tag:theconversation.com,2011:/es/topics/carnivores-19898/articlesCarnivores – The Conversation2024-01-17T15:41:29Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2196642024-01-17T15:41:29Z2024-01-17T15:41:29ZMozambique’s cyclone flooding was devastating to animals – we studied how body size affected survival<p>Anyone who watches the news will have seen the devastation that tropical cyclones can cause when they reach land, with very strong winds, high rainfall and flooding. A cyclone like this, <a href="https://theconversation.com/tropical-cyclone-idai-the-storm-that-knew-no-boundaries-113931">Idai</a>, moved over Gorongosa National Park in central Mozambique in March 2019. At that time, it was the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-00981-6">deadliest storm in Africa</a>.</p>
<p>Rainfall at Gorongosa averages about <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06722-0#Sec2">850mm per year</a>. When Idai passed over, more than <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06722-0#Sec2">200mm of rain fell</a> in less than 24 hours. Over the following week, the depth of flood waters increased from 2 metres to 5.9 metres and the flood zone increased from 24.1km² to 117.7km². Only by late May did conditions return to normal.</p>
<p>Gorongosa protects 3,674km² of savanna ecosystem. Much of the park’s wildlife was decimated by the <a href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/mozambique">Mozambican Civil War</a> (1977-1992). Since then, scientists have <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0212864">studied</a> the recovery of wildlife populations and changes in the park ecosystem.</p>
<p>When it comes to natural hazards, scientists think that traits such as body size, dispersal ability and habitat preference may be important in determining how vulnerable animals are. But it’s seldom possible to test these ideas. The <a href="https://gorongosa.org/princeton-at-gorongosa/">research</a> that was taking place in <a href="https://gorongosa.org/">Gorongosa National Park</a> at the time of Cyclone Idai provided the perfect opportunity to investigate this.</p>
<p>We were part of an international research team which drew on existing data about wildlife in Gorongosa and compared it with data after the cyclone. We <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06722-0#Sec1">found</a> that overall, the effect of Idai was to push animals out of lower-lying, inundated areas and crowd them into higher regions. The shift in distribution, combined with the reduction in flood zone plant productivity, affected what herbivores had available for food. Larger herbivores were better able to move in response to the flooding and to cope with food shortage. Large carnivores had a more easily accessible food supply.</p>
<p>Our results identify general traits that govern animal responses to severe weather, which may help to inform wildlife conservation in a volatile climate.</p>
<p>This effect of animal size on responses to catastrophic storms is similar to that found for island systems affected by <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.281.5377.695">hurricanes in the Bahamas</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-indian-ocean-is-spawning-strong-and-deadly-tropical-cyclones-116559">Why the Indian Ocean is spawning strong and deadly tropical cyclones</a>
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<h2>Measuring the impact of Idai on animals</h2>
<p>We integrated data from multiple research projects for which animal GPS locations were available to capture the responses of animals to the flooding.</p>
<p>The individual movement of 48 GPS-collared animals from seven species was measured. Changes in distribution of animals were measured over three years with 30 camera traps covering an area of 300km². Satellite imagery allowed us to assess changes in forage availability, and dung samples provided a picture of dietary changes. The body condition of animals captured for GPS collaring was assessed. We estimated changes in abundance from aerial survey counts covering years 2014, 2016, 2018 and 2020.</p>
<h2>Herbivore responses</h2>
<p>Among the species monitored at the time of the cyclone were small antelopes such as the oribi (17kg) and bushbuck (49kg), and large animals like buffaloes (550kg) and elephants (4,000kg).</p>
<p>The bushbuck that survived did so by perching on patches of high ground, like the tops of termite mounds within the flood zone. Locations from the GPS collars showed that they camped out on these temporary little islands or moved quickly between them, hopping from one island to the next.</p>
<p>Larger antelopes like nyala, kudu and sable were able to move long distances towards higher ground. </p>
<p>In addition to the sheer volume of water entering the Gorongosa system, the timing of the flood was also a disturbance. Because the cyclone occurred in March, foraging areas normally open to grazing were covered with water and unproductive.</p>
<p>Herbivore diet in the months following the cyclone shifted to taller, more woody plants, which are harder to digest and have less protein. Plant species eaten showed less overlap between herbivores than in normal years, a strategy that likely reduced competition. Compared to larger herbivores, smaller herbivores experienced a larger change in diet, a greater expansion in the number of plant species eaten to cope with the loss of preferred plants, and a larger decrease in diet quality.</p>
<p>Because food following Idai was scarce, and competition among crowded herbivores was stronger, there was a reduction in body condition for smaller species like bushbuck and nyala. For the larger, more wide-ranging kudu, body condition showed little change.</p>
<p>Crowding and food quality and availability had an impact on numbers of herbivores in the park.</p>
<p>Regular aerial surveys have shown consistent growth in herbivore numbers since the end of the civil war. The survey following Idai, however, showed the first population decreases for many species in the last 30 years. The strongest decreases (47%-53%) were for the small antelopes, oribi and bushbuck. Numbers of larger herbivores (wildebeest, buffalo and elephant) also decreased, but not as severely (27%).</p>
<h2>Carnivore responses</h2>
<p>The effects of Idai on lions and wild dogs were not nearly as strong as for the herbivores. GPS-collared animals moved away from the expanding flood zone. Diets of lions did not change much, but wild dogs began to eat more waterbuck, especially after the cyclone pushed many waterbuck into areas used by wild dogs.</p>
<p>Lion and wild dog populations both increased in numbers following the cyclone. Prey animals consisting of weaker and more food-stressed herbivores became easier to catch and a more abundant food supply for the large carnivores.</p>
<h2>Size matters</h2>
<p>Among the lessons learned from the disturbance caused by Cyclone Idai are that larger species tend to be more resilient to disturbances through their ability to move longer distances and their greater stores of body resources to survive when forage is unavailable. Smaller species were more strongly affected, but they also have the potential to recover more quickly.</p>
<p>Knowledge of how different wildlife species respond to and recover from climatic disturbances will be increasingly important for the conservation of protected areas like Gorongosa National Park. For instance, knowing the different roles species play in a natural system can help wildlife managers to focus conservation efforts on vulnerable species and habitats according to their likely contributions to system recovery following a disturbance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219664/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Cyclone Idai in Mozambique was an opportunity to test ideas about traits that help animals survive natural hazards.Jason P. Marshal, Associate Professor of Ecology, University of the WitwatersrandFrancesca Parrini, Associate Professor in Animal Ecology, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2150912023-11-16T17:39:18Z2023-11-16T17:39:18ZBig cats eat more monkeys in a damaged tropical forest – and this could threaten their survival<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559973/original/file-20231116-22-j4ct25.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5993%2C4000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A jaguar in the jungle of southern Mexico.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/jaguar-jungle-southern-mexico-2205608235">Mardoz/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Monkeys are not usually a popular menu item for big cats. Primates are, after all, hard to catch: living in the canopies of large trees and rarely coming down to the ground. Jaguar and puma have varied diets and will normally hunt the species that are most common where they live, such as deer, peccary (a type of wild pig) and armadillo.</p>
<p>But jaguar and puma living in southern Mexican forests with a high human footprint (where wood and other resources are regularly harvested and there are large clearings for farms or expanding settlements) seem to be changing their feeding preferences to include more monkeys, according to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/btp.13253">new research</a>.</p>
<p>Other <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bart-Harmsen/publication/227643029_The_food_habits_of_jaguars_and_pumas_across_a_gradient_of_human_disturbance/links/5a4b45c2a6fdcce1972198fa/The-food-habits-of-jaguars-and-pumas-across-a-gradient-of-human-disturbance.pdf">studies</a> have already found that when there is less of their usual prey around, big cats turn to alternatives. The changes in jaguar and puma diets that my colleagues and I recorded may indicate that the populations of these normal prey are shrinking, or that something in the environment has changed to make catching and eating primates easier. </p>
<p>This change in the diet of large cats could make the disappearance of primate populations in tropical forests like this one in southern Mexico more likely. This would, in turn, make the disappearance of large cats themselves more likely due to a lack of food, threatening the stability of an entire ecosystem.</p>
<h2>On the trail of big cats</h2>
<p>When forests are cut down or altered by loggers and hunters, primates are particularly affected, as many species depend on tall trees for food, shelter and to chart paths through the forest. Globally, more than 60% of primate species are <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1600946">threatened with extinction</a>.</p>
<p>These changes to forests have also put large predators at risk. Understanding what is happening in these areas can inform more effective conservation measures, which may prevent species from disappearing.</p>
<p>The Uxpanapa valley in southeastern Mexico is one of the last relicts of tall evergreen forest in the country, and is classified as <a href="https://fundacioncarlosslim.org/conoce-trabajo-la-alianza-wwf-fundacion-carlos-slim-en-selva-zoque/">one of the most biodiverse</a> areas in both Mexico and the world. It is home to jaguar, puma and many other species, including two endangered primates: howler and spider monkeys.</p>
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<img alt="A black monkey in a tropical forest canopy." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559978/original/file-20231116-29-ab8f1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559978/original/file-20231116-29-ab8f1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559978/original/file-20231116-29-ab8f1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559978/original/file-20231116-29-ab8f1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559978/original/file-20231116-29-ab8f1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559978/original/file-20231116-29-ab8f1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559978/original/file-20231116-29-ab8f1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Howler monkeys are native to South and Central American forests.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mantled-howler-monkey-alouatta-palliata-beautiful-2301090257">David Havel/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>I led a research team that studied the distribution of primates in the Uxpanapa Valley for the first time. We recorded the number of primates and where they were found, as well as the type of forest they preferred.</p>
<p>Another team looked for large cats with the help of a dog which could detect their faeces, otherwise known as scat. Scat was collected to obtain DNA and determine the species that left it, whether it had any parasites, and what its diet was like. The team found out what prey these large cats were eating by using microscopes to study the hairs left in each scat. Special identification guides can link each kind of animal to its hair – each has a particular colour, pattern and shape.</p>
<p>Large carnivores maintain biodiversity and the functioning of an ecosystem by controlling populations of certain species – for example, herbivores that might otherwise harm trees or prevent forests regrowing. The presence of such predators can indicate an ecosystem’s health. Knowing what top predators are eating can tell us even more about how an ecosystem is functioning.</p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>When we combined the data and information we collected, we began to understand that something out of the ordinary was happening.</p>
<p>Primates were the most frequent prey found in jaguar and puma scats, making up nearly 35% of the remains. Primate remains were also more likely to be found in scats collected from areas with less forest. Spider monkey remains, for example, were more likely to be found in scats collected in areas with more villages, and in forest that was regrowing after being disturbed.</p>
<p>A possible explanation is that where there are more villages, it is likely that there is more hunting and tree-cutting taking place. Where there is more hunting, the prey that jaguar and puma usually prefer might not be as plentiful. And regrowing forests do not offer primates the same protection as tall, untouched forests. These two factors may explain why large cats are eating spider monkeys more often here.</p>
<p>Jaguar and puma will usually eat the prey that is more abundant. If their preferred prey is scarce, they will hunt the species they encounter most. Similar to what we observed with spider monkeys, in areas where there was less tall forest, howler monkey remains were more likely than non-primate prey to be found in the scats, possibly as big cats found it easier to reach primates.</p>
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<img alt="A pile of logs in a deforested Mexican plain." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559982/original/file-20231116-25-9rnkm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559982/original/file-20231116-25-9rnkm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559982/original/file-20231116-25-9rnkm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559982/original/file-20231116-25-9rnkm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559982/original/file-20231116-25-9rnkm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559982/original/file-20231116-25-9rnkm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559982/original/file-20231116-25-9rnkm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Logging robs monkeys of hiding places from predators.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/illegal-logging-indigenous-communities-chiapas-mexico-1710243550">Eduardo Cota/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Less tree cover and overhunting of other prey (combined with general habitat loss) could explain the high rates of primate predation we discovered. Nevertheless, we need to continue monitoring these sites to fully understand these changes in large cat diets.</p>
<p>Our results highlight the importance of maintaining tall forest cover to ensure primates and other forest-dependent species can survive. They also raise the urgent need for conservation, before the negative effects of human activities on both primate and large cat populations become irreversible, and the ecosystems they live in are lost.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aralisa Shedden received funding from the Mexican Council for Research (CONACyT).</span></em></p>The results could indicate populations of more typical prey in southern Mexico are shrinking.Aralisa Shedden, Postdoctoral Researcher in Conservation, Bournemouth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2092842023-08-22T12:26:16Z2023-08-22T12:26:16ZPolicy framework for coexisting with wolves, bears and mountain lions could benefit both people and the environment<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538615/original/file-20230720-15-eyjd7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5084%2C3300&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A federal policy could reduce instances of conflict between people and carnivores, like coyotes. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://media.gettyimages.com/id/1201282922/photo/a-california-coyote-above-santa-monica-beach.jpg?s=612x612&w=0&k=20&c=zb6658iQjAp-0J6uHi1ImhIQKRR53y7A7Deq8qhd0Mg=">Jason Klassi/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Pg2CDCm34w">video showing a close encounter between a hiker</a> in Utah and a mountain lion defending her cubs went viral in 2020. The video, during which the hiker remained calm as the mountain lion followed him for several minutes, served as a visceral reminder that sharing the land with carnivores can be a complicated affair. </p>
<p>For <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=SquL06QAAAAJ&hl=en">conservation scientists like me</a>, it also underscored that Americans have a fraught relationship with large carnivores like wolves, bears and mountain lions. My colleagues and I have proposed a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10245">federal policy</a> that, when combined with other initiatives, could allow for sustainable coexistence between people and carnivores. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/9Pg2CDCm34w?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In a 2020 viral video, a Utah hiker encounters a mountain lion on the trail. Warning – strong language.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Major state and federal government efforts are underway to <a href="https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/news/national-park-service-u-s-fish-wildlife-service-to-evaluate-options-for-restoring-grizzly-bears-to-the-north-cascades.htm">reintroduce grizzly bears</a> to the Northern Cascades and <a href="https://www.cpr.org/2023/05/03/colorado-wolf-reintroduction-plan-finalized/">gray wolves</a> to Colorado. These are places where stable populations of these animals have not roamed for many decades. </p>
<p>More human development and, in some cases, expanding carnivore populations have led to more encounters between humans and carnivores. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.05.022">Coyote attacks</a> on pets are more common, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.21719">alligator bites</a> are on the rise in some regions, and the <a href="https://www.dfw.state.or.us/wolves/updates.html">killing of livestock by wolves</a> has spread. </p>
<p>Increasing conflict with these species may unravel <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.347.6220.382-b">decades of conservation success</a>. </p>
<h2>From conflict to coexistence</h2>
<p>To manage these risks, people too often default to the widespread killing of carnivores. In 2021 alone, the U.S. Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/25/us-government-wildlife-services-animals-deaths">euthanized nearly 70,000</a> bears, wolves, mountain lions, bobcats, coyotes and foxes. </p>
<p>In the same year, controversial laws passed in <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/new-idaho-law-allows-killing-90-percent-states-wolves-180977691/">Idaho</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/28/us/montana-wolves-grizzlies-hunting.html">Montana</a> that substantially <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/04/13/1092366933/a-record-number-of-yellowstone-wolves-have-been-killed-conservationists-are-worr">reduced wolf numbers</a> because people perceive these animals as risks to livestock production and game species hunting. </p>
<p>Thousands of animals die every year in wildlife <a href="https://thehill.com/changing-america/sustainability/environment/544533-the-controversy-over-wildlife-killing-contests/">killing contests</a> that often target carnivores such as coyotes and bobcats. These contests are legal in more than 40 U.S. states – under the guise that they help with wildlife management and protect livestock. </p>
<p>But research has found that extensive carnivore killing to reduce levels of conflict is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156195">largely ineffective</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199927142.013.007">ethically tenuous</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12045">undermines their conservation</a>. </p>
<p>Instead, coexisting with carnivores can benefit both carnivores and people. For example, the presence of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023251118">wolves</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12280">mountain lions</a> lowers the frequency of vehicle collisions with deer, saving money and human lives. Foxes, likewise, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1204536109">reduce an abundance of small mammals</a> that carry ticks, likely reducing cases of Lyme disease in humans. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay5342">Sea otters</a> maintain healthy kelp forests that support tourism and fisheries and capture carbon. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539632/original/file-20230726-21-coh62n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A fox standing on a sidewalk next to a large tree and lamp post." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539632/original/file-20230726-21-coh62n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539632/original/file-20230726-21-coh62n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539632/original/file-20230726-21-coh62n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539632/original/file-20230726-21-coh62n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539632/original/file-20230726-21-coh62n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539632/original/file-20230726-21-coh62n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539632/original/file-20230726-21-coh62n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many carnivores’ presence on the landscape benefits people. Foxes, for example, eat rodents that may carry Lyme disease.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Pentagon/33926db673644ea5a7193afa9098b6b8/photo?Query=fox%20in%20city&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=242&currentItemNo=0&vs=true">AP Photo/Andrew Harnik</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, the U.S. has no unified approach for making interactions with carnivores more peaceful in the spaces that people share with them. Shared spaces – like multiuse forests and grasslands, coastlines, croplands and even cities – constitute over 70% of the continental U.S. by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2019.10.009">one estimate</a>. </p>
<p>These spaces will grow more crowded as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/13-1245.1">human development</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219242">population growth</a> pushes people into greater contact with carnivores. Currently, however, the management of conflicts with carnivores <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-017-0994-1">is piecemeal</a> across states and municipalities. It <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1937-2817.2010.tb01269.x">lacks sufficient resources</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12141">polarizes the public</a> over how to manage these animals in the future. </p>
<p>And <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyw185">mitigating conflict</a> as a policy objective is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.05.003">short-term</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12769">partial solution</a> that doesn’t enable long-term coexistence.</p>
<h2>Policy for enabling coexistence</h2>
<p>A federal policy <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10245">like the one my colleagues and I propose</a> that sets goals for sharing spaces with carnivores could allow for coexistence between people and carnivores while also recognizing local priorities. </p>
<p>While much of wildlife management takes place at the state level, having a federal policy framework could provide resources and incentives for states and communities to adopt specific coexistence strategies relevant to the carnivores in their area.</p>
<p>Large-scale policy goals may include lowering conflicts, increasing human tolerance to risks and fostering self-sustaining carnivore populations. </p>
<p>Coexistence strategies should prioritize using proven, <a href="https://www.dfw.state.or.us/wolves/non-lethal_methods.asp">nonlethal</a> deterrence methods such as properly disposing of trash or other attractants, bringing pets inside, erecting barriers to separate livestock from carnivores in risky places and times, and working with guard animals such as dogs that are trained to protect herds from carnivores. These strategies not only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1312">reduce carnivores’ impact</a> on human property and well-being but also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jmammal/gyw188">facilitate carnivore recovery</a>. </p>
<p>Several local projects demonstrate that nonlethal deterrence programs work. In Montana’s <a href="https://blackfootchallenge.org/living-with-bears-and-wolves/">Blackfoot watershed</a>, natural resource managers and local residents coordinate the disposal of livestock carcasses away from ranches. This prevents grizzlies and wolves from approaching the ranches.</p>
<p>The city of <a href="https://www.humanesociety.org/news/coexisting-with-bears">Durango, Colorado</a>, has supplied its residents with automatically locking bear-resistant trash containers. These containers keep bears from damaging property or scaring residents while looking for food in them. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.21472">A study found</a> that these new trash containers reduced trash-related conflicts with bears by 60%. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539629/original/file-20230726-29-tqv4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black bear rummages through trash from a tipped-over trash can." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539629/original/file-20230726-29-tqv4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539629/original/file-20230726-29-tqv4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539629/original/file-20230726-29-tqv4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539629/original/file-20230726-29-tqv4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539629/original/file-20230726-29-tqv4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539629/original/file-20230726-29-tqv4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539629/original/file-20230726-29-tqv4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A bear in Anchorage, Alaska, sifts through trash. Some cities have issued their residents locking trash cans, which prevent bears from encroaching on local residences.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/AlaskaDailyLife/80a331dd6c3b4b6ca5eba631e482dd90/photo?Query=bear%20in%20trash&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=383&currentItemNo=0&vs=true">AP Photo/Mark Thiessen</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Negative encounters with carnivores still occur in these cases, but now that the communities are collectively adapting to them, they are less severe. And these carnivores are less likely to be euthanized. </p>
<p>Some states are also taking incremental steps toward coexistence. For example, to reduce animal suffering, New Mexico passed the <a href="https://www.wildlife.state.nm.us/new-mexico-trapping-statute-goes-into-effect-april-1/">Wildlife Conservation and Public Safety Act</a> in 2021 that bans the use of a trap, snare or poison to kill an animal on public land. </p>
<p>In 2023, <a href="https://mgaleg.maryland.gov/mgawebsite/Legislation/Details/sb0310?ys=2023rs">Maryland</a> and <a href="http://leg.colorado.gov/bills/hb23-1265">Colorado</a> authorized provisions that help fund provisions to prevent lethal encounters with black bears and gray wolves, respectively. </p>
<h2>A broader coexistence framework</h2>
<p>These local and state-level successes are encouraging, but not enough to address the issue at a broader, national scale. A federal coexistence policy could harness the insights from these individual communities’ coexistence efforts and encourage other communities to adopt these techniques. </p>
<p>For example, members of universities, businesses, tribes, government and nongovernmental organizations and the public could come together at regional <a href="https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/nature-and-biodiversity/habitats-directive/large-carnivores/eu-large-carnivore-platform_en">coexistence workshops</a> to showcase their coexistence actions, receive support for new ideas and share tools and best practices. </p>
<p>A federal policy could allow states and communities to try out high-risk, high-reward initiatives, like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rala.2020.03.001">Pay for Presence</a> programs. One such program, established in northern Mexico near the U.S. border in 2007, compensates landowners for the <a href="https://www.northernjaguarproject.org/viviendo-con-felinos/">documented presence of jaguars</a> on their properties. </p>
<p>A federal policy might also facilitate the adoption of market-based solutions like <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00476">predator-friendly</a> meats. The predator-friendly certification enables ranchers who do not use lethal predator control to sell their meat products at a premium price. </p>
<p>A federal coexistence policy could also support community outreach and education programs. Teaching communities about carnivore behavior can help them to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/srep20552">avoid potentially risky situations</a>, like jogging with a dog or leaving children unattended in mountain lion territory. </p>
<p>By reducing negative encounters, these programs can enhance the adoption of nonlethal coexistence strategies, foster more positive attitudes toward carnivores and share the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0421-2">benefits carnivores offer humans</a>.</p>
<p>There are promising signs that the federal government and some states are starting to pay <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/bio/jennifer-sherry/congress-invests-solutions-human-wildlife-conflict">more attention</a> to coexistence with carnivores. As the segment of the American public that views wildlife as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13493">deserving of rights and compassion</a> grows, translating an ethic of coexistence into good policy could better align policy with public values.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209284/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Carter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Setting guidelines for human coexistence with carnivores usually falls to local community leaders. An expert explains why the federal government should step in.Neil Carter, Associate Professor of Wildlife Conservation, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2106342023-08-01T02:23:26Z2023-08-01T02:23:26ZA 140-year-old Tassie tiger brain sample survived two world wars and made it to our lab. Here’s what we found<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540321/original/file-20230801-23-6pkxa0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1156%2C412%2C5080%2C4054&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Model of a thylacine at the Australian Museum</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/sydney-australia-26th-mar-2023-model-2285454969">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Researchers often think how and when their results will be published. However, many research projects don’t see the light until decades (or even centuries) later, if at all.</p>
<p>This is the case of a high-resolution atlas of the Tasmanian tiger or thylacine brain. Carefully processed over 140 years ago, it is finally published today <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2306516120">in the journal PNAS</a>.</p>
<h2>Similar, but not wolves</h2>
<p>Thylacines were dingo-sized carnivorous marsupials that roamed through Australia and New Guinea prior to human occupation. They became confined to Tasmania around 3,000 years ago. </p>
<p>The arrival of European colonists and the introduction of farming, diseases and hunting bounties quickly led to their extinction. The last known individual died on September 7 1936 at Hobart’s Beaumaris Zoo. As a commemoration, September 7 became the <a href="https://wwf.org.au/what-we-do/species/national-threatened-species-day/">National Threatened Species Day</a> to raise conservation awareness in Australia.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540316/original/file-20230801-160144-n1srym.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540316/original/file-20230801-160144-n1srym.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540316/original/file-20230801-160144-n1srym.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540316/original/file-20230801-160144-n1srym.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540316/original/file-20230801-160144-n1srym.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540316/original/file-20230801-160144-n1srym.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540316/original/file-20230801-160144-n1srym.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540316/original/file-20230801-160144-n1srym.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thylacine family at Beaumaris Zoo in 1910.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thylacine#/media/File:Thylacines.jpg">Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-bring-back-the-thylacine-we-asked-5-experts-188894">Should we bring back the thylacine? We asked 5 experts</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Thylacines looked remarkably similar to wolves and dogs (that is, canids). This is a textbook example of a process known as evolutionary convergence: when the body shapes of animals are really similar, despite them coming from different lineages.</p>
<p>However, whether thylacine brains are also similar to wolves has been very hard to find out, due to a lack of material available for microscopic studies. In the newly published study, my colleagues and I uploaded high-resolution images to a <a href="http://www.brainmaps.org/index.php?action=viewslides&datid=170">public repository</a>, and studied brain sections prepared for microscopy from a thylacine that died in the Berlin Zoo in 1880.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540312/original/file-20230801-17-luml9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Image of a website with a series of purple brain images in a grid" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540312/original/file-20230801-17-luml9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540312/original/file-20230801-17-luml9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540312/original/file-20230801-17-luml9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540312/original/file-20230801-17-luml9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540312/original/file-20230801-17-luml9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540312/original/file-20230801-17-luml9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540312/original/file-20230801-17-luml9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A screen capture showing a selection of the thylacine brain scans the team uploaded to a public image repository.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.brainmaps.org/index.php?action=viewslides&datid=170&start=1">BrainMaps.org</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Kept safe by researchers</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, very little information about this specimen was available (for example, its sex and body weight was missing). Details were likely lost during both world wars. But the samples were kept safe by researchers who understood their biological relevance. </p>
