tag:theconversation.com,2011:/ca/topics/early-childhood-trauma-44207/articlesearly childhood trauma – The Conversation2024-01-02T20:16:02Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2135402024-01-02T20:16:02Z2024-01-02T20:16:02ZHow effective is fear as a teaching tool? How and what do we learn when we are scared?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556736/original/file-20231030-25-tocxly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C2%2C998%2C652&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many of us remember vividly being yelled at or feeling threatened by a family member, a teacher, or a boss. </p>
<p>Terrifying experiences often get imprinted in our memory; remembering frightening events is essential to avoid them in future. It is a normal reaction that promotes our <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10832548/">survival</a>. </p>
<p>This strong connection between fear and memory may lead us to think fear can be an effective learning tool. Research shows, however, fear can have <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44159-023-00156-1">long-term negative consequences</a> for children and adults alike – and can actually make it harder to learn in meaningful ways. </p>
<p>Here’s what the research says about how and what we learn when we are scared.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/stand-back-and-avoid-saying-be-careful-how-to-help-your-child-take-risks-at-the-park-212969">Stand back and avoid saying 'be careful!': how to help your child take risks at the park</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How fear affects children’s learning</h2>
<p>Fear is designed to protect us from <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44159-023-00156-1">current and future danger</a>.</p>
<p>If children are faced with experiences that trigger fear, they learn to avoid new experiences – as opposed to exploring, engaging, and approaching the unknown with curiosity. </p>
<p>Consistent exposure to fear changes how the brain reacts to the outside world. Fear triggers a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40971979">stress response in the brain</a> and puts it in a state of alert; we become hyper ready to react swiftly and decisively to incoming threats.</p>
<p>This may be appropriate if, for example, you are confronted by an aggressive stranger. But such high levels of reactivity are not productive in learning environments like school, where we are asked to be open to new experiences and create innovative solutions. </p>
<p>In fact, the areas of the brain activated when we’re scared are different to those we use when thinking carefully <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015221#_i3">how to address a tricky problem</a>. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4774859/#:%7E:text=the%20prefrontal%20cortex%20can%20shut,inducing%20mental%20paralysis%20and%20panic.&text=further%20the%20physiology%20of%20acute,when%20the%20going%20gets%20tough.">Research</a> has shown the more primitive parts of the brain take over the activity of the prefrontal cortex, the brain’s “control centre”, when we’re in a state of fear. </p>
<p>This means planning, making sound decisions and using our existing knowledge becomes very difficult if we feel threatened or afraid.</p>
<h2>Children learn fear from the adults in their lives</h2>
<p>Adults play a critical role in the healthy development of fear responses by modelling reactions to unknown situations. They also provide (or fail to provide) safe environments that promote children’s exploration.</p>
<p>Fear can be easily learned from significant adults. Studies have shown both <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005796701000134">toddlers</a> and <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-01363-018?doi=1">school-aged children</a> learn to avoid new experiences if their parents communicate or show signs of fear in reference to them. </p>
<p>Think, for instance, about how a child can learn to fear animals by seeing how their parents react to them. Or, for example, the way constant warnings to “<a href="https://theconversation.com/stand-back-and-avoid-saying-be-careful-how-to-help-your-child-take-risks-at-the-park-212969">be careful!</a>” may end up making a child too anxious to climb trees or take risks as they use play equipment.</p>
<p>Adult behaviours also affect the degree to which children feel safe to be themselves and explore the world with confidence. </p>
<p>Studies investigating the behaviours of parents have consistently shown harsh parenting (involving physical and verbal aggression) is related to <a href="https://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40359-023-01046-0">poorer outcomes in children</a> including academic underachievement, higher levels of aggression and anxiety and poor peer relationships.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://ejop.psychopen.eu/index.php/ejop/article/view/2013">opposite is the case</a> for parents who, while providing structure and reasons for boundaries, are warm and encourage autonomy.</p>
<p>Teachers also play a pivotal role in the development of fear responses. Students are more likely to be motivated and function well in classrooms if teachers are “<a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-44922-001">autonomy-supportive</a>”. </p>
<p>This means teachers:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>have a curious and open attitude towards students’ interests</p></li>
<li><p>seek their perspective and offer choices</p></li>
<li><p>invite their thoughts, and </p></li>
<li><p>accept a range of emotions (from frustration, anger and reticence to playfulness, joy and curiosity).</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>How fear affects learning in adult life</h2>
<p>Many people who experience anxiety in adulthood have been exposed in their childhood to environments where they have felt <a href="https://www.aztrauma.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Adverse-learning-experiences-in-childhood-may-affect-the-ability-to-learn-through-the-lifespan.pdf">consistently threatened</a>.</p>
<p>These adults may end up avoiding taking on new tasks, considering multiple viewpoints, and responding to questions. These are all skills employers usually value.</p>
<p>Work environments that induce fear can also be counterproductive and stressful.</p>
<p>Research suggests when employees perceive their work environments as unsafe, they are more likely to experience <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/5/2294">burnout, anxiety and stress</a>. Stressful situations can also interfere with our ability to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/npjscilearn201611">apply what we know flexibly to new situations</a>.</p>
<p>On the flip side, researchers argue that a trusting relationship between employees and their managers can affect workers’ willingness to show vulnerability and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/smj.3051">take on tasks</a> that <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2005-15746-011">involve uncertainty</a>.</p>
