tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/batteries-1143/articlesBatteries – The Conversation2024-03-20T05:06:52Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2251652024-03-20T05:06:52Z2024-03-20T05:06:52ZA battery price war is kicking off that could soon make electric cars cheaper. Here’s how<p>The main cost of an electric vehicle (EV) is its battery. The high cost of energy-dense batteries has meant EVs have long been more expensive than their fossil fuel equivalents.</p>
<p>But this could change faster than we thought. The world’s largest maker of batteries for electric cars, China’s CATL, claims it will slash the cost of its batteries by up to 50% this year, as a <a href="https://cnevpost.com/2024/01/17/battery-price-war-catl-byd-costs-down/">price war kicks off</a> with the second largest maker in China, BYD subsidiary FinDreams. </p>
<p>What’s behind this? After the electric vehicle industry experienced a <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/trends-in-batteries">huge surge</a> in 2022, it has hit headwinds. It <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/industry-pain-abounds-electric-car-demand-hits-slowdown-2024-01-30/">ramped up faster</a> than demand, triggering efforts to cut costs. </p>
<p>But the promised price cuts are also a sign of progress. Researchers have made great strides in finding <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/trends-in-batteries">new battery chemistries</a>. CATL and BYD now make EV batteries without any cobalt, an expensive, scarce metal linked to <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-miners-die-a-lot-appalling-conditions-and-poverty-wages-the-lives-of-cobalt-miners-in-the-drc-220986">child labor and dangerous mining practices</a> in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. </p>
<p>Economies of scale and new supplies of lithium make it possible to sell batteries more cheaply. And the world’s largest carmaker, Toyota, is pinning its hopes on solid-state batteries in the hope these energy-dense, all but fireproof batteries will make possible EVs with a range of more than 1,200km per charge .</p>
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<h2>How are battery makers cutting costs?</h2>
<p>The largest market for electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles is China. But demand for EVs here has eased off, <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/2a9f1dae-ddc4-4214-900d-c763208e9a45">dropping from</a> a 96% surge in demand in 2022 to a 36% rise in 2023. </p>
<p>As a result, battery giant CATL has seen its <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/chinas-catl-posts-first-profit-fall-since-q2-2022-2024-03-15/#:%7E:text=CATL's%20profit%20for%20the%20October,the%20whole%20of%20last%20year.">profits fall</a> for the first time in almost two years. </p>
<p>One of the best ways to create more demand is to make your products cheaper. That’s what’s behind the cost-cutting promises from CATL and BYD. </p>
<p>You might wonder how that’s possible. One of the key challenges in shifting to battery-electric cars is where to get the raw materials. The electric future rests on viable supply chains for critical minerals such as lithium, nickel, copper, cobalt and rare earth elements. </p>
<p>Until recently, the main EV battery chemistry has been built on four of these, lithium, nickel, manganese and cobalt. These are also known as NMC batteries. </p>
<p>If you can avoid or minimise the use of expensive or controversial minerals, you can cut costs. That’s why Chinese companies such as CATL have all but monopolised the market on another chemistry, lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries. These batteries are cheaper, as they have no cobalt. They have other benefits too: a longer usable life and less risk of fire than traditional lithium battery chemistries. The downside is they have lower capacity and voltage. </p>
<p>The recent price cuts come from a deliberate decision to use abundant earth materials such as iron and phosphorus wherever possible. </p>
<p>What about lithium? Prices of lithium carbonate, the salt form of the ultra light silvery-white metal, shot up sixfold between <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/lithium-price-slide-deepens-china-battery-giant-bets-cheaper-inputs-2023-02-28">2020 and 2022</a> in China before falling last year. </p>
<p>Despite this, battery prices have <a href="https://cleantechnica.com/2023/12/01/record-low-ev-battery-prices/">kept falling</a> – just not by as much as they otherwise would have. </p>
<p>The world’s huge demand for lithium has led to strong growth in supply, as miners scramble to find new sources. CATL, for instance, is spending A$2.1 billion on lithium extraction plants <a href="https://batteryjuniors.com/2023/06/19/catl-investment-bolivian-lithium">in Bolivia</a>. </p>
<p>Growth in lithium supply <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/lithium-price-slide-deepens-china-battery-giant-bets-cheaper-inputs-2023-02-28/">is projected</a> to outpace demand by 34% both this year and next, which should help stabilise battery prices. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583043/original/file-20240320-26-grg01y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="bolivia salt flats" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583043/original/file-20240320-26-grg01y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583043/original/file-20240320-26-grg01y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583043/original/file-20240320-26-grg01y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583043/original/file-20240320-26-grg01y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583043/original/file-20240320-26-grg01y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583043/original/file-20240320-26-grg01y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583043/original/file-20240320-26-grg01y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Bolivia’s salt flats are a rich source of lithium, though its extraction has come with environmental concerns.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/worlds-largest-salt-flat-salar-de-317843843">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Battery options are multiplying</h2>
