system, known as a binary because the smaller object orbits the larger one. This binary contained both Didymus – the larger of the two objects – and Dimorphos, which behaves effectively as a moon.</p>
<p>The simulations of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02200-3">what has happened to Dimorphos</a> show that while we might expect to see a very large crater on the asteroid from Dart’s impact, it is more likely that it has, in fact, changed the shape of the asteroid instead. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Dimorphos." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577962/original/file-20240226-24-ninx49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577962/original/file-20240226-24-ninx49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577962/original/file-20240226-24-ninx49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577962/original/file-20240226-24-ninx49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577962/original/file-20240226-24-ninx49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577962/original/file-20240226-24-ninx49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577962/original/file-20240226-24-ninx49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dimorphos, as pictured by the Dart spacecraft.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/dart/">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Ant hitting two buses</h2>
<p>The collision was of a mass of 580kg hitting an asteroid of roughly 5 billion kg. For comparison, this is equivalent to an ant hitting two buses. But the spacecraft is also travelling around 6 kilometres per second. </p>
<p>The simulation results based on observations of the asteroid Dimorphos have shown that the asteroid now orbits around its larger companion, Didymus, 33 minutes slower than before. Its orbit has gone from 11 hours, 55 minutes to 11 hours, 22 minutes. </p>
<p>The momentum change to the core of Dimorphos is also higher than one would predict from the direct impact, which may seem impossible at first. However, the asteroid is quite weakly constructed, consisting of loose rubble held together by gravity. The impact caused a lot of material to be blown off of Dimorphos. </p>
<p>This material is now travelling in the opposite direction to the impact. This acts <a href="http://www.dynamicscience.com.au/tester/solutions1/war/newton/recoilless.htm">like a recoil</a>, slowing down the asteroid.</p>
<p>Observations of all the <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2340837-photo-shows-10000-km-debris-tail-caused-by-%20dart-asteroid-smash/">highly reflective material that has been shed from Dimorphos</a> allows scientists to estimate how much of it has been lost from the asteroid. Their result is roughly 20 million kilograms – equivalent to about six of the Apollo-era Saturn V rockets fully loaded with fuel. </p>
<p>Combining all the parameters together (mass, speed, angle and amount of material lost) and simulating the impact has allowed the researchers to be fairly confident about the answer. Confident not only regarding the grain size of the material coming from Dimorphos, but also that the asteroid has limited cohesion and the surface must be constantly altered, or reshaped, by minor impacts.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Artist's impression of Chicxulub asteroid." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577961/original/file-20240226-24-p85pi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577961/original/file-20240226-24-p85pi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577961/original/file-20240226-24-p85pi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577961/original/file-20240226-24-p85pi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577961/original/file-20240226-24-p85pi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577961/original/file-20240226-24-p85pi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577961/original/file-20240226-24-p85pi2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The dinosaurs were wiped out by a 10km-wide asteroid that hit Earth 66 million years ago.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/planet-earth-big-asteroid-space-potentially-2107872635">Buradaki / Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But what does this tell us about protecting ourselves from an asteroid impact? Significant recent impacts on Earth have included the <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/planetarydefense/2023/02/15/remembering-the-chelyabinsk-impact-10-years-ago-and-looking-to-the-future/">meteor</a> which broke up in the sky over the city of Chelyabinsk, Russia, in 2013, and the infamous <a href="https://earthsky.org/space/what-is-the-tunguska-explosion/">Tunguska
impact</a> over a remote part of Siberia in 1908. </p>
<p>While these were not the kinds of events that are able to cause mass extinctions – like the 10km object that wiped out the dinosaurs when it struck our planet 66 million years ago – the potential for damage and loss of life with smaller objects such as those at Chelyabinsk and Tunguska is very high.</p>
<p>The Dart mission cost US$324 million (£255 million), which is low for a space mission, and with its development phase completed, a similar mission to go and deflect an asteroid heading our way could be launched more cheaply. </p>
<p>The big variable here is how much warning we will have, because a change in orbit of 30 minutes – as was observed when Dart struck Dimorphos – will make little difference if the asteroid is already very close to Earth. However, if we can predict the object path from further out – preferably outside the Solar System – and make small changes, this could be enough to divert the path of an asteroid away from our planet.</p>
<p>We can expect to see more of these missions in the future, not only because of interest in the science surrounding asteroids, but because the ease of removing material from them means that private companies might want to step up their ideas of <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/things-are-looking-up-for-asteroid-mining/">mining these space rocks</a> for precious metals.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224318/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Whittaker does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The mission provided details about how to deflect an asteroid should one threaten Earth in future.Ian Whittaker, Senior Lecturer in Physics, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2240412024-02-21T17:27:54Z2024-02-21T17:27:54ZThe brightest object ever observed in the night sky is a black hole that’s growing by the equivalent of one Sun a day<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576981/original/file-20240221-28-83koz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C5%2C3828%2C2149&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/black-hole-slowly-rotating-space-event-2012670551">Merlin74 / Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02195-x">A new study</a> published in Nature Astronomy describes the most luminous object ever observed by astronomers. It is a black hole with a mass of 17 billion Suns, swallowing a greater amount of mass than the Sun every single day.</p>
<p>It has been known about for several decades, but since it is so bright, astronomers assumed it must be a nearby star. Only recent observations revealed its extreme distance and luminosity.</p>
<p>The object has been dubbed J0529-4351. This name simply refers to its coordinates on the celestial sphere – a way of projecting the objects in the sky onto the inside of a sphere. It is a type of <a href="https://esahubble.org/wordbank/quasar/">object called a quasar</a>.</p>
<p>The physical nature of quasars was initially unknown. But in 1963, the visible light from a <a href="https://www.wired.com/2008/08/dayintech-0805/">quasar called 3C 273</a> was split into all its wavelengths (known as its spectrum). This showed that it was located nearly 2 billion light years away. </p>
<p>Given how bright 3C 273 appears to us, and how far away it is, it must be extremely luminous – a term in astronomy that refers to the amount of light emitted by an object in a unit of time. The only known power source for such extreme luminosity was through material falling into a <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/universe/black-holes/">supermassive black hole</a>. Quasars are therefore the most actively growing black holes in the universe.</p>
<h2>Power source</h2>
<p>Supermassive black holes often sit at the centres of galaxies. As with all quasars, J0529-4351 is powered by material, mostly super-heated hydrogen and helium gas, falling into its black hole from the surrounding galaxy. </p>
<p>Roughly one times the Sun’s mass is falling into this black hole every day. Exactly how so much gas can be channelled into the centre of galaxies to increase the mass of black holes is an unanswered question in astrophysics.</p>
<p>At the galaxy’s centre, the gas forms into a thin disk shape. The properties of viscosity (resistance to the flow of matter in space) and friction in the thin disk help heat the gas to tens of thousands of degrees Celsius. This is hot enough to glow when viewed at ultraviolet and visible light wavelengths. It is that glow that we can observe from Earth. </p>
<p>At around 17 billion Suns in mass, J0529-4351 is not the most massive known black hole. One object, at the centre of the galaxy cluster Abell 1201, is <a href="https://www.space.com/largest-known-black-hole-discovered-through-gravitational-lensing">equivalent to 30 billion Suns</a>. However, we need to bear in mind that because of the time taken for light to travel across the vast distance between this object and Earth, we are witnessing it when the universe was only 1.5 billion years old. Its is now around 13.7 billion years old. </p>
<p>So this black hole must have been growing, or accreting, at this rate for a significant fraction of the age of the universe by the time it was observed. The authors believe the gas accretion by the black hole is happening close to the limit placed by the laws of physics. Faster accretion causes a more luminous disk of gas around the black hole which in turn can halt any more material falling in.</p>
<h2>Story of the discovery</h2>
<p>J0529-4351 has been known about for decades, but despite having an accretion disk of gas 15,000 times larger than our Solar System and occupying its own galaxy – which is probably close to the size of the Milky Way – it is so far away, it appears as a single point of light in our telescopes.</p>
<p>This means it is difficult to distinguish from the billions of stars in our own galaxy. To discover that it is in fact a distant, powerful, supermassive black hole required some more complex techniques. Firstly, astronomers collected light from the middle of the infrared waveband (light with much longer wavelengths than those we can see). </p>
<p>Stars and quasars look quite different to one another at those wavelengths. To confirm the observation, a spectrum was taken (much as it was with the quasar 3C 273), using the <a href="https://rsaa.anu.edu.au/observatories/telescopes/anu-23m-telescope">Australian National University’s 2.3 metre telescope</a> at Siding Spring Observatory, New South Wales. </p>
<p>And, as with 3C 273, the spectrum revealed both the nature of the object and how far away it was – 12 billion light years. This highlighted how extreme its luminosity must be.</p>
<h2>Detailed checks</h2>
<p>Despite these measurements, a number of checks needed to be made to confirm the true luminosity of the quasar. Firstly, astronomers needed to make sure that the light had not been magnified by a source in the sky that was closer to Earth. Much like lenses used in spectacles or binoculars, galaxies can act as lenses. They are so dense that they can bend and magnify the light of more distant sources that are perfectly aligned behind them. </p>
<p>Data from the European Space Agency’s Gaia satellite, which has extremely precise measurements of J0529-4351’s position, was used to determine that J0529-4351 is truly a single non-lensed source of light in the sky. This is backed up by more detailed spectra taken with the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/unitedkingdom/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/">European Southern Observatory’s Very Large Telescope</a> (VLT) facility in Chile. </p>
<p>J0529-4351 is likely to become a very significant tool for the future study of quasars and black hole growth. The mass of black holes is a fundamental property but is very difficult to measure directly, as there is no standard set of weighing scales for such absurdly large, mysterious objects. </p>
<p>One technique is to measure the effect the black hole has on more diffuse gas orbiting it in large clouds, called the “broad line region”. This gas is revealed in the spectrum through wide “emission lines”, which are caused by electrons jumping between specific energy levels in the ionised gas. </p>
<p>The width of these lines is directly related to the mass of the black hole, but the calibration of this relationship is very poorly tested for the most luminous objects such as J0529-4351. However, because it is so physically large and so luminous, J0529-4351 will be observable by a new instrument being installed on the VLT, <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/unitedkingdom/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/vlt-instr/gravity+/">called Gravity+</a>. </p>
<p>This instrument will give a direct measurement of the black hole mass and calibrate the relationships used to estimate masses in other high-luminosity objects.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224041/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip Wiseman works at the University of Southampton and is funded by the Science and Technology Facilities Council.</span></em></p>The extreme object could tell us more about the environment around black holes.Philip Wiseman, Research Fellow, Astronomy, University of SouthamptonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2232472024-02-12T19:33:22Z2024-02-12T19:33:22ZNewborn gas planets may be surprisingly flat – new research<p>A new planet starts its life in a rotating circle of gas and dust, a cradle known as a <a href="https://esahubble.org/wordbank/circumstellar-disc/">protostellar disc</a>. My colleagues and I have used computer simulations to show that newborn gas planets in these discs are likely to have surprisingly flattened shapes. This finding, <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2024/02/aa48753-23/aa48753-23.html">published in Astronomy and Astrophysics Letters</a>, could add to our picture of exactly how planets form.</p>
<p>Observing protoplanets that have just formed and are still within their protostellar discs is extremely difficult. Until now only three such young protoplanets have been observed, with two of them in the same system, PDS 70.</p>
<p>We need to find systems that are young, and close enough for our telescopes to be able to detect the dim light from the planet itself and distinguish it from that of the disc. The whole process of planetary formation lasts only a few million years which is nothing more than a blink of an eye in astrophysical scales. This means we need to have luck to catch them in the act of forming.</p>
<p>Our research group performed computer simulations to determine the properties of gaseous protoplanets under a variety of thermal conditions in the planets’ cradles. </p>
<p>The simulations have enough resolution to be able to follow the evolution of a protoplanet in the disc from an early stage, when it is just a mere condensation within the disc. Such simulations are computationally demanding and were run on <a href="https://dirac.ac.uk/">DiRAC, the UK’s astrophysics supercomputing facility</a>.</p>
<p>Typically, multiple planets form within a disc. The study found that protoplanets have a shape known as oblate spheroids, like Smarties or M&M’s, rather than being spherical. They grow by drawing gas predominantly through their poles rather than their equators. </p>
<p>Technically, the planets in our Solar System are also oblate spheroids but their flattening is small. <a href="https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/planets-round/en/#:%7E:text=Mercury%20and%20Venus%20are%20the,bit%20thicker%20in%20the%20middle.">Saturn has a flattening of 10%, Jupiter 6%, whereas Earth a mere 0.3%</a>.</p>
<p>In comparison, the typical flattening of protoplanets is 90%. Such a flattening will affect the observed properties of protoplanets, and it needs to be taken into account when interpreting observations.</p>
<h2>How planets start off</h2>
<p>The most widely accepted theory for planet formation <a href="https://faculty.ucr.edu/%7Ekrice/coreacc.html#:%7E:text=The%20most%20commonly%20accepted%20mechanism,to%20accrete%20a%20gaseous%20envelope.">is that of “core accretion”</a>. According to this model, tiny dust particles smaller than sand collide with each other, group together and progressively grow into larger and larger bodies. This is effectively what happens to the dust under your bed when it isn’t cleaned. </p>
<p>Once a core of dust with enough massive forms, it draws gas from the disc to form a gas giant planet. This bottom-to-top approach would take a few million years. </p>
<p>The opposite, top-to-bottom approach, is the <a href="https://blog.planethunters.org/tag/disk-instability/">theory of disc instability</a>. In this model, the protostellar discs that attend young stars are gravitationally unstable. In other words, they are too heavy to be maintained and so fragment into pieces, which evolve into planets. </p>
<p>The theory of core accretion has been around for a long time and it can explain many aspects of how our Solar System formed. However, disc instability can better explain some of the exoplanetary systems we have discovered in recent decades, such as those where a gas giant planet orbits very very far from its host star.</p>
<p>The appeal of this theory is that planet formation happens very fast, within a few thousand years, which is consistent with observations that suggest planets exist in very young discs.</p>
<p>Our study focused on gas giant planets formed via the model of disc instability. They are flattened because they form from the compression of an already flat structure, the protostellar disc, but also because of how they rotate. </p>
<h2>No flat Earths</h2>
<p>Although these protoplanets overall are very flattened, their cores, which will eventually evolve into gas giant planets as we know them, are less flattened – only by about 20%. This is just twice the flattening of Saturn. With time they are expected to become more spherical.</p>
<p>Rocky planets, like Earth and Mars, cannot form via disc instability. They are thought to form by slowly assembling dust particles to pebbles, rocks, kilometre-sized objects and eventually planets. They are too dense to be significantly flattened even when they are newly born. There is no possibility that Earth was flattened at such a high degree when it as young.</p>
<p>But our study does support a role for disc instability in the case of some worlds in some planetary systems.</p>
<p>We are now moving from the era of exoplanet discoveries to the era of exoplanet characterisation. Many new observatories are set to become operational. These will help discover more protoplanets embedded in their discs. Predictions from computer models are also becoming more sophisticated. </p>
<p>The comparison between these theoretical models and observations is bringing us closer and closer to understanding the origins of our Solar System.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223247/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dimitris Stamatellos receives funding from the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC).</span></em></p>The observation could fill in gaps in our knowledge about planet formation.Dimitris Stamatellos, Associate Professor in Astrophysics, University of Central LancashireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2223072024-02-08T13:21:28Z2024-02-08T13:21:28ZA new generation of spaceplanes is taking advantage of the latest in technology<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572455/original/file-20240131-25-t35ou5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C1911%2C1281&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Dream Chaser would ferry cargo, and eventually crew, to low-Earth orbit.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/details/AFRC2017-0124-015">Ken Ulbrich / NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/space-shuttle/">Nasa’s space shuttle</a> operated in low-Earth orbit for 30 years before its retirement in 2011. However, the US space agency’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/orion-spacecraft/">replacement for this vehicle, Orion</a>, returned to the conical capsule design familiar from the Apollo missions. This was because Nasa intended that this newer craft be used for exploring targets in deep space, such as the Moon.</p>
<p>But in recent years, we have seen a return of the spaceplane design. <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8601172.stm">Since 2010</a>, the US Space Force (and formerly the US Air Force) has been <a href="https://www.spaceforce.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/3628417/united-states-space-force-launches-seventh-x-37b-mission/#:%7E:text=KENNEDY%20SPACE%20CENTER%2C%20Fla.,Space%20Center%20Launch%20Complex%2039A.">launching a robotic spaceplane called the X-37B</a> into low Earth orbit on classified missions. China has its own <a href="https://www.space.com/china-space-plane-depoyed-mystery-objects">military spaceplane called Shenlong</a>. </p>
<p>This year could see a test flight of the company Sierra Space’s <a href="https://www.sierraspace.com/dream-chaser-spaceplane/">Dream Chaser</a> – the first commercial spaceplane capable of orbital flight. If all goes well, the vehicle could be used to resupply the International Space Station (ISS) with cargo and, eventually, crew. </p>
<p>Spaceplanes can fly or glide in the Earth’s atmosphere and land on runways rather than using parachutes to land in water or flat ground like capsules. They’re also more manoeuvrable as the spacecraft reenters the atmosphere, increasing the area of the Earth’s surface where landing is possible from a specific re-entry point. </p>
<p>Spaceplanes also allow a gentler but longer flight path during re-entry and a softer landing, which is easier on crew and cargo than capsules, which can land with a thump. A runway also allows ground support crews and infrastructure to be ready at the landing location.</p>
<h2>Cost and complexity</h2>
<p>But spaceplanes are more complex and heavier than an equivalent capsule. The winged body shape poses a particular challenge for designing thermal protection systems (TPS) – the heat-resistant materials that protect the craft from scorching temperatures on re-entry. These additional costs mean it’s impractical to design a spaceplane for a single flight. They need to be used again and again to be viable.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="X-37B." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572489/original/file-20240131-27-2o63f0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/572489/original/file-20240131-27-2o63f0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572489/original/file-20240131-27-2o63f0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572489/original/file-20240131-27-2o63f0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572489/original/file-20240131-27-2o63f0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572489/original/file-20240131-27-2o63f0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/572489/original/file-20240131-27-2o63f0.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The US Space Force’s X-37B carries no crew, and its missions are classified.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.spaceforce.mil/Multimedia/Photos/igphoto/2003113618/">Staff Sgt. Adam Shanks / US Space Force</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There has been interest in spaceplanes from the earliest days of human spaceflight. A military spaceplane project called <a href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA303832">Dyna-Soar</a> was started in the US in 1957, then cancelled just after construction started. The vehicle was sophisticated for its time, built using a metal alloy that is able to withstand high temperatures and featuring a heat shield on the front that could be detached after it returned from space, so that the pilot could see clearly as he was landing.</p>
<p>The space shuttle, which entered service in 1981, was the first operational spaceplane. It was supposed to launch more often than it did and have <a href="https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/rockets/a36304153/nasa-space-shuttle/">greater reusability</a> but it turned out that extensive refurbishment was required between launches. It did, however, demonstrate the ability to return astronauts and large cargo from orbit.</p>