<p>Initial custodians likely included German scientists Oskar and Cecile Vogt, whose large privately owned brain sample collection was incorporated into the <a href="https://brain.mpg.de/81041/history">Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Brain Research</a> in 1914. Vogt – <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0361923098001245">who also studied Lenin’s brain</a> – was the founding director of the institute, prior to the couple escaping the Nazis in 1937.</p>
<p>The institute later became the Max Planck Institute for Brain Research and moved to Frankfurt in 1962. There, late neurobiologist Heinz Stephan handed the thylacine material to John Nelson from Monash University (co-author of this study) in 1973, to be returned to Australia.</p>
<p>The original samples are currently held by <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/about/facilities-collections/collections/anwc">CSIRO’s Australian National Wildlife Collection</a> in Canberra.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540313/original/file-20230801-241351-d7ns4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540313/original/file-20230801-241351-d7ns4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540313/original/file-20230801-241351-d7ns4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540313/original/file-20230801-241351-d7ns4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540313/original/file-20230801-241351-d7ns4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540313/original/file-20230801-241351-d7ns4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540313/original/file-20230801-241351-d7ns4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540313/original/file-20230801-241351-d7ns4b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The last known thylacine was captured in Tasmania, and kept at the Beaumaris Zoo in Hobart.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%22Benjamin%22.jpg">Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/extinct-but-not-gone-the-thylacine-continues-to-fascinate-us-201865">Extinct but not gone – the thylacine continues to fascinate us</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Brain features reveal a family</h2>
<p>So, what did we discover after analysing the samples? Overall, the thylacine brain resembles that of its carnivorous marsupial relatives (<a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/dasyurid">dasyurids</a>, like dunnarts, quolls and Tasmanian devils) more than that of wolves or other canids.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540319/original/file-20230801-17-lxz8o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540319/original/file-20230801-17-lxz8o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540319/original/file-20230801-17-lxz8o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=618&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540319/original/file-20230801-17-lxz8o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=618&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540319/original/file-20230801-17-lxz8o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=618&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540319/original/file-20230801-17-lxz8o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=777&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540319/original/file-20230801-17-lxz8o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=777&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540319/original/file-20230801-17-lxz8o.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=777&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thylacines are related to other Australian carnivorous marsupials, pictured here: Tasmanian tiger, Tasmanian devil, tiger quoll, numbat, yellow-footed antiechinus, fat-tailed dunnart.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dasyuromorphia_portraits.jpg">Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The brain region known as the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for planning actions and sensing the environment, is larger than in other dasyurids. Brain regions involved in processing smells also suggest that scavenging and hunting behaviours were important in this species.</p>
<p>These findings show that despite body resemblance, brain features better show the evolutionary relatedness between species.</p>
<p>Making this material openly available allows for anyone to study the thylacine brain and gain a clearer picture of this long-gone species. <a href="https://biomedical-sciences.uq.edu.au/research/groups/brain-evolution-and-development">Our ongoing research</a> using dunnarts is also providing new insights about the development and evolution of the mammalian brain.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-tasmanian-tiger-was-hunted-to-extinction-as-a-large-predator-but-it-was-only-half-as-heavy-as-we-thought-144599">The Tasmanian tiger was hunted to extinction as a 'large predator' – but it was only half as heavy as we thought</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210634/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rodrigo Suarez receives grant funding from the Australian Research Council and the National Health and Medical Research Council.</span></em></p>Brain samples of a thylacine that died in 1880 in Berlin were kept safe by researchers for decades. Now, they have finally been analysed.Rodrigo Suarez, Senior Lecturer- School of Biomedical Sciences and Queensland Brain Institute, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2029262023-05-18T18:01:24Z2023-05-18T18:01:24ZWhen wolves move in, they push smaller carnivores closer to human development – with deadly consequences<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523262/original/file-20230427-18-pbf516.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C229%2C4486%2C2748&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Smaller predators steer clear of wolves, but that brings them closer to people – and the dangers humans pose.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/lia-a-gray-wolf-in-the-exhibit-pack-at-the-minnesota-zoo-news-photo/1408483523">Star Tribune via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Large carnivores like wolves are returning to areas they used to occupy, leading scientists to wonder whether they may once again fulfill important ecological roles. But wolves’ return to the landscape can affect other nearby animals in complex ways.</p>
<p>Our research, <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adf2472">published in the journal Science</a>, shows that an increase in predators can lead smaller carnivores, like coyotes and bobcats, to seek refuge near people – but humans then kill them at even higher rates than large predators do.</p>
<p>We are <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=fHylch4AAAAJ&hl=en">wildlife ecologists</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=-nuhJUwAAAAJ&hl=en">who study</a> how predators shape ecosystems. Along with colleagues from the <a href="https://predatorpreyproject.weebly.com/">Washington Predator Prey Project</a> and the <a href="https://spokanetribe.com/">Spokane Tribe of Indians</a>, we are seeking to understand how recoveries of wolves and other predators are altering ecosystems in Washington state.</p>
<h2>Predators structure ecosystems</h2>
<p>Large carnivores play crucial roles in their ecosystems. As they prey on or push other animals to avoid the areas they frequently use, predators shape the way interconnected food webs work.</p>
<p>The iconic reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park in 1995 had cascading effects down the food chain. The elk population shrank, and those that remained avoided areas with wolves, termed a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/z01-094">landscape of fear</a>.” These changes in elk abundance and behavior allowed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.11.005">aspen and willow trees to recover</a> after decades of overconsumption by elk. </p>
<p>Wolves also <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/Z08-136">kill smaller predators like coyotes</a>, providing respite for the animals that coyotes eat. Research from Yellowstone suggests that landscapes with wolves may have more diverse vegetation and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1890/10-0169.1">more small animals like songbirds</a> than those without wolves.</p>
<p>But because humans are often intolerant of predators and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4249">kill them at high rates</a>, large predators tend to avoid areas that are frequented by people. In national parks where humans rarely kill wildlife, some prey species use areas popular with people, such as hiking trails and campgrounds, as refuges from predators. This is known as the “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2007.0415">human shield</a>” effect.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523266/original/file-20230427-681-vxiipt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An elk sits on the grass in front of a building at Yellowstone National Park. In the foreground, a sign reads 'danger do not approach elk'." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523266/original/file-20230427-681-vxiipt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523266/original/file-20230427-681-vxiipt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523266/original/file-20230427-681-vxiipt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523266/original/file-20230427-681-vxiipt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523266/original/file-20230427-681-vxiipt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523266/original/file-20230427-681-vxiipt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523266/original/file-20230427-681-vxiipt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Elk – like these at Mammoth Hot Springs in Yellowstone National Park – and other prey species may use human-dominated landscapes as a way to avoid larger predators like wolves.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/elk-grazing-in-public-areas-mammoth-hot-springs-royalty-free-image/154340430">Dennis Macdonald/Photographer's Choice RF via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Predators in human-dominated landscapes</h2>
<p>Three decades after the Yellowstone release, wolves have continued to recolonize vast areas of the American West. In 2008, after an 80-year absence, wolves – some of which descended from the original Yellowstone population – <a href="https://wdfw.wa.gov/species-habitats/at-risk/species-recovery/gray-wolf/recovery">began to naturally recolonize Washington</a>. These wolves moved in from neighboring populations in Idaho and British Columbia.</p>
<p>But unlike Yellowstone, many of the landscapes wolves are now returning to are heavily modified by humans. This level of development raises the question: Do predators have the same influence on ecosystems where humans, rather than wolves, are the top dogs?</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The Washington Predator Prey Project examines the ecological effects of wolf recovery in Washington state. <em>Video produced by Benjamin Drummond and Sarah Joy Steele.</em></span></figcaption>
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<p>To answer this question, we used GPS collars to track the movements of 22 wolves, 60 cougars, 35 coyotes and 37 bobcats as they navigated the landscapes of northern Washington, comprising a patchwork of public forests and land used for agriculture, ranching, logging and residential development.</p>
<p>Using hundreds of thousands of GPS locations, we constructed statistical models to reveal how coyotes and bobcats navigated a landscape where humans, wolves and cougars all posed concurrent threats. The GPS collars also notified us when coyotes and bobcats died, allowing us to investigate what caused their deaths.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">How researchers from the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife attach GPS collars to wolves. <em>Video produced by Benjamin Drummond and Sarah Joy Steele.</em></span></figcaption>
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<h2>When ‘human shields’ are lethal</h2>
<p>We found that wolves and cougars avoided areas heavily influenced by humans, such as busy roads and residential areas. Coyotes strongly avoided wolves, which brought them closer to humans. In parts of the landscape with large predators around, both coyotes and bobcats moved to areas with approximately double the human influence, potentially using humans as shields.</p>
<p>When coyotes and bobcats sought refuge near people, they instead encountered a more lethal source of danger. We found that humans were the greatest cause of mortality, killing these smaller predators at more than three times the rate that large carnivores did. </p>
<p><iframe id="FBR1N" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/FBR1N/6/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Our findings fit with earlier research that characterizes humans as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4249">super predators</a>.” People use modern technologies such as firearms and steel traps to kill small predators at far higher rates than other predators kill small predators. Unlike other predators, humans often target animals in prime condition. </p>
<p>But if people are so dangerous, why would coyotes and bobcats seek refuge near them? Other research shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arab150">smaller predators do indeed fear humans</a>, so they likely still recognize that humans are dangerous. Instead, we think they might not <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/oik.09051">correctly interpret the threats</a> posed by modern humans. </p>
<p>Most bobcats and coyotes in our study were either shot or trapped. These technologies allow people to kill animals either when absent or from large distances, possibly making it difficult for animals to accurately gauge risk.</p>
<p>Additionally, lenient hunting regulations for these small predators puts them at high risk. Under a Washington hunting license, for example, coyotes and bobcats can be <a href="https://www.eregulations.com/assets/docs/resources/WA/22WAWF_LR3.pdf">legally hunted and trapped</a> without limits – all year for coyotes and six months for bobcats.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The process of capturing and GPS-collaring a bobcat. After being sedated, it is common for animals to initially wake up groggy, but they soon return to normal.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Conservation in human-dominated landscapes</h2>
<p>While our findings may at first seem like bad news for conserving smaller predators, these results have important implications for maintaining balanced ecosystems, where no species is too abundant. Unbalanced ecosystems, like ones with too many small predators, can face devastating effects. In Australia, for example, overabundant cats and foxes have contributed to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1417301112">extinctions of about 30 small mammal species</a>.</p>
<p>Our results show that larger predators can constrain the behavior of smaller predators in human-dominated landscapes, which may help to <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3783436">prevent overabundance</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biac069">Rewilding</a> ecosystems by using large predators to reestablish missing ecological processes may provide a way to maintain balanced ecosystems. As wolf populations continue to recover in large parts of the U.S. and Europe, our findings suggest that they are reestablishing important ecological processes by recreating these landscapes of fear that have long been missing.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202926/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Calum Cunningham received funding from the Australian-American Fulbright Commission. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laura Prugh receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Reintroducing wolves can restore important ecological processes, but it can have unintended effects when smaller predators like coyotes are driven closer to people, a team of ecologists found.Calum Cunningham, Postdoctoral Researcher, University of WashingtonLaura Prugh, Associate Professor of Quantitative Wildlife Sciences, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2016282023-04-03T12:28:42Z2023-04-03T12:28:42ZSabertooth cat skull newly discovered in Iowa reveals details about this Ice Age predator<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518845/original/file-20230401-22-bgasdm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=145%2C64%2C5246%2C3306&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Heavier than a modern lion, these big cats were fearsome predators.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/smilodon-sits-on-a-rock-surrounded-by-golden-royalty-free-illustration/168839739">Daniel Eskridge/Stocktrek Images via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://iupress.org/9780253010421/sabertooth/">sabertooth cat is an Ice Age icon</a> and <a href="https://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title/11538/smilodon">emblem of strength, tenacity and intelligence</a>. These animals <a href="https://uofupress.lib.utah.edu/giant-sloths-and-sabertooth-cats/">shared the North American landscape</a> with other large carnivores, including short-faced bears, dire wolves and the American lion, as well as megaherbivores including mammoths, mastodons, muskoxen and long-horned bison. Then at the end of the Pleistocene, between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2015032117">they all vanished</a>. The only place to see them now is in the fossil record.</p>
<p>Carnivore fossils are extremely rare, though, in comparison to those of their prey. Prey are always more abundant than predators in a healthy ecosystem. So the probability of burial, storage and discovery of carnivore bones and teeth is therefore slim compared to those belonging to herbivores.</p>
<p>Scientists have a relatively small and scattered inventory of sabertooth fossils. The exception comes from Rancho La Brea in downtown Los Angeles, where over <a href="https://archive.org/details/biostor-215051">1,000 individual sabertooths</a> were mired in tar-seep death traps.</p>
<p>That’s why the recent discovery of an exquisite sabertooth cat skull in southwestern Iowa is so exciting. The <em>Smilodon fatalis</em> skull was collected from late Pleistocene sand and gravel exposed along the East Nishnabotna River. My colleague, <a href="https://www.nwmissouri.edu/naturalsciences/directory/easterla.htm">biologist David A. Easterla</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=SvSuuIcAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">and I</a> are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108045">studying this specimen to learn more</a> about the life history, prey selection and eventual extinction of this ancient predator. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518601/original/file-20230330-24-fohkrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="side view of a fossil skull with one long tooth on the animal's left" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518601/original/file-20230330-24-fohkrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518601/original/file-20230330-24-fohkrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518601/original/file-20230330-24-fohkrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518601/original/file-20230330-24-fohkrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518601/original/file-20230330-24-fohkrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518601/original/file-20230330-24-fohkrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518601/original/file-20230330-24-fohkrz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The recent sabertooth find is a complete cranium, albeit missing one of its namesake sabers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Gannon, ISU News Service</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Clues from a cranium</h2>
<p>The animal’s common name – sabertooth cat – comes from its highly distinctive, saberlike canine teeth that poke out of the mouth as much as 5 or 6 inches (13 to 15 centimeters).</p>
<p>Sabertooths are sexually dimorphic, with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048352">males generally larger than females</a>. The Iowa skull is larger than those of many adult males from Rancho La Brea. Several bones of the skull have not sealed together and the teeth are basically unworn, leading us to believe this individual was almost certainly a young male between 2 and 3 years old that was still growing.</p>
<p>We estimate he weighed 550 pounds (250 kilograms). That’s upwards of 110 pounds (50 kilograms) greater than the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1980.tb01433.x">average adult male African lion</a>. Given a few years to mature and fill up loose skin, he might have tipped the scale at 650 pounds (300 kilograms).</p>
<p>Observations of the life cycles of <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/S/bo42069173.html">modern lions</a> <a href="https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/D/bo3635439.html">and tigers</a> suggest this sabertooth was newly independent or on the cusp of independent living.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518846/original/file-20230401-14-2med49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="four lions attacking an African buffalo" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518846/original/file-20230401-14-2med49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518846/original/file-20230401-14-2med49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518846/original/file-20230401-14-2med49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518846/original/file-20230401-14-2med49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518846/original/file-20230401-14-2med49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518846/original/file-20230401-14-2med49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518846/original/file-20230401-14-2med49.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sabertooths might have lived and hunted together in groups like modern lions – but all other modern cats live more solitary lifestyles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/the-chase-royalty-free-image/534361693">jez_bennett/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, whether sabertooths stuck together in groups or were loners is hotly debated. Disagreement revolves around just how much of a size difference there is between males and females. In many living animals, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb02932.x">males are typically larger than females</a> in male-dominated harems, as in modern lions. In the case of sabertooths, some scholars identify this <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048352">pronounced sexual dimophisim between the sexes</a> and contend these ancient cats lived in groups, akin to today’s lions. Other researchers see only minimal size differences and view sabertooth cats <a href="https://doi.org/10.1671/0272-4634(2002)022%5B0164:SDSBAI%5D2.0.CO;2">generally as solitary predators</a>, perhaps more like tigers and all other felines.</p>
<p>Whatever the case, at 2 or 3 years old the cat obviously possessed the weaponry – jaws and paws – and heft to take down large prey alone. He likely garnered experience hunting by first watching his mother locate, stalk, ambush and kill prey and defend the carcasses, then perhaps with her help, and finally, alone. His learning curve was probably a lot like lions and tigers as they mature physically and behaviorally. </p>
<p>Hunting for survival is high stakes. Repeated failure means death from starvation. And attacking large prey equipped with defensive gear like horns, antlers, hooves and trunks is always dangerous and sometimes lethal. For instance, a recent study of 166 modern lion skulls from Zambia revealed that 68 had healed or partially healed injuries associated with taking down prey. Put another way, <a href="https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.11313">40% had survived major head trauma</a> to hunt another day.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518594/original/file-20230330-21-l5xqa8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="anterior view of sabertooth cat cranium, with only one long tooth on the right" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518594/original/file-20230330-21-l5xqa8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518594/original/file-20230330-21-l5xqa8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=614&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518594/original/file-20230330-21-l5xqa8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=614&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518594/original/file-20230330-21-l5xqa8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=614&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518594/original/file-20230330-21-l5xqa8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=772&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518594/original/file-20230330-21-l5xqa8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=772&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518594/original/file-20230330-21-l5xqa8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=772&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">One of this cat’s distinctive sabers was broken off before it died.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Gannon, ISU News Service</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One saber in the Iowa skull is broken off where the canine tooth emerges from the roof of the mouth. Morphological details of the fracture edges indicate the damage happened around this animal’s time of death. It’s possible the break may relate to a defense wound thanks to a prey animal’s well-placed hoof, antler, horn or swat. Since the stub is not worn, the encounter may have even caused the cat’s death. </p>
<h2>Additional technical analysis yields more info</h2>
<p>A technique called <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-use-of-stable-isotopes-in-the-96648168/">stable isotope analysis</a> allows researchers to figure out what an animal ate and even where it lived based on ratios of isotopes in its teeth or bones. </p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=oJ4ztXAAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Andrew Somerville</a>, a specialist in isotopic biogeochemistry, is leading this effort with the Iowa sabertooth. Our team suspects that sabertooth cats in this area would have focused their hunting on the <a href="https://iceage.museum.state.il.us/mammals/jefferson%E2%80%99s-ground-sloth">Jefferson’s ground sloth</a>, a massive, lumbering and solitary browser. With adults weighing around a ton, its size was probably a major deterrent to other predators – but not necessarily to sabertooths. Sharp sabers to the neck could have killed the sloth, size be damned.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I are also developing what natural science researchers call diet-breadth mixing models. Using stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen preserved in Ice Age carnivore, herbivore and omnivore bones from southwest Iowa, our models should tell us if sabertooths, short-faced bears and dire wolves competed for the same prey, the habitats they searched for prey and, possibly, how these food-web connections collapsed at the end of the Ice Age.</p>
<p><iframe id="yB8BX" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/yB8BX/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/carbon-14-dating">Radiocarbon dating</a> indicates this Iowa sabertooth lived between 13,605 and 13,455 years ago, making it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108045">among the last of its kind</a> to walk the Western Hemisphere. Slightly younger dates – but not by much – come from Rancho La Brea, eastern Brazil and far southern Chile.</p>
<p>These dates mean sabertooths and the first people to infiltrate these places – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2021.153">Clovis foragers in North America</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.7183/0002-7316.80.2.376">Fishtail foragers in South America</a> – shared the landscape for a short period of time. People probably chanced upon sabertooth tracks, scat and kills now and again. Maybe a few lucky people observed the magnificent animal going about its life. But neither knew what the future had in store. </p>
<p>The big cat vanished from both continents shortly after people arrived. The ultimate cause of the die-off is difficult to pinpoint, and multiple factors were certainly at play. However, at least with sabertooths, we can say extinction was a hemisphere-wide synchronous event that transpired in a geological instant, perhaps over just 1,000 or 2,000 years, which makes it difficult to directly or indirectly tie people to the die-off.</p>
<p>The Iowa skull, combined with other fossil evidence from the region and observations of modern large carnivores, has cast new light on the life history and behavior of sabertooth cats. Ongoing research promises to provide additional clues about the diet and ecology of this iconic predator.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201628/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew G. Hill does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Researchers are analyzing the fossil cranium of a Smilodon fatalis that lived more than 13,000 years ago to learn more about the lifestyle of this iconic big cat.Matthew G. Hill, Associate Professor of Anthropology, Iowa State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1993762023-04-03T12:28:21Z2023-04-03T12:28:21ZWhy are snails and slugs so slow?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517054/original/file-20230322-3291-82f6ev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4245%2C2832&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">One distinction between a snail and a slug: The snail has a shell.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/snail-macro-royalty-free-image/175892619?phrase=snails&adppopup=true">maxphotography/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<blockquote>
<p><strong>Why are snails and slugs so slow? – Sarah, age 11, Wichita Falls, Texas</strong></p>
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<p>Wander through your backyard or walk along a stream and it’s likely you’ll see a snail – small, squishy animals with shells on their backs. </p>
<p>Snails are found in water, whether in salty oceans, rivers or lakes. They’re also on land: in forests, grasslands and even your garden.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517056/original/file-20230322-16-evbadq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A beige and black-striped slug slithers along a green leaf." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517056/original/file-20230322-16-evbadq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517056/original/file-20230322-16-evbadq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517056/original/file-20230322-16-evbadq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517056/original/file-20230322-16-evbadq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517056/original/file-20230322-16-evbadq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517056/original/file-20230322-16-evbadq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517056/original/file-20230322-16-evbadq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A garden slug – slimy, slippery and without a shell.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/garden-slug-on-a-green-leaf-royalty-free-image/1405258273?phrase=garden%20slugs&adppopup=true">Busybee-CR/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>As you explore your yard or woods, you can also encounter slugs, which are slow-moving animals related to snails. They look like them too, except that slugs lack shells. </p>
<p>Not only can you find slugs crossing sidewalks or on plants at the park – some are in our oceans. </p>
<p>All told, an estimated 240,000 species of snails and slugs live all over the world. But no matter what continent they’re on, or what ocean they’re in, there’s one thing they all have in common: They move slowly. </p>
<p>Here’s an example of just how slow they are: <a href="http://www.snailracing.net/">The World Snail Racing Championships</a>, held in the United Kingdom, pits the quickest snails against one another in a “foot” race. </p>
<p>The fastest snail on record sped through the course at a blazing 0.06 miles per hour.</p>
<p>Or to look at it another way – if you were that slow, it would take about three minutes to get a bite of food from your plate to your mouth. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/feKYw5Adheg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">See a snail find its way home.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Mollusks are everywhere</h2>
<p>Why is it that snails and slugs are in no hurry? </p>
<p><a href="https://ento.psu.edu/directory/jft11">As researchers</a> <a href="https://ento.psu.edu/directory/dab6563">who specialize</a> in the <a href="https://ento.psu.edu/directory/jqa5357">study of plants and animals</a>, we’ve learned the answer is more complicated than you might think. </p>
<p>Snails and slugs are members of a large group of <a href="https://www.nps.gov/calo/learn/nature/mollusks.htm">related animals known as mollusks</a>, which also includes clams, oysters, squids and octopuses. </p>
<p>Within mollusks, there’s a smaller set of related animals called gastropods; this includes snails and slugs. </p>
<p>Because they live in such diverse places, different gastropods have evolved to consume almost every type of food. Some species are herbivores – they eat living plants. Some are detritivores – they feed on dead or decomposing plants. Others are carnivores or scavengers – they eat other animals.</p>
<h2>The reasons for slowness</h2>
<p>The lack of speed of snails and slugs can be attributed to at least three factors: how they move, what they eat and what eats them. </p>
<p>First, while some animals fly, jump or slither, snails and slugs move using what biologists call the “<a href="https://www.molluscs.at/gastropoda/index.html?/gastropoda/morphology/body_construction.html">ventral foot</a>.” But the word “foot” here can be confusing. A snail or slug foot is nothing like a human foot. </p>
<p>Instead, it’s a band of muscle that runs along the underside of their body and is covered in sticky mucus. When contracted, this muscle ripples, sending tiny waves from the animal’s tail to its head. These waves compress the mucus on the bottom of the foot into a slippery liquid, allowing the snail or slug to glide over the ground or climb plants. </p>
<p>It’s a unique way to move, and it forces snails and slugs to go slowly because their speed is limited by the number of foot contractions and the amount of mucus they can make. </p>
<p>And snails and slugs don’t need to rush to find their food anyway. </p>
<p>Many animals, particularly predators, must move fast to catch a meal; a cheetah needs to outrun a gazelle, for example. But most slugs and snails eat plants, decaying matter or marine animals, <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/sponge.html#:%7E">like sponges</a>, which are anchored in place. None move around much, so dinner’s not going anywhere – no rush.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517061/original/file-20230322-1056-kk1vpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A striped blue, orange, black, and white sea slug crawling on an underwater rock." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517061/original/file-20230322-1056-kk1vpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517061/original/file-20230322-1056-kk1vpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517061/original/file-20230322-1056-kk1vpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517061/original/file-20230322-1056-kk1vpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517061/original/file-20230322-1056-kk1vpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517061/original/file-20230322-1056-kk1vpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517061/original/file-20230322-1056-kk1vpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The Mediterranean nudibranch, a species of sea slug.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mediterranean-nudibranch-royalty-free-image/1199415225?phrase=sea%20slugs%20in%20ocean&adppopup=true">A. Martin UW photography/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Dealing with predators</h2>
<p>Nor do snails and slugs need to be fast to avoid predators. They’ve evolved other ways to evade mice, birds, shrews <a href="https://www.carnegiemnh.org/science/mollusks/predators.html">and other enemies</a>.</p>
<p>Typically, snails withdraw into their shells to hide until the predator passes. </p>
<p>Land slugs hide in plain sight. Most are shades of gray, tan or brown and blend in well with their surroundings. Predators simply don’t notice them.
