tag:theconversation.com,2011:/es/topics/mouth-85682/articlesMouth – The Conversation2022-10-03T12:06:13Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1711892022-10-03T12:06:13Z2022-10-03T12:06:13ZNo, it’s not just sugary food that’s responsible for poor oral health in America’s children, especially in Appalachia<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453131/original/file-20220319-27-1rh8vob.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=34%2C25%2C5716%2C3802&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tooth decay can cause pain, embarrassment, missed school and more.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/little-girl-with-a-sad-and-frightened-face-holds-royalty-free-image/1307147643?adppopup=true">Olga Simonova/EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Brushing your teeth is essential for maintaining optimal oral health, but like most aspects of health, the full story is more complicated.</p>
<p>As directors of the <a href="https://www.dental.pitt.edu/research/center-oral-health-research-appalachia">Center for Oral Health Research in Appalachia</a>, <a href="https://www.upmc.com/media/experts/mary-l-marazita">we</a> <a href="https://psychology.wvu.edu/faculty-and-staff/faculty-directory/daniel-mcneil">know</a> firsthand that inequalities exist when it comes to oral health, including in children. Some people or groups have considerably more oral health problems than others because of a combination of factors beyond personal dental hygiene.</p>
<p>For example, Appalachia – which stretches from the northern part of Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia up through the southern part of New York, and includes all of West Virginia – has one of the <a href="https://www.arc.gov/report/an-analysis-of-oral-health-disparities-and-access-to-services-in-the-appalachian-region/">greatest burdens of oral health problems per person</a> in the U.S.</p>
<p>October is <a href="https://www.adha.org/national-dental-hygiene-month">National Dental Hygiene Month</a>, which provides an opportunity to draw more attention to this chronic but often preventable problem.</p>
<h2>Oral health defined</h2>
<p>While the terms dental hygiene and dental health are largely focused on the teeth and gums, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2016.953">oral health</a> is more comprehensive. According to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2016.953">FDI World Dental Federation</a>, oral health encompasses the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/oralhealth/conditions/index.html">proper functioning of the mouth</a>, including one’s “ability to speak, smile, smell, taste, touch, chew, swallow and convey a range of emotions through facial expressions” without pain or discomfort. Oral health affects not only a person’s teeth but <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adaj.2016.10.001">also overall well-being and quality of life</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nidcr.nih.gov/research/oralhealthinamerica">Tooth decay</a> affects children all across the U.S., but far too little attention is paid to how preventable and treatable it is. Cavities, or caries, are the most common <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yapd.2007.03.012">chronic disease in kids</a> – five times <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/gap/cgi-bin/study.cgi?study_id=phs000095.v4.p2">more common than asthma and seven times more common</a> than environmental allergies, despite being preventable. More than <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/gap/cgi-bin/study.cgi?study_id=phs000095.v4.p2">40% of children have tooth decay</a> when they start kindergarten.</p>
<p>However, people who have less formal education or lower incomes, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2021-051481">marginalized ethnic and racial groups</a> and those living in more rural areas, such as Appalachia, tend to have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0528.2012.00716.x">more oral health problems than others</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2021-051481">at younger ages</a>. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00220345211068033">greater prevalence of childhood tooth decay</a> in specific populations is not only an inequity but also a serious public health problem. Oral health problems early in life extend into adulthood and can be lifelong.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483778/original/file-20220909-7447-temt35.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of Appalachian states indicating economic status of all counties." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483778/original/file-20220909-7447-temt35.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483778/original/file-20220909-7447-temt35.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483778/original/file-20220909-7447-temt35.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483778/original/file-20220909-7447-temt35.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=657&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483778/original/file-20220909-7447-temt35.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483778/original/file-20220909-7447-temt35.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483778/original/file-20220909-7447-temt35.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">County economic status in Appalachia, fiscal 2023.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.arc.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/County-Economic-Status_FY2023_Map.png">Appalachian Regional Commission</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Beyond personal dental hygiene</h2>