<p>Other space agencies invested in the 1980s and 1990s, in Europe, with <a href="https://www.esa.int/About_Us/ESA_history/History_Hermes_spaceplane_1987">the Hermes spaceplane</a>, and Japan, with <a href="https://www.flightglobal.com/japan-stops-work-on-hope-x-spaceplane-/33798.article">the HOPE vehicle</a>. Both programmes were cancelled in large part because of cost. The Soviet Union developed its own <a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/soviet-buran-shuttle-one-flight-long-history">shuttle-like vehicle called Buran</a>, which successfully flew to space once in 1988. The programme was cancelled after the collapse of the Soviet Union.</p>
<h2>Feeling the heat</h2>
<p>Spaceplanes have specific requirements for the final part of their journeys – as they return from space. <a href="https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/III.4.1.7_Returning_from_Space.pdf">During atmospheric re-entry</a>, they are heated to over one thousand degrees Celsius as they travel at hypersonic speeds of over seven kilometres per second – more than 20 times the speed of sound. A blunt nose design (where the edge of the spacecraft is rounded) is an ideal shape because it reduces build-up of heat at the foremost part of the vehicle.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Space shuttle, STS-132" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573023/original/file-20240202-19-du1hll.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573023/original/file-20240202-19-du1hll.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573023/original/file-20240202-19-du1hll.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573023/original/file-20240202-19-du1hll.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573023/original/file-20240202-19-du1hll.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573023/original/file-20240202-19-du1hll.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573023/original/file-20240202-19-du1hll.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">On launch, the space shuttle was attached to the side of a large external propellant tank.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/details/sts132-s-047">NASA / JSC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Even so, the expected temperatures experienced by the craft can still be as high as 1600°C, necessitating a thermal protection system on the outside of the vehicle. <a href="https://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Evolution_of_Technology/TPS/Tech41.htm">The space shuttle TPS</a> included ceramic tiles that were especially heat resistant and a reinforced carbon-carbon matrix that was capable of withstanding temperatures as high as 2400°C. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/history/20-years-ago-remembering-columbia-and-her-crew/">loss of the Columbia shuttle</a> during re-entry in 2003, causing the deaths of seven astronauts, was the result of a breach in the TPS on the leading edge of the wing. This resulted from a piece of insulating foam flying off the shuttle’s external tank during Columbia’s launch and hitting the wing. </p>
<p>This foam issue was recurrent with the shuttle because of the way it launched on the side of the external propellant tank. But newer spaceplane designs will fly atop conventional rockets, where falling foam isn’t a problem.</p>
<p>An effective TPS remains vital for the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/2015_nasa_technology_roadmaps_ta_9_entry_descent_landing_final.pdf">future success of spaceplanes</a>, as are systems that monitor the TPS performance in real time.</p>
<h2>Current vehicles</h2>
<p>There are currently two operating spaceplanes, one Chinese and one American, that can reach orbit. Little information is available on China’s Shenlong, but <a href="https://www.boeing.com/defense/autonomous-systems/x37b">the US military’s X-37B</a> is better known. Weighing close to five tonnes at launch, the nine metre-long, uncrewed vehicle is launched using a conventional rocket and lands autonomously on a runway at the end of its mission. </p>
<p>The X-37B’s TPS uses tiles similar to the shuttle over the lower surface with a lower-cost alternative to reinforced <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforced_carbon%E2%80%93carbon">carbon-carbon</a> called Tufroc, developed for the X37B, on the nose and leading edges.</p>
<p>They should soon be joined by Dream Chaser, which was was developed by the company to carry both cargo and astronauts, but Nasa wants to prove its safety before carrying people by using it to carry cargo to the space station first. The ability to return comparatively fragile cargo to the surface because of a softer landing is a key capability. The tiles that protect Dream Chaser are made from silica, and <a href="https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2023/09/dream-chaser-tps/">each has a unique shape</a> matched to the area on the vehicle they are designed to protect.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Dream Chaser" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573027/original/file-20240202-27-ml7rkh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573027/original/file-20240202-27-ml7rkh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573027/original/file-20240202-27-ml7rkh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573027/original/file-20240202-27-ml7rkh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573027/original/file-20240202-27-ml7rkh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573027/original/file-20240202-27-ml7rkh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573027/original/file-20240202-27-ml7rkh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dream Chaser undergoing evaluation at Nasa’s Neil Armstrong Test Facility.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://twitter.com/NASAglenn/status/1753108059004825754/photo/1">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Future developments</h2>
<p>There is continued interest in spaceplanes because of their ability to return crew and cargo to a runway. The demand for this capability is limited now. But if the costs of launching to space continue falling and an expansion of industry in space raises demand, they will become an increasingly viable alternative to capsules.</p>
<p>Longer term, there is also potential for spaceplanes capable of reaching orbit after taking off from a runway. The challenges of developing these single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) vehicles is considerable. However, <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/faculty/kantha/sites/default/files/attached-files/70494-96876_-_kyle_borg_-_may_8_2015_853_am_-_borg_matula_skylon_report.pdf">concepts such as the Skylon vehicle</a> are leading to technical developments that could eventually support development of an SSTO craft.</p>
<p>For the foreseeable future, spaceplanes look promising for the following reasons: new design techniques, improved materials for the TPS, advanced computer modelling and simulation tools for optimising different aspects of design and flight parameters and continuous improvements in propulsion systems. </p>
<p>Given that several governments, space agencies, and private companies worldwide are investing heavily in spaceplane research and development, we could see a future where flights with these vehicles become routine.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222307/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Spaceplanes seemed out of favour when the shuttle was retired in 2011; they now seem to be making a comeback.Oluwamayokun Adetoro, Senior Lecturer, Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Brunel University LondonJames Campbell, Reader, Brunel University LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2226072024-02-05T02:45:50Z2024-02-05T02:45:50ZNASA is looking for commercial Mars missions. Do people still want to go to Mars?<p>Mars has been a source of myth, lore and inspiration since antiquity. It is also an interesting place to research – a legitimate candidate for us to find some form of alien life.</p>
<p>Since the 1960s, Mars has been a popular destination for space missions. Now, for the first time, <a href="https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/02/for-the-first-time-nasa-has-asked-industry-about-private-missions-to-mars/">NASA has invited the private sector</a> to submit proposals on commercial Mars missions.</p>
<p>These missions would range from carrying various payloads to the red planet, to providing communications relay services. No talk of a Mars astronaut just yet.</p>
<p>But do people still want to go to Mars? Absolutely. One question is, what is the best way to get people there? Another question – should we?</p>
<h2>Modern exploration of Mars</h2>
<p>Since 1960, there have been <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_missions_to_Mars">50 missions</a> with scientific and technical objectives related to Mars. Thirty-one of these have been deemed successful, which is not a bad strike rate.</p>
<p>There have also been plenty of spectacular failures, like the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-40029180">crash of the Schiaparelli lander</a> in 2016.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=645&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573300/original/file-20240204-25-6zvmkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=811&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Satellite image of the Schiaparelli impact area taken on October 25, 2016. Insets show areas where the lander crashed (centre left), impact from the front heat shield (upper right), and the parachute and rear heat shield (lower left).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA21131">NASA/JPL-Caltech/Univ. of Arizona</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These missions have returned a wealth of information about Mars – its atmosphere, orbit, geology and more. According to some parts of the internet, they have also returned amazing images of “<a href="https://www.space.com/17191-face-on-mars.html">faces” on its surface</a>, “<a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/26754/door-shaped-fracture-spotted-by-curiosity-at-east-cliffs/">doors” in rocky cliffs</a> and “<a href="https://spaceexplored.com/2023/04/14/strange-dragon-bone-looking-mars-rocks-spotted-by-curiosity-rover/">fossilised bones</a>”.</p>
<p>In all cases, geologists had more mundane explanations (rocks). But such public interest shows that Mars truly occupies our imaginations.</p>
<p>A typical interplanetary space mission <a href="https://lasp.colorado.edu/mop/files/2019/11/Mission-costs.pdf">costs at least a billion US dollars</a>, so the world’s major space agencies have spent no less than US$50 billion on Mars over the years. And this is just to send cameras, rovers and landers. To send people to Mars would be next level.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573262/original/file-20240204-27-sk4u6u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=556&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The original image of a ‘face on Mars’, taken by the Viking 1 spacecraft in 1976.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA01141">NASA/JPL</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-long-fascination-with-the-journey-to-mars-106541">Our long fascination with the journey to Mars</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A better way to do business?</h2>
<p>NASA is starting to explore different ways to undertake space missions. For decades, NASA and other space agencies around the world have spent large sums on in-house planning, development, prototyping and production for space missions. </p>
<p>In the 2020s, the technologies that enable and support space exploration are increasingly being developed in the commercial world. An example most people will be familiar with is Elon Musk’s <a href="https://www.spacex.com/">SpaceX</a>. Many of the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/05/science/elon-musk-spacex-starship-mars.html">SpaceX objectives have Mars</a> and beyond as the ultimate goal – “<a href="https://www.spacex.com/humanspaceflight/">making humanity interplanetary</a>”. </p>
<p>The development of the Falcon rockets by SpaceX, Starlink satellites, and the Starship rocket could not be further from NASA’s historical model. Where the NASA approach has been conservative, SpaceX makes lots of changes fast, iterates quickly, and learns quickly from failure.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/921VbEMAwwY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The SpaceX Starship rocket development.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And SpaceX is not alone. There is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_private_spaceflight_companies">growing industry of commercial providers of access to space</a>, particularly in the United States.</p>
<p>NASA’s current roadmap involves going “back to the Moon” to re-establish a human presence with the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis program</a>, then on to <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/#red_planet/5">a human presence on Mars</a>. In this roadmap, the concept of leveraging commercial providers has taken hold. </p>
<p>Instead of in-house development, NASA is moving in favour of specifying requirements and then assessing the solutions commercial providers might supply in a competitive process.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/all-uk-astronaut-mission-shows-that-private-enterprise-is-vital-to-the-future-of-space-exploration-216762">All-UK astronaut mission shows that private enterprise is vital to the future of space exploration</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Pros and cons</h2>
<p>It appears that now, even compared to 20 years ago, such an approach has become much more viable, as demonstrated by SpaceX. In theory, it could be cheaper and more efficient.</p>
<p>Likely the bigger positive effect will be the substantial stimulus to the commercial sector. With companies innovating to meet the requirements of space missions, the technology spin-offs will potentially have more <a href="https://managementconsulted.com/roi-of-a-space-mission/">economic and social impact than getting to Mars itself</a>.</p>
<p>There is a <a href="https://theconversation.com/four-surprising-technological-innovations-that-came-out-of-the-apollo-moon-landings-119605">good history of this</a> from the development of technologies for space and from mega-science projects more generally.</p>
<p>However, it is very early days and the commercial approach has to prove itself. There is always an argument that once you start to cease in-house development at a place like NASA, capabilities start to gradually decay. Time will tell. The first steps – reaching the Moon – will go a long way in testing the approach.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/humans-are-going-back-to-the-moon-to-stay-but-when-that-will-be-is-becoming-less-clear-221996">Humans are going back to the Moon to stay, but when that will be is becoming less clear</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573312/original/file-20240205-29-trs5bq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover spotted a tiny flower-shaped rock while exploring the planet’s surface – one of many features geologists are learning about.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/26587/curiosity-finds-a-martian-flower/">NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>But should humans go to Mars?</h2>
<p>Mars entered the modern psyche as a place of mystery, promise and danger. This was illustrated vividly more than 100 years ago by H.G. Wells in the novel The War of the Worlds. The number of books, songs, TV shows and movies about Mars is enormous, containing some great (and not so great) art.</p>
<p>Should humans go to Mars? Musk wants to do it, sure. In the 2010s, the Dutch <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_One">Mars One</a> startup selected 100 volunteers to travel to Mars on a one-way ticket and raised millions of dollars before going bankrupt in 2019. There will always be some cross-section of society wanting to live on Mars.</p>
<p>Some will argue that before humans become interplanetary and start to “mess up” another planet, we should make sure Earth is looked after. Others point out that space exploration should <a href="https://theconversation.com/sustainability-is-often-an-afterthought-in-space-exploration-that-needs-to-change-as-the-industry-grows-211335">do more to include sustainability</a>.</p>
<p>Despite this debate, if the history of human exploration is anything to go by, you only need a tiny fraction of the population to be motivated enough to do it. If they also have the capital, it will happen.</p>
<p>I can’t see that Mars will be much different.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222607/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven Tingay does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Mars has been a popular destination since space exploration began – and there are plenty of people who’d love to go there.Steven Tingay, John Curtin Distinguished Professor (Radio Astronomy), Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2221732024-01-29T16:38:10Z2024-01-29T16:38:10ZNasa’s Mars helicopter Ingenuity has ended its mission – its success paves the way for more flying vehicles on other planets and moons<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571847/original/file-20240129-15-v0glwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2270%2C1360&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Ingenuity helicopter on Mars.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/27421/ingenuity-at-two-years-on-mars/">NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It is difficult to emphasise the significance of the milestone surpassed by Nasa’s Mars helicopter, Ingenuity. </p>
<p>The little (1.8kg) helicopter <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/25608/nasas-perseverance-rover-lands-successfully-on-mars/">touched down with the Perseverance rover in 2021</a>. On 25 January, Nasa announced that the flying vehicle <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/after-three-years-on-mars-nasas-ingenuity-helicopter-mission-ends/">had to perform an emergency landing</a> which damaged one of its rotors and ended its mission. </p>
<hr>
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<hr>
<p>This reminds us that space exploration is still difficult to do. But Ingenuity’s three years on Mars proved that powered, controlled flight on Mars was possible. </p>
<p>The little helicopter lasted for far longer than had been planned and flew higher and further than many had envisaged. Beyond this Martian experiment, the rotorcraft’s success paves the way for other missions using flying vehicles to explore planets and moons.</p>
<p>The first landings on the Moon were static. The year 1969 was probably the most important one for space exploration, when <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/apollo-11/">Apollo 11</a> and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/apollo-12/">Apollo 12</a> brought astronauts to the lunar surface, but 1970 was the year for planetary exploration. </p>
<p>In 1970, we had the <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-060A">first soft landing on another planet</a>, Venus. The first robotic sample delivered to Earth from the Moon. And the first robot rover to drive around another body (also the Moon). </p>
<p>Since then, following over 50 years of planetary exploration and technology development, there have only been a small number of successful surface missions, and even fewer were able to move. Venus was visited by a dozen static landers between 1970 and 1985, and never again. </p>
<h2>From rovers to helicopters</h2>
<p>Mars was only successfully landed on three times between 1971 and 1976 before the <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mars-exploration/missions/pathfinder/">Pathfinder lander</a> and Sojourner rover arrived in 1997. The European Huygens spacecraft then landed on Titan, the moon of Saturn, in 2005. </p>
<p>These attempts at reaching the surface are rare, extremely difficult, and, historically, the landers were hardly ever mobile. Yet the Nasa <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/mission/overview/">Mars rovers Spirit, Opportunity</a>, <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/msl/home/">Curiosity</a>, and <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/">Perseverance</a> have all exceeded their designs and travelled further and further.</p>
<p>And Ingenuity flew.</p>
<p>It wasn’t the first spacecraft to fly. Those would be the balloons deployed by the <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1984-128F">Soviet Vega 1 and 2 missions</a>, which floated over Venus in 1985. But Ingenuity had control, cameras, and connectivity. It took photos of its rover and of Mars from an entirely new perspective. It commanded the world’s attention and captured our hearts.</p>
<p>In Moscow, I had the chance to see models and replicas of the Vega balloons and the first lunar rover. They made a stronger impression on me than the Mars rover twins being used at Nasa’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in California. The Soviet missions were more audacious and different, and they were from generations ago, before my time and long before my career as a planetary scientist.</p>
<p>Ingenuity was audacious, original and completely new. The photos it took, of Perseverance, finding technology discarded from the descent module that carried it down to Mars and of the Martian vistas from a bird’s eye view, were breathtaking. Meanwhile, Perseverance also took videos of Ingenuity flying in the air. Nothing like it had ever seen before.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="CGI image of a silver drone with eight propellers over the Martian surface" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571881/original/file-20240129-23-b4r2m2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571881/original/file-20240129-23-b4r2m2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571881/original/file-20240129-23-b4r2m2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571881/original/file-20240129-23-b4r2m2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571881/original/file-20240129-23-b4r2m2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571881/original/file-20240129-23-b4r2m2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571881/original/file-20240129-23-b4r2m2.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An artist’s impression of the Dragonfly spacecraft in flight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://dragonfly.jhuapl.edu/Gallery/">NASA/Johns Hopkins APL/Steve Gribben</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Future flights</h2>
<p>Ingenuity had a rough ride getting there, however. The entire Mars 2020 mission (of Perseverance, Ingenuity and their transport systems) was sudden. </p>
<p>Following Nasa’s withdrawal from the joint European Space Agency ExoMars programme, which included a Mars rover mission, the US space agency started developing one on its own. This rover, later named Perseverance, went from announcement to concept to development and launch in just seven-and-a-half years.</p>
<p>And Ingenuity wasn’t included onboard at first. As an idea, it was proposed late in the development phase of Mars 2020, and faced serious opposition. It added extra complexity, cost, risk and new failure modes. It was also driven by an engineering objective, with the possibility of a little outreach – the opportunity to communicate the mission’s science and engineering to the public – on the side.</p>
<p>Ingenuity wasn’t intended to last for very long. It was designed to prove helicopter flight in the thin Mars atmosphere. It targeted five short flights over a month. Possible outcomes included hard landings, toppling over, losing power if its solar panels were covered in dust, or losing communication when it was far from the rover (this happened several times). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Large silver balloon being launched in the desert." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571874/original/file-20240129-25-1d0l8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571874/original/file-20240129-25-1d0l8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571874/original/file-20240129-25-1d0l8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571874/original/file-20240129-25-1d0l8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571874/original/file-20240129-25-1d0l8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571874/original/file-20240129-25-1d0l8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571874/original/file-20240129-25-1d0l8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Aerial robotic balloons, or aerobots, like this Nasa prototype, could one day explore Venus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/jpls-venus-aerial-robotic-balloon-prototype-aces-test-flights">Nasa / JPL-Caltech</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But it went way beyond expectations, surviving three years on the Martian surface, even through a dusty season, and making 72 flights. Much of its success was aided by the communication network that now exists at Mars. </p>