They also have an additional layer of protection. Land slugs are covered with a sticky mucus, similar to the mucus that lubricates their movement. But this version is so gooey that it can gum up the mouths of predators and make it hard to chew. Not to mention that most predators probably wouldn’t find the slime very tasty.</p>
<p>In contrast, sea slugs are often easy to see because they are colorful. But these bright colors advertise to predators that they should stay away, because the slugs are protected with nasty-tasting poisons. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/bpBd8FXdamU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The colors and patterns on the shells of some snails are stunning.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Treat snails and slugs with respect</h2>
<p>Snails and slugs, small as they are, are big contributors to the health of their ecosystems. </p>
<p>By feeding on seeds and young plants, they can control which plants grow in an area. By eating decaying matter, they help recycle nutrients that growing plants can use. And despite their best efforts, snails and slugs do often become food for other animals.</p>
<p>So the next time you see a snail or slug hanging from a plant, dawdling in your yard or gliding across a concrete sidewalk, stop and observe. Remember its remarkable biology, the unique way it moves and looks, and the many ways it benefits the environment.</p>
<p>And then, let them be. These small animals help keep our world running. </p>
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<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199376/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John F. Tooker receives funding from U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Science Foundation, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, and Pennsylvania Soybean Board. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Bliss and Jared Adam do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>These members of the mollusk family may be slow, small and slimy, but they are an indispensable part of the ecosystem.John F. Tooker, Professor of Entomology and Extension Specialist, Penn StateDaniel Bliss, Master's Student in Entomology, Penn StateJared Adam, Master's Student in Entomology, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2001692023-02-23T19:02:51Z2023-02-23T19:02:51ZLosing a calf to wolves in Sweden hurts. But if lions take one in Uganda, a farming family’s income is gone<p>For most people, seeing the fleeting black and gold of a tiger or hearing the roar of a lion is the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2167/joe133.0">experience of a lifetime</a>. For millennia, we’ve admired large fierce animals, capturing them in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1200729109">ancient rock art</a> and <a href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/chart/top_lifetime_gross/?area=XWW">successful blockbuster films</a>.</p>
<p>But for the people living closest to them, their presence is less welcome. A gray wolf or spotted hyena may not kill a human, but they can <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/21513732.2017.1339734">destroy the livelihoods</a> of farmers by destroying livestock or even crops. </p>
<p>If we want to conserve these iconic species, we need to offset financial losses for vulnerable communities – particularly in developing countries, where people are most at risk from carnivores.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-023-04493-y">new research</a> explores what happens to people after wolves, lions or tigers arrive at the door of their livestock pen. The answer? In poorer parts of the world, the loss of a single calf can destroy a family’s finances, while wealthier farmers have a better chance of bouncing back. </p>
<h2>Earth’s poorest are most at risk</h2>
<p>The majority of Earth’s most loved and endangered carnivores, including jaguars, snow leopards, and cheetahs, live in the developing economies of the global south where conservation is <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1805048115">chronically under-funded</a>. In these places, most of their geographic range falls outside of protected areas. </p>
<p>We know a great deal about the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320718318330?casa_token=x5oi0jdzJocAAAAA:H_4yTA3vlIfe7FGcWZCEqKSiTo7wr4xUeZdAESmN1qXwUD9lzJxCYKAY9tJ2BFf-QSszenri#bi0005">impacts</a> of these iconic animals at a societal scale. But one community is not necessarily as vulnerable as another.</p>
<p>To tackle the question of human vulnerability in human-wildlife conflict, we used large carnivores as a model group. This is because they can damage a family’s livelihood through livestock predation, while also being at risk of <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01181.x">being killed</a> by livestock keepers.</p>
<p>We took per capita incomes for 133 countries and overlaid this data with the distribution of 18 large carnivores known to eat cattle. Then we used the <a href="https://www.fao.org/markets-and-trade/commodities/en/">cattle price database</a> run by the Food and Agricultural Organization to assess what would happen to a family’s income if one calf was killed by a carnivore.</p>
<p>Our results are stark. Communities in developing countries were up to eight times more vulnerable than developed countries on average. We also found transition economies like China and Georgia (a country shifting from a centrally planned economy to a market-based economy) are twice as economically vulnerable.</p>
<p>Families living alongside predators in Uganda, Tanzania, and India often have no buffer against this kind of loss. For example, a farmer losing a calf in Utah to a pack of wolves will likely not feel the economic effect of an attack as badly as a Basongora farmer on the edge of Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda.</p>
<p>We found a single predation event in countries like Mozambique, Uganda and Tanzania would potentially wipe out a farmer’s entire income for a year. Our results also show farmers in developing economies on average produce roughly 30% less meat than those in developed ones. That means predator attacks on livestock will have even greater effects than in developed countries.</p>
<h2>Carnivores are living on the edge</h2>
<p>Our results also show more than half of large carnivores have at least a third of their range overlapping areas where the people live under severe economic burden. We described a severe economic burden area as where one calf loss would erase over 25% of a family’s annual income. Eight of these carnivores, including lions and cheetahs, are considered <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org">globally threatened</a>.</p>
<p>Snow leopards, African lions, and Asiatic black bears had between 70-89% of their ranges overlapping these severe vulnerability areas. Dingoes, black bears and the red wolf, however, had just 1-2% of their range overlapping the areas of severe economic vulnerability. This is because these species mainly range in areas where per capita income is highest, such as developed economies.</p>
<h2>Towards coexisting with carnivores</h2>
<p>Earth’s most economically vulnerable people are key to conservation success for carnivores due to the extremely high overlap with threatened carnivore species. Unfortunately, they are also the most at risk when human needs come in conflict with wildlife. Many of us who want carnivores conserved the most live furthest away from them and their impacts.</p>
<p>We need to create new ways for highly vulnerable communities to receive more benefits from the wildlife that are their neighbours. Many innovative programs have worked to reduce conflict, including the creation of <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-014-0828-x">livestock protection enclosures</a>, <a href="https://cheetah.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/using-livestock-guarding-dogs-as-conflict-resolution-strategy.pdf">guardian dogs</a>, and the creation of <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.12171">novel economic benefit</a> streams for local communities, but these programs must be built on and scaled massively if we are to succeed.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/guardian-dogs-fencing-and-fladry-protect-livestock-from-carnivores-103290">Guardian dogs, fencing, and 'fladry' protect livestock from carnivores</a>
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<p>This is particularly the case for those communities that don’t benefit from ecotourism, conservancies, or national park revenues. Localised <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=HXMl0C3cHJwC&oi=fnd&pg=PA107&dq=nyhus:+compensation&ots=IJogiJIxCL&sig=ep6t403jisdJzpudid585235htk&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=nyhus%3A%20compensation&f=false">compensation</a> is at present too small scale and underfunded to make a meaningful dent, and is often subject to <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/csp2.309">abuse and moral hazard</a>. </p>
<p>The conservation community and policymakers need to think bigger and create new sources of conservation finance.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200169/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alexander Richard Braczkowski received funding from Griffith University and the Southern University of Science and Technology when carrying out this study. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher J. O'Bryan is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in the School of Earth and Environmental Sciences at The University of Queensland.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Duan Biggs is the Olajos Goslow Chair at Northern Arizona University. Dr Biggs previously received funding from the Australian Research Council and WWF the Luc Hoffmann Institute. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sophie Gilbert worked at the University of Idaho for part of the time during this study, then at the Natural Capital Exchange (NCX) for the later phases of publication, after submission.</span></em></p>Developing countries suffer the most in the conflict between large carnivores and humans. We need better financial incentives for these communities to make sure these iconic predators are protected.Alexander Richard Braczkowski, Research Fellow at the Centre for Planetary Health and Resilient Conservation Group, Griffith UniversityChristopher J. O'Bryan, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of QueenslandDuan Biggs, Professor and Chair, Southwestern Environmental Science and Policy, Northern Arizona UniversitySophie Gilbert, University of IdahoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1994512023-02-17T12:09:58Z2023-02-17T12:09:58ZReintroducing top predators to the wild is risky but necessary – here’s how we can ensure they survive<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509239/original/file-20230209-20-7c87m0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C1272%2C848&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Collared leopard being released into North Ossetia, Russia in 2022.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pavel Padalko</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Large carnivores are critical to the balance of an ecosystem. In Yellowstone National Park in the western US, <a href="https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Mammals/Gray-Wolf">grey wolves</a> keep elk populations at a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320711004046">healthy level</a>. This prevents vegetation from being overgrazed and leads to taller woody plants which allow other species, such as beavers, to flourish. </p>
<p>But habitat loss and persecution have <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.1241484">eliminated</a> many large carnivores from their historical environment. The Eurasian lynx could be found in the UK over a thousand years ago and wolves roamed the country until the mid-18th century.</p>
<p>However, our attitudes towards these animals are gradually changing and large carnivores are now viewed by many as the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.1257553">victims of human expansion</a>. Many areas are seeing these animals return as a result. Yellowstone’s grey wolves were reintroduced in 1995 after 70 years, and in 2020, voters approved <a href="https://www.cpr.org/2022/09/09/where-colorado-will-reintroduce-wolves/">the species’ reintroduction</a> to the state of Colorado.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1561730584329732096"}"></div></p>
<p>Like these wolves, many other species require human intervention to reach their former habitats. But this is costly, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/rec.13243">controversial</a> and often ends in failure. The relocation of a single animal can <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0105042">cost thousands</a> and once released, these animals can <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/COBI.12959">prey on local livestock</a>.</p>
<p>But since 2007, we’ve seen <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1877343520300592">technological advances</a> in wildlife monitoring, <a href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/documents/2013-009.pdf">improved guidelines</a> for carrying out reintroductions and the global <a href="https://rewildingeurope.com/">rewilding movement</a> gathering pace.</p>
<p>These factors make now the perfect moment to determine whether carnivore reintroductions are becoming more effective. In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.109909">new study</a>, my colleagues and I studied the success of almost 300 carnivore reintroductions worldwide involving 18 different species between 2007 and 2021.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510538/original/file-20230216-24-2tr9vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four maps split by continent showing the locations of the reintroductions studied." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510538/original/file-20230216-24-2tr9vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510538/original/file-20230216-24-2tr9vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=622&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510538/original/file-20230216-24-2tr9vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=622&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510538/original/file-20230216-24-2tr9vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=622&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510538/original/file-20230216-24-2tr9vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=781&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510538/original/file-20230216-24-2tr9vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=781&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510538/original/file-20230216-24-2tr9vv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=781&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Global distribution of the large carnivore reintroductions studied.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Thomas et al (2023)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Indicators of success</h2>
<p>Between 2007 and 2021, 66% of all the reintroduced carnivores studied were still alive six months later. Survival at the six month mark was our measure of success.</p>
<p>Success rates for wild-born carnivores increased from 53% to 70%, while twice the number of captive-born animals (64%) now survive reintroduction than did so in 2007. </p>
<p>The most successful species in our study were <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/maned-wolf">maned wolves</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/puma-mammal-species">pumas</a> and <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/ocelot">ocelots</a>. In contrast, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/lion">lions</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/brown-hyena">brown hyenas</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/cheetah-mammal">cheetahs</a>, <a href="https://wildcatconservation.org/wild-cats/eurasia/iberian-lynx/">Iberian lynx</a> and grey wolves were least able to survive their new environment.</p>
<p>We tested various factors, all of which were under the project manager’s control, that influence the success of animal reintroductions – practical changes that could improve the outcome of future rewilding efforts.</p>
<p>So-called “soft releases”, where animals are allowed an acclimation period at the release site anywhere between <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0105042">10 days and 5 months</a> long, had a clear influence on survival. These releases had an 82% success rate compared to just 60% for releases with no period of adjustment.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A puma walking next to a chain fence in a forested area." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509635/original/file-20230213-14-2o3a7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509635/original/file-20230213-14-2o3a7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509635/original/file-20230213-14-2o3a7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509635/original/file-20230213-14-2o3a7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509635/original/file-20230213-14-2o3a7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509635/original/file-20230213-14-2o3a7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509635/original/file-20230213-14-2o3a7.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A puma in a pre-release enclosure before being released into Serra do Japi, São Paulo, Brazil.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Associação Mata Ciliar</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Younger animals and those born in the wild were also more likely to survive reintroduction. Wild-born animals had a 72% survival rate compared to 64% for animals born in captivity. This is good news for rehabilitated and orphaned carnivores which are taken from the wild for their survival. These animals represent a sizeable proportion of all reintroduced carnivores and made up 22% of the animals in our study. </p>
<p>We found higher success rates when carnivores were released into unfenced areas. This is surprising as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ele.12091">research</a> finds that fenced nature reserves tend to support higher densities of carnivores and reduce conflict with humans. </p>
<p>But greater competition for resources and direct conflict with other carnivores in these reserves may have a negative impact on the survival of reintroduced animals. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15627020.2003.11657196">Research</a> on the range and movement patterns of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_wild_dog">African wild dogs</a> in South Africa’s fenced Pilanesberg National Park found that the dogs actively avoid interaction with lions.</p>
<h2>Rewilding on the horizon – but there’s a catch</h2>
<p>Large carnivore reintroductions are becoming more effective, prompting countries to consider reintroducing large predators. In the UK, debates are ongoing surrounding the possible <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315175454-6/community-divided-steven-lipscombe-chris-white-adam-eagle-erwin-van-maanen">reintroduction of the Eurasian lynx</a>. Our findings could help inform their release. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/eurasian-lynx-how-our-computer-model-highlighted-the-best-site-for-restoring-this-wild-cat-to-scotland-113624">Eurasian lynx: how our computer model highlighted the best site for restoring this wild cat to Scotland</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But our research also highlights the alarming fact that one-third of all large carnivore reintroductions fail. And even when successful, the establishment of a population has proved a challenge. Just 37% of the animals that survived reintroduction successfully reproduced and the number of animals who will have raised young to adulthood is likely even lower. It seems that many rewilded animals take far longer than six months to establish themselves in an ecosystem and find a potential mate.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A lynx being released into the wild." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509639/original/file-20230213-27-ffpb1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509639/original/file-20230213-27-ffpb1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509639/original/file-20230213-27-ffpb1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509639/original/file-20230213-27-ffpb1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509639/original/file-20230213-27-ffpb1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509639/original/file-20230213-27-ffpb1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509639/original/file-20230213-27-ffpb1e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A male lynx was released together with two female lynx in the Slovenian Alps in 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Polona Bartol</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Preventing species loss in their current ranges should thus always take priority. This will involve measures to tackle urbanisation and climate change, which are at present two leading causes of global habitat loss. </p>
<p>Despite their increasing success, the reintroduction of large carnivores still leads to the death of many of the animals involved and often fails to establish a population. The risky nature of these interventions makes it even more important that they have local support or they are likely doomed to fail from the start.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199451/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Seth Thomas does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research studies the factors that determine whether large carnivore reintroductions will be a success.Seth Thomas, Research assistant, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1994992023-02-09T19:11:02Z2023-02-09T19:11:02ZWe found 2.9-million-year-old stone tools used to butcher ancient hippos – but likely not by our ancestors<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509068/original/file-20230209-21-4zmo2b.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=209%2C8%2C5158%2C1263&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julian Louys</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On the shores of Lake Victoria in Kenya, a short valley extends south towards the looming Mount Homa. From it have emerged some of the oldest-known stone tools used to butcher large animals, as well as the oldest remains of one of our early cousins, <em><a href="https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/paranthropus-species/">Paranthropus</a></em> – a genus we think <a href="https://www.latrobe.edu.au/news/articles/2020/release/skull-shines-light-on-human-evolution#">co-existed with</a> our direct ancestors.</p>
<p>Similar tool and fossil discoveries had been made before, in different places and at different times. But to find these all together in one place, as old as they are, is truly extraordinary. </p>
<p>In research published today in <a href="https://science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abo7452">Science</a>, we explain how findings at the Nyayanga site are changing the way experts think about carnivory among hominins – a <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/hominid-and-hominin-whats-the-difference/">group that includes</a> modern humans, extinct humans, direct ancestors and close cousins.</p>
<p>It also raises doubt about who was really responsible for making the stone tools we’d previously <a href="https://anthromuseum.missouri.edu/e-exhibits/oldowan-and-acheulean-stone-tools#:%7E:text=Dating%20as%20far%20back%20as,Homo%20sapiens%2C%20manufactured%20Oldowan%20tools">attributed to <em>Homo</em></a> and <a href="https://anthromuseum.missouri.edu/e-exhibits/oldowan-and-acheulean-stone-tools#:%7E:text=Dating%20as%20far%20back%20as,Homo%20sapiens%2C%20manufactured%20Oldowan%20tools">closely related</a> species.</p>
<h2>Fossils on the Homa Peninsula</h2>
<p>Nyayanga is a typical pastoral valley situated on the Homa Peninsula in western Kenya. This peninsula has long been known to produce various fossils. In 1996, a multidisciplinary team led by one of us (Thomas) began work on a two-million-year-old site called <a href="https://qcpages.qc.cuny.edu/anthro/Web_Pages/plummer/plummer3.html">Kanjera South</a>. This work produced a wealth of fossil remains from large mammals, as well as stone tools associated with our genus, <em>Homo</em>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508774/original/file-20230208-15-37gyqj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508774/original/file-20230208-15-37gyqj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508774/original/file-20230208-15-37gyqj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508774/original/file-20230208-15-37gyqj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508774/original/file-20230208-15-37gyqj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508774/original/file-20230208-15-37gyqj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508774/original/file-20230208-15-37gyqj.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Excavations at Kanjera South provide evidence of two-million-year-old stone tools, and butchered antelopes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julien Louys</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>During a field season at Kanjera South, a local man named Peter Onyango who was working with the team suggested we investigate some fossils and stone tools eroding out of a valley on the shores of Lake Victoria. This new site, named Nyayanga after the nearby beach, was situated on a donkey track leading to the lake. </p>
<p>The first stone tools and fossils we collected were eroding out from the gully walls. Beginning in 2015, a series of excavations eventually returned a trove of 330 artefacts and 1,776 animal bone fragments from a range of species characteristic of open savannah and open woodland environments.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508775/original/file-20230208-19-pd9ktg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508775/original/file-20230208-19-pd9ktg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508775/original/file-20230208-19-pd9ktg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508775/original/file-20230208-19-pd9ktg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508775/original/file-20230208-19-pd9ktg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508775/original/file-20230208-19-pd9ktg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508775/original/file-20230208-19-pd9ktg.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The site of Nyayanga was primarily used as a track for donkeys and cattle, leading to the shores of Lake Victoria.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julien Louys</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The bones included animals we’re familiar with today, such as giraffes, antelopes, elephants and hippos. But they also included extinct megafauna such as <em><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurygnathohippus">Eurygnathohippus</a></em>, an extinct horse ancestor, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelorovis"><em>Pelorvis</em></a>, the giant buffalo, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megantereon"><em>Megantereon</em></a>, the sabre-toothed cat. </p>
<p>Of particular interest were the remains of two teeth from the extinct hominin <em>Paranthropus</em> – nicknamed the Nutcracker Man as its large flat teeth are thought to have been used to process tough vegetable matter. These teeth, one intact and the other a fragment, were the first direct evidence of an extinct hominin on the Peninsula.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508848/original/file-20230208-17-di5tis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two Paranthropus teeth." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508848/original/file-20230208-17-di5tis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508848/original/file-20230208-17-di5tis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508848/original/file-20230208-17-di5tis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508848/original/file-20230208-17-di5tis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508848/original/file-20230208-17-di5tis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508848/original/file-20230208-17-di5tis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508848/original/file-20230208-17-di5tis.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Two <em>Paranthropus</em> teeth were recovered from Nyayanga.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">S. E. Bailey, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What made their recovery even more surprising were the tools we found associated with them. Alongside <em>Paranthropus’s</em> teeth were some stone tools belonging to a technology known as the Oldowan, characterised by three main forms: hammerstone, core, and flake. </p>
<p>Oldowan tools had long been associated with our own genus, <em>Homo</em>, and were once considered a marker for the beginnings of human modernity. While we can’t demonstrate <em>Paranthropus</em> actually made these tools, this species is so far the only suspect at the scene of the crime.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Tools belonging to the Oldowan technology." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508846/original/file-20230208-21-v015kd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508846/original/file-20230208-21-v015kd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=281&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508846/original/file-20230208-21-v015kd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=281&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508846/original/file-20230208-21-v015kd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=281&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508846/original/file-20230208-21-v015kd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508846/original/file-20230208-21-v015kd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508846/original/file-20230208-21-v015kd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We found stone tools belonging to the Oldowan technology found at Nyayanga.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">T.W. Plummer, J.S. Oliver, and E. M. Finestone, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Early signs of butchery</h2>
<p>So, what was a nutcracking, plant-chomping hominin using these tools for? Well it turns out in addition to processing plants – the evidence of which we could see on the tools’ edges – these lithics were also used to make hippo tartare. </p>
<p>We found evidence of meat cutting on the edges – but the smoking gun was the cut and percussion marks found on several hippo individuals associated with these stone tools. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508845/original/file-20230208-17-7ls67s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Hippo skeleton excavated at Nyayanga." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508845/original/file-20230208-17-7ls67s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508845/original/file-20230208-17-7ls67s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508845/original/file-20230208-17-7ls67s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508845/original/file-20230208-17-7ls67s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508845/original/file-20230208-17-7ls67s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508845/original/file-20230208-17-7ls67s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508845/original/file-20230208-17-7ls67s.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hippo skeleton excavated at Nyayanga. This probably represents a single individual, and shows evidence of butchery.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">T.W. Plummer, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of course, this wasn’t the first time cut marks had been found on megafauna. In fact, some of the earliest evidence of megafauna butchery was <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0062174">reported</a> on by our team at Kanjera South back in 2013. </p>