<p>Researchers have also found positive relationships at work can encourage to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2189/asqu.2005.50.3.367">creativity in the workplace</a>, which makes work more interesting and enjoyable.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557631/original/file-20231106-21-9va95c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A scary boss looms over the staff at work." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557631/original/file-20231106-21-9va95c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557631/original/file-20231106-21-9va95c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557631/original/file-20231106-21-9va95c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557631/original/file-20231106-21-9va95c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557631/original/file-20231106-21-9va95c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557631/original/file-20231106-21-9va95c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557631/original/file-20231106-21-9va95c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Work environments that induce fear can also be counterproductive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/cropped-shot-unhappy-senior-boss-standing-452661235">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So, what do we learn when we are scared?</h2>
<p>Yes, we learn from fear. The question is: what do we learn?</p>
<p>In response to threats and hostility, we learn to avoid challenge and comply with external rules (instead of wondering how systems can be improved). We protect our feelings and restrict our thoughts to what is safe.</p>
<p>Is this the kind of learning that allows us to grow and develop? </p>
<p>More than ever, children and adults are required to collaborate in creative ways to address difficult problems. </p>
<p>This means dealing with uncertainty and accepting that sometimes we make mistakes or fail.</p>
<p>That requires safe and nurturing environments – not home, school or work settings that are ruled by fear.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213540/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Deborah Pino Pasternak has previously received funding from The Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>In response to threats, we learn to avoid challenge and comply with external rules (instead of wondering how systems can be improved). We protect our feelings and restrict our thoughts to what’s safe.Deborah Pino Pasternak, Associate Professor in Early Childhood Education and Community, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1832512022-05-25T11:27:31Z2022-05-25T11:27:31ZHow to talk to your employer about trauma<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464828/original/file-20220523-13-q8qyzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C8%2C5946%2C3961&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/psychologist-sitting-touch-young-depressed-asian-1175311813">Chanintorn.v / Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The impact of trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a hidden chronic mental health issue in the workplace. A 2016 <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/releases/crimeinenglandandwalesyearendingmar2016">survey of UK adults</a> found that one in five people between the ages of 18 and 74 said they had experienced at least one form of child abuse, whether emotional, physical, or sexual abuse or witnessing domestic violence, before the age of 16.</p>
<p>For many of those 8.5 million people, the experiences will continue to affect them into adulthood, in the form of trauma. They might experience panic attacks, flashbacks or intense and ongoing emotional upset due to what they experienced earlier in life. </p>
<p>These mental health challenges affect all areas of a trauma survivor’s life, but can be particularly detrimental in the workplace. Poor concentration, problems with trust, and feeling disconnected or socially isolated are all symptoms that trauma survivors <a href="https://www.ntu.ac.uk/research/groups-and-centres/projects/managing-trauma-in-the-workplace">report experiencing</a> at work. </p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Quarter life, a series by The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/quarter-life-117947?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of Quarter Life</a></strong>, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.</em></p>
<p><em>You may be interested in:</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/passionate-about-your-job-heres-why-that-might-not-be-good-for-you-176728?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Passionate about your job? Here’s why that might not be good for you</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-remote-working-can-increase-stress-and-reduce-well-being-125021?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">How remote working can increase stress and reduce wellbeing</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/becoming-a-new-parent-is-challenging-and-fathers-need-support-too-168542?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Becoming a new parent is challenging – and fathers need support too</a></em></p>
<hr>
<p>The pandemic has enabled us to talk more about wellbeing and psychological safety <a href="https://www.cipd.co.uk/knowledge/fundamentals/emp-law/employees/coronavirus-managing-workplace-safety#gref">at work</a>. But getting support for trauma and PTSD at work isn’t always simple. It can be extremely challenging for a survivor to openly discuss their trauma. It can even lead to a recurrence if they are exposed to people, incidents, or environments that cause them to relive their experiences.</p>
<p>But not disclosing can also be harmful. Lack of awareness about trauma can create an environment where survivors feel insecure, vulnerable or isolated. In most cases, support doesn’t involve complicated and time-consuming solutions, but rather basic displays of understanding, trust and fairness from the employer. Disclosing trauma could help survivors to access the dignity and flexibility to manage their trauma at work and make them a better employee. </p>
<p>Here are four things to consider when seeking support:</p>
<h2>What and how should you disclose?</h2>
<p>Your employer may offer some basic information about the disclosure process in internal HR documents or online material. Review it and look for assurances that there will be a consideration of trust and confidentiality. The organisation should describe a formal process on disclosure, explaining the key steps and who to talk to (your direct line manager is usually the norm). </p>
<p>In case your organisation does not offer a formal process, you can disclose your trauma to a trusted colleague. This carries the risk of not being formally supported, hence many trauma survivors <a href="https://www.ntu.ac.uk/research/groups-and-centres/projects/managing-trauma-in-the-workplace">do not disclose</a> in these circumstances.</p>
<p>Remember – you do not need to disclose the nature of your trauma, only the emotional impact and effect on work activities, as well as what accommodations or adjustments you need from your employer.</p>
<h2>How does your employer handle accommodations?</h2>
<p>Before disclosing, you may want to familiarise yourself with how your employer views employee wellbeing and makes accommodation for individual needs.</p>
<p>Examine the company’s website, recruitment documents and social media profiles. Look for evidence that the company acknowledges the importance of wellbeing and flexibility, not just as part of company philosophy but also in day-to-day workplace operations. </p>
<p>Language is a powerful tool – any policy documents should avoid using labels, judgemental phrases, jargon, aggressive or objectifying language. If you find these, proceed with caution and consider seeking support from an alternative source such as a trusted charitable organisation.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Side view of a silhouette of a businessman at a laptop with his head resting on his hand and his glasses on the table next to him" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464831/original/file-20220523-15-1g9lu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464831/original/file-20220523-15-1g9lu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464831/original/file-20220523-15-1g9lu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464831/original/file-20220523-15-1g9lu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464831/original/file-20220523-15-1g9lu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464831/original/file-20220523-15-1g9lu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464831/original/file-20220523-15-1g9lu6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Trauma can cause panic attacks, anxiety, trouble focusing, fatigue, depression and other challenges that affect your wellbeing at work.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/depressed-businessman-159271628">KieferPix/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Talking to your manager</h2>