<p>Ingenuity receives instructions and transmits data to Perseverance, which communicates with a fleet of satellites that include the European ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter, Nasa’s Maven spacecraft, and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. These, in turn, communicate with two deep space networks on Earth, systems of radio antennas around the world that command and track spacecraft. </p>
<p>It took 50 years of planetary exploration to get here, but already we can see the impact on future exploration that Ingenuity’s mission is having. The next interplanetary rotorcraft will be the <a href="https://dragonfly.jhuapl.edu/">Dragonfly mission to Saturn’s moon Titan</a>. </p>
<p>It will be a very different from Ingenuity. It will weigh about a ton and fly with eight rotors. It is a huge vehicle designed to fly in Titan’s thick atmosphere. </p>
<p>One of the next Red Planet missions will be Mars Sample Return, aiming to collect sample containers of Martian soil being prepared and cached by Perseverance. This has been planned to be carried out with use of a rover, but the success of Ingenuity has led to the idea – and now the development – of <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/msr/spacecraft/sample-recovery-helicopters/">a helicopter</a> to do that. </p>
<p>The future that Ingenuity has opened up for us is exciting. We’ll see helicopters on Mars and Venus, more balloons on Venus, swimming vehicles under the icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn, and maybe even an aeroplane or two.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222173/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin Olsen in an employee of the University of Oxford and receives funding from the UK Space Agency in support of Mars science.</span></em></p>Among the missions being planned is a huge helicopter drone to explore Saturn’s moon Titan.Kevin Olsen, UKSA Mars Science Fellow, Department of Physics, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2219962024-01-26T18:09:56Z2024-01-26T18:09:56ZHumans are going back to the Moon to stay, but when that will be is becoming less clear<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571678/original/file-20240126-28-5py8a0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C0%2C2038%2C1532&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore/52547251628/in/album-72177720303788800/">NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A 2019 Time magazine <a href="https://timecoverstore.com/featured/the-next-space-race-time.html">cover portrayed</a> four astronauts running towards the Moon. Pictured alongside the headline “The Next Space Race”, one of the astronauts carried an American flag, one carried a Chinese flag and the other two belonged to space companies owned by billionaires: Elon Musk’s SpaceX and Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin. </p>
<p>Until recently, it seemed as if the US and SpaceX were set to win this race to return to the Moon with Nasa’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis programme</a>. But a number of setbacks have called that into question. And Blue Origin, China and other countries and companies are continuing their own lunar efforts.</p>
<p>On January 9 2024, Nasa announced that it was delaying the Artemis 2 mission, the first crewed flight of the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/space-launch-system/">Space Launch System (SLS)</a> and the Orion capsule – the vehicles built to send astronauts back to deep space. The flight would slip from late 2024 to no earlier than September 2025. This was due to some safety issues that need to be fixed on Orion. </p>
<p>Consequently, Artemis 3, which is supposed to involve the first crewed lunar landing since 1972, will take place no earlier than September 2026. Artemis 3 is to use <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/">SpaceX’s Starship orbiter</a> as the lander for two crew members. This mission is set to put the first woman and the first person of colour on the lunar surface. </p>
<p>A non-American crew member could also walk on the Moon by 2030, highlighting the fact that Nasa has involved international partners in the Artemis venture. Up until now, <a href="https://www.space.com/how-many-people-have-walked-on-the-moon">just 12 humans have set foot on the Moon</a>. All of them have been male and all have been American.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Astronauts study Moon's surface with various vehicles in the background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571507/original/file-20240125-19-6htotg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C1%2C1020%2C573&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/571507/original/file-20240125-19-6htotg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571507/original/file-20240125-19-6htotg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571507/original/file-20240125-19-6htotg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571507/original/file-20240125-19-6htotg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571507/original/file-20240125-19-6htotg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/571507/original/file-20240125-19-6htotg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An artist’s rendering of US astronauts exploring the Moon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, the Starship orbiter, crucial to these aims, has experienced problems. A <a href="https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-second-test-flight-launch-explodes">second test launch</a> for the rocketship-like orbiter atop its huge booster rocket back in November 2023, was spectacularly destroyed eight minutes and six seconds after lift off. </p>
<p>It will have to be ready to go by 2026. But, before then, SpaceX will have to demonstrate that it can refuel in orbit and then land Starship on the Moon without crew. </p>
<p>At the same time, however, Blue Origin is also working on a lander, called Blue Moon. Blue Moon is due to be used as the Moon landing craft for the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-shares-progress-toward-early-artemis-moon-missions-with-crew/">Artemis 5 and 6 missions in 2029 and 2030</a>. </p>
<p>Time will tell which lander can actually be ready for use first. But competition is always a good stimulator, and it could accelerate achievements. </p>
<p>Commercial companies supporting Nasa in the Artemis program will have to put a lot of attention into what to do and when. The lives of crew members are at stake here, so missions have to proceed in a safe and sustainable manner.</p>
<p>As with Apollo, Nasa is also trying to use the program to inspire the next generation of scientists, engineers and mathematicians. Baby boomers like myself are very proud to be “Apollo kids” who were inspired to study scientific subjects by those momentous achievements – particularly the first steps on another world, viewed through black and white TVs in July 1969.</p>
<h2>International competition</h2>
<p>China is also preparing itself, together with several other countries including Russia, to develop a lunar base for humans, called the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS). Beijing and its partners will include also private sectors players and governmental and non-governmental organisations, with an organisational scheme which is a first. </p>
<p>The Chinese program’s <a href="https://www.reuters.com/technology/space/china-offers-collaborate-lunar-mission-deadlines-loom-2023-10-03/">first human missions to the lunar surface are expected by 2030</a>. Among the sites where they want to land is the Moon’s south pole. Nasa also wants to land here, but few of Beijing’s choices are in overlap with the locations selected for Artemis. </p>
<p>The south pole is a target for both the US and China because countries want to extract the water ice that’s hidden in craters there. This water could be used for life support at lunar bases and to make rocket fuel, helping bring down the cost of space exploration. </p>
<p>Space programs are never on time, and postponements are normal. Space agencies are
more cautious nowadays, even more than before, because few tragedies we experienced in the past are obliging them to think very carefully before launching humans in space. </p>
<p>Safety of the crew is mandatory, and it must be always the first priority. So, if this is the reason why we have to wait a bit more before few human beings, after decades, will walk again on the Moon, I’m happy to wait for it. </p>
<p>Going to space has never been easy, as demonstrated by several uncrewed missions to the Moon over the last 12 months – both governmental and commercial – which didn’t make it. But perhaps it’s better we fail now while we are preparing for the new phase of humanity’s history. </p>
<p>The Moon will soon experience human beings on its surface again, working and living on a regular basis. But when humans go back there, this time it will be to stay.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221996/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simonetta Di Pippo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The US might be facing international competition to be first to return to the Moon.Simonetta Di Pippo, Director of the Space Economy Evolution Lab, Bocconi UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2206642024-01-22T01:03:09Z2024-01-22T01:03:09ZYou can pay to have your ashes buried on the moon. Just because you can doesn’t mean you should<p>When NASA attempted to return to the Moon for the first time in 50 years on <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/tag/commercial-lunar-payload-services/">January 8</a>, more was at risk than just US$108 million worth of development and equipment.</p>
<p>The agency earned the ire of the Native American Navajo people, who made a bid to stop the launch because of an unusual inclusion in the payload. </p>
<p>The Peregrine lander (which completed its controlled re-entry into the atmosphere <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-science-astrobotic-peregrine-mission-one-concludes/">late last week</a>) was carrying <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2024/01/05/world/peregrine-moon-mission-navajo-nation-objection-human-remains-scn/index.html">human ashes</a>, including those of famed science fiction author <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/world/north-america/remains-of-sci-fi-legends-to-burn-in-earth-s-atmosphere-20240119-p5eyic.html">Arthur C. Clarke</a>. A commercial partnership also allowed paying customers to send their mementos to the Moon.</p>
<p>As space exploration becomes increasingly privatised and commercial, you can now send your favourite stuff to the Moon. But what does that mean, both ethically and legally?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/privatised-moon-landings-the-two-us-missions-set-to-open-a-new-era-of-commercial-lunar-exploration-219546">Privatised Moon landings: the two US missions set to open a new era of commercial lunar exploration</a>
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<h2>The Moon open for business</h2>
<p>US company Astrobotic owns the Peregrine, which is the size of a small car. It ran into fatal <a href="https://www.npr.org/2024/01/14/1224723508/peregrine-moon-lander-heads-back-toward-earth-and-should-burn-up-in-the-atmosphe">fuel issues</a> shortly after being launched on Vulcan Centaur rocket from Cape Canaveral.</p>
<p>On board are “vanity canisters”. The idea arose <a href="https://group.dhl.com/content/dam/deutschepostdhl/en/media-relations/press-releases/2024/pr-dhl-moonbox-20240108.pdf">in a partnership</a> between the firm and global freight company DHL.</p>
<p>Under the deal, anyone can send two and a half centimetre by five centimetre package to the lunar surface for less than US$500. Apart from size, there were a few other limitations on what each package could contain.</p>
<p>Astrobotic, founded in 2007 and based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is one of several US companies providing commercial lunar payload services to NASA to deliver science and technology to the Moon. Peregrine was also carrying <a href="https://www.astrobotic.com/lunar-delivery/manifest/">scientific instruments</a> from six countries and many science teams.</p>
<p>Perhaps surprisingly, sending ashes into space is not new aboard suborbital and Earth orbital flights. </p>
<p>Two American companies make a business of the service starting at just a few thousand dollars – <a href="https://www.celestis.com/">Celestis</a> and <a href="https://elysiumspace.com/">Elysium Space</a>. The practice is embraced by many, including astronauts who have been in space. </p>
<p>A Moon burial (yes, you can buy one) costs more – around US$13,000.</p>
<p>Commercial payloads launched from US soil require <a href="https://www.faa.gov/space/licenses/payload_reviews">approval</a>, but that approval process only covers safety, national security, and foreign policy.</p>
<p>Peregrine, if it had made it, would have marked the first commercial lunar burial. It’s uncharted territory as other worlds become within reach, although it is not the first time it has come up. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/earth-isnt-the-only-planet-with-seasons-but-they-can-look-wildly-different-on-other-worlds-216874">Earth isn't the only planet with seasons, but they can look wildly different on other worlds</a>
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<p>NASA pledged to consult in the future after an outcry from the Navajo when, 20 years ago, it carried some of Eugene Shoemaker’s ashes to the Moon aboard the Lunar Prospector probe. Like many other indigenous cultures, the Navajo Nation considers the Moon sacred and <a href="https://www.facebook.com/PresidentNygren/posts/892377286222557?ref=embed_post">opposes</a> using it as a memorial site. </p>
<p>However, NASA said in a press briefing it <a href="https://www.opb.org/article/2024/01/08/navajo-human-remains-moon/">had no control</a> over what was on Peregrine, highlighting the gaps between commercial enterprise and international space law. </p>
<h2>A legal minefield</h2>
<p>Another question concerns the rules in individual nations on where and how human ashes can be located, handled, and transported and how those could extend to space. For example, in Germany, ashes <a href="https://canada.diplo.de/ca-en/consular-services/08-OtherConsularServices/death/1101248">must be buried</a> in a cemetery.</p>
<p>With space privatisation accelerating, the ethical and legal maze deepens. </p>
<p>The Outer Space Treaty (OST) <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_21_2222E.pdf">declares space</a> the “province of all mankind” while banning national appropriation. </p>
<p>It fails, however, to address what private companies and individuals can do. </p>
<p>The recent <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/">Artemis Accords</a>, signed by 32 nations, expand protection to lunar sites of historical significance. But these protections only apply to governments, not commercial missions. </p>
<p>And no one owns the Moon to grant burial rights, or any other world or celestial body. </p>
<p>The treaty requires states to authorise and supervise activities in space. It requires “due regard” for the interests of other states. </p>
<p>Many countries have space law that includes grounds for refusing payload items not in their national interest, for example <a href="https://www.peraturan.go.id/files2/uu-no-21-tahun-2013_terjemah.pdf">Indonesia</a> and <a href="https://www.mbie.govt.nz/science-and-technology/space/our-regulatory-regime/#:%7E:text=The%20Act%20regulates%20%E2%80%94%20through%20licences,Innovation%20and%20Employment%20(MBIE)">New Zealand</a>. </p>
<p>Nations apparently without such consideration, including Australia and the US, may need to consider expanding this template with the emergence of the commercial world in a traditionally governmental arena.</p>
<h2>Where to draw a line?</h2>
<p>Earth’s orbit is already clogged with defunct satellites and, further out, items like <a href="https://www.cnet.com/science/space/heres-where-elon-musks-tesla-roadster-is-after-five-years-in-space/">Elon Musk’s Tesla</a>. </p>
<p><iframe id="iDyuh" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/iDyuh/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>We have already spread space probes across other worlds, including the Moon, Mars, Titan, and Venus, but much may be <a href="https://www.planetary.org/articles/space-trash">treasure rather than junk</a>, according to space archaeologist Alice Gorman. </p>
<p>For example, the Apollo astronauts left official mementos, such as a plaque marking the first human footsteps on the lunar surface. Some have left personal ones, too, like Apollo 16’s Charles Duke, who left a <a href="https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/strange-things-humans-have-left-on-moon">framed family photo</a>.</p>
<p>However, sending a clipping of your hair or the ashes of your pet dog to the Moon may not qualify as culturally and historically important. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-the-moons-south-pole-to-an-ice-covered-ocean-world-several-exciting-space-missions-are-slated-for-launch-in-2024-218000">From the Moon's south pole to an ice-covered ocean world, several exciting space missions are slated for launch in 2024</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>The problem, therefore, is where we want to place a line in the sand as we step out into the cosmos onto the shorelines of other worlds. </p>
<p>We cannot turn back the clock on private space enterprise, nor should we. </p>
<p>But this failed mission with ashes and vanity payloads exemplifies the unexplored questions in the legal and ethical infrastructure to support commercial activities. </p>
<p>It is worth pausing for thought on future commercialisation such as mining asteroids and the eventual colonisation of space.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220664/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carol Oliver does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Sending human ashes and personal mementoes to the Moon is now possible, but it opens up a maze of legal and ethical conundrums.Carol Oliver, Professor in Science Communication and Astrobiology, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2212232024-01-19T01:58:47Z2024-01-19T01:58:47ZJapan is about to land its first lunar probe. As more nations race to the Moon, how will we keep the peace?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570001/original/file-20240118-23-zlvufg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=287%2C109%2C1342%2C968&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Illustration of the Japanese moon
lander separating in orbit.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://jda.jaxa.jp/result.php?lang=e&id=99a1760a907a60514deaad8181c9a853">JAXA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Early on Saturday, January 20 2024, Japan hopes to become the fifth country to successfully <a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2024/01/20240115-1_e.html">land a probe</a> on the Moon. To date, the United States, the Soviet Union, China and India have preceded the East Asian nation.</p>
<p>Launched in September 2023 by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (<a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/">JAXA</a>), the Japanese Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM) is set to touch down around 02:20am AEDT. Trialling a novel landing technique with pinpoint accuracy, it is poised to settle on a gently sloped crater rim – a first in lunar exploration. </p>
<p>JAXA celebrates the mission as a technology demonstrator. The agency’s main aim is to practice near-real-time visual precision landing. The newly developed landing technology would allow them to touch down anywhere they want, rather than only where the terrain is favourable. </p>
<p>Plans for a follow-up expedition, the Lunar Polar Exploration probe (<a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/activity/pr/jaxas/no092/02.html">LUPEX</a>), are well advanced. That mission <a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/isro-working-on-ambitious-lunar-missions-lupex-chandrayaan-4-official/articleshow/105292411.cms">will be developed jointly</a> with the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).</p>
<h2>The Moon is a busy target</h2>
<p>In recent years, the Moon has become a key target for exploration missions. For instance, just last year we witnessed Russia’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/russia-has-declared-a-new-space-race-hoping-to-join-forces-with-china-heres-why-thats-unlikely-211993">attempted landing</a> of its Luna 25 probe and the first successful ISRO Moon shot, <a href="https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3_Details.html">Chandrayaan-3</a>. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, the US aims to return humans to the Moon through their <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis</a> programme while also supporting <a href="https://phys.org/news/2024-01-lunar-lander-years-rockets-moon.html">commercial companies</a> in their quest to reestablish a viable presence there.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-and-space-agencies-are-shooting-for-the-moon-5-essential-reads-on-modern-lunar-missions-216808">Scientists and space agencies are shooting for the Moon -- 5 essential reads on modern lunar missions</a>
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<p>NASA and its international partners aim to eventually place a crewed space station in lunar orbit, the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/reference/nasas-gateway-program/">Gateway Lunar Space Station</a>. </p>
<p>Simultaneously, China continues its successful, carefully planned <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Lunar_Exploration_Program">Chang'e project</a>. The Asian powerhouse is working towards establishing its own <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Lunar_Research_Station">International Lunar Research Station</a>. That Chinese–Russian project is <a href="https://spacenews.com/china-russia-enter-mou-on-international-lunar-research-station/">promoted</a> as “open to all interested countries and international partners”.</p>
<h2>‘Peaceful intentions’</h2>
<p>To date, the leading spacefaring nations have gone to great lengths to publicly assure us that their intentions in space are peaceful. Yet, last year Yury Borisov of Russia’s space agency Roscosmos <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-22/russia-declares-the-race-has-begun-for-moons-resources/102757808">bluntly stated</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>This is not just about the prestige of the country and the achievement of some geopolitical goals. This is about ensuring defensive capabilities and achieving technological sovereignty.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Borisov’s comments should not be read in isolation, however. US officials have made similar assertions. In July last year, the US assistant secretary of defense for space policy, John F. Plumb, was <a href="https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3465982/space-integral-to-the-dod-way-of-war-policy-chief-says/">equally blunt</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Space is in our DNA for the military. It’s absolutely essential to our way of war.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Such official commentary is clearly anathema to the purported peaceful intentions expressed by officials elsewhere in their respective national hierarchies. Similarly, to safeguard its national interests and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSBREA3E03H/">encouraged</a> by President Xi Jinping himself, China has been <a href="https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/SSQ/documents/Volume-06_Issue-1/Cheng.pdf">fine-tuning</a> its own military space strategy. </p>
<p>The Moon is a large target, which to date is only accessible to a small number of actors. Yet, ever since <a href="https://moon.nasa.gov/inside-and-out/composition/water-and-ices/">evidence of water was found</a> near the Moon’s south pole, much effort has focused on finding ways to land safely in the Moon’s southern hemisphere.</p>
<p>With commercial actors and national interests thrown into the mix, we ought to consider the geopolitical implications of this new space race.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Foreground of a grey surface with a half lit Earth in the distance hanging in a black sky" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570002/original/file-20240118-15-r3cidd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An earthrise seen from the surface of the Moon in July 1969 during the Apollo 11 mission.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-detail/amf-as11-44-6550/">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Who keeps the peace in space?</h2>
<p>The 1967 <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html">Outer Space Treaty</a> remains the defining legal document governing strategic conduct in space.