<p>China’s battery makers have cornered the market in lithium iron phosphate batteries. But they aren’t the only game in town. </p>
<p>Tesla electric cars have long been powered by batteries from Japan’s Panasonic and South Korea LG. These batteries are built on the older but well established NMC and lithium nickel cobalt aluminate oxide (NCA) chemistries. Even so, the American carmaker is <a href="https://insideevs.com/news/587455/batteries-tesla-using-electric-cars/">now using</a> CATL’s LFP batteries in its more affordable cars. </p>
<p>The world’s largest carmaker, Toyota, has <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2023/02/01/toyota-chief-executive-faces-electric-vehicle-reality/">long been sceptical</a> of lithium-ion batteries and has focused on hybrid and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles instead. </p>
<p>But this is changing. Toyota is now focused heavily on making <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/feb/04/solid-state-batteries-inside-the-race-to-transform-the-science-of-electric-vehicles">solid-state batteries</a> a reality. These do away with liquid electrolytes to transport electricity in favour of a solid battery. In September last year, the company <a href="https://electrek.co/2023/06/13/toyota-claims-solid-state-ev-battery-tech-breakthrough/">announced a breakthrough</a> which it claims will enable faster recharging times and a range of 1,200km before recharge. If these claims are true, these batteries would effectively double the range of today’s topline EVs. </p>
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<p>In response, China’s battery manufacturers and government are <a href="https://kr-asia.com/catl-byd-others-unite-in-china-for-solid-state-battery-breakthrough">working to catch up</a> with Toyota on solid-state batteries. </p>
<p>Which battery chemistry will win out? It’s too early to say for electric vehicles. But as the green transition continues, it’s likely we’ll need not just one but many options. </p>
<p>After all, the energy needs of a prime mover truck will be different to city runabout EVs. And as electric aircraft go from dream to reality, these will need different batteries again. To get battery-electric aircraft off the ground, you need batteries with a huge power density. </p>
<p>The good news? These are engineering challenges which can be overcome. Just last year, CATL announced a pioneering <a href="https://www.pv-magazine.com/2023/04/21/catl-launches-500-wh-kg-condensed-matter-battery/">“condensed matter” battery</a> for <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2023-05-03/catl-announces-battery-to-make-electric-aviation-possible/102289310">electric aircraft</a>, with up to three times the energy density of an average electric car battery. </p>
<p>All the while, researchers are pushing the envelope even further. A good electric car might have a battery with an energy density of 150–250 watt-hours per kilogram. But the <a href="https://newatlas.com/energy/highest-density-lithium-battery/#:%7E:text=The%20battery%20tested%20at%20711.3,off%20any%20form%20of%20commercialization.">record in the lab</a> is now over 700 watt-hours/kg. </p>
<p>This is to say nothing of the research going into still other battery chemistries, from <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/01/04/1066141/whats-next-for-batteries/">sodium-ion to iron-air</a> to <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/liquid-metal-battery">liquid metal</a> batteries. </p>
<p>We are, in short, still at the beginning of the battery revolution. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-sodium-ion-batteries-could-make-electric-cars-cheaper-207342">How sodium-ion batteries could make electric cars cheaper</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225165/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>China’s two largest EV battery makers are pledging to slash the cost of their batteries this year. Behind the pledge is a cost war – and new battery chemistries.Muhammad Rizwan Azhar, Lecturer, Edith Cowan UniversityWaqas Uzair, Research associate, Edith Cowan UniversityYasir Arafat, Senior research associate, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2208332024-02-27T21:50:30Z2024-02-27T21:50:30ZThe importance of critical minerals should not condone their extraction at all costs<p>Global warming is real and climate change is worsening day-by-day with <a href="https://theconversation.com/zombie-fires-are-occurring-more-frequently-in-boreal-forests-but-their-impacts-remain-uncertain-198459">raging forest fires</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-global-warming-is-reshaping-winter-life-in-canada-222329">unseasonably warm winters</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/warmer-wetter-wilder-38-million-people-in-the-great-lakes-region-are-threatened-by-climate-change-170195">flooding disasters</a> taking place across Canada. Meanwhile, the carbon-zero transition required to move away from such a dire future is hampered by a key weakness — “critical minerals.” </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/raising-ambition/renewable-energy-transition">energy transition</a> depends on so-called <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-02330-0">“battery” or “critical”</a> minerals to be successful — minerals which must be mined or recycled. Smart phones, <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/ammto/critical-minerals-and-materials#:%7E:text=Lithium%2C%20cobalt%2C%20and%20high%2D,and%20germanium%20used%20in%20semiconductors.">superconductor chips</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113938">renewable energy technologies</a> and even the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/us-geological-survey-releases-2022-list-critical-minerals">defence industry</a> all rely heavily upon critical minerals. Demand for these minerals is set to <a href="https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/c7716240-ab4f-4f5d-b138-291e76c6a7c7/CriticalMineralsMarketReview2023.pdf">triple by 2030</a>. </p>