<p>A good manager should be able to identify signs and symptoms of trauma and create the space for a safe and open dialogue. The right time to disclose is for you to decide, not the employer. The policy of your workplace might encourage people to share their trauma – but as it is a personal choice, only enact the disclosure process when you feel it is appropriate for you to do so. </p>
<p>Consult any mentor or counsellor you might have, or speak to a family member or friend who is aware of your trauma if possible. Write a brief plan on what you wish to cover with your manager prior to the meeting, depending on your situation. </p>
<p>Write down what you’re feeling, and request a one-to-one meeting in a private, safe space. If you feel the space is not appropriate, suggest an alternative or go for a walk. Briefly explain the issues you are facing – it is up to you to decide how much detail or context to disclose. Focus on your work experience and what you need to manage your trauma and be an effective employee.</p>
<h2>What kind of support can you get?</h2>
<p>Flexible or remote working can be helpful for trauma survivors who may need time or space to deal with panic attacks or flashbacks. If it is not already clear, ask about your company’s flexible working policy. You may also be able to ask to adjust your workload or deadlines, or to access counselling support if needed.</p>
<p>Your employer may be able to provide specialised equipment to help with concentration problems, fatigue or memory problems. If a standing desk, voice-recognition software (to help mitigate memory loss or concentration issues) or other computer equipment would be helpful, ask how you can request it. </p>
<p>Organisations are not legally required to provide specialised equipment as trauma is not covered by the equality act. However, they have a moral responsibility to accommodate individual needs and create a psychologically safe environment.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>If you are struggling or feel you could benefit from mental health support, please speak to your GP, and/or try contacting supportive organisations such as <a href="https://www.sada.org.uk/">The Seasonal Affective Disorders Association</a>, <a href="https://www.samaritans.org/">The Samaritans</a> or <a href="https://www.thecalmzone.net/">Campaign Against Living Miserably</a> (CALM). There is also information on wellbeing and support via the <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/nhs-services/mental-health-services/">NHS website</a> as well as the <a href="https://napac.org.uk/">National Association for People Abused in Childhood</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/183251/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stefanos Nachmias receives funding from British Academy</span></em></p>Trauma and PTSD can lead to challenges in the workplace. An expert explains what you should consider before seeking support at work.Stefanos Nachmias, Principal Lecturer and Deputy Head of HRM Department, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1801142022-04-08T01:14:11Z2022-04-08T01:14:11ZVaccine resistance has its roots in negative childhood experiences, a major study finds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457020/original/file-20220407-26832-d8eqbt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=46%2C130%2C6183%2C3531&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lynn Grieveson/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most people welcomed the opportunity to get vaccinated against COVID-19, yet a non-trivial minority did not. Vaccine-resistant people tend to hold strong views and assertively reject conventional medical or public health recommendations. This is puzzling to many, and the issue has become a flashpoint in several countries. </p>
<p>It has resulted in strained relationships, even within families, and at a macro-level has threatened social cohesion, such as during the month-long protest on parliament grounds in Wellington, New Zealand. </p>
<p>This raises the question: where do these strong, often visceral anti-vaccination sentiments spring from? As lifecourse researchers we know that many adult attitudes, traits and behaviours have their <a href="https://dunedinstudy.otago.ac.nz/news-and-events/2020/book-launch-the-origins-of-you-how-child">roots in childhood</a>. This insight prompted us to enquire about vaccine resistance among members of the long-running <a href="https://dunedinstudy.otago.ac.nz/">Dunedin Study</a>, which marks 50 years this month. </p>
<p>Specifically, we surveyed study members about their vaccination intentions between April and July 2021, just prior to the national vaccine roll out which began in New Zealand in August 2021. Our findings support the idea that anti-vaccination views stem from childhood experiences. </p>
<p>The Dunedin Study, which has followed a 1972-73 birth cohort, has amassed a wealth of information on many aspects of the lives of its 1037 participants, including their physical health and personal experiences as well as long-standing values, motives, lifestyles, information-processing capacities and emotional tendencies, going right back to childhood. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A study participants undergoes an eye examination to test the health of optic nerves and the eye’s surface." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456824/original/file-20220407-24-ryzkmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456824/original/file-20220407-24-ryzkmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456824/original/file-20220407-24-ryzkmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456824/original/file-20220407-24-ryzkmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456824/original/file-20220407-24-ryzkmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456824/original/file-20220407-24-ryzkmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456824/original/file-20220407-24-ryzkmh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Among many assessments, study participants undergo eye examinations to test the health of optic nerves and the eye’s surface.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Guy Frederick</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Almost 90% of the Dunedin Study members responded to our 2021 survey about vaccination intent. We found 13% of our cohort did not plan to be vaccinated (with similar numbers of men and women). </p>
<p>When we compared the early life histories of those who were vaccine resistant to those who were not we found many vaccine-resistant adults had histories of adverse experiences during childhood, including abuse, maltreatment, deprivation or neglect, or having an alcoholic parent.</p>