To date, its has been ratified by 114 countries and 22 other signatories, including all major spacefaring nations.</p>
<p>However, new technological developments and the increasing presence of private space companies have prompted some to suggest that the <a href="https://ace-usa.org/blog/foreign-policy-region/space-oceans-and-polar-regions/failures-and-successes-of-the-outer-space-treaty/">treaty has become outdated</a>.</p>
<p>Therefore, the US has independently developed a new international agreement, which it says is focused on common principles, guidelines and best practices applicable to the safe exploration of the Moon and beyond: the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/">Artemis Accords</a>.</p>
<p>Thus far, 33 countries have signed the agreement, but neither Russia nor China have acceded. Given the prevailing political differences, there is currently no clear way forward to bring all parties to the same table.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/outer-space-rwanda-and-nigeria-sign-an-accord-for-more-responsible-exploration-why-this-matters-203202">Outer space: Rwanda and Nigeria sign an accord for more responsible exploration – why this matters</a>
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<p>Although the Moon remains uncrowded, sustained exploration, human occupation and commercial exploitation will increase the likelihood of encounters on the lunar surface (or in orbit) between competing parties, or even between nations engaged in major conflict on Earth.</p>
<p>While the Outer Space Treaty envisions peaceful use of the space environment, the proliferation of military hardware in low Earth orbit implies that any such adverse encounter might result in <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BriefingBook47p/OngoingMilitarisationSpace">devastating consequences</a>. </p>
<p>At present, there are few safeguards to prevent wholesale conflict escalating beyond our home planet. Diplomatic efforts have been largely <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-we-prevent-war-in-space/">lacklustre</a>. </p>
<p>Despite <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/about/news/space-force-would-trigger-arms-race">urgent recommendations</a> from across the political spectrum to practice caution and avoid escalation, the world continues on a path towards an increasingly volatile space environment. </p>
<p>Fortunately, in this highly complex environment cool heads have thus far prevailed in resolving potential conflicts in space. As a case in point, we should probably be encouraged by the sustained multilateral collaboration on the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01558-0">International Space Station</a>, despite the parties’ radically opposite stances on Earth.</p>
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<p><em>The author gratefully acknowledges constructive criticism on an earlier draft of this article by Dr. Fabio Favata.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221223/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard de Grijs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Japan’s space agency is landing its first lunar probe this week. This makes the Moon an increasingly busy target for spacefaring nations – with conflicting political stances among them.Richard de Grijs, Professor of Astrophysics, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2210332024-01-16T17:47:56Z2024-01-16T17:47:56ZFor All Mankind’s Happy Valley: why a Martian city could well extend below the surface<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569044/original/file-20240112-27-4on00f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The entrance to For All Mankind's Happy Valley.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.apple.com/uk/tv-pr/originals/for-all-mankind/episodes-images/">Apple</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Apple TV+‘s alternate space race, <a href="https://theconversation.com/for-all-mankind-space-dramas-alternate-history-constructs-a-better-vision-of-nasa-214935">For All Mankind</a>, imagines what would have have happened if USSR cosmonauts, and not Nasa’s astronauts, had been the first to land on the Moon. Rather than the waning of interest in space that followed the Moon landings in our reality, over the four seasons of the show to date, the race has continued towards lunar and then Martian settlement. </p>
<p>In the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j1WX0FOKh5k">latest season</a>, the finale of which aired on January 12 2024, initial colonisation efforts on Mars have developed to the point where an international alliance supports and maintains a single large colony. Dubbed “Happy Valley”, the Martian city <a href="https://for-all-mankind.fandom.com/wiki/Happy_Valley?file=FAM_406_52.07_Happy_Valley_aerial.png">features</a> an array of interconnected modules. </p>
<p>Tubular corridors run between bigger geodesic and half-pipe structures housing control rooms, laboratories, meeting rooms and eating and living quarters for the base commander and other higher ups. Most residents live below ground.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two people on either side of an octogonal window." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569043/original/file-20240112-27-vaphcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569043/original/file-20240112-27-vaphcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569043/original/file-20240112-27-vaphcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569043/original/file-20240112-27-vaphcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569043/original/file-20240112-27-vaphcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569043/original/file-20240112-27-vaphcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569043/original/file-20240112-27-vaphcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Happy Valley’s surface level habitats are for the top-tier residents of the base.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.apple.com/uk/tv-pr/originals/for-all-mankind/episodes-images/">Apple</a></span>
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<p>With its Artemis programme, Nasa <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/jan/10/nasa-postpones-plans-to-send-humans-to-moon-artemis">plans</a> to have humans living outside Earth’s orbit. This would including a lunar base camp, as well as a space station that circles the Moon, in the view of ultimately sending people to Mars. Quite in what <a href="https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/159428/">structures</a> such Martian explorers would live has long had people <a href="https://theconversation.com/our-long-fascination-with-the-journey-to-mars-106541">dreaming</a> – and scientists <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/data/our-data/publication/antarctic-ecosystems-as-models-for-extraterrestrial-surface-habitats/">experimenting</a>.</p>
<h2>Life on Mars?</h2>
<p>In the early 20th century, sufficient uncertainty remained to allow for planetary romances such as the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/barsoom/">Barsoom</a> novels of Edgar Rice Burroughs. Written between 1912 and 1946, these tell the story of a 19th-century US veteran transported to Mars, and were brought to life in the 2012 action film, John Carter. These fantasies paved the way for more serious consideration of <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/physics/research/astro/people/stanway/sciencefiction/cosmicstories/survival_on_mars/">survival on Mars</a> as our understanding developed. </p>
<p>However, astronomers were already establishing that the planet’s surface was arid, cold and toxic. Long before Burroughs completed his series, <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926ApJ....63...48M/abstract">it was clear</a> that Barsoom’s great cities, open to a breathable atmosphere, could never exist.</p>
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<p>One of the earliest stories to seriously consider the scientifically understood conditions on Mars, and the life that might result from it, was Stanley Weinbaum’s 1934 novella, <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/23731/23731-h/23731-h.htm">A Martian Odyssey</a>. In keeping with telescopic observations of the planet’s cold, thin air and spectra indicating a lack of both water and vegetation, this was a Mars devoid of cityscapes, but not of life. Salvaging what he can from a crashed shuttle, the protagonist treks across 800 miles of Martian landscape, encountering a variety of interesting Martian forms. </p>
<p>In the early 20th century, it was believed that Mars’s atmosphere was thin, but not necessarily beyond the range of human adaptability. After all, settlements on Earth exist at altitudes of up to 5,000m – where the atmospheric pressure is less than half that at the surface. Early estimates for Martian surface pressure were in this ballpark (rather than <a href="https://marsed.asu.edu/mep/atmosphere">less than 1%</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/could-people-breathe-the-air-on-mars-180504#:%7E:text=The%20Martian%20atmosphere%20is%20thin,gases%20from%20escaping%20into%20space">as we now know</a>. Thus Weinbaum speaks of “months spent in acclimatisation chambers”, but otherwise frees his explorer (and any Mars settlement) from the needs of atmosphere management.</p>
<h2>Going underground</h2>
<p>By the middle of the 20th century, Earth-based observations and the first of the Mariner probe missions had removed any doubt about the <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964CoLPL...2..113O">hostility of Mars’s atmosphere</a>. The cities envisaged by mid-century sci-fi writers were encased in vast protective domes. These could contain an Earth-like environment and allow humans to breathe and move freely without protective equipment. </p>
<p>Such domed surface cities can be found in examples ranging from childrens’ fare such as <a href="https://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/168958/">Dan Dare: Pilot of the Future</a>, to the work of established authors including Larry Niven (see his 1966 story, How the Heroes Die). Some saw these domes as fully urbanised. Others imagined a more scattered settlement amid a managed landscape. </p>
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<img alt="A vintage magazine comic." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569053/original/file-20240112-23-43lw93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569053/original/file-20240112-23-43lw93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=832&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569053/original/file-20240112-23-43lw93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=832&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569053/original/file-20240112-23-43lw93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=832&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569053/original/file-20240112-23-43lw93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1046&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569053/original/file-20240112-23-43lw93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1046&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569053/original/file-20240112-23-43lw93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1046&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Dan Dare: Pilot of the Future.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/ausdew/22678711382">Ausdew|Flickr</a></span>
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<p>This dominant image of cities on Mars persists to the current day, in imagery from Mars colonisation enthusiasts including the international <a href="https://www.marssociety.org/why-mars/">Mars Society</a> and <a href="https://www.spacex.com/humanspaceflight/mars/">SpaceX</a>. Research suggests, however, that as long-term habitation, a domed environment would have significant flaws. </p>
<p>Since the 1960s, scientific understanding of the <a href="https://journals.lww.com/health-physics/abstract/2000/11000/radiation_exposure_for_human_mars_exploration.8.aspx">impact of radiation</a> on humans and their offspring has advanced. The planet lacks the protection, afforded by Earth’s thick atmosphere and its strong magnetic field, to our DNA, from a rain of ionising particles from the Sun and beyond. Smart dome materials might filter some of this, but could not protect astronauts from the <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021A&ARv..29....8G/abstract">cumulative effects of penetrating particles</a>, leaving its occupants vulnerable to cancer. </p>
<p>As pointed out by many writers (including Niven in the story already mentioned), large domes would leave a city on Mars vulnerable to air leaks too, as well as the extreme fluctuations in day-night temperature the planet experiences (from -125C to 20C). Further, the material would be abraded over time by sandstorms so extreme, they are visible from Earth. </p>
<p>Instead, many <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2288037-martian-cave-entrances-may-offer-a-life-friendly-radiation-shield/">researchers</a> now consider <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012825220303342">underground</a> or cave <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023AcAau.204..157M/">settlements</a> as sites for human settlement on Mars. Here protection from temperature, radiation, sandstorms and air leaks are all provided by a thick layer of <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022P&SS..21805517L/abstract">regolith</a> (soil or rock), reducing the cumulative exposure any settlers would face. </p>
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<p>While the red planet is now devoid of surface water, <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/news/caves-mars">it is likely</a> to have cave systems dating from its wetter, tectonically active youth, and – unlike Earth – its surface quakes are rare and weak. If natural caves are unavailable, tunnelling, or even using surface rock powder to make a form of Martian concrete may be good alternatives. Indeed, partly with Mars-prototyping in mind, <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2020/10/28/lunar-living-nasas-artemis-base-camp-concept/">Nasa</a> and ESA <a href="https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Engineering_Technology/Building_a_lunar_base_with_3D_printing">have explored</a> the idea of <a href="https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)AS.1943-5525.0001359">3D printing</a> and then burying habitation modules on the Moon, which experiences many of the same risks.</p>
<p>For All Mankind has been <a href="https://www.space.com/for-all-mankind-season-3-space-history">noted</a> for its realistic physics. The production team include a NASA technical advisor. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1135661336908537858"}"></div></p>
<p>Perhaps unsurprisingly its Happy Valley colony, descending several levels into the Martian subsurface, represents a plausible vision for future Martian cities. Contrary to the series though, underground levels might well be sought after, by real-world Martian residents, for the increased protection they provide. </p>
<p>Planetary settlement remains an increasingly distant prospect in our reality, but science fiction has always played a role in shaping public understanding of our planetary neighbours and in fostering enthusiasm for their exploration. Just as Burroughs’ Barsoom novel <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/physics/research/astro/people/stanway/sciencefiction/cosmicstories/the_echo_of/">inspired the scientists</a> working on the Mars landers of the 1960s-70s, today’s viewers of For All Mankind might include the engineers and scientists that one day bring its vision of a Martian city to fruition.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221033/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Stanway receives funding from the Science and Technology Facilities Council for her astrophysics research </span></em></p>In sci-fi depictions, extraterrestrial habitats have evolved tandem with scientific understanding of conditions on planetsElizabeth Stanway, Reader in Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of WarwickLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2208302024-01-12T22:02:50Z2024-01-12T22:02:50ZWhat delays to the Artemis II and III missions mean for Canada<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569136/original/file-20240112-27-y8h866.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1920%2C1279&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Artemis I Space Launch System and Orion spacecraft. The successful Artemis I mission was the first in an increasingly complex planned series of missions, which have now been delayed.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-20220614-PH-CSH01_0043">(NASA/Cory Huston)</a></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/what-delays-to-the-artemis-ii-and-iii-missions-mean-for-canada" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>On Jan. 9, NASA <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-shares-progress-toward-early-artemis-moon-missions-with-crew/">announced</a> it would be shifting the launch of Artemis II to September 2025. Artemis III — the first mission to land humans on the surface of the moon since 1972 — was moved to September 2026. </p>
<p>What do these delays mean for Canada’s plans to explore the moon?</p>
<p>I am a professor, an explorer and a planetary geologist. For the past decade, I have been helping to <a href="https://www.spacerocks.ca/">train Canadian and U.S. astronauts</a> in geology. I am also the principal investigator for Canada’s first ever <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp">rover mission</a>, and a member of the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing/">Artemis III Geology Team</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/canadas-space-technology-and-innovations-are-a-crucial-contribution-to-the-artemis-missions-196328">Canada's space technology and innovations are a crucial contribution to the Artemis missions</a>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Global News reports on NASA’s announcement to delay Artemis II and III missions.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>The Artemis program</h2>
<p>It has been 52 years since humans last walked on the surface of the moon. Since then, humanity has not ventured beyond <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2020/03/Low_Earth_orbit">low Earth orbit</a>, about the distance from Halifax to Fredericton, or Toronto to Ottawa. </p>
<p>In Greek mythology, Artemis was the daughter of Zeus and the twin sister of Apollo — a fitting name for the program that will take humans back to the moon. Unlike Apollo, the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis program</a> also has the explicit goals of establishing the first long-term presence on the moon — similar to Antarctica <a href="https://oceanwide-expeditions.com/blog/a-look-into-the-international-research-stations-of-antarctica">research outposts</a> — and sending the first astronauts to Mars. </p>
<p>The Artemis missions are ambitious to say the least, and represent the next major collaborative international effort, building on the success of the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/">International Space Station</a>. </p>
<p>Indeed, with the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-welcomes-angola-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/">addition of Angola in November</a>, 33 nations have now signed the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/">Artemis Accords</a>. The Accords lay out a common set of principles for the exploration and use of outer space. Canada was one of the <a href="https://www.space.com/artemis-accords-explained">original eight countries</a> to sign these accords. </p>
<p>A core principle of the Artemis Accords is to enhance peaceful relationships between nations, which is needed now, perhaps more than ever since the Cold War.</p>
<h2>Failure is not an option</h2>
<p>After the success of the <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/artemis-missions.asp#artemis-i">Artemis I</a> mission in late 2022, most people probably thought there would be a quick succession of missions and we would be back on the lunar surface in no time. While the originally planned two years between Artemis I and II may sound a long time, it is in terms of space exploration, where the development of missions is often measured in decades.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/canadas-space-technology-and-innovations-are-a-crucial-contribution-to-the-artemis-missions-196328">Canada's space technology and innovations are a crucial contribution to the Artemis missions</a>
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<p>The major reason for this is that space is incredibly unforgiving. From withstanding the huge G-forces and vibrations as the rocket accelerates to over 40,000 kilometres an hour during launch — the velocity needed to escape Earth’s gravity — to the extremes of temperature, designing technologies for space is hard and costly. </p>
<p>Every piece of the Artemis infrastructure must be tested and tested again to make sure it can withstand the rigours of space. The environment of the moon is a particularly challenging thermal environment, with a staggering 300 C temperature difference between the lunar day and night. </p>
<p>Some of this testing can be done in a laboratory; however, once a certain scale is reached, this becomes impossible. Take SpaceX’s <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/">Starship</a>, the largest and most powerful rocket ever flown and a key part of the architecture for Artemis. </p>
<p>On Nov. 18, its second launch, the Starship exploded after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-03624-z">reaching its goal of entering space</a>. SpaceX engineers gathered a wealth of data to improve the design of Starship. However, this test made it clear that this rocket, which will be used to land the Artemis III crew on the surface of the moon, simply wasn’t going to be ready for a 2025 launch. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The second test flight of Starship from Starbase in Boca Chica, Texas, on Nov. 18, 2023.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>The astronauts’ long wait</h2>
<p>The stakes could not be higher for the Artemis II mission as onboard, for the first time, will be four astronauts, including Canadian <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp">Jeremy Hansen</a>. </p>
<p>While not scheduled to land on the surface of the moon, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/">Artemis II</a> is still an incredibly challenging mission that carries with it an element of risk that comes with any “first.” Indeed, this will be the first time humans will fly in NASA’s Orion spacecraft and the first mission to take humans beyond low Earth orbit since <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/apollo-17/">Apollo 17 in 1972</a>. </p>