<p>However, our comprehensive dating program at Nyayanga revealed the site’s deposits to be about 2.9 million years old. This means they’re probably the oldest stone tools found to have butchered hippos and processed plant material. </p>
<p>Not only that, but this is about two million years before the first evidence that people used fire. This suggests raw hippo was on the menu for the hungry hominins.</p>
<p>Adding to that, the tooth fossils are the oldest <em>Paranthropus</em> remains ever found, and the associated tools are the oldest-known Oldowan tools. The second-oldest were uncovered some 1,200 kilometres away in Ethiopia, and dated to about <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1820177116">2.6 million years</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/research-reveals-humans-ventured-out-of-africa-repeatedly-as-early-as-400-000-years-ago-to-visit-the-rolling-grasslands-of-arabia-167050">Research reveals humans ventured out of Africa repeatedly as early as 400,000 years ago, to visit the rolling grasslands of Arabia</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A brave old world</h2>
<p>There’s no evidence <em>Paranthropus</em> was actively hunting megafauna. But it would have been competing with sabre-toothed cats, hyenas and crocodiles for access to carcasses, at the very least. </p>
<p>The Nyayanga deposits provide a glimpse into an ancestral world that’s possibly radically different from any we had pictured. In doing so, they’ve raised even more questions about hominin evolution.</p>
<p>Who were these resourceful toolmakers? How far back does carnivory go? And just how old and widespread is the innovative Oldowan toolkit? Despite more than 100 years of research on the Homa Peninsula, much remains unearthed.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-found-the-oldest-ever-vertebrate-fossil-heart-it-tells-a-380-million-year-old-story-of-how-our-bodies-evolved-190230">We found the oldest ever vertebrate fossil heart. It tells a 380 million-year-old story of how our bodies evolved</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199499/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julien Louys receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He was formally at Liverpool John Moores University</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Plummer receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the LSB Leakey Foundation, the Wenner-Gren Foundation, and the PSC-CUNY Research Award Program. He is research associate in the Human Origins Program of the Smithsonian Institution.</span></em></p>The findings suggest we weren’t the first advanced carnivore among the hominins, as has been previously assumed.Julien Louys, Deputy Director, Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, Griffith UniversityThomas Plummer, Professor, Anthropology Department, Queens College, CUNYLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1974092023-01-12T22:46:39Z2023-01-12T22:46:39ZAre vegan pet diets as unhealthy as they’re claimed to be? Here’s what the evidence says<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503751/original/file-20230110-19-9f0guc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C7%2C4962%2C3158&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/-AIHLFX4xEw">Piotr Musioł/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The impact of <a href="https://theconversation.com/vegan-dogs-should-canines-go-meat-free-103404">vegan diets</a> on our pets’ health produces heated debate from people on both sides.</p>
<p>But until now, we haven’t had a formal assessment of the scientific evidence. In new research published today in <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2306-7381/10/1/52">Veterinary Sciences</a> we have brought together the health findings from 16 studies on dogs and cats fed vegan diets. </p>
<p>So, if you’re considering whether 2023 might be the year for your best (pet) friend to adopt a meat-free lifestyle, read on to find out the benefits and risks, and what we still don’t know. </p>
<h2>An ethical diet?</h2>
<p>In recent years, people in many parts of the world have been <a href="https://foodrevolution.org/blog/vegan-statistics-global/">increasingly adopting vegetarian</a> or vegan diets, spurred by ethical concerns for animal welfare, sustainability, or based on perceived health benefits.</p>
<p>Pet owners may also wish to feed their animals in accordance with these dietary choices. In fact, <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0210806">one study</a> found that 35% of owners who did not feed their pets vegan diets would consider them, but found too many barriers. Principal concerns were nutritional adequacy, a lack of veterinary support and there being few commercially available vegan diets. </p>
<p>It has traditionally been considered that the feeding of vegan diets to species that are mainly carnivorous goes against their “nature” and leads to serious health impacts.</p>
<p>There has even been debate around whether the feeding of vegan diets to pets <a href="https://www.bva.co.uk/news-and-blog/blog-article/is-it-safe-to-feed-my-dog-a-plant-based-diet-hold-the-greens-only-meals-why-the-jury-is-still-out-on-vegan-dog-diets/">amounts to animal cruelty</a>. But what does the science actually say?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503760/original/file-20230110-12-9w0kqz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Close-up of a tabby kitten peeking out of a basket" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503760/original/file-20230110-12-9w0kqz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503760/original/file-20230110-12-9w0kqz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503760/original/file-20230110-12-9w0kqz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503760/original/file-20230110-12-9w0kqz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503760/original/file-20230110-12-9w0kqz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503760/original/file-20230110-12-9w0kqz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503760/original/file-20230110-12-9w0kqz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Evolved from fierce desert predators, cats are obligate carnivores – they need meat as part of their diet and can’t digest plants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/7t01mKjWUvE">little plant/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Necessary nutrients</h2>
<p>Both dogs and cats are carnivores. Dogs are facultative carnivores, which means they can digest plant material and survive without meat, but may not thrive.</p>
<p>Cats on the other hand are <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-carnivore/">obligate carnivores</a>. By definition this means their diet contains more than 70% meat, and they cannot digest plant material.</p>
<p>The anatomy of the dog and cat gut also clearly points to their carnivorous lifestyles. Their teeth are designed to crush and grind meat, and hold prey. Their intestines are also short with a smaller capacity in relation to body size since, unlike herbivores, they do not need to ferment plant-based material to digest it. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/raw-meat-pet-food-may-not-be-good-for-your-dog-or-your-own-health-112860">Raw meat pet food may not be good for your dog, or your own health</a>
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<p>A key concern with vegan pet diets is that the proteins from cereal grains or soy (the main plant-based proteins) contain fewer essential <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/11/8/2348">amino acids</a>, e.g. omega 3 fatty acids or taurine, and do not have all the essential vitamins. These nutrients are necessary for maintaining good heart, eye and liver function.</p>
<p>A range of studies have looked at the nutritional composition of vegan pet diets and some do fall short. Homemade vegan diets are particularly <a href="https://bmcvetres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12917-021-03068-5">at risk of being nutritionally deficient</a>, but some commercial diets may also not meet requirements set by <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0227046">various pet nutrition guidelines</a>.</p>
<p>But all of this considers vegan diets using an input-based approach – it’s based on predictions. If we really want to know the impact of these diets on health, we need to measure this in the animals.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503757/original/file-20230110-24-ewkhr1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A brown puppy on a tiled floor with its nose in a stainless steel bowl" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503757/original/file-20230110-24-ewkhr1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503757/original/file-20230110-24-ewkhr1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503757/original/file-20230110-24-ewkhr1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503757/original/file-20230110-24-ewkhr1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503757/original/file-20230110-24-ewkhr1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503757/original/file-20230110-24-ewkhr1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503757/original/file-20230110-24-ewkhr1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dogs are facultative carnivores, which means they could theoretically survive without meat, but that’s not the same as thriving.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">New Africa/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The evidence is lacking</h2>
<p>We performed a type of study common in evidence-based practice, called a systematic review. These studies provide a summary of all the research on a topic; it is evaluated for quality, allowing us to give an assessment of how certain we can be when making recommendations based on the evidence. </p>
<p>Only 16 studies have looked at the health impacts of vegan diets in dogs and cats. Cats were only included in six of these, despite being the species most likely to suffer nutrient deficiencies.</p>
<p>A number of these studies used owner reports on health as the measured outcome, for example perception of health or body condition. These are likely to be subjective and could be prone to bias. </p>
<p>In the few studies that measured health directly through examining the animals or running laboratory tests, there was little evidence of adverse health impacts from vegan pet diets. Nutrient levels were generally within normal range, no heart or eye abnormalities were detected, and body and coat condition were normal.</p>
<p>However, it’s important to note these studies often involved low numbers of animals, with vegan diets only being fed to animals for a few weeks – so deficiency may not have had time to develop. Furthermore, the study designs were often ones considered less reliable in evidence-based practice, for example with no control groups used as a comparison. </p>
<p>Owners’ perceptions on the health benefits of the diets were overwhelmingly positive. Advantages cited were reduced obesity, better-smelling breath and reduced skin irritation. The only drawback was increased faecal volume, which seemed tolerable to most owners.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503759/original/file-20230110-5012-8e45o4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A kelpie holding an orange ball looking excitedly at the camera" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503759/original/file-20230110-5012-8e45o4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503759/original/file-20230110-5012-8e45o4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503759/original/file-20230110-5012-8e45o4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503759/original/file-20230110-5012-8e45o4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503759/original/file-20230110-5012-8e45o4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503759/original/file-20230110-5012-8e45o4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503759/original/file-20230110-5012-8e45o4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many of the animals included in the vegan pet diet studies didn’t seem to suffer ill effects, but the quality of the evidence was low.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/ubRoy09Y9Gw">Sarah Brown/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Proceed with caution</h2>
<p>Overall, it seems the jury is still out on whether feeding our carnivorous four-legged friends vegan diets is actually safe.</p>
<p>What we can be certain about is that both strong pro- or anti vegan pet feeding arguments are potentially misguided, and not backed by evidence.</p>
<p>For now, owners committed to feeding their pets a vegan diet should take a cautious approach. Use a complete and balanced commercial vegan diet formulation, and schedule regular health checks with a veterinarian.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-ways-to-help-your-dog-live-a-longer-healthier-life-166306">Five ways to help your dog live a longer, healthier life</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197409/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As omnivores, humans can choose to not consume any animal products. But what happens when we feed a vegan diet to our carnivore companions?Alexandra Whittaker, Senior Lecturer, University of AdelaideAdriana Domínguez-Oliva, Animal welfare researcher, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (México)Daniel Mota-Rojas, ResearcherLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1928952022-12-05T13:25:26Z2022-12-05T13:25:26ZWeasels, not pandas, should be the poster animal for biodiversity loss<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498335/original/file-20221130-20-3djrpi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C3%2C2037%2C1348&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A short-tailed weasel in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/2baqDL7">Jacob W. Frank, NPS/Flickr</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At the <a href="https://www.unep.org/events/conference/un-biodiversity-conference-cop-15">United Nations biodiversity conference</a> that opens in Montreal on Dec. 7, 2022, nations aim to create a new global framework for transforming humanity’s relationship with nature. The <a href="https://www.cbd.int/conferences/2021-2022">conference logo</a> features a human reaching to embrace a panda – but from an ecological perspective, a weasel or badger would be a more appropriate choice.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Graphic of a girl reaching to embrace a panda" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=925&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498319/original/file-20221130-8088-3h45m9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1162&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Logo for the COP 15 conference in Montreal, which was delayed from its original 2020 date due to COVID-19.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.cop15news.com/en/index.htm">Convention on Biological Diversity</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Large mammals with widespread appeal, also known as <a href="https://animals.howstuffworks.com/endangered-species/charismatic-megafauna.htm">charismatic megafauna</a>, often represent the highest achievement in biodiversity protection. As the logic goes, saving the tiger, polar bear, wolf or lion means saving an entire ecosystem, since these species often have large ranges and may sit at the top of food chains.</p>
<p>But research shows that, relatively speaking, many large charismatic species aren’t doing that badly in North America. Wolves are <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/11/science/california-wolves-misinformation.html">repopulating California</a>, where their last wild ancestor was killed in 1924. Cougars could become <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2015.09.026">reestablished across the Midwest</a> over the next several decades. Black bears have regained much of their range in the <a href="https://www.bearbiology.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Scheick_and_McCown_2014_Ursus.pdf">eastern U.S</a>, to the point where many states have a <a href="https://www.outdoorlife.com/story/hunting/record-black-bear-hunting-harvest/">bear hunting season</a>. Similar stories are playing out across Europe, where even large carnivores like the lynx and wolverine are <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1257553">recovering</a>. </p>
<p>For small carnivores like weasels, skunks and foxes, it’s a different story. These species and their relatives have equal or greater impacts on the ecosystems they inhabit than larger species like wolves. They even provide benefits for humans by preying on rodents that eat crops and infest our houses. Yet small carnivores are of increasing conservation concern because their populations are declining dramatically in many places.</p>
<h2>Many threats but no single cause</h2>
<p>While small carnivores don’t typically get as much public attention as larger species, conservation biologists have been trying to arrest their decline for decades. </p>
<p>For example, the black-footed ferret, a member of the same family as weasels and minks, has been <a href="https://www.fws.gov/species/black-footed-ferret-mustela-nigripes">on the U.S. endangered species list</a> since the list was created in 1973. As recently as the early 1900s there were thousands of black-footed ferrets across western prairies. Today scientists estimate there are <a href="https://blackfootedferret.org/">fewer than 400 left in the wild</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two ferrets with black feet and eye masks, one peeking out of a pipe" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498333/original/file-20221130-22-dzg6n4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is breeding black-footed ferrets in captivity in northern Colorado. Restoring the endangered ferret is considered a key step in reviving prairie ecosystems.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/oct-29-there-are-48-outdoor-pre-conditioning-pens-that-news-photo/186801918">Kathryn Scott Osler/The Denver Post via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Recent evidence suggests that even the most common and widespread small carnivores are in decline. A 2005 study estimated that eastern spotted skunks, which are rarely seen today but historically occurred across much of the U.S. east of the Rocky Mountains, had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1367943005001964">declined in number by 90% over the preceding 50 years</a>. </p>
<p>I led an effort in 2021 to determine the status of the most widespread of small carnivores in North America – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254387">weasels</a>. We found range-wide decreases dating back to the 1960s that paralleled the decline of spotted skunks. </p>
<p>Scientists have a very poor understanding of what has caused losses of weasels and most other small carnivores. We suspect that many stresses may be involved, including changing farming practices, diseases and new carnivores like house cats, domestic dogs, raccoons and striped skunks that follow human development and outcompete or eat native small carnivores. </p>
<p>What we do know is that North America is not unique. Small carnivores are declining globally at an alarming rate. A 2021 review suggests that over the past couple of decades <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109005">over half of all small carnivores have declined in number</a>, and a quarter are at risk of extinction. Proportionally, these are the same levels of decline and endangerment as the better-publicized threats to large carnivores. </p>
<h2>Short-legged ecosystem indicators</h2>
<p>We also know that compared with larger species, small carnivores have shorter lives and use smaller areas. This allows them to respond quickly to even minor fluctuations in temperature, habitat change and food availability. In my <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=CjwvzoIAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">research over the past 23 years</a>, I have learned that these attributes make small carnivores sensitive indicators of even minor shifts in how well their ecosystems work. </p>
<p>A prime example comes from the Channel Islands off the coast of California, home to the diminutive <a href="https://www.nps.gov/chis/learn/nature/island-fox.htm">island fox</a>, a species found nowhere else on earth. In the late 1990s land and wildlife managers noticed a decline in island foxes, which coincided with the decline of bald eagles and arrival of golden eagles on the islands. Golden eagles preyed on the foxes, as well as on non-native wild pigs. At one point the fox population was reduced to fewer than 100 individuals. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/2AVRSGkartg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Saving California’s island foxes required reconstructing an ecosystem that human actions had drastically altered.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Restoring island foxes was a complex initiative that involved reintroducing bald eagles – which prey on fish, not mammals – to the islands to chase off golden eagles; eradicating introduced pigs, which served as food for the golden eagles and altered the vegetation where the foxes sheltered; restoring shrubs and grasses; and breeding foxes in captivity, then releasing them. This effort is one of the most prominent examples of biologists intervening to <a href="https://www.nps.gov/chis/learn/nature/island-fox.htm">reverse a species’ slide toward extinction</a>. </p>
<p>More broadly, the island fox story shows that small carnivores can provide unique insight into the structure of ecosystems, because they are at the centers of <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/food-web-concept-and-applications-84077181/">food webs</a>. Look at the diet of a fox or weasel and you have a great snapshot of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.2407">how many species are present in that ecosystem</a>. </p>
<p>Losing small carnivores can change ecosystems. Many small carnivores typically prey on small seed-eating rodents like mice and gophers. This reduces rodent impacts on plants and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.12.006">farm crops</a>. It also helps to reduce the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.12.006">spread of tick-borne diseases</a>, since small rodents can serve as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-020-3902-0">hosts for infected ticks</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/Cld5PUMrvno/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>For these reasons, I and other ecologists argue that it makes sense to use small carnivores as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/mam.12300">barometers of ecosystem health</a>. This would mean replacing polar bears with weasels as global warming poster animals, and keying in on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/btp.12635">ocelots</a> rather than jaguars to understand how rainforest destruction is affecting wildlife. </p>
<p>While lions and polar bears are important, I believe ferrets, weasels and foxes deserve the same kind of protection and are a more precise tool for measuring how ecosystems are responding to a rapidly changing world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192895/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Jachowski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Polar bears and wolves may get the glory, but small predators like weasels, foxes and their cousins play outsized ecological roles. And many of these species are declining fast.David Jachowski, Associate Professor of Wildlife Ecology, Clemson UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1934582022-11-30T04:04:10Z2022-11-30T04:04:10ZCurious Kids: What would happen if all animals on Earth were herbivores?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498154/original/file-20221130-24-h6m8zw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C14%2C4969%2C3303&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>What would happen if all animals on Earth were herbivores? – Molly, age 9, Melbourne</p>
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<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291898/original/file-20190911-190031-enlxbk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=1" width="100%"></a></p>
<p>Thanks for the great question, Molly! </p>
<p>We hear a lot about how humans eating meat is bad for the planet. That’s because making room for the animals that produce meat leaves less space for us to farm plants, and less natural habitat for wildlife. And when all those farm animals burp, it releases methane into the atmosphere and contributes to climate change.</p>
<p>So it’s natural to wonder if all animals, including humans, should be herbivores – in other words, only eat plants.</p>
<p>To answer this question, we first need to understand a little about animals, and herbivores. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Deer in a field" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498155/original/file-20221130-12-62zblj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498155/original/file-20221130-12-62zblj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498155/original/file-20221130-12-62zblj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498155/original/file-20221130-12-62zblj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498155/original/file-20221130-12-62zblj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498155/original/file-20221130-12-62zblj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498155/original/file-20221130-12-62zblj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Should every animal be like deer, and eat only plants?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Where do animals fit into life on Earth?</h2>
<p>The animal kingdom is one branch of life on Earth, alongside plants, fungi, and two (or three, depending on which textbook you read) types of tiny organisms called bacteria.</p>
<p>Animals can be categorised by the main type of food in their diet. Herbivores eat plants or algae. Carnivores eat other animals. And omnivores eat both plants and animals. </p>
<p>But some omnivores and carnivores would die if they had a completely plant-based diet. For example, <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/carnivore">cats need meat</a> for the nutrients it contains and because they can’t digest plants well. This is true for all cats, from a terrifying tiger to a teeny tabby cat. </p>
<p>So if all animals on Earth only ate plants, millions of carnivore and omnivore species would die out. That’s a problem, because meat-eating animals play an important role on our planet. </p>
<p>Take, for example, scavengers such as vultures, ravens, dogs and flies. They eat other animals that are already dead – and when they poo it out they put important nutrients into the soil so plants can grow. </p>
<p>Without these scavengers, the job of breaking down dead animals would be left to fungi and bacteria. That would mean a lot of dead animals lying around for a lot longer.</p>
<p>There aren’t many things smellier than dog poo – but a rotting kangaroo is one!</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-much-meat-do-we-eat-new-figures-show-6-countries-have-hit-their-peak-172507">How much meat do we eat? New figures show 6 countries have hit their peak</a>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498165/original/file-20221130-26-jvoss5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498165/original/file-20221130-26-jvoss5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=588&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498165/original/file-20221130-26-jvoss5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=588&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498165/original/file-20221130-26-jvoss5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=588&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498165/original/file-20221130-26-jvoss5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=740&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498165/original/file-20221130-26-jvoss5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=740&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498165/original/file-20221130-26-jvoss5.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=740&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A food web diagram. Energy from the sun is captured by plants which are eaten by herbivores, which in turn are eaten by carnivores. Not pictured are the scavengers and decomposers, which complete the cycle by turning organic matter into healthy soil for plants again.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Carnivores actually help the planet – including humans</h2>
<p>The absence of carnivores in an ecosystem can also mean herbivores start taking over an area, making it unlivable for other species. This occurred when <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/wolves-yellowstone">wolves were removed</a> from Yellowstone National Park in the United States. </p>
<p>Wolves used to eat deer in the wild. When wolves disappeared, deer populations got too big. They ate too many plants near streams, which caused riverbanks to crumble into the water. Deer also damaged trees used by beavers to build dams. This muddied the water even more, and other animals such as fish couldn’t live there any more.</p>
<p>But the absence of meat-eating animals could also bring benefits.</p>
<p>For example, many native species are endangered because they’re being eaten by introduced predators. Without carnivores, these endangered animals would have more of a chance. </p>
<p>The fate of farm animals is less obvious. If all humans were herbivores then there would be no need to raise animals for meat. That would mean we’d only ever see cows, sheep, chickens and pigs at the zoo. </p>
<p>And what about pets? Cats and dogs need meat to survive. So in a world of herbivores, the biggest animal at the pet shop would probably be a plant-eating guinea pig!</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-foe-to-friend-how-carnivores-could-help-farmers-92190">From foe to friend: how carnivores could help farmers</a>
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<img alt="hand holds bowl of meat over small dog" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498156/original/file-20221130-20-o53nm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498156/original/file-20221130-20-o53nm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498156/original/file-20221130-20-o53nm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498156/original/file-20221130-20-o53nm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498156/original/file-20221130-20-o53nm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498156/original/file-20221130-20-o53nm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498156/original/file-20221130-20-o53nm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cats and dogs need meat to survive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are human health aspects to consider, too. </p>
<p>We humans require a few micrograms of <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/vitamin-b12/">vitamin B12</a> each day, and the best source of this is meat. </p>
<p>If humans only ate plants, we’d need to eat a lot of the primary plant sources of B12 – seaweed, algae and some mushrooms. We’d also probably need to take B12 tablets or other man-made “supplements” containing B12. Making these would require farming a lot more algae and bacteria that naturally produce this essential vitamin. </p>
<p>Of course, many vegans – people who don’t eat animal products – already manage to keep up their B12 levels. But I daresay others would struggle. And a lot of people simply enjoy eating meat. I’d hate to come between a bodybuilder and his or her steak! </p>
<h2>Life finds a way</h2>
<p>Losing carnivores would clearly have far-reaching consequences. Earth would soon look dramatically different. </p>
<p>But the more I study evolution, the more I realise life finds a way to achieve what seemed impossible.</p>