<p>These experiences would have made their childhood unpredictable and contributed to a lifelong legacy of mistrust in authorities, as well as seeding the belief that “when the proverbial hits the fan you’re on your own”. Our findings are summarised in this figure.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A graph that tracks the life history of vaccine resistance" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456761/original/file-20220407-26390-25f0kf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456761/original/file-20220407-26390-25f0kf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456761/original/file-20220407-26390-25f0kf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456761/original/file-20220407-26390-25f0kf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456761/original/file-20220407-26390-25f0kf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456761/original/file-20220407-26390-25f0kf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456761/original/file-20220407-26390-25f0kf.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Dunedin Study</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Personality tests at age 18 showed people in the vaccine-resistant group were vulnerable to frequent extreme emotions of fear and anger. They tended to shut down mentally when under stress. </p>
<p>They also felt fatalistic about health matters, reporting at age 15 on a scale called “health locus of control” that there is nothing people can do to improve their health. As teens they often misinterpreted situations by unnecessarily jumping to the conclusion they were being threatened. </p>
<p>The resistant group also described themselves as non-conformists who valued personal freedom and self-reliance over following social norms. As they grew older, many experienced mental health problems characterised by apathy, faulty decision-making and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/advance-article/doi/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac034/6553423">susceptibility to conspiracy theories</a>. </p>
<h2>Negative emotions combine with cognitive difficulties</h2>
<p>To compound matters further, some vaccine-resistant study members had cognitive difficulties since childhood, along with their early-life adversities and emotional vulnerabilities. They had been poor readers in high school and scored low on the study’s tests of verbal comprehension and processing speed. These tests measure the amount of effort and time a person requires to decode incoming information. </p>
<p>Such longstanding cognitive difficulties would certainly make it difficult for anyone to comprehend complicated health information under the calmest of conditions. But when comprehension difficulties combine with the extreme negative emotions more common among vaccine-resistant people, this can lead to vaccination decisions that seem inexplicable to health professionals. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-vaccine-hesitancy-can-be-overcome-through-relatable-stories-and-accessible-information-169221">COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy can be overcome through relatable stories and accessible information</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Today, New Zealand has achieved a very high vaccination rate (95% of those eligible above the age of 12), which is approximately 10% higher than in England, Wales, Scotland or Ireland and 20% higher than in the US. </p>
<p>More starkly, the New Zealand death rate per million population is currently 71. This compares favourably to other democracies such as the US with 2,949 deaths per million (40 times New Zealand’s rate), UK at 2,423 per million (34 times) and Canada at 991 per million (14 times).</p>
<h2>How to overcome vaccine resistance</h2>
<p>How then do we reconcile our finding that 13% of our cohort were vaccine resistant and the national vaccination rate now sits at 95%? There are a number of factors that helped drive the rate this high.</p>
<p>They include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Good leadership and clear communication from both the prime minster and director-general of health</p></li>
<li><p>leveraging initial fear about the arrival of new variants, Delta and Omicron</p></li>
<li><p>widespread implementation of vaccine mandates and border closure, both of which have become increasingly controversial</p></li>
<li><p>the devolution by government of vaccination responsibilities to community groups, particularly those at highest risk such as Māori, Pasifika and those with mental health challenges. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>A distinct advantage of the community-driven approach is that it harnesses more intimate knowledge about people and their needs, thereby creating high(er) trust for decision-making about vaccination. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A local vaccination clinic" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457021/original/file-20220407-22-4q2s0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457021/original/file-20220407-22-4q2s0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457021/original/file-20220407-22-4q2s0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457021/original/file-20220407-22-4q2s0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457021/original/file-20220407-22-4q2s0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457021/original/file-20220407-22-4q2s0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457021/original/file-20220407-22-4q2s0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Community organisations can build on higher trust and better knowledge of people’s concerns and needs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Fiona Goodall/Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is consistent with our findings which highlight the importance of understanding individual life histories and different ways of thinking about the world – which are both attributable to adversities experienced by some people early in life. This has the added benefit of encouraging a more compassionate view towards vaccine resistance, which might ultimately translate into higher rates of vaccine preparedness. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-9-psychological-barriers-that-lead-to-covid-19-vaccine-hesitancy-and-refusal-168643">The 9 psychological barriers that lead to COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and refusal</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For many, the move from a one-size-fits-all approach occurred too slowly and this is an important lesson for the future. Another lesson is that achieving high vaccination rates has not been free of “cost” to individuals, families and communities. It has been a struggle to persuade many citizens to get vaccinated and it would be unrealistic not to expect some residual resentment or anger among those most heavily affected by these decisions. </p>
<h2>Preparing for the next pandemic</h2>
<p>COVID-19 is unlikely to be the last pandemic. Recommendations about how governments should prepare for future pandemics often involve medical technology solutions such as improvements in testing, vaccine delivery and treatments, as well as better-prepared hospitals. </p>
<p>Other recommendations emphasise economic solutions such as a world pandemic fund, more resilient supply chains and global coordination of vaccine distribution. The contribution of our research is the appreciation that citizens’ vaccine resistance is a lifelong psychological style of misinterpreting information during crisis situations that is laid down before high school age. </p>
<p>We recommend that national preparation for future pandemics should include preventive education to teach school children about virus epidemiology, mechanisms of infection, infection-mitigating behaviours and vaccines. Early education can prepare the public to appreciate the need for hand-washing, mask-wearing, social distancing and vaccination. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/5-strategies-to-prepare-now-for-the-next-pandemic-154317">5 strategies to prepare now for the next pandemic</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Early education about viruses and vaccines could provide citizens with a pre-existing knowledge framework, reduce citizens’ level of uncertainty in a future pandemic, prevent emotional stress reactions and enhance openness to health messaging. Technology and money are two key tools in a pandemic-preparedness strategy, but the third vital tool should be a prepared citizenry.</p>