<p>If this mission is successful, these four astronauts will have boldly gone farther from our home planet than any other humans, ever. So it makes sense to take time, especially considering some of the obstacles still facing Artemis II.</p>
<p>On the plus side, the Artemis II crew will have more time for training. Having been involved in providing <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/blog/2023/09/19/15-photos-of-lunar-geology-training-in-canada.asp">geology training</a> to two of the Artemis II crew last September — Hansen and Christina Koch — having an additional few months for training will definitely not go to waste. </p>
<p>This delay will also give Canadian astronaut <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jenni-gibbons.asp">Jenni Gibbons</a> time to come up to speed with training as part of the back-up crew for Artemis 2 — a job she was only assigned in November.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="three people study a rock outcrop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Canadian Space Agency astronauts Jeremy Hansen and Jenni Gibbons with Gordon Osinski at the Kamestastin Lake impact structure, Labrador.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/multimedia/search/image/18645">(Canadian Space Agency)</a></span>
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<h2>Robots to the moon</h2>
<p>On the same day that NASA announced the delays to the Artemis program, the U.S. company Astrobotic announced that its Peregrine lunar lander suffered a “<a href="https://www.space.com/astrobotic-peregrine-moon-lander-propulsion-failure">critical loss of propellent</a>” not long after launch. This means there is no chance of it being able to land successfully on the moon.</p>
<p>The lander has been gathering valuable data while its fuel supplies lasted, so all is not lost. This is also the first launch as part of NASA’s new <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/commercial-lunar-payload-services/">Commercial Lunar Payload Services</a> (CLPS) initiative. </p>
<p>Despite the failures and setbacks in the Artemis and CLPS programs, 2024 promises to be the most exciting year for lunar exploration in decades. Astrobotic is planning two more launches, including NASA’s ambitious <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viper/">Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover</a> (VIPER). </p>
<p>Two other U.S. companies, <a href="https://www.intuitivemachines.com/">Intuitive Machines</a> and <a href="https://fireflyspace.com/">Firefly Aerospace</a>, are also scheduled to launch their first lunar missions. And even sooner, the Japanese space agency <a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/">JAXA</a> has scheduled the landing of its <a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/12/20231205-1_e.html">Smart Lander for Investigating Moon</a> (SLIM) on Jan. 19 — if successful, this would make Japan only the fifth country to do so.</p>
<p>I will be watching these upcoming CLPS missions closely, as one of these companies will take the <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp">Canadian Lunar Rover</a> to the moon no earlier than 2026. Even before this mission, thanks to the Canadian Space Agency’s <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap/">Lunar Exploration Accelerator Program</a>, Canadian companies such as <a href="https://missioncontrolspace.com/">Mission Control Space Services</a> and <a href="https://www.canadensys.com/">Canadensys</a> are working on software and hardware to contribute to various CLPS missions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C2044%2C1293&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a cube-like robot on a grey surface" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C2044%2C1293&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Artist’s rendition of Astrobotic’s Peregrine lander on the surface of the moon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Astrobiotic)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Canadarm3 and the Lunar Gateway</h2>
<p>Almost lost in the details of NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-shares-progress-toward-early-artemis-moon-missions-with-crew/">announcement about Artemis II and III</a> was the statement that Artemis IV remains on track to launch in September 2028. In addition to landing two astronauts on the lunar surface, a major objective for Artemis IV will be the continued assembly of the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway/">Lunar Gateway</a>. </p>
<p>The Gateway is a small space station that will act as an outpost orbiting the moon, providing support for lunar surface missions and, in the longer term, as a staging point for further deep space exploration. The Gateway will be the home for Canada’s biggest financial contribution to Artemis: <a href="https://mda.space/en/canadarm3/">Canadarm3</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a robotic arm in space" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An artist’s concept of Canadarm3 located on the exterior of the Gateway.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/multimedia/search/image/12642">(Canadian Space Agency, NASA)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Currently being built by <a href="https://mda.space/en/">Canadian company MDA Space</a> with the support of dozens of Canadian partners and suppliers, Canadarm3 represents the next generation of space robotics. In contrast to the ISS, astronauts will not always be present on the Gateway, so Canadarm3 is being built with advanced AI-enabled sensors to enable autonomous operations.</p>
<p>Just like what <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm/about.asp">Canadarm</a> did for the Space Shuttle Program and <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/canadarm2/history-of-canadarm2.asp">Canadarm2</a> did for the International Space Station, Canadarm3 will be an iconic reminder of Canada’s international status as a spacefaring nation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220830/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gordon Osinski receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and the Canadian Space Agency. He is affiliated with the Earth and Planetary Institute of Canada (EPIC). </span></em></p>NASA announced that the next two Artemis missions — Artemis II and III — will be delayed for safety reasons. However, Artemis IV remains on schedule.Gordon Osinski, Professor in Earth and Planetary Science, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2202442024-01-05T00:02:45Z2024-01-05T00:02:45ZHow we discovered that Uranus and Neptune are actually nearly identical in colour<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567647/original/file-20240103-23-otofoy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C6%2C2153%2C1026&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">This is how we are used to seeing Uranus and Neptune, respectively. But the colours aren't accurate.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/ JPL/ PlanetS</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In many images of the two outer gas giants of the Solar System, Neptune typically looks rich blue while Uranus comes across as pale green. But now our new study, published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/mnras/stad3761">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>, has revealed that these two ice giants are actually very similar shades of greenish blue.</p>
<p>The study follows <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JE007189">our previous work</a> in 2022 that analysed the spectra (light broken down by wavelength) of light reflected off Uranus and Neptune from several sources, including the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/observatory/design/space-telescope-imaging-spectrograph/">space telescope imaging spectrograph</a> on the Hubble space telescope. These were recorded in 2002 (Uranus) and 2003 (Neptune). </p>
<p>We found that the colours of Uranus and Neptune were actually remarkably similar, with Neptune appearing only slightly bluer – see the image below. The difference in colour was attributed to the difference in opacity of a layer of haze and methane ice. </p>
<p>Ultimately, Neptune has a thinner layer of haze, allowing more sunlight to reach deeper in the atmosphere. At such depth, it can be absorbed by methane gas, which soaks up red light – making the planet appear ever so slightly more blue.</p>
<h2>Reconstructing the colours</h2>
<p>Our reconstructed colours of Uranus and Neptune look very different from previous images, which come from the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/voyager/voyager-2/">Voyager 2</a> spacecraft’s encounters with these planets in 1986 and 1989 respectively.</p>
<p>So, did the colours of Uranus and Neptune change between the late 1980s and early 2000s? Or do we need to consider more carefully how observations of planets are converted to the “true” colour that would be observed by an average human observer? The answer, it turns out, is a bit of both.</p>
<p>Colour images of planets <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-neptunes-blue-hue-to-jupiters-red-spot-are-the-colours-of-the-planets-real-62513">are highly processed</a>. The red, green and blue components are usually recorded separately by spacecraft. They are then sent back to Earth as black-and-white images, where they can be combined in colour. However such images may not reveal the true colour the human eye would see. </p>
<p>Even light recorded in channels beyond the visible range, such as in ultraviolet, become red, green or blue when displayed. There are several steps involved in this process and, depending on the choices made, a planetary image can have a wide range of appearances.</p>
<p>To determine the truest colour of Uranus and Neptune up to the present day, we combined our Hubble data with more recent observations at the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/unitedkingdom/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/">very large telescope</a> in Chile. Both of these instruments record images where each individual pixel is a complete, continuous spectrum covering all colours that can be seen with the human eye – making them more accurate than spacecraft when it comes to colour.</p>
<p>This allowed us to determine unambiguously the actual colour that the human eye would perceive for Uranus and Neptune. We could then reprocess observations made by imaging cameras on Voyager 2 and Hubble taking this into account.</p>
<p>When the reprocessed Voyager 2 observations of Uranus and Neptune are compared with some of the early-release images, it is clear that the early Uranus images correspond fairly well with what we now believe its colour to be. The early Neptune images, however, are a much darker blue than their true colour. </p>
<p>This difference was actually known at the time to the Voyager imaging team, and the captions released with the images explained this fact. However, since the purpose of these images was to communicate the exciting new discoveries of the mission, it was quite sensibly judged that an enhanced version of the images that accentuated the discoveries was preferable over a “true” colour version, where the features appear washed out. </p>
<p>However, the differences in processing became forgotten over time and so now most people, including planetary researchers, just accept that Neptune is much bluer than Uranus, which is not actually the case.</p>
<h2>Uranus changes colour</h2>
<p>Comparing the true colour of Uranus in 1986 with more recent observations, it became clear that Uranus in 1986 was actually slightly greener than it was in the early 2000s. We tried to determine why this was the case by turning to observations made between 1950 and 2016 at the Lowell Observatory in Arizona. These observations contained the overall brightness of Uranus and Neptune almost annually at two wavelengths: green and blue.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Images of Uranus changing colours as observed with the Hubble telescope." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567656/original/file-20240103-29-sx0fr4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567656/original/file-20240103-29-sx0fr4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567656/original/file-20240103-29-sx0fr4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567656/original/file-20240103-29-sx0fr4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567656/original/file-20240103-29-sx0fr4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=734&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567656/original/file-20240103-29-sx0fr4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=734&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/567656/original/file-20240103-29-sx0fr4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=734&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Uranus’ changing colours as observed by HST/WFC3.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This revealed that Uranus does change colour, becoming greener at the solstices (when the Sun’s path in the sky is the farthest north or south from the planet’s equator) than it is at the equinoxes (when the Sun’s path crosses the planet’s equator). </p>
<p>Part of the reason for this colour change is that Uranus spins almost on its side during its 84-year orbit about the Sun. This means that, during the planet’s solstices, either its north or south pole points almost directly towards the Sun and Earth. Hence, polar latitudes dominate the overall reflectivity.</p>
<p>This led us to develop a model which compared the spectra of Uranus’ polar regions to its equatorial regions. We found that polar regions are more reflective at green and red wavelengths than blue wavelengths, partly because methane is half as abundant near the poles than the equator. </p>
<p>However, this didn’t fully explain the colour change. To match the Lowell Observatory data, we found that we also need to add a “hood” of icy haze over the summer. This modified model then substantially reproduced the Lowell observations and thus explains how the overall colour of Uranus changes during its orbit about the Sun.</p>
<p>So the next time you see an old image of the two gas giants, keep in mind you’re probably not seeing their “true” colour.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220244/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrick Gerard Joseph Irwin has received funding related to this study from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council.</span></em></p>It turns out Uranus actually changes colour throughout the year.Patrick Gerard Joseph Irwin, Professor of Planetary Physics, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2195462024-01-02T16:49:57Z2024-01-02T16:49:57ZPrivatised Moon landings: the two US missions set to open a new era of commercial lunar exploration<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566549/original/file-20231219-23-qde9s6.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C2%2C1839%2C984&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/10836">Photograph: Nasa (Goddard Space Flight Center)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Two commercial spacecraft are scheduled to launch to the Moon early in 2024 under a Nasa initiative called the Commercial Lunar Payload Service <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/commercial-lunar-payload-services/">CLPS</a>. This programme is intended to kickstart a commercial transportation service that can deliver Nasa experiments and other payloads to the lunar surface.</p>
<p>If successful, these missions will represent the first landings on the Moon by spacecraft designed and flown by private companies. They could potentially open up a new era of commercial lunar exploration and science. </p>
<p>CLPS was inaugurated by Nasa in 2018. An initial pool of nine companies received an invitation to join the programme. They included <a href="https://www.astrobotic.com/">Astrobotic</a> and <a href="https://www.intuitivemachines.com/">Intuitive Machines</a>, the two companies behind these missions. Both missions expect to land within a week after lift-off.</p>
<p>The first launch, and the first Nasa flight of 2024, is the Peregrine lunar lander, built by Pittsburgh-based Astrobotic. It is scheduled to launch at the earliest on January 8. Broadly speaking, the lander is a box the size of a medium-sized garden shed containing several separate experiments. </p>
<p>These include a set of mirrors called a laser retro-reflector array, used for accurate positioning of the lander from orbit. There are also a number of spectrometers – instruments that separate and measure the distinct colours found in light. These will measure radiation on the lunar surface and look for signatures of water in lunar soil.</p>
<p>One of them, the <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=PEREGRN-1-02">Neutron Spectrometer System</a>, will look for hydrogen-containing materials on the surface, which can indicate the presence of water below ground. This water could one day be used by human explorers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Astrobotic Peregrine lander." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1917%2C1279&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566548/original/file-20231219-19-i3ffem.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Astrobotic’s Peregrine lander will touch down near the Gruithuisen Domes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-20231114-PH-ILW01_0100">Isaac Watson/Nasa</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are two principle sources of dangerous radiation for humans in space. One is the Sun, which unleashes electrons, protons and heavier ions that are accelerated to a significant fraction of the speed of light. </p>
<p>These solar energetic particle events (SEPs) are more likely to occur during the Sun’s peak of activity (solar maximum), which occurs every 11 years. However, that does not mean there is a respite during the solar minimum.</p>
<p>The other source of harmful radiation is galactic cosmic rays (GCRs). These energetic particles originate outside the Solar System, probably in explosive phenomena such as exploding stars (supernovas).</p>
<p>During periods of lower solar activity (including the solar minimum), the Sun’s magnetic field, which extends throughout the Solar System, weakens. This enables <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Solar-cycle-%20modulation-and-anti-correlation-of-GCR-flux-with-solar-activity-Shown-are_fig6_257343697">more GCRs</a> to reach us instead. </p>
<p>Another spectrometer on Peregrine will measure both SEPs and GCRs on the Moon. This is important for examining how dangerous the radiation environment at the lunar surface will be for future human explorers.</p>
<h2>Polar landing</h2>
<p>The second spacecraft to launch early in 2024 is the <a href="https://www.intuitivemachines.com/im-1">Nova-C lander</a>. It is designed by Houston-based Intuitive Machines and has a similar volume to Peregrine, but in the shape of a tall, hexagonal cylinder. It will carry several instruments including its own laser retro-reflector array. Nova-C is currently scheduled to launch in mid-February.</p>
<p>Other instruments include a suite of cameras for producing a 3D image of Nova-C’s landing site. This will allow scientists to estimate how much material is blown away by the landing rocket’s exhaust plume during the descent. Potentially, any material blown away can be imaged to get an idea of the composition of surface material. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Nova-C lander." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566583/original/file-20231219-23-2hpa5p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A model of the Nova-C lander.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/details/NHQ201905310022">Nasa (Goddard Space Flight Center)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The “radio observations of the lunar surface photo-electron sheath” (<a href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/2102.02331.pdf">Rolses</a>) instrument is designed to measure how the extremely tenuous lunar atmosphere and the Moon’s surface dust environment affect radio waves. </p>
<p>The behaviour of electrically charged dust particles on the Moon is a technical challenge which future explorers will need to deal with, as the abrasive particles can attach themselves to surfaces and mechanical devices and potentially cause harm if <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/the-%20next-big-challenge-for-lunar-astronauts-moon-dust/">inhaled</a> by astronauts.</p>
<p>A privately built experiment onboard Nova-C is the International Lunar Observatory <a href="https://iloa.org/ilo-x-precursor/">ILO-X</a>, which will aim to capture some of the first images of the Milky Way galaxy from the Moon’s surface. This would demonstrate the concept of lunar-based astronomy.</p>
<h2>Landing locations</h2>
<p>Peregrine’s landing site is a bay on the west side of Mare Imbrium, known as Sinus Viscositatis (Bay of Stickiness). Here, two volcanic mountains called the <a href="https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/482/a-lunar-%20mystery-the-gruithuisen-domes/">Gruithuisen Domes</a> are made of a different material to the surrounding plains. </p>
<p>The plains are a form of basalt, while the domes are composed of silica. Both are volcanic in origin, but one appears to have been formed by lava with a viscosity of mango chutney (the silica), and the other by runnier lava (the basalt). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Gruithuisen Domes" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566614/original/file-20231219-29-7x7oaq.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Gruithuisen Domes appear to have been formed by silica lavas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/482/a-lunar-mystery-the-gruithuisen-domes/">Nasa (GSFC)/Arizona State University</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On Earth, silica lavas typically require the presence both of water and plate tectonics. However, plate tectonics are not known to be present on the Moon, and neither is water in the quantities necessary for silica lavas. The Gruithuisen Domes thus present a geological enigma which Peregrine could go some way to resolving.</p>
<p>The landing location for Nova-C is Malapert A crater – which is of particular interest for lunar exploration, as it lies close to the Moon’s south pole. The surrounding mountains permanently shield this depression from sunlight, leaving it in constant darkness. </p>