<p>If all animals on Earth were herbivores, sooner or later a species of herbivore or fungus would evolve into a new form of life that knows how to turn its herbivorous neighbours into a tasty meal. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/most-large-herbivores-now-face-extinction-our-study-shows-41102">Most large herbivores now face extinction, our study shows</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193458/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mitchell G. Nye-Wood works in a lab group that receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>We hear a lot about how humans eating meat is bad for the planet. But if every animal only ate plants, Earth would look dramatically different.Mitchell G. Nye-Wood, Research Fellow, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1872322022-08-10T14:35:16Z2022-08-10T14:35:16ZFlipper traces reveal the presence of ancient seals on South Africa’s coast<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474646/original/file-20220718-16-p4ofex.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ancestors of modern-day Cape fur seals left distinctive fossil traces thanks partly to their flippers.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Stuart on Nature/Stuart on Nature</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The world’s largest and heaviest living carnivore is not a big cat, a bear or a wolf: it’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-373553-9.00202-9">the southern elephant seal <em>(Mirounga leonina)</em></a>. <a href="https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/largest-carnivore-on-land">Bulls of this species</a> can be 5 metres long and can weigh up to 3,500kg. The Cape fur seal, meanwhile, can grow to 3.9 metres and weigh up to 360kg. A large African lion, by comparison, weighs 250kg. </p>
<p>So you might think that the ancient ancestors of these and other large seals would leave ample evidence of their presence in the fossil record. That’s partly true; there is an <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.191394">extensive global body fossil record</a> for seals. But, until now, there’s been no documented evidence of fossilised seal traces – the tell-tale signs of these big animals dragging their flippers while hauling themselves along ancient beaches.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-coastal-research/volume-38/issue-4/JCOASTRES-D-21-00131.1/Possible-Pleistocene-Pinniped-Ichnofossils-on-South-Africas-Cape-South-Coast/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-21-00131.1.short">new research</a>, from South Africa’s Goukamma Nature Reserve on the country’s Cape south coast, changes that. The traces we discovered and described are from two sites that date back about 75,000 years. </p>
<p>This adds to our existing knowledge about what kinds of animals roamed this landscape long ago, as well as what the landscape may have looked like – an important part of understanding what’s changed over time and how it might change as the climate shifts.</p>
<h2>Many different creatures</h2>
<p>The Cape south coast ichnology project started in 2008. Ichnology is the study of tracks and traces. Since then our team has identified more than 300 vertebrate tracksites along a 350 km stretch of the South African <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.07.039">coastline</a>. The tracks and traces date back to <a href="https://www.livescience.com/40311-pleistocene-epoch.html">the Pleistocene epoch</a>, which started around 2.6 million years ago and ended 11,700 years ago.</p>
<p>The tracks and traces are found in aeolianites (the cemented remains of dune surfaces) and cemented beach deposits. The fossil sites have provided a census of which creatures left traces of their passage on those ancient dunes and beaches: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/qua.2021.32">elephants</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2020/6542">crocodiles</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2989/00306525.2020.1789772">large birds</a> – and even <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-22059-5">hominins</a>, human ancestors. There were tiny members of this varied community, too; we’ve reported on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/qua.2021.77">gerbil and spider</a> tracks and traces.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474647/original/file-20220718-76570-yr3tdw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474647/original/file-20220718-76570-yr3tdw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474647/original/file-20220718-76570-yr3tdw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474647/original/file-20220718-76570-yr3tdw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474647/original/file-20220718-76570-yr3tdw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474647/original/file-20220718-76570-yr3tdw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474647/original/file-20220718-76570-yr3tdw.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Probable moulds of juvenile Cape fur seals in the Goukamma Nature Reserve; scale bars = 10 cm.</span>
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</figure>
<p>Seals’ absence from the global ichnology record can probably be explained by these mammals spending much of their time in the ocean, and to a preference for rocky islands, cliff-side ledges, and pebble beaches when they do come ashore. None of these environments would preserve fossil traces of seals. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/my-job-is-full-of-fossilised-poop-but-theres-nothing-icky-about-ichnology-182906">My job is full of fossilised poop, but there's nothing icky about ichnology</a>
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<p>However, large colonies can be found on remote sandy beaches, and individual seals often haul up on beaches, both of which might leave a trace fossil record. </p>
<h2>Two sites</h2>
<p>One of the sites we studied was situated on a north-facing slope of a sand-bar and shows a furrow created by sliding down the slope, complete with hind-flipper drag marks. There are parallel grooves and nested grooves adjacent to it, consistent with front-flipper traces. Taken together, these features are more consistent with traces of a fur seal than those of an elephant seal. Both species occur on the coastline today, but <a href="https://www.pinnipeds.org/seal-information/species-information-pages/sea-lions-and-fur-seals/south-african-fur-seal">Cape fur seals</a> are far more common. </p>
<p>Cape fur seals often gather into dense rookeries, some of which contain hundreds of thousands of seals; one such rookery can be found at <a href="https://www.andbeyond.com/experiences/africa/namibia/skeleton-coast/cape-fur-seal-colony-at-cape-cross/">Cape Cross in Namibia</a>. Seals in rookeries on beaches may create depressions in the sand that are moulds of their outlines, and this is what the evidence at the second site suggests. Four large impressions are consistent with moulds of juvenile seals, and one of these contains what appears to be a flipper impression.</p>
<p>Microscopy of thin sections sampled from the rock surfaces enabled us to ascertain that both sites are from beach rather than dune environments. This helped to corroborate our interpretation of the tracks as seal traces. Meanwhile, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-040610-133425">optically stimulated luminescence dating studies</a> performed at the University of Leicester indicated that the seals inhabited these beaches about 75,000 years ago.</p>
<h2>More to find?</h2>
<p>The notion of seal traces, made so long ago on these beaches, being evident on rock surfaces today can be regarded as remarkable. Our findings help to fill what was a substantial gap in the global ichnology record. Our discoveries will hopefully spur researchers elsewhere to look for similar traces to better understand what parts of the ancient world seals occupied, and when.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187232/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles Helm does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The fossilised seal traces date back about 75,000 years.Charles Helm, Research Associate, African Centre for Coastal Palaeoscience, Nelson Mandela UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1876162022-08-04T20:19:35Z2022-08-04T20:19:35ZCurious Kids: what is the apex predator of the world?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477371/original/file-20220803-12-xf40rd.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C29%2C3220%2C2106&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>What is the apex predator of the world? – Mahmood, age 11, Brisbane</p>
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<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291898/original/file-20190911-190031-enlxbk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=1" width="100%"></a></p>
<p>Hi Mahmood, thanks for this interesting question!</p>
<p>Well, what sorts of animals do you typically imagine when you think about apex predators? Great white sharks, polar bears, killer whales, crocodiles, African lions, anacondas … perhaps a wedge-tailed eagle? </p>
<p>To determine what the apex predator of the world is, we first need to understand what types of “predators” there are, and what we mean by “apex”. </p>
<h2>Different types of predators</h2>
<p>Contrary to popular belief, predators aren’t just species with large sharp teeth or fangs, hooked beaks, or razor-sharp claws. A “predator” is any species that eats part of, or all of, another living species – or in some cases its own species (which is called “cannibalism”). </p>
<p>Predators can be: </p>
<h4><a href="https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-carnivore/">Carnivores</a></h4>
<p>These animals eat the flesh of other animals. <a href="https://www.wired.com/2015/01/animal-cannibalism/">Cannibalism</a> is a special form of carnivory, and is widespread across the animal world. It has been recorded in several hundred species, including spiders, insects, fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians and mammals (including humans). </p>
<h4><a href="https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-herbivore/">Herbivores</a></h4>
<p>These are animals that eat plants, but they’re still considered predators. So yes, kangaroos are predators too, but they simply eat plants rather than animals. Although it appears this wasn’t always the case in Australia – beware <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/science/nature/article/2016/06/10/carnivorous-kangaroo-and-4-other-animals-were-almost-glad-are-fossils"><em>Balbaroo fangaroo</em></a>! </p>
<h4><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CfqO1U6lfDs">Parasites</a></h4>
<p>These are animals or other organisms that live on (ectoparasites) or in (endoparasites) another species. They feed on this “host” for nutrients. Ticks, leeches and hookworms are all examples of parasites.</p>
<h4><a href="https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-parasitoid/">Parasitoids</a></h4>
<p>These are organisms whose young develop on or inside another host organism, feed on it, and end up killing the host as a result. The iconic movie Alien features such a scenario, albeit fictional (although you might want to wait a few years before watching it). This group includes species of wasps, flies, beetles and worms.</p>
<h2>It all depends on the environment</h2>
<p>Apex predators are often referred to as “top predators” because they sit at the top of their <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/food-chain">food chain</a> and are typically considered to be dominant and without predators of their own. </p>
<p>It’s important to note apex predators don’t have to be particularly large. Although they often are, it’s more about how their size compares with the species they interact with, and how they behave within their own ecological community.</p>
<p>Imagine a terrarium in your home with some plants and various insects, including a praying mantis; the praying mantis is most certainly the apex predator here. </p>
<p>Now imagine letting them all loose in a field somewhere. The praying mantis is now potentially on the menu for a spider, frog, bird, or other larger predator.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A praying mantis raises its arms while standing on a branch, facing towards the camera lens." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477534/original/file-20220804-9305-ms8sb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Praying mantises eat many different types of other insects, including crickets, grasshoppers, butterflies, moths, spiders and beetles. They may even eat other praying mantises, which is called cannibalism.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A predator that is below other predators in the “pecking order” can be referred to as a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01347.x">mesopredator</a>. For example, wolves are often considered apex predators, and are known to compete with and even kill coyotes (mesopredators).</p>
<p>In areas without wolves, however, coyotes might ascend to the apex position. They are known to kill cats, which can indirectly <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/23028">benefit songbirds</a>. </p>
<p>In Australia, dingoes are considered apex predators. They hunt and eat a wide <a href="https://theconversation.com/dingo-dinners-whats-on-the-menu-for-australias-top-predator-103846">range of animals</a> including kangaroos, emus, feral goats and feral deer. </p>
<p>But dingoes, similar to many predators <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1241484">around the world</a>, are frequently <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/superpredator-humans-are-hunting-other-animals-out-existence">killed by humans</a>. </p>
<h2>Danger in numbers</h2>
<p>Because our question is concerned with determining the <em>world’s</em> main apex predator, we’ll need to consider how widespread a species is. </p>
<p>There are some “apex” predators that are found throughout much of the world, including grey wolves, blue whales, killer whales and great white sharks.</p>
<p>In my mind, however, humans are clearly the overall apex predator of the world. We’ve even been called the <a href="https://www.science.org/content/article/superpredator-humans-are-hunting-other-animals-out-existence">super-predator</a>! </p>
<p>Human impact <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/jul/08/climate-crisis-biodiversity-decline-overexploited-planet-change-to-survive-aoe">spans the entire globe</a> – from the land to sea, and the south pole to the north pole. </p>
<p>Compared to other predators, we use a much larger percentage of the world’s food resources, as well as water and other natural materials. In doing so, we cause widespread environmental harm. </p>
<p>Humans are having a devastating effect on some other <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-worlds-top-predators-are-in-decline-and-its-hurting-us-too-21830">apex predator populations</a>, threatening their chances of long-term survival.</p>
<p>For instance, although there are situations where large sharks have killed humans, it’s estimated humans kill more than 100 million sharks <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/100-million-sharks-killed-every-year-study-shows-on-eve-of-international-conference-on-shark-protection">per year</a>. Many shark species are at <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/shark">risk of extinction</a> as a result. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Person stands in front of a large net with a shark caught inside, as it's lifted into a boat" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/477535/original/file-20220804-15-nptdop.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Humans kill millions of sharks each year, often to eat them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>The good news is we can all make <a href="https://wwf.panda.org/act/live_green/">choices</a> to help reduce our environmental footprints and help protect other species – predator or otherwise.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-dont-whales-have-teeth-like-we-do-186727">Curious kids: why don’t whales have teeth like we do?</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187616/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Euan G. Ritchie is the Chair of the Media Working Group of the Ecological Society of Australia, Deputy Convenor (Communication and Outreach) for the Deakin Science and Society Network, and a member of the Australian Mammal Society.</span></em></p>A species that is an “apex” predator in one environment won’t necessarily remain so in another.Euan Ritchie, Professor in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life & Environmental Sciences, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1795422022-03-30T12:06:41Z2022-03-30T12:06:41ZHow the first cat-like sabre-tooth predator was discovered – and why it differs from modern cats<p>Although they are currently the greatest predators on land, it’s likely that modern-day cats wouldn’t have been a match for the newly discovered <em>Diegoaelurus vanvalkenburghae</em>. At around 42 million years old, it’s thought to be one of the first sabre-tooth cat-like predators to have roamed the planet – and a formidable hunter capable of killing prey much larger than itself.</p>
<p>None of our existing top predators possess a sabre-tooth. But throughout much of the history of wild cats, there have been sabre-toothed forms.</p>
<p>Indeed, from 2.5 million years ago, until as recently as 10,000 years ago, the iconic <em>Smilodon fatalis</em> – commonly known as the sabre-tooth tiger – was <a href="http://blogs.dailybreeze.com/history/2015/06/27/when-saber-toothed-cats-mammoths-and-dire-wolves-roamed-the-south-bay/">on the prowl</a> in California and other parts of North and South America. Although its main focus were the large, thick-skinned mammoths and woolly rhinos, early humans might well have been at risk, too.</p>
<p>Though this newly described animal was smaller than <em>Smilodon</em>, the sabre-tooth adaptation means it was probably one of the first ever mammalian hypercarnivores, surviving almost exclusively on a diet of meat – a lifestyle followed by modern cats today. </p>
<h2>The sabre-tooth discovery</h2>
<p>In the <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/13032/">new PeerJ study</a> scientists from the University of Arizona and San Diego Natural History Museum describe the new predator, which they named <em>Diegoaelurus vanvalkenburghae</em> after San Diego county, in southern California, where the fossil was found, and <a href="https://www.ioes.ucla.edu/person/blaire-van-valkenburgh/">Professor Van Valkenburgh</a>, the doyenne of carnivore evolution. </p>
<p>The beautiful piece of lower jaw had sat unappreciated in the drawers of the San Diego museum since 1988 – until Curator Ashley Poust found it and recognised what it was. And although it doesn’t sound like much to go on, we can actually learn a huge amount about this ancient creature from the <a href="https://3dfiles.sdnhm.org/api/?specimen=38343&name=38343_Dentary_RT&extension=ctm">fossilised jaw and teeth</a> alone.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Skull cast of a Smilodon next to the Diegoaelurus fossil, which is much smaller with a more pronounced chin bone" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455007/original/file-20220329-27-o4lyhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455007/original/file-20220329-27-o4lyhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455007/original/file-20220329-27-o4lyhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455007/original/file-20220329-27-o4lyhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455007/original/file-20220329-27-o4lyhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455007/original/file-20220329-27-o4lyhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455007/original/file-20220329-27-o4lyhf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">When compared with a skull cast of a <em>Smilodon</em>, the <em>Diegoaelurus</em> fossil is much smaller with a more pronounced chin bone (lower-right edge). CC by 4.0.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cypress Hansen, San Diego Natural History Museum</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the back of the newly discovered jaw there are slicing scissor teeth, called carnassials – the equivalent of molars and premolars – shaped like flesh-cutting blades with multiple points. Going forward in the jaw, there is a long gap, and then the key tooth, the canine sabre-tooth, elongated and curved. Below that, is an expanded and deepened portion at the front of the jawbone that partly accommodates the deeply rooted canine tooth, and also provides added strength for the jawbone when it bites with force. </p>
<p>The unpreserved upper jawbone would have featured an equivalent canine sabre tooth, which would have cut down outside the jaw as the animal seized its prey.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="The jawbone fossil of the newly described sabre-tooth cat" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455006/original/file-20220329-15-16wr2f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455006/original/file-20220329-15-16wr2f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455006/original/file-20220329-15-16wr2f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455006/original/file-20220329-15-16wr2f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455006/original/file-20220329-15-16wr2f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455006/original/file-20220329-15-16wr2f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455006/original/file-20220329-15-16wr2f7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We can learn so much about the size and diet of Diegoaelurus from this 42-million-year-old jawbone fossil. CC BY 4.0.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cypress Hansen, San Diego Natural History Museum</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The fossil also allowed the study authors to identify that <em>Diegoaelurus</em> is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machaeroides">machaeroidine</a>, a sub-family of extinct mammals from North America and Asia. But our new knowledge doesn’t end there. From <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/paleontologists-uncover-the-oldest-sabertoothed-predator-180979725/">long-term studies</a> of the rocks and fossils of California, scientists can form a picture of the newly discovered animal’s habitat and lifestyle.</p>
<p>California in the middle Eocene – the time 42 million years ago when <em>Diegoaelurus</em> lived – was a land of rich tropical forests through which the bobcat-sized <em>Diegoaelurus</em> slipped silently in search of prey. The <a href="https://archives.datapages.com/data/pac_sepm/086/086001/pdfs/161.htm">forests teemed</a> with rodents and early primates in the trees, as well as larger herbivorous mammals, such as even-toed oreodonts (most closely related to camels and pigs), early hoofed tapiroids, multi-toed horses, and the small rhinocerous <em>Menoceras</em>, on the ground. </p>
<p>Perhaps this first sabre-tooth concentrated on hunting these thick-skinned ungulates, leaping from the trees onto their backs and biting suddenly and deeply. </p>
<h2>Could the sabre-tooth return?</h2>
<p>Although <em>Diegoaelurus</em> looked similar to cats, they are, in fact, unrelated. But the sabre-toothed adaptation to hypercarnivory arose independently several times among cats in other extinct sub-families, such as the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/nimravid.htm">nimravids</a>, the “sabre-tooth false cats” in North America and Eurasia – and even in the marsupial <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thylacosmilidae">thylacosmilids</a> of South America. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-two-ecosystems-collided-ichthyosaurs-re-evolved-the-ability-to-consume-large-prey-173491">When two ecosystems collided, ichthyosaurs re-evolved the ability to consume large prey</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But when <em>Smilodon</em> – the last known survivor of the most recent sub-family, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machairodontinae">Machairodontinae</a> – became extinct, probably due to loss of prey or hunting by early humans, the sabre-tooth disappeared.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Roaring tiger sitting on a rock during the day" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455211/original/file-20220330-19-12yicmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455211/original/file-20220330-19-12yicmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455211/original/file-20220330-19-12yicmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455211/original/file-20220330-19-12yicmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455211/original/file-20220330-19-12yicmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455211/original/file-20220330-19-12yicmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455211/original/file-20220330-19-12yicmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tigers are fearsome predators but struggle to bring down prey much bigger than themselves.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/black-white-and-yellow-tiger-sitting-on-a-beige-sand-during-daytime-47312/">Photo by Pixabay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most cats today operate as solitary hunters, and so generally tackle prey that is of a similar size to themselves, or smaller, in contrast to the sabre-tooths who were able to take on much larger prey. </p>
<p>The modern <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/felidae">family Felidae</a> – which includes all modern cats – has 41 species, including the pantherines, such as lions, tigers and leopards, and the felines, such as cheetahs, pumas and caracal. Some of the larger cats – tigers and lions, for example – are hypercarnivores who live only on the flesh of other large animals. Smaller cats are carnivores, of course, but with broader diets which can include rodents, birds, lizards and even invertebrates such as bugs and beetles. </p>
<p>It could be suggested that sabre teeth are an adaptation that is urgently required by many modern large cats. Lions and tigers do have large canine teeth that are used to pierce and kill – but they could certainly benefit from canines that are longer and stronger. </p>
<p>When a lion tries to bring down a Cape buffalo or a juvenile elephant, it <a href="https://a-z-animals.com/blog/top-8-deadliest-cats/#:%7E:text=Puma%20Success%20Rate%3A%2020%25%20A%20Puma%20is%20an,still%20one%20of%20the%20deadliest%20cats%20out%20there">struggles to</a> make a killing bite. Even Chilean pumas struggle to bite through the hide of a guanaco (a native of South America and close relative of the llama) and only succeed in killing their prey in one hunt out of ten. And with their thicker skin, pachyderms like buffalo, hippos, rhinos and elephants are more or less immune from attack.</p>
<p>Indeed, sabre-teeth could save the lives of many modern large hunting cats by making the hunt safer. So will one of the modern cat species evolve them? Well, it seems like leopards might already be moving <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jmor.10468">in that direction</a>, so only time will tell.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179542/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael J. Benton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The first sabre-toothed cat-like predator was not much larger than a bobcat, but it had long teeth and a strong jaw to cut through thick skin.Michael J. Benton, Professor of Vertebrate Palaeontology, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1306362022-02-16T13:15:35Z2022-02-16T13:15:35ZAfrican wild dogs cope with human development using skills they rely on to compete with other carnivores<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446628/original/file-20220215-27-1h2k3xj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=782%2C684%2C3566%2C2353&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wild dogs are usually with their pack mates.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scott Creel</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Large carnivores in Africa are important from ecological, economic and cultural perspectives, but human activities put them at risk. Increasingly, lions, hyenas and African wild dogs are restricted to protected areas like national parks. Within these limited areas, they must compete for the same food sources.</p>
<p>Competition is, of course, nothing new. For several million years, African wild dogs have evolved within a set of large carnivores that all prey on the same large herbivore species, like wildebeest and warthogs. Wild dogs are lanky, long-distance hunters that always live in groups, usually of eight to 10 adults. Cooperation with pack mates allows them to hunt prey much larger than themselves. Weighing in at about 40-62 pounds (18-28 kilograms), wild dogs have been shaped by the necessity to compete with larger species like the lion and spotted hyena.</p>
<p>There may be a silver lining to being the bottom dog in the competitive hierarchy. Research that my <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=IiQjBP8AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">colleagues with the Zambian Carnivore Programme</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=IBEIw1QAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">and I</a> have conducted in Zambia and Tanzania suggests why smaller, subordinate species like wild dogs are better able to move through human-modified landscapes. Understanding how is essential for their conservation.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446658/original/file-20220215-24208-dkqqwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four African wild dogs around a kill" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446658/original/file-20220215-24208-dkqqwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446658/original/file-20220215-24208-dkqqwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446658/original/file-20220215-24208-dkqqwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446658/original/file-20220215-24208-dkqqwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446658/original/file-20220215-24208-dkqqwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446658/original/file-20220215-24208-dkqqwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446658/original/file-20220215-24208-dkqqwr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A pack of African wild dogs makes a formidable hunting team.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/african-wild-dog-lycaon-pictus-herd-on-a-kill-a-royalty-free-image/1255884159">slowmotiongli/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Meeting the African wild dog</h2>
<p>In the late 1980s, I was studying dwarf mongooses in Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park when an extraordinary thing happened. While I sat on the roof of an ancient Land Rover watching mongooses on a nearby termite mound, a wild dog trotted past. And then another, and another. Wild dogs had been missing from most (perhaps all) of the Serengeti for years due to a combination of intense competition from larger carnivores and outbreaks of rabies. But here they were, back again.</p>
<p>Over the next year, I occasionally followed the dogs to watch them hunt on the shortgrass plains, where they were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1993.1059">constantly shadowed by spotted hyenas</a>. Several hyenas often trailed the dogs even as they set out to hunt, and hyenas quickly aggregated when the dogs killed a gazelle or wildebeest – often alerted by the unmistakable sound of vultures plummeting through the air in their own race to the fresh carcass. </p>
<p>Although they are half the size, wild dogs do not easily give up a kill to hyenas. A pack of wild dogs making a coordinated attack on one or two hyenas can easily drive them off. But hyenas are also social animals, and researchers found that the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1993.1059">dogs generally lost their kills to hyenas</a> when their numbers were equal. Given the large population of hyenas in Serengeti, they took nine out of 10 kills that the dogs made. And lions are simply too dangerous to fight, so the big cats could always take over a kill from the dogs, and kill them surprisingly often. </p>