<p>The takeaway messages are twofold. First, do not scorn or belittle vaccine-resistant people, but rather attempt to glean a deeper understanding on “where they’re coming from” and try to address their concerns without judgement. This is best achieved by empowering the local communities that vaccine resisters are most likely to trust. </p>
<p>The second key insight points to a longer-term strategy that involves education about pandemics and the value of vaccinations in protecting the community. This needs to begin when children are young, and of course it must be delivered in an age-appropriate way. This would be wise simply because, when it comes to future pandemics, it’s not a matter of if, but when.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180114/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richie Poulton receives funding from public h good funding agencies in NZ (e.g. the Health Research Council) and subcontracts from The National Institute of Aging in the United States. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Terrie Moffitt receives funding from the US National Institute on Aging, the UK Medical Research Council, and the Covid research program of the American Psychological Association and the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Avshalom Caspi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The extraordinary Dunedin longitudinal study shows vaccine resistance can be laid down before high school age in response to childhood trauma or neglect. But better early education could help.Richie Poulton, CNZM FRSNZ, Director: Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health & Development Research Unit (DMHDRU), University of OtagoAvshalom Caspi, Professor, Duke UniversityTerrie Moffitt, Nannerl O. Keohane University Professor of Psychology, Duke UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1445512020-09-28T12:22:39Z2020-09-28T12:22:39ZStressful times are an opportunity to teach children resilience<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/359452/original/file-20200922-18-1cxhiu0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=150%2C281%2C6559%2C4054&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">To protect students and communities across the U.S. from COVID-19, many districts have switched to digital learning or a hybrid of in-classroom and virtual schooling.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/boy-with-surgical-mask-royalty-free-image/1216496732?adppopup=true">ZEPHYR/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Between the global COVID-19 pandemic, the associated <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/recovery-tracker">economic downturn</a> and widespread protests over racism, it’s difficult for everyone. Many people are struggling, consumed with anxiety and stress, finding ourselves unable to sleep or focus. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://sasn.rutgers.edu/about-us/faculty-staff/vanessa-lobue">developmental psychologist and researcher</a> on anxiety and fear in infants and young children, I have been particularly concerned about the impact of the pandemic on young people’s mental health. Many have not physically been in school since March. They’re isolated from friends and relatives. Some fear that they or loved ones will contract the virus; they may be hurt in racial violence or violence at home – or they might lose their home in a <a href="https://www.apa.org/topics/wildfires">wildfire</a> or flood. These are very real life stressors. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3574783/">Decades of research</a> have documented serious consequences from chronic stress in childhood. But psychologists have identified ways in which parents teach children how to cope with adversity – an idea commonly known as resilience.</p>
<h2>The effects of childhood stress</h2>
<p>Children cannot be protected from everything. Parents get divorced. Children grow up in poverty. Friends or loved ones are injured, fall ill or die. Kids can experience neglect, physical or emotional abuse or bullying. Families immigrate, end up homeless or live through natural disasters. </p>
<p>There can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400005812">long-term consequences</a>. Hardship in childhood can physically alter <a href="https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubPDFs/long_term_consequences.pdf">the brain architecture</a> of a developing child. It can impair <a href="https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/trauma-types/complex-trauma/effects">cognitive and social-emotional development</a>, impacting learning, memory, decision-making and more. </p>
<p>Some children develop emotional problems, act out with aggressive or disruptive behavior, form unhealthy relationships or end up in trouble with the law. School performance often suffers, ultimately limiting job and income opportunities. The risk of suicide or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3051362/">drug and alcohol abuse</a> can increase. Kids who are exposed to chronic stress may also develop <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/diseases-and-conditions/past-trauma-may-haunt-your-future-health">lifelong health issues</a>, including heart attack, stroke, obesity, diabetes and cancer.</p>
<p>So how do some kids thrive amidst serious challenges, while others are overwhelmed by them? Researchers in my field are working to identify what helps children overcome obstacles and flourish when the odds are stacked against them. </p>
<p>It seems to come down to both support and <a href="https://www.aap.org/en-us/advocacy-and-policy/aap-health-initiatives/resilience/Pages/Promoting-Resilience.aspx">resilience</a>. Resilience is <a href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/resilient">defined</a> as the ability to spring back, rebound or readily recover from adversity. It’s a quality that allows people to be competent and accomplished despite tough circumstances. Some children from <a href="https://www.minnpost.com/mental-health-addiction/2014/09/ann-masten-children-s-natural-resilience-nurtured-through-ordinary-m/">difficult backgrounds</a> do well from a young age. Others bloom later, finding their paths once they reach adulthood.</p>
<p>Ann Masten, a pioneer in developmental psychology research, referred to resilience as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21625.">ordinary magic</a>.” Resilient kids don’t have some kind of superpower that helps them persevere while others flounder. It isn’t a trait we’re born with; it’s something that can be fostered. </p>
<h2>The key factors that help kids build resilience</h2>
<p>The same <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23360362">executive function skills</a> that create academic success seem to bestow critical coping strategies. With the capacity to focus, solve problems and switch between tasks, children find ways to adapt and deal with obstacles in a healthy way. </p>
<p>Controlling behavior and emotions is also key. In a recent <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.04.033">study</a>, 8- to 17-year-olds who maintained emotional balance despite mistreatment were less likely to suffer from depression or other emotional problems.</p>