<p>Consequently, it is one of the coldest locations in the Solar System and, given the lack of sunlight, a place where water ice delivered by comets hitting the surface over the aeons could remain stable. Future human explorers could use it for life support and making rocket fuel.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Lunar south pole." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566615/original/file-20231219-27-888tuc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An image of the Moon’s South Pole showing the Malapert crater (foreground).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/5127">Nasa's Scientific Visualization Studio</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are additional payloads on both spacecraft from private investors. Peregrine contains the “DHL Spacebox”, which will carry personal items from paying customers, while Nova-C contains “The Humanity Hall of Fame” – a list of names to be sent to the Moon for posterity. Such payloads can generate additional funding for the launch companies.</p>
<p>Several other companies are due to launch their first payloads to the Moon in the next couple of years. With greater input from private companies – assuming the these first few missions succeed – we may soon witness a new era in lunar exploration.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219546/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Peregrine and Nova-C landers are due to carry out valuable science at two diverse lunar locations.Gareth Dorrian, Post Doctoral Research Fellow in Space Science, University of BirminghamIan Whittaker, Senior Lecturer in Physics, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2198132023-12-14T23:35:58Z2023-12-14T23:35:58ZThe first-ever survey on Australian attitudes towards space is out. So, what do we think?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565712/original/file-20231214-19-k3ard3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=103%2C54%2C3858%2C2647&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">NASA rocket launched from the Arnhem Space Centre in NT on June 26 2022.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/details.cgi?aid=14164&button=recent">NASA Wallops/Brian Bonsteel</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If someone were to ask you how space technologies impact your daily life, or how much Australia should invest in space, would you have an immediate answer or would you wonder why these questions were even being asked? </p>
<p>Understanding what the average Australian thinks about space is essential – voters and taxpayers will only encourage governments to fund space activities if they feel it is important. </p>
<p>Yet until now there was no comprehensive survey of Australian opinions about space in the 66 years since humans launched their first satellite in 1957.</p>
<p>Our new <a href="https://www.spacegovcentre.org/post/space-in-the-australian-public-eye-in-depth-survey-reveals-national-opinions">report</a> shows what the Australian public thinks about Australia’s investment and activities in space and the results are eye opening. </p>
<h2>Space tech is everywhere</h2>
<p>You’ve probably used space technologies <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wrwJqdN6NF0">many times today</a> without thinking about it. This includes navigation apps on your phone, <a href="https://www.gps.gov/applications/timing/">paying for your coffee</a>, <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/australia/satellite/about_satellites.shtml">checking the weather</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_Internet_access">high-speed internet</a> and maybe even remote health services. </p>
<p>Data and services from satellites underpin activities vital to our national economy. Space helps farmers predict when to harvest their crops and GPS ensures ships, planes and trucks reach their destinations. </p>
<p>Information from space also lets us investigate climate change, assists in predicting bushfires and helps emergency services respond to floods. Pictures from space contribute to Indigenous land and water management and protecting cultural heritage.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/painting-with-fire-how-northern-australia-developed-one-of-the-worlds-best-bushfire-management-programs-205113">‘Painting with fire’: how northern Australia developed one of the world’s best bushfire management programs</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What do Australians think about space?</h2>
<p>To understand what the public thinks about space today, the <a href="https://www.spacegovcentre.org/">Australian Centre for Space Governance</a> commissioned a study, co-funded by <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/canberra">UNSW Canberra</a>, which polled a nationally representative sample of more than 1,500 members of the Australian public. Our report is the first of its kind.</p>
<p>Our results showed the Australian community is interested in space but is unsure about what Australia does there. One third of Australians agreed space affected their everyday life and 44% were neutral. Around half of those surveyed are interested in Australian space activities but only a quarter said they were knowledgeable of global space events. </p>
<p>Similarly, the number of Australians who follow the activities of the <a href="https://www.space.gov.au/">Australian Space Agency</a>, established in 2018, was only around one fifth and an equal number had never heard of it. </p>
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<p>Australia has a long history of space activities, usually in cooperation with international partners. Australia has tested rockets at Woomera in South Australia and supported US Moon landings. This included providing broadcast images to the world of the Apollo 11 Moon landing in 1969. </p>
<p>But when asked to choose from a list including tracking stations and Australian-born astronauts, more Australians remembered the 2001 comedy <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dish">The Dish</a> than any of Australia’s historic space activities.</p>
<p>In addition, only 16% of Australians were aware of the country’s first (and only) locally launched satellite, <a href="https://www.dst.defence.gov.au/innovation/wresat-%E2%80%94-weapons-research-establishment-satellite">WRESAT</a>, lofted into orbit on an American rocket from Woomera in 1967.</p>
<h2>How much should Australia spend on space?</h2>
<p>Space has also been a vital part of the country’s <a href="https://www.ussc.edu.au/the-evolution-of-the-australia-us-defence-space-relationship">defence forces</a> and a range of <a href="https://nsc.crawford.anu.edu.au/publication/18851/australia-space-power-combining-civil-defence-and-diplomatic-efforts">government functions</a> that support Australia’s security and resilience. Around 50% of Australians felt the Australian Defence Force should prioritise space alongside other areas of defence interest. </p>
<p>Many people are aware of important applications of Earth observation satellites, like weather forecasting, mapping, disaster response and climate data. However, less than a quarter disagreed with the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-06-29/labor-axes-morrison-government-satellite-program/102538686">cancellation</a> of the A$1.2 billion National Space Mission for Earth Observation, a proposed ongoing Earth observation satellite program. Of those surveyed, 45% were neutral and less than a quarter felt the mission should not have been cancelled.</p>
<p>Space missions also allow us to understand the universe. If you’ve ever looked at a picture sent back from a NASA probe, it’s highly likely the image was received at the <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/about/facilities-collections/international-facilities/cdscc">tracking station</a> just outside of Canberra, managed by CSIRO. Nearly 55% of Australians think it is important to invest in space science, even if there is no immediate social or economic benefit.</p>
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<p>Overall, Australians are split about whether the country is spending the right amount on space. While 20% felt too little was spent on space technologies, 31% believed the amount was about right.</p>
<p>But the highest proportion, 36%, did not know. This is important, suggesting there isn’t sufficient information provided to the public. </p>
<h2>What do these results mean for Australia’s space future?</h2>
<p>Australians appear to be uncertain about the country’s space trajectory. But there were some clues about what direction the public feels Australia should take. Communication satellite technology and Earth observation were identified as the most important of the Australian Space Agency’s <a href="https://www.space.gov.au/Advancing%20Space%20Australian%20Civil%20Space%20Strategy%202019%20%E2%80%93%202028">seven priorities</a>. </p>
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<p>Australians also saw building satellite capability as an important focus. But developing local launch capabilities was rated as the lowest priority, despite this often being the focus of <a href="https://theconversation.com/nasa-to-launch-3-rockets-from-northern-territory-in-boost-for-australian-space-efforts-184646">media reporting</a>.</p>
<p>Importantly, respondents saw space as a useful way to encourage study and work in the sciences. They also believed space activities should include a diverse representation of the community. </p>
<p>The clearest insight from this report is Australians are interested in space but are not very aware of what we do in space and why. This reflects longstanding national debates about government spending on space technologies. </p>
<p>There is an opportunity to address this. Clear messaging of how space services contribute to individual lives, national needs and government priorities, will help inform decision making. </p>
<p>It will also ensure those decisions align with what the public wants and values. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>Correction: This article previously stated the wrong year for the Apollo 11 Moon landing. It has now been corrected to 1969.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219813/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tristan Moss receives funding from the Australian Research Council as part of a Discovery Early Career Researcher Award and from UNSW Canberra. He has previously been funded by the Department of Defence and as a Fulbright Scholar. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aleksandar Deejay receives funding from Geoscience Australia. He is the Executive Director of the Australian Centre for Space Governance and a research fellow at the School of Regulation and Global Governance (RegNet).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cassandra Steer receives funding from Geoscience Australia, Home Affairs, Department of Defence, and has previously received funding from DFAT, the Australian Space Agency, and the Canadian and US Departments of Defence. She is Chair of the Australian Centre for Space Governance and is affiliated with the International Institute of Space Law.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kathryn Robison Hasani is a Senior Research Fellow at the Australian Centre for Space Governance. She is affiliated with Flinders University. </span></em></p>Despite what you may think, Australia has a long history of space activities. But this is the first time the Australian public has been asked its opinions on space.Tristan Moss, Senior lecturer, UNSW SydneyAleksandar Deejay, Research fellow, Australian National UniversityCassandra Steer, Deputy Director, Institute for Space (InSpace), Australian National UniversityKathryn Robison Hasani, Senior Research Fellow, Australian Centre for Space Governance, Flinders UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2168082023-12-12T13:22:22Z2023-12-12T13:22:22ZScientists and space agencies are shooting for the Moon – 5 essential reads on modern lunar missions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556958/original/file-20231031-19-egoy20.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=72%2C21%2C4734%2C3293&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Moon, shot from Pakistan during a lunar eclipse. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/PakistanLunarEclipse/78b42ec6aa9f40218389cd06b938b1ff/photo?Query=moon&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=41215&currentItemNo=5">AP Photo/Fareed Khan</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The year 2023 proved a big one for lunar science. <a href="https://theconversation.com/indias-chandrayaan-3-landed-on-the-south-pole-of-the-moon-a-space-policy-expert-explains-what-this-means-for-india-and-the-global-race-to-the-moon-212171">India’s Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft landed</a> near the south pole of the Moon, a huge accomplishment for a country relatively new to the space scene, especially after its <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/chandrayaan-2/">Chandrayaan-2 craft crashed</a> in 2019. </p>
<p>At the same time, NASA’s been gearing up for a host of Moon-related missions, including its <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis program</a>. In 2023, the agency gained nine signatories to the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/">Artemis Accords</a>, an international agreement for peaceful space exploration, for a total of 32 countries that have signed so far. </p>
<p>As Georgia Tech’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/returning-to-the-moon-can-benefit-commercial-military-and-political-sectors-a-space-policy-expert-explains-209300">Mariel Borowitz explains</a>, the U.S. now has widespread bipartisan political support for spacefaring – for the first time since the 1970s – and returning missions to the Moon is the first natural target. </p>
<p>Here are five stories that The Conversation U.S. has published over the past year about lunar exploration, including why people want to go back to the Moon, what Chandrayaan-3 found during its initial foray across the lunar surface and the ever-growing problem of lunar space junk. </p>
<h2>1. Why shoot for the Moon?</h2>
<p>Missions to the Moon <a href="https://theconversation.com/returning-to-the-moon-can-benefit-commercial-military-and-political-sectors-a-space-policy-expert-explains-209300">hold potential benefits</a> for a variety of sectors, including commercial, military and geopolitical. </p>
<p>“Ever since humans last left the Moon in 1972, many have dreamed about the days when people would return. But for decades, these efforts have hit political roadblocks,” <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=aESo-coAAAAJ&hl=en">wrote Borowitz</a>. “This time, the United States’ plans to return to the Moon are likely to succeed – it has the cross-sector support and the strategic importance to ensure continuity, even during politically challenging times.”</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ocDzndmmE8I?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">NASA is planning to return to the Moon with Artemis missions. This video describes where on the Moon it may land and how it will decide.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While some of these <a href="https://theconversation.com/back-to-the-moon-a-space-lawyer-and-planetary-scientist-on-what-it-will-take-to-share-the-benefits-of-new-lunar-exploration-podcast-202415">potential uses</a> are incredibly far off – from <a href="https://theconversation.com/mining-the-moon-110744">mining the Moon for resources</a> to sending out <a href="https://www.airandspaceforces.com/raymond-foresees-cislunar-space-as-key-terrain-guardians-going-to-space/">military satellites</a> to orbit around the Moon – missions to the Moon in the near term will help inform scientists and stakeholders of future possibilities. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/returning-to-the-moon-can-benefit-commercial-military-and-political-sectors-a-space-policy-expert-explains-209300">Returning to the Moon can benefit commercial, military and political sectors – a space policy expert explains</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Searching for sulfur</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/indias-chandrayaan-3-landed-on-the-south-pole-of-the-moon-a-space-policy-expert-explains-what-this-means-for-india-and-the-global-race-to-the-moon-212171">India’s Chandrayaan-3 lander touched down</a> on the Moon’s surface, just a few miles away from the lunar south pole, in late August 2023. </p>
<p><a href="https://robotsguide.com/robots/pragyan">Its rover, called Pragyan</a>, took measurements of the lunar surface and found the <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/books/lunar_sourcebook/pdf/Chapter07.pdf">soil near the south pole</a> contains <a href="https://www.isro.gov.in/LIBSResults.html">a surprise – sulfur</a>. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/rrTtLze5Ydk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">India’s lunar rover Pragyan rolls out of the lander and onto the surface.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=wKuEBj0AAAAJ&hl=en">Jeffrey Gillis-Davis</a>, a <a href="https://theconversation.com/chandrayaan-3s-measurements-of-sulfur-open-the-doors-for-lunar-science-and-exploration-212950">physicist at Washington University in St. Louis, wrote</a>, future Moon missions or a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2021/nasa-s-artemis-base-camp-on-the-moon-will-need-light-water-elevation">future Moon base</a> could use lunar sulfur as an ingredient in everything from <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19980001900/downloads/19980001900.pdf">fuel and fertilizer to concrete</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chandrayaan-3s-measurements-of-sulfur-open-the-doors-for-lunar-science-and-exploration-212950">Chandrayaan-3's measurements of sulfur open the doors for lunar science and exploration</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>3. Water in ice</h2>
<p>But <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-suspect-theres-ice-hiding-on-the-moon-and-a-host-of-missions-from-the-us-and-beyond-are-searching-for-it-216060">sulfur’s not the only resource</a> the lunar south pole could have to offer. For several years, scientists have predicted that the lunar south pole <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/ice/ice_moon.html">might have water</a> in the form of ice. And Chandrayaan-3’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/chandrayaan-3s-measurements-of-sulfur-open-the-doors-for-lunar-science-and-exploration-212950">sulfur discovery</a> gives scientists more insight into how and how recently ice might have formed on the surface.</p>
<p>Comets or <a href="https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/ac649c">volcanic activity</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2021.125858">could have brought water</a> to the Moon years ago. If volcanic activity is the culprit for water’s appearance, scientists would also expect to see sulfur in higher levels, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kgXwvksAAAAJ&hl=en">wrote Paul Hayne</a>, an assistant professor of astrophysical and planetary sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder.</p>
<p>A host of future missions to the Moon, including <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viper/in-depth/">NASA’s VIPER mission</a> planned for 2024, will continue to investigate where ice could be hiding on the Moon. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-suspect-theres-ice-hiding-on-the-moon-and-a-host-of-missions-from-the-us-and-beyond-are-searching-for-it-216060">Scientists suspect there's ice hiding on the Moon, and a host of missions from the US and beyond are searching for it</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. Moon debris</h2>
<p>With all the Moon missions, <a href="https://www.jhuapl.edu/NewsStory/221205-apl-cislunar-traffic-management">both current and upcoming</a>, some experts have raised concerns about the <a href="https://theconversation.com/if-a-satellite-falls-on-your-house-space-law-protects-you-but-there-are-no-legal-penalties-for-leaving-junk-in-orbit-160757">increased space junk</a> in the “<a href="https://www.afrl.af.mil/Portals/90/Documents/RV/A%20Primer%20on%20Cislunar%20Space_Dist%20A_PA2021-1271.pdf?ver=vs6e0sE4PuJ51QC-15DEfg%3D%3D">cislunar space</a>” – or the space between Earth and the Moon and around the Moon. </p>
<p>NASA doesn’t currently track the space junk left behind from its missions, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/space-junk-in-earth-orbit-and-on-the-moon-will-increase-with-future-missions-but-nobodys-in-charge-of-cleaning-it-up-212421">this lack of oversight</a> has many people worried. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large, black telescope." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=794&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=794&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=794&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=997&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=997&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508150/original/file-20230203-7549-e3xoli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=997&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A team of students and professors at the University of Arizona built a telescope to track objects near the Moon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Vishnu Reddy/University of Arizona</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One team at the University of Arizona has started <a href="https://news.arizona.edu/story/75m-effort-seeks-prevent-lunar-traffic-jams">building a catalog of debris</a> left in this space. Team members started off by identifying a few large objects, and as their methods got better, they <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-lunar-missions-means-more-space-junk-around-the-moon-two-scientists-are-building-a-catalog-to-track-the-trash-196645">were able to see objects</a> as small as a cereal box. The team hopes this work will one day improve the sustainability of future lunar missions. </p>
<p>“While there is still a long way to go, these efforts are designed to ultimately form the basis for a catalog that will help lead to safer, more sustainable use of cislunar orbital space as humanity begins its expansion off of the Earth,” <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=XCYhJqcAAAAJ&hl=en">writes Vishnu Reddy</a>, a professor of planetary science at the University of Arizona. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-lunar-missions-means-more-space-junk-around-the-moon-two-scientists-are-building-a-catalog-to-track-the-trash-196645">More lunar missions means more space junk around the Moon – two scientists are building a catalog to track the trash</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>5. Future flyers</h2>