<p>It’s a common misconception that consuming sugary foods and beverages is the only cause of tooth decay. While that is undoubtedly a problem, there’s much more to good oral health. It includes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00220345211068033">consistent brushing and flossing</a>; eating healthy foods, like fresh fruits and vegetables; avoiding tobacco products; and wearing mouth guards while playing certain sports. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034509356779">Regular visits for dental care</a> are also critical, as they provide an opportunity for cleanings and preventive care.</p>
<p>Oral health in kids is a <a href="https://www.kentuckypress.com/9780813135861/appalachian-health-and-well-being/">reflection of their overall health</a> and that of their families; however, in addition to behavioral and social influences, genetic and other biological factors are also at play. For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034510381502">genes influencing taste preferences</a> – such as those for sweet foods – are associated with cavities on certain teeth and surfaces of teeth. It’s possible that our taste genes predispose some of us to prefer consuming sweet foods and drinks, which is a risk factor for developing cavities. </p>
<p><a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-020-71495-9">Bacteria and other microorganisms in the mouth</a>, known as the oral microbiome, also play a role. Some parts of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3920/BM2011.0002">oral microbiome are beneficial</a> and even required for good oral health. Other <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/odi.12509">bacteria</a> are invaders that can lead to oral diseases.</p>
<p>Just as important are <a href="https://doi.org/10.17796/1053-4628-40.2.152">environmental factors</a>, including air quality, access to healthy foods, the cost of dental care, access to transportation to and from the dentist, and school-based programs that encourage good oral hygiene among children. Whether one lives in a community with fluoridated water or otherwise has access to fluoride treatments is also important, as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-1699">fluoride helps to prevent tooth decay</a>. <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/reveh-2017-0012/html?lang=en">Water quality</a> in communities is another factor. If the only available water is toxic or unappealing, people may turn to soda and other sugar-sweetened beverages.</p>
<p>Additionally, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6624082/">mothers’ perceived social support</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.6414">parents’ social networks</a> can influence their children’s oral health too. Among mothers with a high number of cavities, the availability of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6624082/">someone to talk to about problems</a> has been shown to be associated with fewer cavities in their children. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Little girl and dad brushing their teeth together." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453132/original/file-20220319-10592-qsrcfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453132/original/file-20220319-10592-qsrcfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453132/original/file-20220319-10592-qsrcfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453132/original/file-20220319-10592-qsrcfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453132/original/file-20220319-10592-qsrcfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453132/original/file-20220319-10592-qsrcfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/453132/original/file-20220319-10592-qsrcfz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Parents can help improve their kids’ oral health by modeling good oral hygiene themselves.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/african-adorable-kindergarten-age-girls-and-father-royalty-free-image/1263412992?adppopup=true">Nitat Termmee/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Role modeling good oral health</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2380084417698103">Parents’ and caregivers’ own oral health</a> greatly influences that of their children. Kids and their parents typically drink the same water and many of the same beverages and eat a lot of the same foods. Children often follow the dental hygiene habits of their parents as well. Children typically take on their parents’ and caregivers’ <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ipd.12564">feelings about dental visits</a> too – whether it’s comfort, stress, anxiety or fear. </p>
<p>Parents’ thoughts about dental care influence their decisions about preventive care. Dental fear and anxiety can lead to delay or avoidance of dental appointments for themselves and their children. “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdoe.12621">Oral health values</a>” – the importance one places on maintaining natural and good-looking teeth – affect decision-making about dental hygiene and professional dental care. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445515615353">Depression in parents</a> can even influence their own dental hygiene and oral health and that of their children.</p>
<p>Dental problems in kids <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6541e1">can lead to missed school</a>, pain and embarrassment about visible decay, and missing or crooked teeth. Teeth and gums are critical for speaking, eating, development and appearance. They affect social functioning and one’s enjoyment of food. Kids’ dental problems affect their parents, too, as they can result in parents’ unexpectedly missing work to bring their child to the dentist.</p>
<h2>What can be done to improve oral health?</h2>