<p>At that time, very little was known about wild dogs in places other than Serengeti and South Africa’s Kruger National Park, a more wooded ecosystem where researchers had found a flourishing population that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1644/05-MAMM-A-304R2.1">often hunted impala</a>. Biologists started to rethink the prevailing view that wild dogs were specialized to live and hunt in open grasslands.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I spent six years in the 1990s observing wild dogs in the Selous Game Reserve, confirming the Tanzania Wildlife Department’s belief that this large ecosystem was a major stronghold for the species. We found that the density of wild dogs in Selous was very good, at least partly because <a href="https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10020526.x">wild dogs were better able to avoid problems</a> with lions and spotted hyenas in the miombo woodland of Selous than in plains of the Serengeti. It was more evidence that not only could they survive outside of grasslands like in the Serengeti, but African wild dogs found advantages to other kinds of environments.</p>
<p>By the mid-1990s, a scientific consensus was emerging that the persistence of wild dogs in an area depends at least partly on their ability to avoid losing food to hyenas or being killed by lions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446660/original/file-20220215-13-1cwgtpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="African wild dog pack on the edge of a paved road" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446660/original/file-20220215-13-1cwgtpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446660/original/file-20220215-13-1cwgtpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446660/original/file-20220215-13-1cwgtpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446660/original/file-20220215-13-1cwgtpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446660/original/file-20220215-13-1cwgtpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446660/original/file-20220215-13-1cwgtpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446660/original/file-20220215-13-1cwgtpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">African wild dogs have been less separated by human development, like roads, than some other large carnivores.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/pack-of-african-wild-dogs-on-the-road-royalty-free-image/669588630">Simoneemanphotography/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Being bottom dog can pay off</h2>
<p>Many studies, including our current research in Zambia, have confirmed that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.12231">wild dogs are adapted to “live in the cracks”</a> of a landscape where they are outnumbered and outsized by spotted hyenas and lions.</p>
<p>In the short term, wild dogs move quickly away from an encounter with lions – or an experimental playback of their roars over a loudspeaker – in a straight line that would be unusual under other circumstances. Over the long term, wild dogs avoid areas that are heavily used by larger competitors, even though this requires them to <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.96252.x">hunt in areas with fewer prey</a>.</p>
<p>But there may be a benefit to being at the bottom of the competitive hierarchy. Compared to most species, all of the large African carnivores live in small and isolated populations that <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98366.x">must remain connected</a> to maintain genetic diversity. But humans have now modified <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12558">more than half of the Earth’s terrestrial surface</a>, cutting lines of movement and increasing the isolation of protected areas. Despite this general pattern, some species are better adapted than others to maintain connections between ecosystems. </p>
<p>Our research has used advances in genetic sequencing to test how well connected wild dogs and lions are in several ecosystems across Zambia and Tanzania. The basic idea is that well-connected populations remain genetically similar, but poorly connected populations become genetically distinct from one another over time.</p>
<p>We wondered whether the adaptations of wild dogs that allow them to move through a landscape dominated by lions and hyenas might <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52904-0">also help them move through a landscape altered by humans</a>. For example, wild dogs could move more quickly and in a straighter line after an encounter with people, just as they do after an encounter with lions. We hypothesized that genetic data would show that wild dogs have stronger connections between ecosystems than lions, and that their connections are less affected by humans.</p>
<p>And this is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52904-0">just what the data showed</a> when we compared the genotypes of 96 wild dogs and, separately, 208 lions. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446350/original/file-20220214-25-qsmcdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="map of where dogs were living and their genetic similarity" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446350/original/file-20220214-25-qsmcdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446350/original/file-20220214-25-qsmcdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446350/original/file-20220214-25-qsmcdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446350/original/file-20220214-25-qsmcdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446350/original/file-20220214-25-qsmcdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446350/original/file-20220214-25-qsmcdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446350/original/file-20220214-25-qsmcdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Each dot represents an individual wild dog, and similarity in their color represents genetic similarity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scott Creel</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Wild dogs in eastern, central and western Zambia were genetically quite similar, showing that these populations remain well connected. In contrast, lions were much less genetically similar, with distinct populations that were not well connected.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446351/original/file-20220214-23-6h14xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="map of where lions were living and their genetic similarity" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446351/original/file-20220214-23-6h14xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446351/original/file-20220214-23-6h14xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446351/original/file-20220214-23-6h14xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446351/original/file-20220214-23-6h14xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446351/original/file-20220214-23-6h14xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446351/original/file-20220214-23-6h14xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446351/original/file-20220214-23-6h14xf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Each dot represents an individual lion, and similarity in their color represents genetic similarity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scott Creel</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also mapped the degree to which human effects such as land conversion, agriculture and roads hinder animal movement, differentiating between areas with relatively little resistance to animal movement and areas with strong human effects. The genetic differences between lion populations were strongly correlated with human resistance, but there was no such correlation for wild dogs. That is, places that were less hospitable to animal movement had more genetically isolated populations of lions, but didn’t affect the genetic diversity of the wild dogs in the area.</p>
<p>While it is still too early to know if this pattern will apply to other species, it suggests that eons of dealing with lions and hyenas have provided the wild dog with tools that help them maneuver through the unforgiving landscapes that humans create outside of national parks.</p>
<p>[<em>Get fascinating science, health and technology news.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=science&source=inline-science-fascinating">Sign up for The Conversation’s weekly science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130636/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scott Creel received funding from the US National Science Foundation and the Wallenberg Foundation.</span></em></p>African wild dogs are used to evading hyenas and lions. Genetic research suggests they are using the same strengths to get around human development as well.Scott Creel, Professor of Conservation Biology & Ecology, Montana State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1735492021-12-16T15:06:55Z2021-12-16T15:06:55ZHydroelectric dams take toll on endangered big cats, study shows<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438036/original/file-20211216-25-cs8qnt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5007%2C3335&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/amur-tiger-walking-water-dangerous-animal-694592521">Ondrej Prosicky/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Big cats are among the most widespread top predators on Earth. Lions stalk zebra in the African savanna, tigers ambush antelope in the forests of Asia and jaguars hunt deer in the jungles of South America. They play an important role in ecosystems by regulating the numbers of these herbivores, in turn, reducing the deterioration of vegetated habitats and <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1064397">maintaining species diversity</a>.</p>
<p>Tigers, lions and jaguars must cover large areas to find food, so they need a lot of energy. As with many large carnivores, big cats are under threat from habitat loss, which leaves them with less to eat. Their spread-out populations and slow reproductive rates make them particularly vulnerable. While the habitats in which big cats live range from boreal forests at high latitudes to tropical rainforests at the equator, the causes of habitat loss are largely the same: logging for wood and fuel, plantations, farming and urbanisation.</p>
<p>Aside from depriving wildlife of a home, forest loss also <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-tackling-deforestation-is-so-important-for-slowing-climate-change-170287">contributes to climate change</a>. It’s ironic then that hydroelectricity, which is being developed worldwide (<a href="https://www.hydropower.org/status-report">especially in South American and Asian countries</a>) as an alternative energy source to fossil fuels, is a big cause of deforestation.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-54980-8">Building hydroelectric dams</a> has caused extinctions and spread diseases in rivers globally, but the threat to ecosystems on land has largely been overlooked. In <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-021-02878-5">a recent study</a>, researchers from China and Portugal investigated how existing and planned hydroelectric dams might affect two carnivores: the near-threatened jaguar (with an estimated global population of 173,000) and the endangered tiger (thought to number between 3,200 and 3,500 worldwide). </p>
<p>The distribution of jaguars and tigers has shrunk 50% and 93% respectively, but the researchers found that hydroelectric plants pose a substantial risk of further declines. They found 164 dams that already intersect the jaguar range and 421 dams that do the same for tigers. This equates to one in five tigers that are likely to be affected by dams, compared with one in 200 jaguars. Since tiger numbers are already so low, this could have a considerable influence on the population’s capacity to recover and may even result in local extinctions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A large concrete dam surrounded by tropical forest." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438038/original/file-20211216-19-1l6fegz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438038/original/file-20211216-19-1l6fegz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=274&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438038/original/file-20211216-19-1l6fegz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=274&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438038/original/file-20211216-19-1l6fegz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=274&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438038/original/file-20211216-19-1l6fegz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438038/original/file-20211216-19-1l6fegz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438038/original/file-20211216-19-1l6fegz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A dam on the Narmada River in India, where the endangered Bengal tiger is native.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dam-on-holy-narmada-river-sardar-1773340118">Ankit K Sinha/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Damning developments for big cats</h2>
<p>Large expanses of land are flooded to create reservoirs when building hydroelectric plants in low-lying, relatively flat areas. Although tigers and jaguars can and do swim, they mainly hunt species such as deer that live on land. Sites chosen for dams typically incorporate floodplains and areas along rivers that are important for both species, since they tend to contain lots of prey. </p>
<p>The flooded area will force both predators and prey into surrounding areas. If the vegetation here can support the influx of herbivores, tigers and jaguars will probably persist. But if it cannot, the predators may be forced further afield in search of food, potentially drawing them into conflict with people who may kill them. </p>
<p>Relatively pristine habitats are under threat. The number of hydroelectric dams is set to quadruple across the jaguar’s range with a further 429 planned, while 41 are expected where tigers roam. Aside from the direct loss of habitat, these new constructions can increase the presence of people in remote areas. Roads built to access new dam sites consequently open up areas that were previously impenetrable. Roads can be a barrier to some species and kill those that try to cross. Roads can also encourage new towns and villages, which divide the habitat further.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A yellow road sign depicting a jaguar next to a road surrounded by tropical forest." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438039/original/file-20211216-17-q4po23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438039/original/file-20211216-17-q4po23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438039/original/file-20211216-17-q4po23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438039/original/file-20211216-17-q4po23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438039/original/file-20211216-17-q4po23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438039/original/file-20211216-17-q4po23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438039/original/file-20211216-17-q4po23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A road in Brazil which drives deep into jaguar habitat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/animal-road-sign-jaguar-itatiaia-national-1476185558">Ricardo de O. Lemos/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Mitigating the damage</h2>
<p>Where dams exist, the researchers suggest habitat loss could be limited by incorporating the surroundings into a protected area with suitable enforcement. Any new dams, though, especially in conservation areas or areas where top predators prowl, should be avoided. Sadly, most of the dams planned in Asia overlap with significant portions of the tiger’s range. </p>
<p>One way to mitigate the damage from building new hydroelectric plants may be to do it on slopes outside of areas that are crucial for conserving tigers and jaguars. The amount of flooded area needed to produce electricity from these plants when they’re on a slope is smaller compared to those built on lower ground, reducing the overall damage to the surrounding habitat. But impact assessments would need to confirm the plant wasn’t simply creating new issues elsewhere. </p>
<p>Alternative sources of energy are important for a sustainable future, but their benefits should not come at a substantial cost to species already under threat.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/173549/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tara Pirie does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>One in 200 jaguars are likely to be affected by dams, versus one in five tigers.Tara Pirie, Postdoctoral Researcher, People and Wildlife Research Group, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1673262021-11-15T14:27:11Z2021-11-15T14:27:11ZHow to live with large predators – lessons from Spanish wolf country<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419588/original/file-20210906-15-cd1i2t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4089%2C2152&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Wolf watching in Sierra de la Culebra, Spain.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chisco Lema</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Elena and her husband are shepherds. Their herd of 400 free-roaming goats were bred over generations to make the most of the patchwork of woodlands and pastures that cover their local mountain range in central Spain.</p>
<p>This type of farming produces some of the most sustainable meat and dairy that money can buy. They use little feed and fertilisers and the goats maintain biodiversity-rich grasslands through grazing. Even so, eking out a livelihood here is becoming increasingly difficult. Across Spain, local butchers and cheesemakers have closed down, rigid food standards prevent farmers from selling directly to consumers and agricultural subsidies <a href="https://theconversation.com/eu-subsidies-benefit-big-farms-while-underfunding-greener-and-poorer-plots-new-research-144880">benefit those who produce a lot</a> over those who produce a little.</p>
<p>Numbers of free-roaming sheep and goats have decreased drastically in areas like Elena’s, enabling shrub to reclaim old pastures and blur the boundaries between forests and villages. This has made wildfires more expansive, threatening homes. It has also enabled wild boar and deer to return in large numbers, raiding crops and causing outbreaks of bovine tuberculosis.</p>
<p>On top of all this, the wolf is at the door. Literally.</p>
<p>The wolf is a generalist that can hunt both wild and domestic prey. This flexibility, together with stricter conservation laws and better habitat conditions, has allowed their populations and those of other European carnivores (bears, lynx and wolverines) to rebound and <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1257553">reclaim old territories</a> across the continent. </p>
<p>Many people, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320707001383">particularly city dwellers</a>, welcome these changes. Attitudes towards predators have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/67/7/646/3845067">softened over the years</a> as awareness of their important ecological role has grown. But in many rural areas, returning carnivores have come to symbolise the demise of traditional farming cultures. In some cases, their return has been met with suspected violence, as in the case of the first wolf in Belgium to bear cubs in over a century, who <a href="https://theconversation.com/belgiums-first-wolf-in-100-years-is-presumed-dead-have-hopes-of-coexistence-died-with-her-126569">died in suspicious circumstances</a> in 2019.</p>
<p>These are the cases we most often hear about. But there are also places in Europe where people are living relatively peacefully alongside carnivores. <a href="https://conservationandsociety.org.in/preprintarticle.asp?id=329680">What’s behind these harmonious relationships</a>, and how are people adapting to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2021.710218/full">returning wolves elsewhere</a>? This is what my research team and I set out to explore through case studies in Spain.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422994/original/file-20210923-27-1rgci7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map comparing degrees of wolf presence in different regions of Spain." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422994/original/file-20210923-27-1rgci7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422994/original/file-20210923-27-1rgci7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422994/original/file-20210923-27-1rgci7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422994/original/file-20210923-27-1rgci7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422994/original/file-20210923-27-1rgci7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422994/original/file-20210923-27-1rgci7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422994/original/file-20210923-27-1rgci7a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wolves now occupy an area of Spain that’s roughly twice the size it was in 1970.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2021.710218/full">Hanna Pettersson</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Working with wolves</h2>
<p>Elena (who lives at “C” on the map) had mixed feelings about wolves returning to her land. She hoped they might control the boar and deer, but she worried about how to prevent them from attacking her goats. She knew that protecting her flock would take a lot of time, money and expertise – none of which she has.</p>
<p>People in the region of Sanabria-La Carballeda in northwestern Spain (marked as “A” on the map), are accustomed to the challenges of coexisting with large predators. The area was one of the last bastions for wolves before hunting was regulated in the 1970s. Before then, wolves could be shot on sight. Today it has one of the densest wolf populations in western Europe, concentrated in the hunting reserve of Sierra de la Culebra. </p>
<p>To defend their livestock, shepherds here keep packs of up to 21 <a href="https://theconversation.com/dogs-used-to-guard-livestock-may-have-unintended-costs-to-wildlife-154602v">guard dogs</a> with their flocks. They accompany their sheep as they graze during the day and then they lock them in at night. This reduces wolf attacks to a trickle. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A large dog watching a flock of sheep." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419587/original/file-20210906-25-b95z11.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/419587/original/file-20210906-25-b95z11.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419587/original/file-20210906-25-b95z11.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419587/original/file-20210906-25-b95z11.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419587/original/file-20210906-25-b95z11.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419587/original/file-20210906-25-b95z11.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/419587/original/file-20210906-25-b95z11.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A guardian dog at work in northwestern Spain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hanna Pettersson</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While wolves are not universally liked, their permanent presence has allowed shepherds to refine these defence methods and transmit them from generation to generation, making them feel like a normal part of farming.</p>
<p>Wolves also generated income for local councils through trophy hunting. This was still legal when I was there, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/06/spanish-farmers-deeply-split-as-ban-on-hunting-wolves-is-extended">but was banned</a> by the Spanish government in September 2021. A common local perception was that hunting helped control the expanding population.</p>
<p>Wolf tourism offers another income stream thanks to ideal conditions – a smooth topography with intermingled forests and open spaces. Companies offering wildlife enthusiasts a chance to spot wolves have sprouted in recent decades, making La Culebra peculiar as a place where wolf watching and hunting existed side by side.</p>
<p>However, this revenue doesn’t line the pockets of local livestock owners, and the meat they produce is not priced to reflect the benefits that this extra work generates for wolves and grasslands – unlike price premiums for <a href="https://www.msc.org/en-us/media-center/news-media/press-release/research-shows-ecolabel-certification-raises-share-prices">sustainable fish</a>, for example. Since farming among wolves entails additional work, many are struggling to make ends meet on the increasingly competitive global market. </p>
<p>One shepherd I spoke to concluded: “Those of us who live in wolf territory have significantly less quality of life than those who don’t.” The demise of the farming sector in La Culebra is a threat to coexistence with wildlife in Spain, since it represents one of the best examples of a functional relationship between wolves and traditional farming.</p>
<h2>Coexistence and prosperity</h2>
<p>So how can we ensure the future of both wolves and rural communities?</p>
<p>First of all, by funding successful coexistence. In Spain, funding for wolves, such as that provided by the EU, is predominantly dedicated to areas where there is conflict between the wolves and local populations. This means that the best chance for a Spanish shepherd to get financial aid, to keep guardian dogs or build a barn, is to live in a community where people are <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/beyond-conflict-exploring-the-spectrum-of-humanwildlife-interactions-and-their-underlying-mechanisms/D8DDFE4D3BB76D265B3C734DF9DCB799">hostile towards wolves</a>.</p>
<p>We need to ensure that places like La Culebra thrive, to illustrate to people like Elena, who warily anticipates the return of wolves, that living with them does not necessarily imply lower living standards. This could involve <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/awards/application-2020/winners/socio-economic-benefit/index_en.htm">certification for sustainable meat</a>, shepherd schools and networks that help shepherds <a href="https://digismak.com/millennial-shepherds-to-combat-depopulation-in-the-sierra-norte-de-madrid/">share knowledge and collaborate</a>, and paying them for environmental services, such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479718309812">fire prevention through grazing</a>.</p>
<p>By safeguarding rural livelihoods and sustainable farming, we can provide more space for Europe’s wild species to return. </p>
<p><em>Names were changed to protect the identities of the people in this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167326/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hanna Pettersson receives funding from the UK Natural Environment Research Council.</span></em></p>A farming community in north-west Spain may hold the answer to coexistence with wild carnivores.Hanna Pettersson, PhD Candidate, Sustainability Research Institute, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1660292021-09-15T20:04:51Z2021-09-15T20:04:51ZJaws of death: how the canine teeth of carnivorous mammals evolved to make them super-killers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418015/original/file-20210826-4978-xab8ac.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6828%2C2749&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Carnivorous animals come in all shapes and sizes, from the 500-gram quoll to the 500-kilogram polar bear. This disparate group of mammals shares a common feature: canine teeth at the front of their jaws.</p>
<p>Canine teeth are long and pointed, with a sharp tip and, in some cases, bladed edges. These fearsome weapons are what make carnivores such effective killers. In fact, our <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlab064">new research</a> out today reveals how evolution has shaped canines into unique forms to suit each predator’s way of life. </p>
<p>We applied state-of-the-art 3D methods to measure the canine teeth of more than 60 predators including lions, cheetahs, grizzly bears, dingoes and Tasmanian devils. The research represents the first comprehensive analysis of canine tooth shape in predatory mammals. </p>
<p>We discovered canine teeth have evolved in special ways to help each species kill and eat their favourite prey – helping to make mammals some of nature’s most successful predators.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421038/original/file-20210914-25-7swr4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421038/original/file-20210914-25-7swr4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421038/original/file-20210914-25-7swr4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=133&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421038/original/file-20210914-25-7swr4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=133&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421038/original/file-20210914-25-7swr4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=133&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421038/original/file-20210914-25-7swr4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=167&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421038/original/file-20210914-25-7swr4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=167&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421038/original/file-20210914-25-7swr4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=167&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A lion, meerkat, grizzly bear, and African wild dog bearing their canine teeth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lion Petr Ganaj, meerkat Joshua J. Cotten, grizzly bear mana520, African Wild Dog Matt Burke all via Unsplash</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Born to kill</h2>
<p>When carnivorous mammals snarl, they reveal four long canine teeth at the front of their jaws - two at the top and two at the bottom. These teeth are the first point of contact between predator and prey, and are used to stab, kill and dismember a catch.</p>
<p>Not all carnivores have the same diet. Grizzly bears eat meat, fruit and plants, while meerkats feed mostly on invertebrates like scorpions and beetles. Big cats, like cheetahs, stick to meat.</p>
<p>Carnivores can also kill in myriad ways. Tigers suffocate their prey with a targeted throat bite, while wolves use multiple slashing bites to tear apart their prey. Small canids such as the red fox snap up and violently shake their prey, while wolverines can kill with a single, crushing skull bite.</p>
<p>There’s been little research into the associations between canine tooth shape, function and evolution. Our research sought to determine what canine shapes are best for each predator diet.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-reveals-animals-are-changing-their-body-shapes-to-cope-with-climate-change-166267">New research reveals animals are changing their body shapes to cope with climate change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417962/original/file-20210826-17-uj1lg2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417962/original/file-20210826-17-uj1lg2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417962/original/file-20210826-17-uj1lg2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=228&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417962/original/file-20210826-17-uj1lg2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=228&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417962/original/file-20210826-17-uj1lg2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=228&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417962/original/file-20210826-17-uj1lg2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417962/original/file-20210826-17-uj1lg2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417962/original/file-20210826-17-uj1lg2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=286&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lion using its long sharp dagger-like canines to deliver a targeted neck bite and taking down an Oryx in the Kalahari Desert.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lion canines Mike van den Bos and hunting Thomas Evans both via Unsplash</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A bite worse than its bark</h2>