<p>However, relationships seem to be the foundation that keep children grounded. “<a href="https://ndfbsa.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Ordinary-Magic-Summer-1.pdf">Attachment relationships</a>” provide a lifelong sense of security and belonging. A parent’s or caregiver’s <a href="https://www.apa.org/monitor/2017/09/cover-resilience">consistent support and protection</a> is crucial for healthy development and the most important of these relationships. Other caring adults can help: friends, teachers, neighbors, coaches, mentors or others. <a href="https://experts.umn.edu/en/publications/resilience-and-development-contributions-from-the-study-of-childr">Having steadfast support</a> lends stability and helps kids build self-esteem, self-reliance and strength. </p>
<p>Ruth Bader Ginsburg is an icon of resilience. She grew up in a Brooklyn working-class neighborhood and lost her mother – her main support figure – to cancer before graduating from high school. She persevered, graduated first in her class at Cornell University and ultimately became one of only four women to serve on the Supreme Court. Another example is John Lewis, who was the son of sharecroppers in segregated Alabama, yet become a pioneer in the civil rights movement and served 33 years in Congress.</p>
<h2>How to encourage resilience at home</h2>
<p>There are many ways parents can help their children build resilience. Allowing children to talk – and really <a href="https://www.healthychildren.org/English/healthy-living/emotional-wellness/Building-Resilience/Pages/How-to-Support-Your-Childs-Resilience-in-a-Time-of-Crisis.aspx">listening</a> – shows caring and acceptance, validates their feelings and helps them contextualize issues. </p>
<p>Sometimes the answer is <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/52812781e4b0bfa86bc3c12f/t/5c79b71d53450a1f0b8f48ac/1551480606735/Anaya+%26+P%C3%A9rez-Edgar+%282019%29.pdf">allowing kids some degree of autonomy</a>. Trusting them to try things on their own – and even fail – can help them learn to solve problems or deal with anger, disappointment or other uncomfortable emotions. <a href="https://challengingbehavior.cbcs.usf.edu/docs/Smell-Blow.pdf">“Calm breathing” techniques</a> offer another tool that helps children control emotions.</p>
<p>It’s important to note that many children face not just one but <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/001440299606200302?casa_token=H4VlYWdAhrsAAAAA:udWO-GTJh9MRVHW5WBs_w9wtFREBoQr5oDWtQxF_lU6FSxO_xsaMxFRaeeXyTgAOFmoSVz06DerhZQ">many</a>
hardships. For example, kids who live in poverty may have less present or less competent parents; have high daily levels of stress; suffer hunger, poor nutrition or live in crowded conditions, with few parks; have no health care; study in substandard schools; and have greater likelihood of abuse. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ddcf.org/globalassets/child-well-being/16-0404-acadpeds_sandeletal.pdf">Community-level</a> interventions can help reduce risks while helping children build resilience. These initiatives can provide better living circumstances through affordable housing and improve health by reducing pollution. Strong programs can engage teachers, parents and community members build a stable support system for local children.</p>
<p>Classes in “social and emotional learning” have been gaining traction in schools. This curriculum teaches children to understand and manage their feelings, develop empathy for others, make responsible decisions and solve problems. </p>
<p>[<em>Insight, in your inbox each day.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=insight">You can get it with The Conversation’s email newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>These programs yield <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2019.12.003">tangible results</a>: one analysis of 270,000 participants <a href="https://casel.org/what-is-sel/">showed that students</a> raised their grades by an average of 11%. Other studies revealed that fewer participants dropped out of school, used drugs or engaged in criminal activity – and school behavior improved.</p>
<p>Helping children build resilience is particularly critical now, as Americans face particular turbulence in daily life. Parents, too, need to guard their mental health in order to provide kids with crucial support: Building resilience isn’t just kid stuff. </p>
<p>More than <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ998751">5 million kids</a> in the U.S. experience some kind of trauma each year. Thousands more live with chronic stress. So amid a global pandemic, it’s more important than ever to provide children with as much support and “ordinary magic” as we can.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/144551/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vanessa LoBue does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Children struggle amidst adversity, but these tumultuous and highly emotional times make it a critical time to teach ‘resilience’ – giving kids coping skills.Vanessa LoBue, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Rutgers University - NewarkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1190032019-07-03T20:00:08Z2019-07-03T20:00:08ZEarly days, but we’ve found a way to lift the IQ and resilience of Australia’s most vulnerable children<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282574/original/file-20190703-126364-rhx48y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=468%2C715%2C11027%2C3527&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Early results of a targeted intervention program suggest it's possible to fix brokenness early.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>What happens in our first three years profoundly influences the rest of our lives.</p>
<p>Children who encounter extreme adversity in those early years – including prolonged exposure to physical or sexual abuse and living in a highly stressful family environment – are likely to suffer major impairments to their development that can lead to lower educational achievement and workforce participation, involvement in risky behaviours including criminal activity, and lifelong health problems.</p>
<p>These things are expensive, both to society and to governments. </p>
<p>It has long been established overseas through trials of programs <a href="https://abc.fpg.unc.edu/">implemented in the United States in the 1960s</a> that targeted interventions that direct high-quality care and education to highly disadvantaged children can have big impacts. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282575/original/file-20190703-126345-1gbvbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282575/original/file-20190703-126345-1gbvbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/282575/original/file-20190703-126345-1gbvbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=850&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282575/original/file-20190703-126345-1gbvbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=850&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282575/original/file-20190703-126345-1gbvbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=850&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282575/original/file-20190703-126345-1gbvbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1068&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282575/original/file-20190703-126345-1gbvbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1068&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/282575/original/file-20190703-126345-1gbvbci.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1068&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://fbe.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/3085770/EYERP-Report-4-web.pdf">Melbourne Institute</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Yet often the refrain here has been: “Well, these programs worked in the United States, but that was a long time ago in a different environment – how do we know they would work in Australia?” </p>