<p>To a great extent, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034514547273">dental problems in kids can be prevented</a>. Some preventive steps are affected by <a href="https://www.nidcr.nih.gov/research/oralhealthinamerica">economic, educational and health care factors</a>. One of the best things parents or caregivers can do is to establish a relationship for their child with a dental practitioner, practice, office or clinic to promote prevention but also to provide emergency care if needed. Within the oral health world, this relationship is called a “<a href="https://digitaleditions.walsworth.com/publication/?i=728372&article_id=4156968&view=articleBrowser&ver=html5">dental home</a>.” The <a href="https://www.mychildrensteeth.org/globalassets/media/policy-center/year1visit.pdf">American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry</a> and other professional health organizations recommend that children see an oral health care provider before age 1 or at the emergence of the first tooth. Access to dental treatment, especially preventive care, has been shown to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29085793/">improve oral health in families</a> and their communities. </p>
<p><a href="https://media.news.health.ufl.edu/misc/cod-oralhealth/docs/posts_frontpage/SocialInequalities.pdf">System-level changes</a> are surely needed too. Since cost affects whether parents can provide their children with routine dental care, greater access to dental insurance is an important step to ensuring equal access and reducing oral health inequities. Integrating oral health practices into <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/npao/oralhealth.htm">schools and educational programs</a> is another system-level change that would benefit all children regardless of their family’s socioeconomic status. </p>
<p>Oral health is a critical factor in a person’s overall health. Teaching kids this early can help them develop a healthy smile and care for their pearly whites throughout their lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171189/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel W. McNeil receives funding from the National Institutes of Health, including the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mary L. Marazita receives funding from the National Institutions of Health, specifically the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR).</span></em></p>Appalachia has one of the highest rates of oral health problems per person in the US.Daniel W. McNeil, Eberly Distiniguished Professor Emeritus, Clinical Professor Emeritus of Dental Public Health & Professional Practice, West Virginia UniversityMary L. Marazita, Director, Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics; Professor of Oral Biology and of Human Genetics, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1545522021-07-13T20:11:31Z2021-07-13T20:11:31ZHow do you teach a child to swallow a pill? Hint: use lollies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410240/original/file-20210707-21-12b5x7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1%2C1000%2C663&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pill-child-mouth-1035027634">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When was the last time you swallowed a pill, be it a tablet or capsule? This morning or sometime in the past week? Now, can you remember the very first time you had to take a pill? Probably not. </p>
<p>Unlike your first kiss, there is usually nothing remarkable about the first time you take a pill. But taking solid medicines orally <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6065591/">does not come naturally</a> and chances are you had to be taught how to do it. And because you don’t remember how you were taught it can be hard for parents to figure out how to teach their kids to do it too.</p>
<p>But here’s how to make the learning process fun and safe.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-we-burp-137493">Curious Kids: why do we burp?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Is this necessary?</h2>
<p>Before trying to teach your child to swallow a pill, first see if your child really needs to learn.</p>
<p>Most medicines commonly used by children under 12 years of age are readily available as formulations other than pills. These include liquids, <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4419-1087-5_4">suspensions</a>, chewable tablets and <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/general-use/how-to-use-rectal-suppositories">suppositories</a>. The liquids and suspensions usually come in palatable flavours. </p>
<p>Doctors can also write prescriptions to allow pharmacists <a href="https://www.nps.org.au/australian-prescriber/articles/extemporaneously-compounded-medicines-1">to compound (make up)</a> some drugs usually available as a pill into a suspension instead. </p>
<p>If these options aren’t available, you will need to teach your child to swallow a pill. You’ll also need to go down this path as your child gets older, their weight increases, and some of the child-friendly formulations are no longer suitable. That’s because the higher doses often needed can be impractical to give using children’s products. So it would be much easier and cheaper to use a tablet or a capsule.</p>
<p>However, don’t be tempted to <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-is-it-ok-to-chew-or-crush-your-medicine-39630">crush or break a pill for them, or ask them to chew it</a>, unless your pharmacist has given the go-ahead for that medicine. This can affect the way the medicine is absorbed, which could lead to an overdose.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-is-it-ok-to-chew-or-crush-your-medicine-39630">Health Check: is it OK to chew or crush your medicine?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>Turn it into a game</h2>