<p>We scanned and compared the canine teeth of more than 60 carnivores, including tigers, coyotes, polar bears, wolverines, raccoons and even quolls. We then looked at the association between canine shape and function.</p>
<p>We found tooth shape varies depending on the types of food a carnivore regularly bites into – just like we choose different kitchen knives depending on what we want to cut up. </p>
<p>Big cats such as lions, tigers and cheetahs have some of the sharpest canine teeth in the animal kingdom. These long, dagger-like weapons are used to stab – biting down deeply into the throats of prey to bring them down.</p>
<p>Take a 3D look at the canine teeth of a cheetah in the interactive below.</p>
<div class="sketchfab-embed-wrapper">
<iframe title="Cheetah skull with long sharp canines" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="true" webkitallowfullscreen="true" allow="fullscreen; autoplay; vr" xr-spatial-tracking="" execution-while-out-of-viewport="" execution-while-not-rendered="" web-share="" src="https://sketchfab.com/models/188e23abc19648d9943d3822ac94a18a/embed" width="100%" height="400"> </iframe>
<p> <a href="https://sketchfab.com/3d-models/cheetah-skull-with-long-sharp-canines-188e23abc19648d9943d3822ac94a18a?utm_medium=embed&utm_campaign=share-popup&utm_content=188e23abc19648d9943d3822ac94a18a" target="_blank"> Cheetah skull with long sharp canines </a> by <a href="https://sketchfab.com/arevans?utm_medium=embed&utm_campaign=share-popup&utm_content=188e23abc19648d9943d3822ac94a18a" target="_blank"> Evans EvoMorph Lab </a> on <a href="https://sketchfab.com?utm_medium=embed&utm_campaign=share-popup&utm_content=188e23abc19648d9943d3822ac94a18a" target="_blank">Sketchfab</a></p></div>
<p>Other species, such as the coyote and red fox, have slender, curved canines. These teeth act as hooks to help hold small prey and prevent it slipping from the mouth when shaking.</p>
<p>Animals that eat a lot of “soft” prey, or those that deliver throat bites, often have sharp, slender canines. The sharp tips make a crack in the prey and as the animal bites down, the long, sharp edges of the tooth help penetrate deeply into the catch. </p>
<p>Species with a tougher or more varied diet have stout, robust teeth that don’t break when crunching bone or other hard foods. These species include scavengers such as the Tasmanian devil, and generalists such as the honey badger. </p>
<p>The bluntest upper canine tips we examined belong to the crab-eating mongoose. As the name suggests, the species feeds on crabs and other hard prey such as reptiles, snails and insects. </p>
<p>We also found canine teeth with blunt tips and edges were found in animals that kill prey with crushing bites to the skull, such as the American martin or wolverine. Blunt tips are better able than sharp tips to withstand the stresses produced by such heavy force.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417993/original/file-20210826-21-1nk1xw4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417993/original/file-20210826-21-1nk1xw4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417993/original/file-20210826-21-1nk1xw4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417993/original/file-20210826-21-1nk1xw4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417993/original/file-20210826-21-1nk1xw4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417993/original/file-20210826-21-1nk1xw4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=725&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417993/original/file-20210826-21-1nk1xw4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=725&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/417993/original/file-20210826-21-1nk1xw4.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=725&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Canine teeth can be long and sharp, slender and curved, or blunt and robust. These differences relate to how these teeth are used during hunting and feeding.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Image by Tahlia Pollock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Something to chew on</h2>
<p>The research helps establish new links between tooth shape and ecology that may shed light on the diet and behaviour of extinct species. </p>
<p>For example, the thylacine (or Tasmanian tiger) had curved canines, which suggests it may have snapped up and shaken smaller prey. This supports <a href="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-021-01788-8">recent research</a> on thylacine skull shape which found that, contrary to previous theories, the thylacine likely hunted small rather than large prey. </p>
<p>By studying canine teeth up close, we’ve discovered just how well evolution shaped even the smallest animal features to suit the niches they fill in nature. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/who-would-win-in-a-fight-between-a-wedge-tailed-eagle-and-a-bald-eagle-its-a-close-call-for-two-nationally-revered-birds-164400">Who would win in a fight between a wedge-tailed eagle and a bald eagle? It's a close call for two nationally revered birds</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166029/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tahlia Pollock receives funding from the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship (RTP stipend), the Monash Graduate Excellence Scholarship (MGE), and the Monash Graduate Research Completion Award (GRCA).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alistair Evans receives funding from the Australian Research Council and Monash University, and is an Honorary Research Affiliate with Museums Victoria.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Hocking has received funding from the Australian Research Council and Monash University. He is the Senior Curator of Vertebrate Zoology at the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery and is an adjunct research associate with Monash University.</span></em></p>The researchers found tooth shape varied, depending on the types of food a carnivore regularly bites into – in much the same way we choose a kitchen knife depending on what we’re cutting up.Tahlia Pollock, PhD candidate, Monash UniversityAlistair Evans, Associate Professor, Monash UniversityDavid Hocking, Adjunct Research Associate, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1500422020-12-09T13:18:01Z2020-12-09T13:18:01ZBitter battles between stinkbugs and carnivorous mice could hold clues for controlling human pain<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373125/original/file-20201204-21-rfpuq6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2365%2C1408&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Small but fierce: Grasshopper mice can eat prey that are toxic to other mice. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lauren Koenig</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s hard to appreciate the value of pain when we feel it, but most living things would not survive without it. Pain is a signal that something is causing harm to your body and that you <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-best-sense-scientists-are-still-battling-it-out-113598">need to take action</a>. </p>
<p>One way to learn about pain receptors is by studying species in which these receptors seem to be absent. As an example, many animals regularly eat toxic food without suffering reactions that would cause pain in other species: <a href="https://www.wmmga.org/content.aspx?page_id=22&club_id=101643&module_id=235634">goats</a>, deer, and black bears will all happily browse on poison ivy without developing itchy rashes.</p>
<p>I have a long-standing appreciation for bizarre biology, so I wanted to learn about one of the most specialized predators in the animal kingdom: the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/profiles/5zDVkCVFKMm8mG1NsjZ4WdC/grasshopper-mouse">grasshopper mouse (Onychomys torridus)</a>. These tiny rodents have a big appetite for prey that other mice prefer to leave alone because of their quarry’s chemical defenses. <a href="https://rowelab.oucreate.com/">Ashlee Rowe and Matt Rowe</a>, whose lab I worked in while they were based at Michigan State, are investigating how grasshopper mice can consume dangerous food. Understanding this ability may provide insights into pain pathways and help scientists seeking to find new, nonaddictive treatments for blocking pain signals. </p>
<h2>Mice vs. beetles</h2>
<p>To uncover more about grasshopper mouse predatory behavior, I traveled to the Sonoran Desert in southern Arizona with Olivia Guswiler, Victoria Rose, and Matt Rowe. The desert is beautiful but hostile. </p>
<p>Many animals there have developed extreme adaptations, including venoms and poisons, that help them catch food and defend themselves from predators. This makes it the perfect natural lab for studying rodents and how they’ve specialized to handle desert life.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370384/original/file-20201119-23-1wjrxjy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Desert research site in Arizona" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370384/original/file-20201119-23-1wjrxjy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370384/original/file-20201119-23-1wjrxjy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370384/original/file-20201119-23-1wjrxjy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370384/original/file-20201119-23-1wjrxjy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370384/original/file-20201119-23-1wjrxjy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370384/original/file-20201119-23-1wjrxjy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370384/original/file-20201119-23-1wjrxjy.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Santa Rita Experimental Range research site in the Sonoran Desert.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lauren Koenig</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We focused on three related species of mice with different dietary preferences. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peromyscus">Deer mice (<em>Peromyscus</em>)</a> are omnivores, known for supplementing a diet of insects with whatever they find in kitchens all over North America. Peanut-shaped <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_pocket_mouse">pocket mice (<em>Chaetodipus penicillatus)</em></a> prefer to eat seeds and grain, but will eat insects as a last resort. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370391/original/file-20201119-15-mjkhve.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Scorpion under a blacklight" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370391/original/file-20201119-15-mjkhve.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370391/original/file-20201119-15-mjkhve.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370391/original/file-20201119-15-mjkhve.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370391/original/file-20201119-15-mjkhve.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=500&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370391/original/file-20201119-15-mjkhve.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=628&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370391/original/file-20201119-15-mjkhve.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=628&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370391/original/file-20201119-15-mjkhve.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=628&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grasshopper mice are fully capable of eating this venomous scorpion, which fluoresces under a blacklight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lauren Koenig</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In contrast, southern grasshopper mice are voracious carnivores. At sunset they let out long cries, like muted teakettles, that have been described as “<a href="https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/157954/files/tb145.pdf">wolf howls in miniature</a>.” Their stubby legs and tan-and-white patterned coats make them look like tiny corgis, but belie their aggressive nature. Grasshopper mice attack and eat anything that moves, including centipedes, tarantulas, scorpions and even other mice. They have an astounding <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1236451">immunity to scorpion venom</a>, which kills deer mice in minutes.</p>
<p>We wanted to see how grasshopper mice, deer mice and pocket mice ate different types of insects, so we trapped over 80 of them and tested their feeding behavior. We gave each mouse a cricket, which is largely defenseless, and a stink beetle (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinacate_beetle"><em>Eleodes longicollis</em></a>). These bugs are like the chocolate-covered pretzels of the desert – high-calorie treats that contain contrasting tastes. </p>
<p>But to get to the juicy center, a predator must overcome a hard outer shell and a burning, acrid spray that the beetle squirts from its rear end. The spray contains <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,4-Benzoquinone">benzoquinone chemicals</a>, which release fumes similar to bleach and can damage the eyes, nose, mouth and skin with prolonged exposure. I can personally attest to its bitter, stinging taste and the brown stains it leaves on clothes and skin.</p>
<h2>Taste tests</h2>
<p>In a typical battle, most grasshopper mice immediately attacked the beetle but were repulsed by a face full of chemical spray. Eyes closed, they would turn to rub their head in the sand, seemingly trying to brush the spray off their fur. But then, remarkably, each mouse returned to bite the beetle’s head until it was subdued. Crunching followed as the mouse held the beetle like a sandwich, working its way down the body until all that remained were six legs and an empty shell.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/cR1s7U-of68?wmode=transparent&start=4" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The battle between grasshopper mice and desert stink beetles.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The other contenders were total wimps. Deer mice sniffed around the beetles like a restaurant customer contemplating whether to order spicy chili. They all eventually gave up, although many ate the milder crickets. Some curious pocket mice inspected the insects, but remained vegetarian.</p>
<h2>Carnivorous rodents as pharmaceutical models</h2>
<p>Grasshopper mice have special skills that make them extremely efficient predators. We saw them deploy attack behaviors designed to quickly incapacitate a beetle by biting it on the head rather than the abdomen. We also saw them exhibit defense behaviors, like rubbing their face or trying to bury the beetle in the sand, suggesting that the mice likely contracted benzoquinones in their eyes, noses and mouths. Yet they relentlessly pursued the beetles in spite of this superficial discomfort. As the Rowes have suggested, this behavior may hint at some underlying form of chemical tolerance. </p>
<p>Since deer mice did not show these behaviors, they may not have the necessary adaptations for eating the same type of food. It is possible that grasshopper mice have sensory receptors that are less sensitive to benzoquinone. To address this question, the Rowe lab is currently investigating sensory receptors in deer mice and grasshopper mice.</p>
<p>But we do know that these animals show <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1236451">reduced sensitivity</a> to other chemicals that trigger pain sensation. There’s even some evidence that they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1981.tb01290.x">don’t show aversive conditioning to stink beetles</a>, meaning that grasshopper mice never learn to associate beetles with pain, even after they have a negative experience with the spray. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370383/original/file-20201119-22-1jvt51q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=33%2C0%2C3190%2C2254&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A Grasshopper mouse eats a stink beetle headfirst." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370383/original/file-20201119-22-1jvt51q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=33%2C0%2C3190%2C2254&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/370383/original/file-20201119-22-1jvt51q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370383/original/file-20201119-22-1jvt51q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370383/original/file-20201119-22-1jvt51q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370383/original/file-20201119-22-1jvt51q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370383/original/file-20201119-22-1jvt51q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/370383/original/file-20201119-22-1jvt51q.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A victorious grasshopper mouse eats a stink beetle headfirst.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lauren Koenig</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Future research may find even more clues in the grasshopper mouse brain about how pain sensations can be blocked. Human medications like Advil and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs reduce pain by <a href="https://www.webmd.com/arthritis/features/pain-relief-how-nsaids-work">blocking production of certain chemicals in the body that inflame tissues</a>. Similarly, drugs that mimic keys intended to fit the shape of sensory receptor locks might stop those receptors from sending pain signals. By <a href="https://www.scienceinschool.org/2014/issue28/natural_products">copying natural examples of pain resistance</a>, scientists can design treatments to alleviate pain or identify which part of the pain pathway might be malfunctioning in chronic pain patients.</p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p>
<h2>You are what you eat</h2>
<p>Learning more about pain and taste receptors in grasshopper mice may also help us understand how they became so different from other mice in the first place. Many carnivores have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1118360109">fewer taste receptors than herbivores</a>, possibly because they don’t need to detect which plants are toxic. Marine mammals that swallow their food whole, like sea lions and dolphins, lack most taste receptors altogether. </p>
<p>Other animals, like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2003.2059">vampire bats</a>, seem incapable of conditioned taste aversion – the tendency to avoid a food that has made you feel sick in the past. Such behavior would be useless for animals that follow a strict diet of mammalian blood and rarely encounter toxic food.</p>
<p>Perhaps genetic changes in the grasshopper mouse taste receptors helped them <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.108.4.394">to outcompete other rodents</a> for limited food in the desert. By eating insects and arachnids that no one else can handle, grasshopper mice occupy a unique dietary niche that helps them survive in one of the harshest environments on Earth.</p>
<p>Considering that humans and mice are so genetically similar, these ferocious carnivores may someday be a leading prototype for designing drugs that relieve human suffering.</p>
<p><em>Editors note: This story has been updated to better reflect the contributions of Ashlee and Matt Rowe.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/150042/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Koenig receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Animals that regularly dine on toxic food may hold clues for designing new drugs to treat persistent pain in humans.Lauren Koenig, PhD Candidate in Integrative Biology, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1472442020-10-16T11:01:45Z2020-10-16T11:01:45ZWill Colorado bring back wolves? It’s up to voters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363768/original/file-20201015-21-y5f7ob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5400%2C3589&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Won't you be my neighbor?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/male-gray-wolf-grey-wolf-portrait-in-fresh-falling-snow-news-photo/1184377894?adppopup=true">Dennis Fast/ VWPics/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Colorado voters will decide on Nov. 3 whether the state should reintroduce gray wolves (<em>Canis lupus</em>) after a nearly 80-year absence. <a href="https://ballotpedia.org/Colorado_Proposition_114,_Gray_Wolf_Reintroduction_Initiative_(2020)">Ballot Proposition 114</a> would require the state to develop and oversee a science-based plan to restore wolves, focused in Western Colorado and initiated by the end of 2023.</p>
<p>Restoring wolves is a contentious topic that taps into diverse values and passions. Indeed, much of the conflict surrounding wolves isn’t human versus animal, but human versus human. </p>
<p>Creating environments that allow humans and carnivores to thrive and that minimize social conflict is a global challenge. Examples include <a href="https://theconversation.com/black-bears-adapt-to-life-near-humans-by-burning-the-midnight-oil-118899">black bears</a> and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/bears-become-more-nocturnal-to-survive-1.5636570">grizzly bears</a> in North America, <a href="https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-09-05/mountain-lions-on-the-streets-chilean-capital-sees-big-cat-influx-amid-lockdown">pumas</a> in North and South America, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jan/26/harmless-or-vicious-hunter-the-uneasy-return-of-europes-wolves">wolves</a> in Europe, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204320">lions</a> in Africa and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/01/over-1000-people-killed-india-humans-wildlife-territories-meet">tigers</a> in India.</p>
<p>As researchers who study the <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1h72-2oAAAAJ&hl=en">social</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=mZNYgLcAAAAJ&hl=en">ecological</a> dimensions of <a href="https://sites.warnercnr.colostate.edu/centerforhumancarnivorecoexistence/">human-carnivore coexistence</a>, we see the vote on Proposition 114 as a catalyst for broader discussions about carnivore conservation and management. In our view, the best way to find workable solutions is to include people <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1QppmBszEF6zsNnhBJ7Q2-pSWRR-Zx_ln/view">representing all sides of the issue</a> in shared decision-making. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363800/original/file-20201015-19-ko8j39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing current and former wolf ranges in North America" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363800/original/file-20201015-19-ko8j39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363800/original/file-20201015-19-ko8j39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=673&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363800/original/file-20201015-19-ko8j39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=673&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363800/original/file-20201015-19-ko8j39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=673&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363800/original/file-20201015-19-ko8j39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=845&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363800/original/file-20201015-19-ko8j39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=845&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363800/original/file-20201015-19-ko8j39.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=845&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gray wolves once roamed much of North America, but hunting, trapping and poisoning in the 19th and 20th centuries greatly reduced their numbers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.livingwithwolves.org/meet-the-wolf/#timeline">Living with Wolves</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Back by popular demand?</h2>
<p>For thousands of years before white settlers pushed west, gray wolves ranged throughout the area that is now Colorado, from the Western Slope and Front Range of the Rocky Mountains into the Eastern Plains. As the region was settled, government agencies started <a href="https://mhs.mt.gov/research/collections/newspapers/extra/wolves">paying bounties</a> for wolves and other predators that were seen as threats to livestock and game. By the 1940s, shooting, trapping and poisoning had systematically eradicated wolves from Colorado.</p>
<p>In recent decades a few lone wolves migrated to Colorado from adjacent states, but were killed or simply disappeared. Then, starting in 2019, a pack of up to six wolves and a separate lone wolf were sighted in northern Colorado. Recent media reports indicate that some of these wolves may have been <a href="https://www.cpr.org/2020/09/09/colorado-wolves-may-have-been-killed-in-wyoming/">shot and killed along the Wyoming-Colorado border</a>. </p>
<p>Several scientific studies have concluded that Colorado can still <a href="https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/people-predators/wolves-in-colorado-history-and-status-8-007/">support a self-sustaining, viable wolf population</a>. Wolves can live successfully in many types of habitats where there is enough prey and where humans will tolerate them. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/wTx_jqpqqfU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">There are conflicting views in Colorado on reintroducing wolves.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Today gray wolves are <a href="https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/people-predators/wolf-policy-8-008/">protected in Colorado as an endangered species</a>. However, they have no legal protection in most of Wyoming, where they can be killed on sight. This makes it challenging for wolves to migrate from the Yellowstone region, where they were <a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/wolf-restoration.htm">reintroduced in the mid-1990s</a>, through Wyoming into Colorado. </p>
<p>The only other adjoining states with resident wolf populations are Arizona and New Mexico, where the endangered subspecies of Mexican gray wolf was reintroduced starting in the 1990s. But <a href="https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/people-predators/wolf-policy-8-008/">federal policy requires</a> that wolves leaving the reintroduction zone be recaptured and returned to it. Ultimately, then, if Coloradans want to bring wolves back, having wildlife biologists reintroduce them is the most likely route. </p>
<p>Proposition 114 was placed on the ballot through a citizen initiative led by <a href="https://www.wolfactionfund.com/">the Rocky Mountain Wolf Action Fund</a>. It asserts that gray wolves are endangered in Colorado; were historically an essential part of Colorado’s wildlands, but were exterminated by humans; and will <a href="https://leg.colorado.gov/ballots/reintroduction-and-management-gray-wolves">help restore ecological balance</a> if they are reintroduced. </p>
<p>Wolves are predators at the top of the food chain. Studies from <a href="https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/people-predators/ecological-effects-of-wolves-8-005/">national parks</a> suggest that wolves’ presence can produce ecological effects that ripple through ecosystems. But science also tells us that such impacts are difficult to predict outside of national parks, including in Colorado. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363798/original/file-20201015-17-17xl6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Wolf chasing scavenging birds from an elk carcass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363798/original/file-20201015-17-17xl6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363798/original/file-20201015-17-17xl6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363798/original/file-20201015-17-17xl6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363798/original/file-20201015-17-17xl6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363798/original/file-20201015-17-17xl6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363798/original/file-20201015-17-17xl6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363798/original/file-20201015-17-17xl6wo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A wolf chases magpies and ravens from an elk carcass in Yellowstone National Park.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nps.gov/media/photo/gallery-item.htm?pg=2549121&id=F7C80732-1DD8-B71B-0B986A64FC3D233F&gid=25C97BD8-155D-451F-675E208BE082FE26">NPS/Jim Peaco</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Clashing values</h2>
<p>Proposition 114 has strong support in Colorado. <a href="https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/people-predators/public-perspectives-on-wolves-and-wolf-reintroduction-8-004/">Statewide surveys </a> conducted by phone, by mail and online over the past two decades have found that 66% to 84% of respondents supported reintroducing wolves. This support is consistent across different regions of the state and diverse demographic groups. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.9074">survey of Colorado residents</a> that we conducted in 2019, the prospect that wolves could contribute to a balanced ecosystem was the most commonly cited reason for supporting reintroduction. Other arguments included people’s cultural and emotional connections to wolves, and <a href="https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/people-predators/moral-arguments-related-to-wolf-restoration-and-management-8-011/">moral arguments</a> that restoring a species humans had eradicated was the right thing to do.</p>
<p>While overall public support is strong, over half of Colorado’s 64 counties have passed <a href="https://www.drovers.com/article/wolf-reintroduction-ballot-colorado">resolutions against restoring wolves</a>. Many ranching and hunting associations are actively campaigning against the ballot measure. </p>
<p>In our 2019 study, we found that media coverage in the state focused more strongly on <a href="https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.9074">perceived negative impacts</a> associated with wolf reintroduction than on beneficial effects. Surveys show that resident concerns include threats to <a href="https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/people-predators/wolves-and-human-safety-8-003/">human safety and pets</a>; <a href="https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/people-predators/wolves-and-livestock-8-010/">wolf attacks on livestock</a>; and the potential for wolves to <a href="https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/people-predators/wolves-big-game-and-hunting-8-001/">reduce deer and elk populations</a>, threatening hunting opportunities. </p>
<h2>Who decides?</h2>
<p>This measure is the first giving voters in the U.S. an opportunity to weigh in on bringing back a native species. Addressing the issue through a ballot measure adds a unique twist to public and media discussions about wolves. </p>
<p>Supporters call it a democratic way to ensure that the <a href="https://www.cpr.org/2020/09/29/should-wolves-be-brought-back-to-colorado-a-rancher-and-a-biologist-have-their-say/">public’s values are recognized</a>. They also argue that voters are deciding only whether wolves should be reintroduced, while allowing experts at the <a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/">state wildlife agency</a> to create a reintroduction plan <a href="https://www.steamboatpilot.com/news/election/howl-you-vote-wolf-advocates-opponents-ask-colorado/">based on the best available science</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1316474105315483649"}"></div></p>