<p>Early this year, <a href="https://spacenews.com/nasa-announces-crew-for-artemis-2-mission/">NASA announced</a> who will make up the crew of their <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/">Artemis II mission</a>. Set for late 2024, Artemis II will fly by the Moon and test the technology and equipment planned for use in future missions. It will also mark the <a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-next-four-people-headed-to-the-moon-how-the-diverse-crew-of-artemis-ii-shows-nasas-plan-for-the-future-of-space-exploration-203214">first time people are close to the lunar surface</a> in over 50 years. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four astronauts in orange space suits with their helmets off." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519114/original/file-20230403-16-y1n19n.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Crew members of the Artemis II mission are NASA astronauts Christina Hammock Koch, Reid Wiseman and Victor Glover and Canadian Space Agency astronaut Jeremy Hansen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Three of the four crew members <a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-next-four-people-headed-to-the-moon-how-the-diverse-crew-of-artemis-ii-shows-nasas-plan-for-the-future-of-space-exploration-203214">have spent time in space</a>, with the fourth having spent lots of time in spaceflight simulations. Each started their careers as a military pilot, just like all the astronauts of the Apollo missions. But this crew represents more racial and gender diversity than the astronauts of the Apollo era. </p>
<p>“Unlike the Apollo program of the 1960s and 1970s, with Artemis, NASA has placed a heavy emphasis on building a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/16/science/nasa-launch-artemis-1.html">politically sustainable lunar program</a> by fostering the participation of a diverse group of people and countries,” <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PxIOz7cAAAAJ&hl=en">wrote Wendy Whitman Cobb</a>, a professor of strategy and security studies at Air University.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-next-four-people-headed-to-the-moon-how-the-diverse-crew-of-artemis-ii-shows-nasas-plan-for-the-future-of-space-exploration-203214">Meet the next four people headed to the Moon – how the diverse crew of Artemis II shows NASA's plan for the future of space exploration</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216808/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Chandrayaan-3’s successful landing on the Moon made 2023 a big year for lunar exploration, and future years will come with even more discoveries.Mary Magnuson, Assistant Science EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2191612023-12-07T16:19:36Z2023-12-07T16:19:36ZThe longstanding mystery of Mars’ moons – and the mission that could solve it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564244/original/file-20231207-28-75cy71.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C56%2C1042%2C984&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The two small moons of Mars, <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mars/moons/phobos/">Phobos</a> (about 22km in diameter) and <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mars/moons/deimos/">Deimos</a> (about 13km in diameter), have been puzzling scientists for decades, with their origin remaining a matter of debate. Some <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.aar6887">have proposed</a> that they may be made up of residual debris produced from a planet or large asteroid smashing into the surface of Mars (#TeamImpact). </p>
<p>An opposing hypothesis (#TeamCapture), however, suggests the moons are asteroids that <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-637X/777/2/127/meta">were captured</a> by Mars’s gravitational pull and were trapped in orbit. </p>
<p>To solve the mystery, we’ll need material from the moons’ surfaces for analytical analyses on Earth. Luckily, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (Jaxa) will launch a mission, named “<a href="https://www.mmx.jaxa.jp/en/">Martian Moon eXploration</a>” (MMX), to Phobos and Deimos in September 2024. The mission will be carried by a newly designed rocket, the <a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/projects/rockets/h3/">H-3</a>, which is still under development.</p>
<p>The spacecraft is expected to reach Martian orbit in 2025, after which it will orbit Phobos and finally collect material from its surface before returning to Earth by 2029. </p>
<p>This will make it the next in a series of recent missions bringing material from space back to Earth, following on from Jaxa’s successful mission to <a href="https://www.hayabusa2.jaxa.jp/en/">asteroid Ryugu</a> (Hayabusa2), as well as Nasa’s Osiris-Rex mission to <a href="https://theconversation.com/osiris-rex-nasa-reveals-evidence-of-water-and-carbon-in-sample-delivered-to-earth-from-an-asteroid-215484">asteroid Bennu</a> and the Chinese Space Agency’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/change-5-china-launches-sample-return-mission-to-the-moon-is-it-winning-the-new-space-race-150665">Chang’e 5 mission to the Moon</a>. </p>
<h2>Giveaways</h2>
<p>If an impact origin did indeed occur, we would expect to find similar material on Phobos to that which is found on Mars. While we do not have any material returned directly from Mars (yet), we are lucky enough to have rock that has been ejected off its surface which eventually found its way to Earth. </p>
<p>These meteorites may therefore be similar to the material returned from Phobos, providing a fantastic comparison. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A martian meteorite under the microscope and hand specimen." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563953/original/file-20231206-17-ba7bzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563953/original/file-20231206-17-ba7bzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563953/original/file-20231206-17-ba7bzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563953/original/file-20231206-17-ba7bzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563953/original/file-20231206-17-ba7bzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563953/original/file-20231206-17-ba7bzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563953/original/file-20231206-17-ba7bzl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A martian meteorite under the microscope and hand specimen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Open University</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the case of a captured asteroid origin, however, we are more likely to find material on Phobos that is found on other asteroids in our Solar System. The prevailing hypothesis in the #TeamCapture group is that the moons are made up of the same rock as meteorites, called <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/carbonaceous-chondrite">carbonaceous chondrite</a>. Thankfully, we have plenty of such meteorites and samples that we could compare with the Phobos material. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A carbonaceous chondrite meteorite under the microscope and hand specimen." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563955/original/file-20231206-15-iwrx4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563955/original/file-20231206-15-iwrx4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563955/original/file-20231206-15-iwrx4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563955/original/file-20231206-15-iwrx4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563955/original/file-20231206-15-iwrx4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563955/original/file-20231206-15-iwrx4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563955/original/file-20231206-15-iwrx4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A carbonaceous chondrite meteorite under the microscope and hand specimen.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Comparing meteorites and material brought back from Phobos will be a fantastic tool for helping us understand the origin of the two moons. Once we have material in the laboratory, rigorous analytical techniques can be applied to the samples. </p>
<p>One such technique is oxygen isotope analysis. Isotopes are versions of elements whose nuclei have more or fewer particles called neutrons. Oxygen, for example, has three stable isotopes, with atomic masses of 16, 17 and 18. </p>
<p>The sum of the isotopic ratios of oxygen-17/oxygen-16 and oxygen-18/oxygen-16
is denoted as Δ<sup>17</sup>O, and is characteristic of specific parent objects. Depending on where in the Solar System a rocky body is formed, a distinct oxygen composition is acquired and retained in the rocks. For example, rocks from Earth have Δ<sup>17</sup>O of around 0, while meteorites from Mars have Δ<sup>17</sup>O of around ~0.3. Therefore, rocks from Earth and Martian meteorites <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1945-5100.1999.tb01371.x">can be readily separated</a> from one another.</p>
<p>If Phobos formed in the same or at least similar location in the Solar System to Mars, we would expect the composition of the material brought back by MMX also to have Δ<sup>17</sup>O of around 0.3. </p>
<p>As mentioned previously, #TeamCapture suggest a carbonaceous chondrite-like origin for Phobos. All known carbonaceous chondrites studied by scientists <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016703799000903">have revealed</a> negative isotopic Δ<sup>17</sup>O, ranging from -0.5 all the way down to -4. Oxygen can therefore be an extremely powerful tool in deciphering the origin of the moons of Mars, and should be a high priority for the mission once material is returned to Earth. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563957/original/file-20231206-15-jlxwsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563957/original/file-20231206-15-jlxwsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563957/original/file-20231206-15-jlxwsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563957/original/file-20231206-15-jlxwsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563957/original/file-20231206-15-jlxwsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563957/original/file-20231206-15-jlxwsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/563957/original/file-20231206-15-jlxwsq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Oxygen isotope plot showing the stark differences in oxygen between the Earth, Mars and asteroids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If Phobos does indeed represent an ancient fragment of Mars, it could comprise the most primitive of Martian material. Mars has experienced a wide range of processes that have altered the rocks on its surface, including wind erosion and water alteration. Based on features such as dry river beds observed from orbiters such as Viking, it is clear that water on Mars once existed. </p>
<p>This water likely originated from a mix of asteroids and comets, and volcanic activity. Mars also retained a thick atmosphere, which allowed water to be present as a liquid on the planet’s surface.</p>
<p>Phobos, on the other hand, has remained an airless body where processes such as contamination from water have not occurred (though minor impact events may have taken place). This means that samples returned from Phobos could provide extremely important insights into the original water content of Mars, and a window to processes that occurred in the early Solar System.</p>
<p>MMX is one of the most exciting planned missions in space exploration. With less than a year to go, our fingers are already firmly crossed for a successful launch, sample acquisition, and sample return. Many scientists including myself would absolutely love the possibility of one day studying those samples.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219161/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ben Rider-Stokes receives funding from STFC Consolidated Grant. </span></em></p>A Japanese spacecraft is expected to reach Martian orbit in 2025 to collect material from the surface of the moon Phobos before returning to Earth by 2029.Ben Rider-Stokes, Post Doctoral Researcher in Achondrite Meteorites, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2182352023-12-04T19:13:34Z2023-12-04T19:13:34ZWas going to space a good idea?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562901/original/file-20231201-29-6zecp3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=412%2C0%2C1078%2C1092&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/astronaut-bruce-mccandless-first-ever-untethered-spacewalk/">NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 1963, six years after the first satellite was launched, editors from the Encyclopaedia Britannica posed a question to five eminent thinkers of the day: “Has man’s conquest of space increased or diminished his stature?” The respondents were philosopher <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arendt/">Hannah Arendt</a>, writer <a href="https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2015/novemberdecember/feature/the-talented-mr-huxley">Aldous Huxley</a>, theologian <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Tillich">Paul Tillich</a>, nuclear scientist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrison_Brown">Harrison Brown</a> and historian <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_J._Muller">Herbert J. Muller</a>.</p>
<p>Sixty years later, as the rush to space accelerates, what can we learn from these 20th-century luminaries writing at the dawn of the space age?</p>
<h2>The state of space 60 years on</h2>
<p>Much has happened since. Spacecraft have landed on planets, moons, comets and asteroids across the Solar System. The two <a href="https://theconversation.com/after-45-years-the-5-billion-year-legacy-of-the-voyager-2-interstellar-probe-is-just-beginning-188077">Voyager</a> deep space probes, launched in 1977, are in interstellar space.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-live-in-space-what-weve-learned-from-20-years-of-the-international-space-station-144851">How to live in space: what we've learned from 20 years of the International Space Station</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A handful of people are living in two Earth-orbiting space stations. Humans are getting ready to return to the Moon after more than 50 years, this time to establish a permanent base and mine the deep ice lakes at the south pole. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561651/original/file-20231126-15-8m249t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of the lunar south pole showing the terrain in grey and green circles representing the crater ice deposits." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561651/original/file-20231126-15-8m249t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/561651/original/file-20231126-15-8m249t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561651/original/file-20231126-15-8m249t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561651/original/file-20231126-15-8m249t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561651/original/file-20231126-15-8m249t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561651/original/file-20231126-15-8m249t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/561651/original/file-20231126-15-8m249t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Water ice in the permanently shadowed craters of the lunar south pole.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/3577">NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio. Data from JAXA/Selene</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There were only 57 satellites in Earth orbit in 1963. Now there are around <a href="https://www.pixalytics.com/satellites-orbiting-earth-2023/">10,000</a>, with tens of thousands more planned. </p>
<p>Satellite services are part of everyday life. Weather prediction, farming, transport, banking, disaster management, and much more, all rely on satellite data.</p>
<p>Despite these tremendous changes, Arendt, Huxley and Tillich, in particular, have some illuminating insights. </p>
<h2>A brave new world</h2>
<p>Huxley is famous for his 1932 dystopian science fiction novel <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brave_New_World">Brave New World</a>, and his experimental use of psychedelic drugs.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aldous-Huxley-on-the-conquest-of-space-1980710">his essay</a>, he questioned who this “man” who had conquered space was, noting it was not humans as a species but Western urban-industrial society that had sent emissaries into space.</p>
<p>This has not changed. The 1967 <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html">Outer Space Treaty</a> says space is the province of all humanity, but in reality it’s dominated by a few wealthy nations and individuals. </p>
<p>Huxley said the notion of “stature” assumed humans had a special and different status to other living beings. Given the immensity of space, talking of conquest was, in his opinion, “a trifle silly”.</p>
<p>Tillich was a theologian who fled Nazi Germany before the second world war. In his essay he wrote about how seeing Earth from outside allowed us to “demythologise” our planet. </p>
<p>In contrast to the much-discussed “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overview_effect">overview effect</a>” which inspires astronauts with a feeling of almost mystical awe, Tillich argued that the view from space made Earth a “large material body to be looked at and considered as totally calculable”. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562269/original/file-20231128-24-y80m5i.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Grey and white craters on the lunar surface." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562269/original/file-20231128-24-y80m5i.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562269/original/file-20231128-24-y80m5i.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=590&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562269/original/file-20231128-24-y80m5i.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=590&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562269/original/file-20231128-24-y80m5i.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=590&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562269/original/file-20231128-24-y80m5i.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=742&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562269/original/file-20231128-24-y80m5i.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=742&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562269/original/file-20231128-24-y80m5i.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=742&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An image of the lunar surface taken by the US Ranger 7 spacecraft in 1964.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/ranger-7/">NASA/JPL-Caltech</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When spacecraft began imaging the lunar surface in the 1960s, the process of calculation started for the Moon. Now, its minerals are being evaluated as commodities for human use.</p>
<h2>Have humans changed, or is it how we view Earth?</h2>
<p>Like Tillich, Arendt left Germany under the shadow of Nazism in 1933. She’s best remembered for her studies of totalitarian states and for coining the term “<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-time-to-reconsider-the-idea-of-the-banality-of-evil-216737">the banality of evil</a>”. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/the-conquest-of-space-and-the-stature-of-man">Her essay</a> explored the relationship between science and the human senses. It’s a dense and complex piece; almost every time I read it, I come away with something different.</p>
<p>In the early 20th century, Einstein’s <a href="https://www.space.com/36273-theory-special-relativity.html">theory of special relativity</a> and <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/definition/quantum-physics/">quantum mechanics</a> showed us a reality far beyond the ability of our senses to comprehend. Arendt said it was absurd to think such a cosmos could be “conquered”. Instead, “we have come to our present capacity to ‘conquer space’ through our new ability to handle nature from a point in the universe outside the earth”. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-time-to-reconsider-the-idea-of-the-banality-of-evil-216737">Is it time to reconsider the idea of 'the banality of evil'?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The new geocentrism</h2>
<p>The short human lifespan and the impossibility of moving faster than the speed of light mean humans are unlikely to travel beyond the Solar System. There is a limit to our current expansion into space.</p>
<p>When that limit is reached, said Arendt, “the new world view that may conceivably grow out of it is likely to be once more geocentric and anthropomorphic, although not in the old sense of the earth being the center of the universe and of man being the highest being there is”. Humans would turn back to Earth to make meaning of their existence, and cease to dream of the stars.</p>
<p>This new geocentrism may be exacerbated by an environmental problem already emerging from the rapid growth of satellite megaconstellations. The light they reflect is obscuring the <a href="https://www.discovermagazine.com/environment/light-pollution-threatens-millennia-old-indigenous-navigation-methods">view of the night sky</a>, cutting our senses off from the larger cosmos.</p>
<h2>The far future</h2>
<p>But what if it were technologically possible for humans to expand into the galaxy? </p>
<p>Arendt said assessing humanity from a position outside Earth would reduce the scale of human culture to the point at which humans would become like laboratory rats, studied as statistical patterns. From far enough away, all human culture would appear as nothing more than a “large scale biological process”. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/longtermism-why-the-million-year-philosophy-cant-be-ignored-193538">Longtermism – why the million-year philosophy can't be ignored</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Arendt did not see this as an increase in stature: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>The conquest of space and the science that made it possible have come perilously close to this point [of seeing human culture as a biological process]. If they ever should reach it in earnest, the stature of man would not simply be lowered by all standards we know of, but have been destroyed.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Sixty years on, nations are competing to exploit lunar and asteroid mineral resources. Private corporations and space billionaires are increasingly being touted as the way forward. After the Moon, Mars is the next world in line for “conquest”. The contemporary movement known as <a href="https://aeon.co/essays/why-longtermism-is-the-worlds-most-dangerous-secular-credo">longtermism</a> promotes living on other planets as insurance against <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk">existential risk</a>, in a far future where humans (or some form of them) spread to fill the galaxies.</p>