<p>Teaching relaxation techniques, learning by imitation or modelling, and learning by repetition and exercise are all useful ways to teach pill swallowing. However, <a href="https://www.hamiltonhealthsciences.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/SwallowPillsHelpChild-lw.pdf">turning it into a game</a> is popular.</p>
<p>First of all, this method is NOT suitable for children under five. The mechanics of swallowing are too difficult for them to understand and both you and the child are likely to end up frustrated. Also, the younger they are, the smaller their throat and the likelihood something will get stuck.</p>
<p>The basis of the game is to start your child trying to swallow very small, everyday foodstuffs and work your way up to things the size of a pill. Lollies (candy) are best because you don’t have to convince your child to play the game.</p>
<p>More importantly, lollies are water soluble so if there are any problems you can ask your child to have a big drink of water to break it apart. If you don’t know if the lolly is water soluble, test it first in a glass of water to see if it dissolves.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sickly-sweet-or-just-right-how-genes-control-your-taste-for-sugar-113455">Sickly sweet or just right? How genes control your taste for sugar</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>Ready, steady, go!</h2>
<p>Start your child on the smallest sized lolly. Ask them to sit up straight, facing forward, without tilting their head up or down. Ask them to take a sip of water before each lolly, to get them prepared for the swallowing action. Then ask them to place the lolly on their tongue (<a href="https://www.hamiltonhealthsciences.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/SwallowPillsHelpChild-lw.pdf#:%7E:text=small%2C%20like%20a%20candy%20sprinkle,try%20a%20slightly%20larger%20candy.&text=Work%20up%20to%20a%20candy,your%20child%20will%20be%20taking.&text=candies.">towards the back is best</a>) and take another sip to wash it down.</p>
<p>If they can swallow that, move up to the next size. But if they can’t, ask them to chew and swallow it, and try again.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Pile of snake lollies (candies)" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/410242/original/file-20210707-15-1x14tog.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Snake lollies can come in handy and your child is unlikely to complain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/snake-candies-close-1222479028">from www.shutterstock.com</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Our version of the game uses lollies available in Australia, increasing in size: sprinkles (such as hundreds and thousands), Nerds, Tic Tacs, M&Ms (normal, not peanut or crispy), and then snakes.</p>
<p>With snakes, you can cut off and swallow the head, about the size of a pill, before cutting up pieces of the body to the same size.</p>
<h2>Some dos</h2>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>do joke around and make the activity fun</strong>. Get family involved as children need to be comfortable when playing</p></li>
<li><p><strong>do make sure it’s the only activity they are doing</strong>. You want your child’s full attention</p></li>
<li><p><strong>do give praise</strong>. The game is all about building confidence</p></li>
<li><p><strong>do put the lolly into a soft food stuff if you want</strong>. Some children find lollies, or even real pills, easier to swallow if they are in a small spoonful of pureed fruit or custard. Don’t use peanut butter as that is sticky and hard to swallow</p></li>
<li><p><strong>do consolidate their skill when they are finally successful</strong>. Once they can swallow a tablet or capsule sized lollie, keep your child’s confidence up by asking them to swallow an age-appropriate vitamin pill every now and then.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Some don'ts</h2>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>don’t stop on a stuck point</strong>. If your child has difficulty with a particular sized lolly that day drop back down to the size they can do so you finish on a win</p></li>
<li><p><strong>don’t use a sultana or peanut-based lolly</strong>. These do not dissolve in water and if they get stuck, become be a choking hazard</p></li>
<li><p><strong>don’t ask children to lay on their back</strong>. <a href="https://www.everydayhealth.com/specialists/healthy-living/when-a-pill-gets-stuck/#:%7E:text=Never%20take%20a%20medication%20when,pill%20is%20%E2%80%9Cchased%E2%80%9D%20down.">This can make it more difficult to swallow</a>. Instead just have them sit up straight. If they like, they can tilt their head forward to place the lolly in their mouth, and then when they are ready to swallow, they can tilt their head slightly back to help it go down.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Final take-home advice</h2>
<p>Teaching your child to swallow a pill is not easy and is likely to take weeks. Most kids will get stuck at one size of lolly at some stage. And they’ll likely not be able to swallow the largest lolly the first time they try.</p>