<p>However, the uncomfortable reality is that the supply of these metals is simply not there, and their extraction carries huge social and ecological risks. This problem affects us all.</p>
<h2>What are critical minerals?</h2>
<p>There is no universal consensus on what critical minerals are. Various countries and bodies such as the <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/critical-minerals-market-review-2023">International Energy Agency</a> or the <a href="https://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/961711588875536384/Minerals-for-Climate-Action-The-Mineral-Intensity-of-the-Clean-Energy-Transition.pdf">World Bank</a> have different lists and the contents of these lists do not remain static. </p>
<p>For instance, the <a href="https://natural-resources.canada.ca/sites/nrcan/files/mineralsmetals/pdf/Critical_Minerals_List_2021-EN.pdf">Canadian Critical Minerals List</a> contains 31 minerals or mineral groups. The United States has two lists: the <a href="https://d9-wret.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/s3fs-public/media/files/2022%20Final%20List%20of%20Critical%20Minerals%20Federal%20Register%20Notice_2222022-F.pdf">U.S. Geological Survey Critical Minerals List</a> that contains 50 individual minerals and the <a href="https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-07/preprint-frn-2023-critical-materials-list.pdf">Department of Energy Critical Materials for Energy List</a>, which adds energy materials like copper and silicon. The European Union has a list of 34 <a href="https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/raw-materials/areas-specific-interest/critical-raw-materials_en">Critical Raw Materials</a>.</p>
<p>The term “critical mineral” is technically a misnomer as most of the elements on these lists are metals and not minerals. However, there are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2023.101402">broad areas of agreement</a>: most lists include battery metals such as lithium, nickel, cobalt and copper, as well as rare earth elements and platinum group metals. Other common elements are the alloys of steel, such as chromium, manganese and zinc. </p>
<p>All of these elements are crucial to the energy transition. Battery metals power electric vehicles and storage batteries, steel and rare earth elements are imperative for wind turbines and copper is essential for power grids. Simply put, shortages in critical minerals mean a delayed energy transition and worsening <a href="https://www.irena.org/Energy-Transition/Outlook">climate impacts</a>.</p>
<p>Yet electric vehicles are only as “clean” as the electricity grid that feeds them. They are only as “green” as their component parts. The batteries require nickel, which could well have come from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2023.102997">a mine in the Philippines that legally dumps its tailings (toxic waste) in oceans</a>. Meanwhile, the vital cobalt can’t be separated from the human miseries of mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo — a mining industry referred to as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2020.11.018">a new form of slavery, a subterranean slavery</a>.”</p>
<h2>Why are critical minerals problematic?</h2>
<p>Critical minerals are often found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.12.001">in deposits that are highly concentrated geographically</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2023.103336">China is a dominant force</a> in their processing and supply. This means that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2023.104587">geopolitical tensions</a> can make it harder to secure <a href="https://www.csis.org/analysis/building-larger-and-more-diverse-supply-chains-energy-minerals#:%7E:text=Critical%20Minerals%20in%20the%20Energy%20Sector&text=Lithium%2C%20nickel%2C%20cobalt%2C%20copper,needed%20in%20significantly%20greater%20supply.">critical mineral supply chains</a>. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Securing_Minerals_for_the_Energy_Transition_2023.pdf">December 2023 World Economic Forum White Paper</a> maps ecosystem risks arising from a lack of supply in critical minerals. Its conclusions are clear.</p>
<p>Not only does a <a href="https://meetings.imf.org/en/IMF/Home/Blogs/Articles/2021/11/10/soaring-metal-prices-may-delay-energy-transition">delayed energy transition</a> await us at the end of the road, but the signposts along the way indicate that these risks are already playing out.</p>
<p>For instance, political risks identified include <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2023.104475">conflict over resources</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2023.103101">increasing resource nationalism</a> and increasing <a href="https://www.mining.com/web/bank-of-england-takes-deep-dive-into-opaque-commodities/">trade fragmentation</a>. Among the economic risks are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2023.106934">market volatility and uncertainty</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.mining.com/web/germany-invests-1-1bn-to-counter-china-on-raw-materials">stockpiling</a> of critical minerals. </p>