<p>Opponents assert that wildlife management decisions should be <a href="https://www.cpr.org/2020/09/29/should-wolves-be-brought-back-to-colorado-a-rancher-and-a-biologist-have-their-say/">left to state experts</a>. As some critics note, the <a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/aboutus/Pages/Commission.aspx">Colorado Parks and Wildlife Commission</a> has decided <a href="https://cpw.state.co.us/learn/Pages/CON-Wolf-Management.aspx/">against wolf reintroduction four times</a>, most recently in 2016. The commission is a citizen board appointed by the governor and made up of sportspersons, agricultural producers, recreationists and nonconsumptive wildlife organizations. Opponents also point out that people who do not support reintroducing wolves, such as ranchers, will bear a disproportionate share of the costs. </p>
<p>These arguments reflect deeper power dynamics that influence wildlife management across the U.S. Many wildlife agencies tend to represent people and organizations who believe wildlife should be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13493">managed for human benefit</a>, particularly hunting and other consumptive uses. </p>
<p>These agencies receive much of their funding from <a href="https://theconversation.com/to-better-conserve-wildlife-consider-all-kinds-of-animals-not-just-the-ones-we-hunt-58556">hunting and fishing license fees</a>. And people who believe wildlife should be managed to benefit humans tend to support using lethal methods to control wolves and other carnivores. They also are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1617138112001173">more likely to oppose reintroducing them</a> where they have been eradicated.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://theconversation.com/as-hunting-declines-efforts-grow-to-broaden-the-funding-base-for-wildlife-conservation-105792">support for this view is declining</a>. A growing share of Americans believe humans should coexist with carnivores and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13493">oppose managing them primarily for human benefit</a>. But because agency decisions don’t always reflect these increasingly popular values, people who advocate coexisting with nature are seeking a greater say via the ballot box. </p>
<p>[<em>The Conversation’s science, health and technology editors pick their favorite stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-favorite">Weekly on Wednesdays</a>.]</p>
<h2>Finding consensus</h2>
<p>Studies suggest that ballot initiatives like 114 will <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.07.032">become more common</a> as public values toward wildlife change and more diverse groups seek to influence wildlife management. For us, the key question is how to recognize and incorporate these differing values as agencies make decisions.</p>
<p>Research drawing on insights from <a href="https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/people-predators/dialogue-and-social-conflict-about-wolves-8-009/">psychology, political science and sociology</a> suggests that it is critical to run<a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1QppmBszEF6zsNnhBJ7Q2-pSWRR-Zx_ln/view"> truly participatory processes</a> that engage government agencies and people who have a stake in the issue in shared decision-making. Fostering dialogue between groups that value wildlife differently can build empathy and mutual understanding and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.07.015">foster compromise</a>. Broadening the conversation in this way is essential for coexisting with carnivores with minimal impacts on predators and people.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147244/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Niemiec has received funding from the National Geographic Society, USDA National Wildlife Research Center, Turner Endangered Species Fund, Sasei Foundation, a private philanthropist, and Colorado State University to support research, public engagement, and educational outreach on the potential restoration of wolves to Colorado. She previously served on the scientific advisory board of the Rocky Mountain Wolf Project. Her outreach efforts are intended to educate the public and inform science-based policy but not to advocate for or against the ballot initiative.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin Crooks has received funding from the USDA National Wildlife Research Center, Turner Endangered Species Fund, Sasei Foundation, a private philanthropist, and Colorado State University to support research, public engagement, and educational outreach on the potential restoration of wolves to Colorado. He previously served on the scientific advisory board of the Rocky Mountain Wolf Project. His outreach efforts are intended to educate the public and inform science-based policy but not to advocate for or against the ballot initiative. </span></em></p>For the first time in the US, a ballot measure will ask voters whether to restore wolves to a place where they’ve been eradicated. Coloradans have strong views on both sides.Rebecca Niemiec, Assistant Professor in the Human Dimensions of Natural Resources, Colorado State UniversityKevin Crooks, Professor of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology and Director, Center for Human-Carnivore Coexistence, Colorado State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1438492020-08-03T15:12:51Z2020-08-03T15:12:51ZGiant panda conservation is failing to revive the wider ecosystem – new study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350851/original/file-20200803-22-dfm95n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5760%2C3837&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/panda-bear-sleeping-on-tree-branch-688280269">Clkraus/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>At a time when we crave good news, the giant panda is a beacon of environmental optimism. Since becoming an icon for the conservation movement in the 1980s, 67 panda reserves and countless wildlife corridors have been created in the bamboo forested mountain ranges of central China. <a href="https://wwf.panda.org/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/giant_panda/panda/how_many_are_left_in_the_wild_population/">The most recent census</a> suggests all that effort has paid off. There are 1,864 pandas living in the wild today, up from 1,000 in the late 1970s. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1260-0">But in a new study</a>, researchers discovered that what’s good for the panda may not necessarily be good for the rest of the ecosystem. After studying images from camera traps over ten years, they found that large carnivores – the leopard, snow leopard, wolf and dhole (an Asian wild dog) – have retreated from where giant pandas have thrived. Their numbers appear to have fallen significantly in these panda reserves, and the researchers note that the wolf and dhole may be <a href="https://psmag.com/environment/what-happens-when-an-animal-is-declared-functionally-extinct">functionally extinct</a> within them, while the tiger has already been driven to extinction here. Panda conservation doesn’t appear to be benefiting other species, or the wider ecosystem.</p>
<p>These findings shake the foundations of one of conservation’s most enduring ideas – that investing time and money into protecting particular large, influential species can pay dividends for the other species and habitats they coexist with. In the aftermath of that revelation, what do we really know about how to protect ecosystems and save wildlife from extinction?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four graphs showing where four large carnivores still exist in protected areas throughout the giant panda's range." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350840/original/file-20200803-16-120jsoj.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Protected areas (PAs) where the four large carnivore species still exist (black bars), and where they have died out (grey bars) throughout the giant panda’s range in China. Clockwise from top left: leopard, snow leopard, dhole and wolf.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1260-0">Li et. al (2020)/Nature Ecology & Evolution</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How to think about ecosystems</h2>
<p>Single species conservation was the dominant idea during the latter half of the 20th century. Conservation groups and governments identified particular species in need of urgent help and used their images to raise public support to help save them from extinction.</p>
<p>The poster children of this approach were the <a href="https://wwf.gr/en/endangered-species/panda">giant panda</a> and the <a href="https://projecttiger.nic.in/content/107_1_Background.aspx">tiger</a>. Both of which have been success stories, for the target species at least.</p>
<p>But while lavishing these charismatic species with attention and resources, this approach tends to overlook less attractive species, such as worms, despite them <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/sep/23/panda-extinction-chris-packham">potentially having more ecological value</a>.</p>
<p>Today, conservationists place much greater emphasis on protecting ecosystems and entire landscapes. The logic being that you can more effectively maintain an area’s ecology if you treat it as a functional system.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The right-hand profile of a tiger." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350846/original/file-20200803-22-sry9k9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tigers are one of the few large carnivores whose numbers are increasing in the wild.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.jasongilchrist.co.uk/index.html">Jason Gilchrist</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A useful analogy is to compare an ecosystem with <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jul/18/james-lovelock-the-biosphere-and-i-are-both-in-the-last-1-per-cent-of-our-lives">an organism</a>, such as the human body. Each is made up of many working systems, whose roles are maintained by species in the case of the former, and organs in the latter.</p>
<p>A respiratory system needs healthy lungs, but both depend on the rest of the body’s systems. The lungs need healthy arms and legs to find and collect nourishment. The digestive system needs to be able to process that food to unlock the nutrients for the rest of the body, while the circulatory system needs to transport them to the lungs so they can do their work to keep the organism alive.</p>
<p>Alternatively, replace our organism with an aeroplane. For the aeroplane to fly and land safely, all the components need to work. If an engineer only maintains one component, like the engine, and ignores the wings, wheels and navigation system, the flight is going to end badly.</p>
<p>The lesson from both analogies is that all components and the roles they perform are necessary for keeping the whole functional and healthy. An aeroplane may only tolerate the loss of so many rivets, before losing <a href="https://theconversation.com/canary-species-can-sing-songs-that-warn-of-ecosystem-collapse-64138">one that’s vital</a>, or losing enough to cause mechanical breakdown. Losing the function of one organ can cause multiple systems to fail within the body. </p>
<p>Focusing on a single species in conservation isn’t necessarily wrong, though. A focal species can act as a <a href="https://www.biodiversitya-z.org/content/flagship-species">flagship</a>, an ambassador that raises support (and money) for conservation of an entire area. Pandas are very good at this.</p>
<p>But there are also umbrella species. For example, beavers modify their habitats so extensively that they create numerous niches for other species to occupy. In that sense they’re like an umbrella, <a href="https://theconversation.com/beavers-are-set-to-recolonise-the-uk-heres-how-people-and-the-environment-could-benefit-132116">that if protected</a>, will provide shelter for other species.</p>
<p>So why did panda-targeted conservation fail to revive populations of large carnivores in central China? Well, a panda’s habitat requirements are small compared to a wolf’s or a leopard’s, and the threats facing them in the wild are very different. Pandas are also famous for their specialised diet – a carnivore turned herbivore – and so their needs differ greatly from your average large predator. Put simply, a habitat catered to sedate, bamboo-munching pandas isn’t likely to help a nomadic, meat-loving leopard.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A dhole, or Asian wild dog, tearing at a deer carcass by a river." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350883/original/file-20200803-22-1xwrmb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Carnivores like the dhole have very different habitat needs to pandas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhole#/media/File:Dhole_feeding_Khao_Yai_NP.jpg">Tontan Travel/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-conserving-natures-umbrella-species-could-benefit-whole-habitats-119122">How conserving nature's 'umbrella' species could benefit whole habitats</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Conserving large carnivores</h2>
<p>Large carnivores don’t have it easy worldwide. They need large areas of suitable habitat and lots of prey. In most areas they once occupied, humans have destroyed habitat, removed native prey species and killed large carnivores by gun, trap or poison, either because they hunt livestock or because they are seen as a danger.</p>
<p>The tiger is one of the few large carnivores whose populations have increased in recent years. India has seen its tiger population grow by a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/29/india-wild-tiger-population-rises-conservation">third since 2014</a>. Considering the challenges of coexisting with these large predators – animals that occasionally kill humans – this success is impressive.</p>
<p>India’s approach to tiger conservation prizes tolerance, education and working closely with the communities that live alongside this species above all else. Part of that education is recognising the tiger as just one part of the ecosystem, all of which needs protection.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A cartoon depicting squirrels sheltering from rain under a tiger, with one saying 'No, why would he mind? He's the umbrella species.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350863/original/file-20200803-18-1cb7dpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.greenhumour.com/">Rohan Chakravarty</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What the panda study tells us is that we cannot assume a flagship species will also be an umbrella species. While individual species are important, some are more important than others for maintaining a healthy ecosystem.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143849/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Gilchrist does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Pandas have done more to raise awareness of biodiversity loss than any other species. But they may not be good at stopping it themselves.Jason Gilchrist, Ecologist, Edinburgh Napier UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1394762020-05-31T19:50:55Z2020-05-31T19:50:55ZForget ‘murder hornets’, European wasps in Australia decapitate flies and bully dingoes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338467/original/file-20200529-51471-14a77jx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C12%2C1007%2C666&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/a8pwY9">nutmeg66/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The impacts of invasive mammals such as feral horses and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/may/15/keep-pet-cats-indoors-say-researchers-who-found-they-kill-230m-native-australian-animals-each-year">feral cats</a> have featured prominently in the media over the years.</p>
<p>But the recent discovery of the infamous “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/02/us/asian-giant-hornet-washington.html">murder hornet</a>” (or giant Asian hornet <em>Vespa mandarinia</em>) in the US has shone a spotlight on a similar invasive insect in Australia, the <a href="https://australianmuseum.net.au/learn/animals/insects/european-wasp/">European wasp</a> (<em>Vespula germanica</em>).</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/national-parks-are-for-native-wildlife-not-feral-horses-federal-court-138204">National parks are for native wildlife, not feral horses: federal court</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352249620300045">Our recent study</a> showed this aggressive insect swarming decayed corpses, decapitating its prey and picking fights with dingoes. </p>
<p>Invasive plants and animals can have catastrophic impacts on wildlife. And <a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-get-this-straight-habitat-loss-is-the-number-one-threat-to-australias-species-85674">along with habitat loss and overexploitation</a>, they are the greatest threat faced by native Australian species. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338468/original/file-20200529-51509-28uobr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338468/original/file-20200529-51509-28uobr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338468/original/file-20200529-51509-28uobr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338468/original/file-20200529-51509-28uobr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338468/original/file-20200529-51509-28uobr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338468/original/file-20200529-51509-28uobr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338468/original/file-20200529-51509-28uobr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338468/original/file-20200529-51509-28uobr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">European wasps feed on meat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Thomas Bresson/flickr</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The rise of European wasps</h2>
<p>European wasps are native to Europe, Northern Africa and parts of Asia. But hibernating queens stowed unintentionally in ships or trucks can colonise new areas, and this is how they arrived in Australia. </p>
<p>They were first discovered in Tasmania in 1959, and by the 1970s had reached mainland Australia. Today, European wasps are found in every state and territory, and are considered an agricultural, urban and environmental pest. The species is firmly established in the eastern parts of the country, and constant vigilance is required to keep numbers down in <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-04-15/european-wasps-warning-for-wa-as-insect-numbers-rise/10997132">other areas</a>. </p>
<p>European wasps have no predators (other than humans) in Australia. And they tend to forage more efficiently than their native counterparts, such as the common paper wasp <a href="https://bie.ala.org.au/species/urn:lsid:biodiversity.org.au:afd.taxon:5ee83dca-6b7c-41bc-8a37-4ace3260ea23"><em>Polistes humilis</em></a>. </p>
<p>Although they are typically most active in late summer and autumn, Australia’s warmer climate means not all European wasp queens hibernate over winter as they do in Europe. This allows some wasp colonies to build “<a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-03-03/european-wasp-super-nest-found-residents-warned/9498398">super nests</a>” of up to 100,000 individuals. </p>
<p>European wasps are commonly encountered in urban areas and, unlike bees, <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/european-wasp">can sting multiple times</a>. They also release a pheromone when threatened that quickly attracts more wasps. So if you bother a nest, you may have to contend with the whole hive. </p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/423686176" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">European wasps can be found swarming animal carcasses.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Wasps as ruthless scavengers</h2>
<p>Our research looks into the role of European wasps as scavengers. </p>
<p>In Australia, animal carcasses aren’t in short supply. Millions are produced each year due to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-02/camels-culled-by-graziers-in-central-desert-is-meat-an-option/11917682">culling</a>, <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/national/animal-vehicle-collisions-expected-to-rise-on-australian-roads-in-coming-months/d2f0b100-4092-45e2-a7c2-dbcf0741a021">vehicle collision</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/in-pictures-51191849">drought</a>. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/bushfires-left-millions-of-animals-dead-we-should-use-them-not-just-bury-them-129787">recent bushfires</a> also added to this. </p>
<p>Most carcasses are left to rot and provide perfect “free feed” stations for wasp colonies foraging for protein. For our study, we monitored 20 kangaroo carcasses at <a href="https://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/visit-a-park/parks/kosciuszko-national-park">Kosciuszko National Park</a> in New South Wales. </p>
<p>Wasps congregated in large numbers around each, and ruthlessly attacked blowflies that attempted to approach. We could sit next to a carcass and watch fly after fly tackled to the ground by wasps. Many flies showed signs of mutilation. To our surprise, some were even missing their heads.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338280/original/file-20200528-51527-1awlktg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338280/original/file-20200528-51527-1awlktg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338280/original/file-20200528-51527-1awlktg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=225&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338280/original/file-20200528-51527-1awlktg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=225&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338280/original/file-20200528-51527-1awlktg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=225&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338280/original/file-20200528-51527-1awlktg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338280/original/file-20200528-51527-1awlktg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338280/original/file-20200528-51527-1awlktg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=283&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This unlucky blowfly was decapitated by a European wasp.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Emma Spencer, author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In an effort to protect “their” carcass, the European wasps were decapitating the flies. This may have simply been defensive behaviour, but they could have also been taking bits of flies back to their nest for larvae to feed on. </p>
<p>We also observed the wasps bothering animals much larger than them, and our camera trap images showed dingoes snapping at wasps circling carcasses. Many of these animals retreated without feeding on the resource, presumably because the wasps were stinging them.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338197/original/file-20200528-51516-1w60awv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338197/original/file-20200528-51516-1w60awv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338197/original/file-20200528-51516-1w60awv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338197/original/file-20200528-51516-1w60awv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338197/original/file-20200528-51516-1w60awv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=347&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338197/original/file-20200528-51516-1w60awv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338197/original/file-20200528-51516-1w60awv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338197/original/file-20200528-51516-1w60awv.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A dingo snaps at European wasps swarming a carcass site.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Emma Spencer, author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>We can’t ignore the flow on effects</h2>
<p>Our recent study is <a href="https://thomasnewsome.files.wordpress.com/2020/03/wasps-overview-2019.pdf">just the start</a> of our investigations into European wasp impacts in Kosciuszko National Park. But it has raised important points about the fate of carcasses dominated by wasps. </p>
<p>For one, it seems the wasps are preventing blowflies and dingoes from doing their job of “cleaning up” carcasses in the landscape. Also, flies are <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1988.tb00968.x">major pollinators</a>, and decapitation isn’t helpful for pollen transfer.</p>
<figure>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/423528019" width="500" height="281" frameborder="0" webkitallowfullscreen="" mozallowfullscreen="" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A European wasp attacks a blowfly.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Moreover, if European wasp numbers are supported by prevalent carcass resources (including those resulting from <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/may/08/victoria-resume-culling-feral-horses-brumbies-alpine-national-parks-court-ruling">culling</a>) this may suggest a need to cull pest species when the wasps are not active, such as during the coldest times of the year.</p>
<h2>Are wasps and ‘murder hornets’ a danger to us?</h2>
<p>Like the European wasp, the “murder hornet” also threatens insect pollinators. The hornets have raised alarms in the US because they decimate honeybee populations, and have a nasty sting. </p>
<p>Similarly in Australia, there has been a focus on the threat European wasps pose to humans. But as is the case in the US, this focus is largely misguided. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-asian-giant-hornets-and-are-they-really-that-dangerous-5-questions-answered-137954">What are Asian giant hornets, and are they really that dangerous? 5 questions answered</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>While both insects have painful stings that can result in severe allergic reactions, <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/bug-experts-dismiss-worry-us-murder-hornets-hype-70559128">fatalities are rare</a>. And we would do well to redirect our concerns towards the impacts such species have on our ecosystems.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139476/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Spencer receives funding from the Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment. She is affiliated with the Colong Foundation for Wilderness as a board member. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip Barton has received funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Newsome receives funding from the Australian Government, Hermon-Slade Foundation, Australia Pacific Science Foundation, National Geographic, Australian Academy of Science, and the Australian Alps National Parks Cooperative Management Program.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>William Ripple receives funding from the National Science Foundation in the United States. </span></em></p>The invasive species was likely brought to Australia unintentionally by ship. Now found in every state and territory, the wasps are decimating our ecosystems.Emma Spencer, Ph.D. student, University of SydneyPhilip Barton, Lecturer in Environmental Science, Federation University AustraliaThomas Newsome, Lecturer, University of SydneyWilliam Ripple, Distinguished Professor and Director, Trophic Cascades Program, Oregon State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1263072019-11-25T13:27:37Z2019-11-25T13:27:37ZWhat can you learn from studying an animal’s scat?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/302721/original/file-20191120-554-1v1c8y5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4912%2C3264&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A bear leaving its calling card.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/QgdUR4">Dean Harvey/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<p><strong>What can you learn from studying an animal’s scat? – Cora, age 9, Brookline, Massachusetts</strong></p>
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<p>Everybody poops. There are even <a href="https://www.whatdowedoallday.com/kids-books-about-poop-thats-right/">whole books</a> written about it. And we can learn a lot about animals from what they leave behind. </p>
<p>Scientists study animal poop, also called scat, to learn about the hidden lives of animals. We can find scat in the wild and know what type of animal left it based on its shape, size and contents. </p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=flol3JUAAAAJ&hl=en">I study mammals</a>, so I know that a pile of brown pellet-shaped scat that’s about the size of chocolate-covered raisins could be a sign that there are white-tailed deer in the area. Bigger, tube-shaped scat with hair and bones in it might be from a coyote.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The Smithsonian National Zoo uses scat to assess lions’ health.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Scat can tell us a lot about an animal’s diet, habits and movement, so scientists like to study it both in nature and in the lab. Outdoors, scat can identify what animals are present in an area. Then researchers take it to a lab, dry it out and dissect it for clues about the animal’s diet. </p>
<p>Some mammal poop is full of seeds, which shows that the animal eats fruit or berries. Or it might contain bones and fur, which scientists can identify to learn what species that animal is eating. </p>
<p>Animal scat also contains DNA – molecules inside the cells of organisms that carry genetic information. Extracting DNA from scat is a <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/center-for-conservation-genomics/non-invasive-dna">non-invasive</a> way to study animals, since scientists don’t need to handle the animals to learn about them. </p>
<p>DNA from scat can tell scientists about the genetic health of a species, who is occupying what territory, and the relationships of groups of animals in a particular area. For example, DNA from the scat of <a href="https://www.knowablemagazine.org/article/living-world/2019/tiger-scat-dna-conservation">rare Bengal tigers in India</a> helped scientists estimate how many tigers were in an area, see where individual animals were traveling and better understand their genetic relationships. </p>
<p>Studying animal scat can also support conservation. Some researchers have trained dogs to <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/10/191030082827.htm">sniff out the scat of endangered species</a>, such as the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/sacramento/es_species/Accounts/Amphibians-Reptiles/blunt_nosed_leopad_lizard/">blunt-nosed leopard lizard</a>, which is found only in a few grasslands in central California. By locating an endangered animal’s scat, scientists can estimate how many of that species are left in an area, analyze its diet and do DNA testing without having to disturb it.</p>
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<p>It’s not hard to find scat if you know where to look. Some mammals, such as coyotes and bobcats, like to poop in the middle of trails or trail crossings. Others, like porcupines, do their business at the bases of trees. <a href="http://www.falcon.com/book/9781493009961">Guidebooks</a> and <a href="https://www.reconnectwithnature.org/news-events/big-features/scattergories-the-scoop-on-animal-poop">websites</a> can tell you what kinds of scat you’re likely to find in your area.</p>
<p>It is important never to pick up scat with bare hands, since you don’t know what kind of diseases might be present. But you can use a stick to look at it and see if you can figure out what the animal was eating, or take pictures and look in a guide to identify the creature that left it behind.</p>
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<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
<p><em>And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126307/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Verity Mathis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An animal’s poop may seem like something to avoid, but it’s full of information about the creature that left it there.Verity Mathis, Mammal Collections Manager, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.