<p>This is normal, so persevere and keep the game fun. Your child will get there.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154552/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Associate Professor Wheate in the past has received funding from the ACT Cancer Council, Tenovus Scotland, Medical Research Scotland, Scottish Crucible, and the Scottish Universities Life Sciences Alliance. He is Fellow of the Royal Australian Chemical Institute and a member of the Australasian Pharmaceutical Science Association. Nial is science director of the medicinal cannabis company Canngea Pty Ltd, a board member of the Australian Medicinal Cannabis Association, and a Standards Australia committee member for sunscreen agents.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elise Schubert is a registered pharmacist and also receives a scholarship from the University of Sydney and Canngea Pty Ltd. </span></em></p>Here’s how to make the learning process fun and safe.Nial Wheate, Associate Professor of the Sydney Pharmacy School, University of SydneyElise Schubert, Pharmacist and PhD Candidate, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1405792020-06-24T16:03:17Z2020-06-24T16:03:17ZE-cigarettes found to cause change in mouth bacteria – which could lead to gum disease or oral cancer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343731/original/file-20200624-132951-1gk2sv6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C6%2C4642%2C3080&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Bacterial changes could lead to serious diseases.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-smoking-ecigarette-399274873">vchal/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>E-cigarettes are a popular alternative to smoking, but we still know very little about the effects of them on our health. While numerous studies have explored the effect of e-cigarettes on our lungs, heart, and overall health, one important and often overlooked consideration is what effect they have on our microbiome. But a recent study has found e-cigarettes <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/6/22/eaaz0108">change the bacteria</a> in our mouths. These bacterial changes can <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10552-008-9163-4">lead to disease</a>, if left unchecked.</p>
<p>Our microbiome is the living community of bacteria, fungi, and viruses that keep us healthy. We often hear a lot about our gut microbiome, but our oral microbiome is probably just as important to our overall health. It’s the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6503789/">second and most diverse microbiota</a> next to the gut, home to over <a href="https://jb.asm.org/content/jb/192/19/5002.full.pdf,%20https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1043661812002277">1,000 species</a> of microbes. It’s the gateway to the rest of our digestive system and plays a key role in helping us break down foods. </p>
<p>Our oral microbiome also wards off <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41368-018-0043-9">potentially harmful microbes</a> by <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1601-0825.2011.01851.x">preventing them from reproducing</a>. A healthy oral microbiome reduces the chances of developing <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shree_Dhotre2/publication/312378702_Periodontitis_Bacteremia_and_Infective_Endocarditis_A_Review_Study/links/5a5700230f7e9bf2a5374727/Periodontitis-Bacteremia-and-Infective-Endocarditis-A-Review-Study.pdf">infections or disease</a>. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/6/22/eaaz0108">recent study</a> investigating the effect of e-cigarettes on our oral microbiome found that e-cigarettes have a negative impact on the diversity of the bacteria present. They also cause an immune response from cells, which can lead to long-term damage to the surrounding cells.</p>
<p>Our oral microbes are not only the first to experience e-cigarette vapour, they’re also exposed to higher concentrations of the chemicals. This arguably makes them most likely of any of the body’s microbes to experience the negative effects of e-cigarettes. Changes in the balance of our mouth microbes can lead to some severe diseases, such as tooth decay and gum disease, or leave us <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065216416301095">susceptible to infections</a> from localised gum disease that can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6023521">trigger heart disease or respiratory infections</a> or <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1113/JP272427">systemic infections like sepsis</a>, which can be fatal. Some of these infections and diseases have also been associated with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7079586">oral cancers</a>.</p>
<p>For this particular study, 123 participants were recruited and split into five groups: smokers, non-smokers, e-cigarette users, former smokers currently using e-cigarettes, and those that use both. The team collected dental plaque samples to find out more about the microbes present and the genes they have, as well as fluid from the gums to know how the human body has reacted to these microbes. They also grew bacteria in the lab after exposing them to cigarette smoke and e-cigarette vapour.</p>
<h2>Bacteria changes</h2>
<p>The study found that those who used e-cigarettes had very similar species of microbes, suggesting e-cigarettes played a role in how the microbial community forms and exists. However, there were some significant differences in the smokers group, non-smoker group and e-cigarette groups, all of which had unique oral microbiomes.</p>