<p>But the question remains. Is space travel enhancing what we value about humanity? Arendt and her fellow essayists were not convinced. For me, the answer will depend on what values we choose to prioritise in this new era of interplanetary expansion. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article developed from a panel discussion at the Wheeler Centre. You can <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/listen/programs/bigideas/space-race-travel-humanity-ethics-hannah-arrendt-science/102961384">listen to it here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218235/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alice Gorman is a Vice-Chair of the Global Expert Group for Sustainable Lunar Activities and a Fellow of the Outer Space Institute.</span></em></p>Sixty years ago, philosopher Hannah Arendt argued an interplanetary perspective may be bad news for humanity as we know it.Alice Gorman, Associate Professor in Archaeology and Space Studies, Flinders UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2152192023-11-28T13:39:19Z2023-11-28T13:39:19ZUnwrapping Uranus and its icy secrets: What NASA would learn from a mission to a wild world<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556240/original/file-20231026-17-9wedv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1720%2C1717&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Uranus is the coldest planet in the solar system.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://science.nasa.gov/image-detail/amf-pia18182/">NASA/JPL</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Uranus, the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/uranus/">seventh planet from the Sun</a>, orbits in the outer solar system, about two billion miles (3.2 billion kilometers) from Earth. It is an enormous world – quadruple the diameter of Earth, with 15 times the mass and 63 times the volume. </p>
<p>Unvisited by spacecraft <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/voyager-2/">for more than 35 years</a>, Uranus inhabits one of the least explored regions of <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/">our solar system</a>. Although scientists have learned some things about it from telescopic observations and theoretical work since <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/history/35-years-ago-voyager-2-explores-uranus/">the Voyager 2 flyby in 1986</a>, the planet remains an enigma. </p>
<p>It’s easy to divide the solar system into two large groups: an inner zone with four rocky planets and an outer zone with four giant planets. But nature is, as usual, more complicated. Uranus and <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/neptune/">Neptune, the eighth planet from the Sun</a>, are vastly different from the others. Both are ice giants, composed largely of compounds such as water, ice, ammonia and methane; they are places where the average temperature is minus 320 to minus 350 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 212 Celsius). </p>
<p>Through <a href="https://theconversation.com/are-there-any-planets-outside-of-our-solar-system-164062">recent discoveries of exoplanets</a> – worlds outside our solar system that are trillions of miles away – astronomers have learned that ice giants are common throughout the galaxy. They challenge our understanding of planetary formation and evolution. Uranus, comparatively close to us, is our cornerstone for learning about them. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/m4NXbFOiOGk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">All about Uranus, the unconventional planet.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A new mission</h2>
<p>Many in the space community – <a href="https://www.michaelmsori.com/">like me</a> – are urging NASA to launch a robotic spacecraft to explore Uranus. Indeed, the <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26522/origins-worlds-and-life-a-decadal-strategy-for-planetary-science">2023 decadal survey of planetary scientists</a> ranked such a journey as the single highest priority for a new <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/25146/chapter/11">NASA flagship mission</a>.</p>
<p>This time, the spacecraft would not simply fly by Uranus on its way somewhere else, as <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/voyager-2/">Voyager 2 did</a>. Instead, the probe would spend years orbiting and studying the planet, its 27 moons and its 13 rings. </p>
<p>You may wonder, why send a spacecraft to Uranus and not Neptune. It’s a matter of orbital architecture. Because of the positions of both planets over the next two decades, a spacecraft from Earth will have an <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/learn/basics-of-space-flight/chapter4-1/">easier trajectory to follow</a> to reach Uranus than Neptune. Launched at the right time, the orbiter would arrive at Uranus in about 12 years.</p>
<p>Here are just a few of the basic questions a Uranus orbiter would help answer: What, exactly, is Uranus made of? Why is Uranus <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/learn/video/dancing-uranus/#:%7E">tilted on its side</a>, with its poles pointed almost directly toward the Sun during summer – which is different from all the other planets in the solar system? What is generating Uranus’ <a href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/4666/">strange magnetic field</a>, shaped differently than Earth’s and misaligned with the direction the planet spins? How does atmospheric circulation work on an ice giant? What do the answers to all these questions tell us about how ice giants form? </p>
<p>Notwithstanding the progress scientists have made on these and other questions since the Voyager 2 flyby, there’s no substitute for direct, close-up and repeated observations from an orbiting spacecraft.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558199/original/file-20231108-19-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An illustration of the blue-green planet Uranus, as seen from the cratered surface of one of its moons." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558199/original/file-20231108-19-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558199/original/file-20231108-19-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558199/original/file-20231108-19-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558199/original/file-20231108-19-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558199/original/file-20231108-19-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558199/original/file-20231108-19-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558199/original/file-20231108-19-szzl9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An artist’s concept of Uranus, as seen from the surface of Ariel, one of its moons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/uranus-seen-from-ariel-illustration-royalty-free-illustration/1088373686?phrase=Uranus&adppopup=true">Mark Garlick/Science Photo Laboratory via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The rings and those moons</h2>
<p>The rings around Uranus, probably made of dirty ice, are thinner and darker than those around Saturn. A Uranus orbiter would look for “ripples” in them, akin to waves on a lake. Finding them would let scientists use the rings <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=geNiqkgZDXA">as a giant seismometer</a> to help us learn about <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/uranus/facts/">the interior of Uranus</a>, one of its great secrets. </p>
<p>The moons, mostly named after literary characters from the writings of Shakespeare and Pope, are primarily made of frozen mixes of ice and rock. Five of the moons are particularly compelling. <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/uranus/moons/">Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon</a> are all big enough to be spherical and treated as miniature worlds in their own right. </p>
<p>During its flyby, Voyager 2 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.233.4759.43">took low-resolution images</a> of the moons’ southern hemispheres. (Their northern hemispheres, still unseen, remain one of the major unexplored frontiers of our solar system.) Those images include photos of <a href="https://eos.org/features/cryovolcanisms-song-of-ice-and-fire">ice volcanoes on Ariel</a> – a tantalizing hint of past geological and tectonic activity and, possibly, subsurface water. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558139/original/file-20231107-271094-y9msr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black and white photo of a pockmarked moon of Uranus." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558139/original/file-20231107-271094-y9msr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558139/original/file-20231107-271094-y9msr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558139/original/file-20231107-271094-y9msr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558139/original/file-20231107-271094-y9msr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558139/original/file-20231107-271094-y9msr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=758&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558139/original/file-20231107-271094-y9msr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=758&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/558139/original/file-20231107-271094-y9msr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=758&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A cratered world of varied landscapes, Miranda is a Uranus moon that might be an ocean world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA18185">NASA/JPL-Caltech</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The possibility of oceans and life</h2>
<p>Which leads to one of the most exciting parts of the mission: Many planetary scientists theorize that Ariel, and perhaps most or all of the other five moons, may be an <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/ocean-worlds/">ocean world</a> harboring large, underground bodies of liquid water miles beneath the solid, icy surface. Finding out whether any of the moons have oceans is one of the major goals of the mission. </p>
<p>This is one reason why an orbiter would probably carry a <a href="https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/10682/">magnetometer</a> – to detect the electromagnetic interactions of an underground ocean as one of its moons <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL094758">travels through Uranus’ magnetic field</a>. Instruments to measure the moons’ gravitational fields and cameras to study their surface geology would help, too.</p>
<p>Liquid water is an essential requirement for life as we know it. If oceans are detected, scientists will then want to look for other ingredients for life on the moons – <a href="https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/education/primer/">such as energy, nutrients and organic matter</a>. </p>
<h2>Not a done deal</h2>
<p>No launch date has been set for the mission, and there’s not yet an official go-ahead from NASA on its funding. The cost would probably be more than a billion dollars. </p>
<p>One critical factor to consider: The cosmos operates on its own timetable, and those spacecraft trajectories to Uranus will change over the years as the planets move along their orbits. Ideally, NASA would launch a mission in 2031 or 2032 to maximize trajectory convenience and minimize travel time. That time span is less than it may seem; it takes years of planning – and years more of constructing the spacecraft – to be ready for launch. That’s why the time is now to start the process and fund a mission to this fascinating world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215219/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Sori receives funding from NASA. </span></em></p>Five of the Uranus moons might be ocean worlds − and if there’s water, there might be life.Mike Sori, Assistant Professor of Planetary Science, Purdue UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2177202023-11-17T17:18:15Z2023-11-17T17:18:15ZEarthrise: historian uncovers the true origins of the ‘image of the century’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560179/original/file-20231117-24-a4qtm4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C9%2C2035%2C1523&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The restored image of Earthrise. A high quality black and white image was coloured using hues from the original colour photos.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap181224.html">Image Credit: NASA, Apollo 8 Crew, Bill Anders; Processing and License: Jim Weigang</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The recent <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/nov/10/frank-borman-commander-first-apollo-moon-mission-dies-aged-95">death of Frank Borman</a>, commander of Nasa’s <a href="https://nasa.gov/missions/apollo/apollo-8-mission-details/">Apollo 8 mission in 1968</a>, has focused attention on that incredible first voyage to the Moon. </p>
<p>It took place eight months before <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/apollo-11/">Apollo 11</a>, where Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin explored the lunar surface for the first time. However, the impact of Apollo 8’s “Earthrise” picture – the sight of the Earth from the Moon – now seems even greater than that of the first landing. </p>
<p>For many years, the story behind the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/apollo-8-earthrise/">famous Earthrise photo</a>, was that the crew were caught off-guard by the blue orb rising from behind the Moon. But <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/the-story-behind-apollo-8s-famous-earthrise-photo/">even if they were preoccupied</a>, the astronauts knew it was coming.</p>
<p>Another unforgettable event during the mission was a reading by the crew <a href="https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/318/apollo-8-genesis-reading/">from the Book of Genesis</a>, broadcast to the world at Christmas. Detailed research I’ve conducted in Nasa’s archives has revealed more clearly how much planning lay behind these dramatic moments. The famous Earthrise picture, a wonky snap taken in a hurry, was improvised, but it had been anticipated. </p>
<h2>Earthrise restored</h2>
<p>After entering lunar orbit, they nearly missed seeing the Earth. Only on the fourth orbit, when the capsule flipped round 180 degrees to point forwards, did they notice it. Borman confirmed to me that at that moment they were “taken by surprise – too busy with lunar observation on the first three orbits”.</p>
<p>But the <a href="https://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/oral_histories/UnderwoodRW/underwoodrw.htm">Apollo programme’s director of photography, Dick Underwood</a>, was anxious to set the wider record straight. He explained: “Hours were spent with the lunar crews, including the Apollo 8 crew, in briefing on exactly how to set up the camera, which film to use … these briefings were most comprehensive.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The Apollo 8 crew." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Apollo 8 crew presenting the Earthrise picture to the governor of Texas, John Connally, in 1969.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nasa</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There were, however, battles within Nasa about what images the astronauts should focus on, with the management insisting on shots of <a href="https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A08_PressKit.pdf">lunar geology and potential landing sites</a>. Dick Underwood explained: “I argued hard for a shot of Earthrise, and we had impressed upon the astronauts that we definitely wanted it.” </p>
<p>Borman was joined on the mission by two other astronauts: Jim Lovell, who was the command module pilot, and Bill Anders, who had the title of lunar module pilot. Nasa had intended for Apollo 8 to test the lunar module, but it was behind schedule so the mission didn’t take one.</p>
<p>At the pre-launch press conference, Borman had looked forward to getting “good views of the Earth from the Moon” and Lovell to seeing “the Earth set and the Earth rise”. </p>
<p>The official mission plan directed the astronauts to take photos of Earth, but only as the lowest priority. When the key moment came, the astronauts were indeed taken by surprise, but not for long. </p>
<p>Anders was at a side window taking photos of craters using a camera with black and white film when he saw the Earth rise from behind the Moon. “Look at that picture over there! Here’s the Earth coming up,” <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/the-story-behind-apollo-8s-famous-earthrise-photo/">Anders exclaimed</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=610&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=610&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=610&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bill Anders’ first picture of Earthrise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Anders quickly took a sharp shot of the Earth emerging above the lunar horizon. Then he and Lovell argued briefly over who should have the colour film camera, while Borman tried to calm them down. </p>
<p>It was Anders who took the blurry, hastily framed, overexposed <a href="https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap020127.html">colour shot of Earthrise</a>, later dubbed the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2018/dec/22/behold-blue-plant-photograph-earthrise">image of the century</a>. But in the other camera was a much better shot, long ignored because it was in black and white.</p>
<p>That first mono image was spot-on. A restored “Earthrise” photo, recently coloured by experts using the later shots as a reference, conveys the stunning sight beheld by the astronauts.</p>
<p>This shot, revealing the Earth as a majestic but fragile oasis. As Lovell mused: “The loneliness out here is awe-inspiring … it makes us realise what you have back on Earth.” For Borman too it was “intensely emotional … We said nothing to each other, but maybe we shared another thought I had: ‘This must be what God sees.’”</p>
<h2>The Genesis reading</h2>
<p>In 1968, as now, space travel was viewed as a scientific and technological domain. But the mission was also sent by one of the world’s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_United_States#:%7E:text=Christianity%20is%20the%20most%20prevalent,is%20Christian%20(210%20million).">most strongly Christianised countries</a>, and the crew was not about to leave its cultural background behind.</p>
<p>It was a point of pride at Nasa that, whereas Soviet cosmonauts were <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210406-how-russias-cosmonauts-trained-for-space">tightly
monitored and controlled</a>, their own astronauts were free to speak their minds. Extraordinary as it now seems, they were left to decide for themselves what to say in their historic live broadcast from lunar orbit.</p>
<p>Borman knew that he had to come up with something special for the Christmas broadcast. A few weeks beforehand, he was told by a press officer: “We figure more people will be listening to your voice (during the broadcast) than that of any man in history. So we want you to say something appropriate.” </p>
<p>While Neil Armstrong’s “one small step” message was <a href="https://time.com/5621999/neil-armstrong-quote/">carefully considered inside Nasa</a>, no one in the agency knew in advance what Borman would say.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Earthrise" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=662&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=662&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=662&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The original Earthrise photo.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nasa</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With only two minutes left before radio contact was lost as the spacecraft passed behind the Moon, Anders said: “The crew of Apollo 8 have a message that we would like to send to you.” </p>
<p>He then <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ToHhQUhdyBY">read from the Book of Genesis</a>: “In the beginning, God created the heaven and the Earth; and the Earth was without form and void.” He continued: “God said, ‘Let there be light,’ and there was light.” </p>
<p>Lovell and Borman took over to read the next verses, and Borman signed off: “Merry Christmas, and God bless all of you – all of you on the good Earth.”</p>
<p>As Apollo 8 dipped out of radio contact, the world was left to absorb the impact. “For those moments I felt the presence of creation and the creator,” Nasa’s <a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/explore/stories/eugene-kranz">chief flight director Gene Kranz</a> later recalled. “Tears were on my cheeks.” </p>
<p>Somehow Borman and his colleagues found the perfect words to convey
their experience. But Borman had thought about the assignment carefully, asking a <a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-archive/apollo-8-and-11-notes-and-letters-bourgin/sova-nasm-1995-0025">publicist friend to help out with the text</a>. </p>
<p>This was Simon Bourgin, science policy officer at the US Information Agency. Bourgin in turn asked a journalist, Joe Laitin, who <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/how-apollo-8-delivered-moment-christmas-eve-peace-and-understanding-world-180976431/">mentioned the task to his wife, Christine</a>. </p>
<p>She looked in the Old Testament and suggested: “Why don’t you begin at the beginning?” She recognised the primeval power of the creation story in the first book of Genesis, with its evocative description of the Earth. </p>
<p>Borman immediately recognised that this was just right, and had it typed up. He had superbly vindicated Nasa’s trust in him. </p>
<p>While inspiration and a degree of freedom were involved in the Earthrise photo and Genesis reading, behind their execution lay careful planning and professionalism.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217720/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Poole does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Borman’s professionalism helped the risky Apollo 8 mission become a success.Robert Poole, Professor of History, University of Central LancashireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.