<p>For the past decade, as part of a multidisciplinary team of researchers, we have been taking up this challenge - trialling a new type of intervention in Australia in partnership with the <a href="https://www.kidsfirstaustralia.org.au/">Children’s Protection Society</a>, an independent not-for-profit child welfare organisation in Melbourne.</p>
<p>Developed by Associate Professor Brigid Jordan and Dr Anne Kennedy, it is called the Early Years Education Program (<a href="https://fbe.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/3059297/EYERP-Report-3-web.pdf">EYEP</a>). </p>
<p>Today in Canberra our research team will release <a href="https://fbe.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/3085770/EYERP-Report-4-web.pdf">the results of an evaluation</a> of its effects after 24 months.</p>
<h2>Highly targeted</h2>
<p>To be eligible for the trial, children had to be aged less than 36 months, assessed as having <a href="https://fbe.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/2548808/background-report-final-web.pdf">two or more defined risk factors</a>, be currently engaged with family services or child protection services, and have early education as part of their care plan.</p>
<p>Compared with a general population of children, these children had lower birth weight and, at the time of entry to the trial, compromised development of intelligence as measured on IQ tests, weaker language and motor skills and adaptive behaviour. Their primary caregivers had lower levels of labour force engagement and family income and greater levels of psychological distress than other caregivers.</p>
<p>A total of 145 children from 99 families were recruited to the trial; 72 in the intervention group and 73 in the control group.</p>
<p>Those in the intervention group were offered three years of care and education in EYEP (50 weeks per year and five hours per day each week from Monday to Friday). </p>
<p>The novelty of EYEP is its twin objectives to address the consequences of family stress on children’s development and to redress their learning deficiencies. </p>
<p>The key features of the program are high staff/child ratios (1:3 for children under three years, and 1:6 for children over three years), qualified and experienced staff, a rigorously developed curriculum, and an in-house infant mental health consultant who assessed each child and drew up an individualised learning plan.</p>
<h2>Higher IQs, language skills and resilience</h2>
<p>The estimated impact on IQ was 5 to 7 points.</p>
<p>This is a relatively large impact, representing about one-third to one-half of a standard deviation, which is a measure of deviation from what was expected. By comparison, recent reviews of early years demonstration programs in the US have generally found average impacts on IQ of about one-quarter of a standard deviation.</p>
<p>The estimated impact on within-child protective factors related to resilience was about one-third of a standard deviation. The proportion of children enrolled in the program who required clinical attention for social-emotional development was 30 percentage points lower than the control group, a substantial impact.</p>
<p>Primary caregivers of the children, usually parents, had a reduced level of distress on the 30-point Kessler Psychological Distress K6 Scale of about 1.5 points. </p>
<p>The impact on IQ appears to have been concentrated in the initial twelve months of the program. Other outcomes show a more pronounced impact after the second year. For protective factors related to resilience the estimated impact size after 24 months is two to three times larger than after twelve months. </p>
<h2>Proof of concept</h2>
<p>The results so far provide a “proof of concept” showing that it is possible to design and implement a program to improve the lives of children who experience extreme adversity. </p>
<p>And they confirm the necessity and value of having a program that is targeted at children experiencing the worst adversity. Considerable time and effort were required to initiate and maintain day-to-day contact with children who otherwise would have been unlikely to attend.</p>
<p>We have made enormous progress in dealing with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27548291">childhood diseases</a>. While there is still a way to go in the trial, these results hold out the possibility of doing the same for children who experience extreme adversity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/119003/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Funding for the trial of the Early Years Education Program has been provided by the Children’s Protection Society, Commonwealth Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (now Department of Education), Commonwealth Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs (now Department of Social Services), the Victorian Department of Human Services (now Victorian Department of Health and Human Services), the Victorian Department of Education and Training (now Victorian Department of Education), the Ian Potter Foundation, the RE Ross Trust, the Pratt Foundation, the Barr Family Foundation, the Sidney Myer Fund, Vic Health, the Antipodean Family Foundation, the Murphy-McNicol Family, the Crawford Foundation, the Brougham Family Trust, the William Buckland Foundation, and Australian Research Council Linkage Grant LP140100897. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Funding for the trial of the Early Years Education Program has been provided by the Children’s Protection Society, Commonwealth Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (now Department of Education), Commonwealth Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs (now Department of Social Services), the Victorian Department of Human Services (now Victorian Department of Health and Human Services), the Victorian Department of Education and Training (now Victorian Department of Education), the Ian Potter Foundation, the RE Ross Trust, the Pratt Foundation, the Barr Family Foundation, the Sidney Myer Fund, Vic Health, the Antipodean Family Foundation, the Murphy-McNicol Family, the Crawford Foundation, the Brougham Family Trust, the William Buckland Foundation, and Australian Research Council Linkage Grant LP140100897. </span></em></p>An economic evaluation of a program of interventions for Australia’s most vulnerable children has produced startling results.Jeff Borland, Professor of Economics, The University of MelbourneYi-Ping Tseng, Senior Research Fellow, Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/846892017-10-17T00:55:43Z2017-10-17T00:55:43ZHow childhood trauma changes our hormones, and thus our mental health, into adulthood<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188498/original/file-20171003-4693-bf5wqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Early life trauma can affect our hormone systems for the rest of our lives. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Exposure to traumatic experiences in childhood can have a negative impact on the development of the brain when it’s most vulnerable. Cases of childhood maltreatment are more common than reported; <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/child-abuse-and-neglect-statistics">conservative estimates show over 45,000</a> Australian children were exposed to maltreatment in 2015 and 2016. Adversity in childhood can include experiences such as emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, neglect, and the sudden loss of a parent or caregiver.</p>