<p>When they looked at groups of people that switched from smoking to e-cigarettes and former smokers, they found their microbiota to be very similar – but they were still very different compared to non-smokers. Although this study didn’t specify which bacterial species were affected, even small changes from the healthy bacteria would likely result in negative effects overall. Gram negative bacteria, which are typically considered the “bad microbes”, were common between smokers and e-cigarette users. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343733/original/file-20200624-132988-imv3b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343733/original/file-20200624-132988-imv3b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343733/original/file-20200624-132988-imv3b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343733/original/file-20200624-132988-imv3b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343733/original/file-20200624-132988-imv3b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343733/original/file-20200624-132988-imv3b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/343733/original/file-20200624-132988-imv3b2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Both smokers and e-cigarette users had more ‘bad’ microbes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-holding-vape-tobacco-cigarette-over-1252774594">Andrey_Popov/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This was also the case when the team did lab studies to see what effects e-cigarette vapour and cigarette smoke had on how bacteria grow. They found that the e-cigarette vapour (with or without nicotine) was able to change the way the bacteria grow, by increasing volume and the area covered by the bacteria, which can lead to infections if untreated. </p>
<p>The researchers also found that the microbes in the e-cigarette group had genes that lead to biofilm growth (such as dental plaque). Biofilms make microbes more resilient to the effects of drugs, toxic compounds and the immune system. This suggests that e-cigarettes vapours cause a stress response in the mouth’s microbes. </p>
<p>When stressed, microbes switch on their fight-or-flight genes, making them better able to survive in harsh environments. They do this by producing special enzymes that cause damage to other cells in order for the microbes to use their nutrients and get more space to reproduce. This leads to a cycle of more inflammation, causing a stronger stress response from other cells. However, if we can’t remove these stressed microbes, this sustained, long-term inflammation can lead to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1368837513006349">severe diseases</a>.</p>
<p>It was also found that when e-cigarette users were compared with non-smokers, e-cigarette users had significantly higher levels of immune cell response chemicals than non-smokers. E-cigarettes users also had lower levels of chemicals that stop this stress response happening. This shows that the body is trying to fight off microbes present, much more so than in non-smokers.</p>
<p>The presence of a diverse microbiota is essential for healthy mouths, healthy bodies, and healthy people. But based on this study’s findings, the use of e-cigarettes has a negative impact on not only the number and types of oral microbes, but on how the microbes behave and how our body responds. <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/advances/6/22/eaaz0108.full.pdf,%20https://peerj.com/articles/4693/">Other studies</a> have had <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004220300687">similar findings</a>. Though more research into the health effects of e-cigarettes is needed, current evidence suggests ditching them may be best for our overall health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/140579/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Morse does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our oral microbiome is the second most diverse and equally important microbiota in the body.Daniel Morse, Postdoctoral Research Associate, Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1394322020-06-01T12:17:29Z2020-06-01T12:17:29ZClear masks for caregivers mean young children can keep learning from adults’ faces<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338577/original/file-20200529-78875-18d0wif.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C0%2C5370%2C3601&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Babies love to look at faces for good reason. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mother-taking-care-of-baby-royalty-free-image/1216318518">monzenmachi/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As daycare centers and pre-kindergartens begin to reopen around the U.S., the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/schools-childcare/guidance-for-childcare.html">recommends masks be worn</a> by teachers, care workers and children over two years of age. </p>
<p>Important as they are for <a href="https://theconversation.com/masks-help-stop-the-spread-of-coronavirus-the-science-is-simple-and-im-one-of-100-experts-urging-governors-to-require-public-mask-wearing-138507">helping minimize the spread</a> of the coronavirus, masks come with a potential downside when worn around little kids. <a href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199559053.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199559053">Decades of research</a> has shown faces are an important tool for learning. With caregivers’ faces covered, infants and young children will miss out on some of the visual cues they’d normally get from faces.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=0CvEbZ0AAAAJ">I study visual learning</a> and recommend that policymakers and educators consider transparent face masks for use around infants and young children.</p>
<h2>Faces are key for little learners</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338590/original/file-20200529-78849-1vfegu4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">All wired up and ready to go.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Lisa Scott</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When infants and children come to my <a href="https://bcdlab.psych.ufl.edu/">research lab</a> (with their families, of course), we show them pictures of faces on a computer screen, sometimes paired with sounds or words. Using tools like eye tracking technology and <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/eeg">EEG</a>, which measures electrical activity in the brain, we are able to observe what they’re paying attention to and learn more about how their brains are developing. These methods allow us to measure learning even before infants can talk. </p>
<p>Our work shows that infants pay close attention to eyes and mouths on faces. Infants also learn that two eyes are usually above a nose which is above a mouth, and they learn to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2016.1146780">combine these features into one whole</a>. Babies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721418769884">use faces as a tool</a> for learning from familiar people, like mom, dad or a care worker.</p>
<p>Infant brain responses change when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1068/p5493">faces are altered</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.02.008">turned upside down</a> or presented with conflicting information, like a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01138.x">happy face paired with a crying sound</a>. These changes in brain responses suggest that infants can tell when there is something different about a face. </p>
<p>Although they cannot yet speak, infants as young as six months of age <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2018.03.002">learn and understand names for new faces</a>. When similar-looking faces are presented in a book and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02348.x">paired with names</a>, babies are able to differentiate them. Learning to match a name with a face may be more difficult when faces are masked.</p>
<h2>Faces foster language development</h2>
<p>Research shows infants and children pay close attention to mouths <a href="https://llamblab.haskins.yale.edu/publications/">during important periods of language learning</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338587/original/file-20200529-78880-ds0wac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=574&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Babies and young children zero in on mouths to learn language.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/mother-holding-baby-and-talking-on-cell-phone-royalty-free-image/135385028">Sam Edwards/OJO Images via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Young babies shift their visual focus from looking primarily at the eyes of talking faces to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1114783109">looking at the mouths</a> between 4 and 8 months of age. Infants begin to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1113380109">understand the meaning of familiar words</a> between 6 and 9 months of age. Looking toward the mouth increases as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.01.002">infant speaking skills increase</a>. Although this focus on the mouth decreases around 9 to 12 months of age, it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.03.009">increases again around 14 months</a> of age during word learning. Even <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000750">5-year-olds show increased interest</a> in the mouths of talking faces compared to adults. </p>
<p>While it is unknown how covering the mouth will directly affect development at every age, these studies suggest that infants and children <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci4040613">use the mouths of faces as a tool</a> for learning to produce speech sounds and for learning new words. </p>
<h2>What should care workers and educators do?</h2>
<p>Wearing masks around infants and children during the first five years of life may reduce their ability to learn from auditory and visual cues – and this may negatively influence speech and language learning. Covering faces could also limit children’s ability to recognize familiar people and <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/education-plus-development/2020/04/21/are-you-happy-or-sad-how-wearing-face-masks-can-impact-childrens-ability-to-read-emotions/">determine when someone is happy, sad or angry</a>.</p>
<p>Of course, it’s crucially important to protect children and workers from the spread of the coronavirus. But there are ways to keep everyone safe while also allowing little ones to see adults’ faces.</p>
<p>If possible, care workers and educators spending long hours with infants and young children should consider clear masks or transparent face shields to reduce potential negative impacts on early learning. And, certainly, parents should continue to <a href="https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/baby-talk-learning-your-babys-language-communication/id1505875687?i=1000475161449">play</a>, <a href="https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/why_parents_sing_to_babies">sing</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/for-babys-brain-to-benefit-read-the-right-books-at-the-right-time-83076">read</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20191001-the-word-gap-that-affects-how-your-babys-brain-grows">talk</a> face to face with their infants and children.</p>
<p>Luckily, infants and young children often spend just as much time at home, where healthy caregivers don’t need to wear masks. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/children5070098">Developing children are also very resilient</a>, so if transparent masks are not available, it is still important for caretakers to wear masks until public health authorities recommend otherwise.</p>