<p>Early life adversity is a major risk factor for the development of psychological and behavioural problems later in life. Higher rates of depression, suicidality, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, and aggressive behaviour <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19167067">have been reported in adults</a> who experienced childhood maltreatment. </p>
<p>Traumatic childhood events also contribute to increased drug use and dependence. Initiation of drug-taking behaviour <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19248397">begins at a much younger age</a> in those who’ve experienced childhood trauma. Exposure to stressful events in childhood can increase the impact of stressful events throughout life. Add divorce or unemployment to childhood trauma and someone can be more likely to develop psychological disorders or addiction.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/complex-trauma-how-abuse-and-neglect-can-have-life-long-effects-32329">Complex trauma: how abuse and neglect can have life-long effects</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00213-010-2118-y">not all children who experience early life stress</a> go on to develop mental illness. It seems how you cope with stressful experiences is not only influenced by your prior experiences, but also your genes, coping responses and brain regulation. Chemicals in the brain such as cortisol and oxytocin are important for stress and emotional regulation.</p>
<h2>What is oxytocin?</h2>
<p>Oxytocin is a hormone naturally produced by the brain. It’s commonly called the “love hormone” as it promotes sociability, emotional regulation, and bonds between a mother and child, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306394207_The_neurocircuitry_involved_in_oxytocin_modulation_of_methamphetamine_addiction">as well as between romantic partners</a>. </p>
<p>The amount of oxytocin in the brain varies from person to person. Women and men differ in their regulation of oxytocin, but it’s <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091302215000278">important in day-to-day functioning</a> for everyone. Variations in the oxytocin gene even affect <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0018506X11002911">how we respond to stress</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188521/original/file-20171003-12138-okvklv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Affection from our parents in early life sets up a healthy oxytocin system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Environmental factors can also influence the development of the oxytocin system, which starts to develop in the womb and continues to develop after birth. <a href="http://journals.lww.com/behaviouralpharm/Abstract/2016/12000/Adversity_impacting_on_oxytocin_and_behaviour__.5.aspx">Critical changes occur</a> during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, based on our experiences. Positive or negative experiences early in life <a href="http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fendo.2015.00032/full">can shape the oxytocin system</a>. </p>
<p>Exposure to nurturing and loving parents can contribute to the normal development of this system. Exposure to adversity, such as stress or illness, can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24056025">detrimentally affect the development</a> and functioning of oxytocin and the oxytocin receptor.</p>
<h2>The impact of early life stress</h2>
<p>Studies in rodents have taught us how the development of the oxytocin system is altered by early trauma. Early life stress <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17433558">changes oxytocin levels</a> within the hypothalamus and the amygdala, which are important brain regions in the production of oxytocin and emotional regulation respectively. Even the functioning of the oxytocin receptor is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19560475">altered following early life trauma</a>.</p>
<p>Similar changes are also clear in humans exposed to childhood trauma. Women who were exposed to child abuse showed <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18957940">reduced oxytocin levels</a> later in life, as did <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21682649">men who had experienced childhood stress</a>. Oxytocin levels were <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/102/47/17237.full">also lower in children</a> who had been raised in neglectful conditions in a Romanian orphanage.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/getting-em-young-how-early-does-mental-health-intervention-need-to-be-1344">Getting 'em young: how early does mental health intervention need to be?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>These long-lasting changes affect behavioural outcomes. Exposure to early life adversity <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20650569">increases anxiety and depressive behaviours</a> in rodents, which endures well into adulthood. </p>
<p>Research has shown how early life stress can impact on the developing oxytocin system resulting in a greater susceptibility to develop drug dependence and being <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24056025">less capable to cope with stress</a>. </p>
<p>In turn, a well-regulated oxytocin system can support greater resilience against excessive drug use and addiction. Animal studies show oxytocin can boost the reward of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18475254">social connection</a>, lower the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306394207_The_neurocircuitry_involved_in_oxytocin_modulation_of_methamphetamine_addiction">effect of drugs</a>, <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016622361200152X">reduce anxiety</a>, and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/endo/article-lookup/doi/10.1210/endo.138.7.5255">improve management of stressors</a>. But we still need more research in humans.</p>
<p>Early life stressors do not only impact the oxytocin system. A number of other systems that work with oxytocin <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24056025">also change</a>, such as important neurotransmitters and the stress system. This results in changes to how these systems interact and contributes to changes in the oxytocin system and ultimately behaviour. </p>
<p>As oxytocin is critically involved in emotional regulation, understanding how the developing oxytocin system can be affected early in life can help us understand how early adversities can have a long-lasting impact on mental health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84689/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Baracz has received research funding from the British Society for Neuroendocrinology, the Australian government, and Macquarie University. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Femke Buisman-Pijlman is affiliated with The Robinson Research Institute and a committee member of the Australasian Society for Social and Affective Neuroscience (AS4SAN). Femke Buisman-Pijlman is affiliated with Virginia Commonwealth University as Affiliate Graduate Faculty. She teaches the Master of Science in Addiction Studies with VCU and King's College London. Reckitt-Benckiser Pharmaceuticals offers partial merit based scholarship to students in this degree. Femke has received funding from governments in Australia, The Netherlands and the USA to support teaching, research and travel. Her PhD project was funded in a collaboration between Utrecht University and Solvay Pharmaceuticals (now Abbott) She works as an educational advisor for PwC and several schools.
</span></em></p>The “love hormone” system starts to develop in the womb and is important in helping us deal with stress.Sarah Baracz, Associate lecturer, Macquarie UniversityAssociate Professor Femke Buisman-Pijlman, Senior Lecturer Addiction Studies, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.