<p>[<em>Get our best science, health and technology stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-best">Sign up for The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/139432/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lisa S. Scott receives funding from the National Science Foundation and is a current Learning Sciences Exchange (LSX) fellow funded by the Jacobs Foundation, New America, and the International Congress of Infant Studies</span></em></p>With caregivers’ faces covered, infants and young children will miss out on all the visual cues they’d normally get during stages of rapid developmental growth.Lisa S. Scott, Professor in Psychology, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1351662020-04-23T12:12:09Z2020-04-23T12:12:09ZWhat is a brain freeze?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/329186/original/file-20200420-152581-pm3o7v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=74%2C27%2C4456%2C3029&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cold and sweet in the heat.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/children-enjoy-icecream-during-the-hot-afternoon-on-june-7-news-photo/450223408?adppopup=true">Raj K Raj/Hindustan Times via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption"></span>
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>What is a brain freeze?</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>Has this ever happened to you? You’re eating a delicious ice cream cone or frozen lemonade, so cold and sweet and suddenly, bam, brain freeze! What happened?</p>
<p>A brain freeze is a short, intense pain behind the forehead and temples that occurs after eating something cold too fast. If you get one, don’t worry – your brain isn’t actually freezing. The sensation feels like it’s happening inside your skull, but it really has to do with what’s going on in your mouth.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327044/original/file-20200409-38906-1b1qvqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/327044/original/file-20200409-38906-1b1qvqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327044/original/file-20200409-38906-1b1qvqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327044/original/file-20200409-38906-1b1qvqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327044/original/file-20200409-38906-1b1qvqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327044/original/file-20200409-38906-1b1qvqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/327044/original/file-20200409-38906-1b1qvqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Mmmmmm. Brrrrrrrr. Ouch!</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/DEU-BW-Wetter-Speiseeis/135fdca280524c04a0a4e9a65078965f/211/0">AP Photo/Daniel Maurer</a></span>
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<p>Brain freeze isn’t as common as you might expect. Many studies report that less than half of their participants get them. Scientists still don’t understand why.</p>
<h2>What makes a brain freeze hurt?</h2>
<p>There’s a lot we know about how a brain freeze works. There’s also a lot we don’t know.</p>
<p>Just beneath the skin on your face is a network of blood vessels that supply the face and brain with blood. Blood contains many nutrients <a href="https://kidshealth.org/en/kids/blood.html">like oxygen</a>, which is essential for your brain to function. Tangled up in this network of vessels are tiny nerve endings connected to one another and the brain through the <a href="https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/trigeminal-nerve">trigeminal nerve</a>. This nerve makes it possible for you to feel sensations in your face, including pain.</p>
<p>Scientists believe the blood vessels in the throat and mouth and the trigeminal nerve are central to what makes a brain freeze hurt. But they don’t quite agree on which is more responsible for causing the pain.</p>
<p>Most agree that eating or drinking something cold, too quickly, rapidly <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/05/130522095335.htm">lowers the temperature</a> at the back of your throat and roof of your mouth. Many also agree this causes the tiny blood vessels in these areas to shrink, allowing less blood to pass through them. This reduces their ability to supply your brain with necessary oxygen in the blood. What happens next is a little blurry.</p>
<h2>Pain in the brain means stop!</h2>
<p>Some scientists believe the trigeminal nerve responds to these events in your throat and mouth by sending a pain signal to the front of your brain. Whether the nerve is specifically responding to the cold or a sudden reduction of blood and oxygen supply to the brain – or both – is unclear. </p>
<p>Other scientists believe the pain is caused by a rush of blood to the front of your head. Shortly after the vessels in your throat and mouth shrink from the cold, these same vessels immediately expand. By expanding, additional blood and oxygen <a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/244458">flood these areas</a>. Although this blood rush might provide your brain with desperately needed blood and oxygen, it also might increase the amount of pressure in your head, causing pain.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The mystery of a brain freeze.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Is a brain freeze dangerous?</h2>
<p>A brain freeze may seem like a bad thing at first, but the pain could actually be good. By forcing you to stop eating that delicious but cold treat, the pain from a brain freeze may protect your brain from losing its continuous supply of blood and oxygen.</p>
<p>If you’re worried about a brain freeze, try slowing down. It may be hard with something as delicious as a Bomb Pop on a hot summer day, but at least it will last longer.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tyler Daniel Anderson-Sieg does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Have you ever felt a piercing pain in your head when you eat something cold?Tyler Daniel Anderson-Sieg, Doctoral Student in Biomedical Sciences, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.