<p>Socio-environmental risks comprise an <a href="https://www.mining.com/web/amazon-gold-miners-flout-artisanal-label-with-outsized-operations/">increase in exploitative and illegal mining</a> and a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2023.103718">higher demand on ecosystems</a>, while technological risks point to cascading <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/resources8010029">renewable technology shortages</a>.</p>
<h2>The impacts of critical minerals mining</h2>
<p>When considering the implications of minerals shortages, it may be tempting to justify critical minerals mining at all costs, however, this is a dangerous fallacy. The <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/43012/minerals_africa.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y#:%7E:text=Critical%20mineral%20extraction%20and%20processing,crucial%20to%20mitigate%20these%20impacts.">social and environmental impacts</a> of poorly mined critical minerals are dire.</p>
<p>These range from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120838">lithium’s water intensity</a> in the fragile landscapes of the Chilean Atacama desert to the toxic processes inherent in the processing of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2017.1415307">rare earth elements</a> whose use is ubiquitous in smart technology and wind turbines. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1144/sp526-2022-172">Diminishing ore grades</a> mean ever bigger tailings dams, and climate change makes them more prone to accidents.</p>
<p>For Indigenous communities, <a href="https://chamber.ca/critical-minerals-can-create-transformative-economic-opportunities-for-indigenous-communities-if-we-do-it-right/">critical minerals hold both promise</a> and peril. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2023.104448">Studies have shown</a> that critical minerals are often heavily concentrated on Indigenous lands. For them, the question arises whether this will open the door to <a href="https://www.mining.com/british-columbias-nisgaa-nation-plans-indigenous-majority-owned-royalty-company/">Indigenous economic development</a> or if it will constitute yet another instance of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2022.102665">displacement and ecological destruction</a> on their doorstep.</p>
<p>The importance of independent standards authorities such as the <a href="https://responsiblemining.net">Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance</a> (IRMA) cannot be overemphasized. In contrast to industry standards such as <a href="https://mining.ca/towards-sustainable-mining/">Towards Sustainable Mining</a>, IRMA represents multiple stakeholder views. These include communities, employees, investors and mines.</p>
<p>Mining is by its very nature a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-020-00242-3">highly energy intensive</a> process. While it is expensive and technically complex to retrofit existing mines for electrification purposes, new mines should be designed with carbon neutrality in mind. Of course, this can be particularly difficult in places that are experiencing <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2023.1089391">infrastructure challenges</a>, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.12789/geocanj.2023.50.199">limited renewable or low carbon energy options</a>.</p>
<p>Greenfield mining is not the sole solution to the critical minerals conundrum. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.107181">Urban mining</a> (extraction from electronic waste) can play an important role. It’s also important to design products manufactured from critical minerals with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-022-00181-x">recycling and repurposing</a> in mind. </p>
<p>By investing in research and development, we can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.3c01478">find substitutes</a> to the most problematic minerals, whether the underlying issues are geopolitical constraints, toxicity or human rights abuses.</p>
<h2>The bottom line</h2>
<p>At the end of the day, we need responsible mining practices that will enable us to obtain the minerals required to make the energy transition work. However, we must do so in a way that is just and equitable towards both people and the planet. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/renewable-energy-innovation-isnt-just-good-for-the-climate-its-also-good-for-the-economy-223164">Renewable energy innovation isn't just good for the climate — it's also good for the economy</a>
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<p>This goal is a race against time, requiring both innovation and a never-ending vigilance against a lowering of standards to meet short-term needs — a vigilance which we all must work to maintain.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220833/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Steyn previously received funding from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). She is affiliated with the Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada (PDAC), the Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum (CIM) and the Foundation for Natural Resources and Energy Law (FNREL). She is a board member of the Canadian Institute of Resources Law (CIRL). </span></em></p>The temptation to justify critical minerals mining at all costs is a dangerous fallacy. The social and environmental impacts of poorly mined critical minerals are dire.Elizabeth Steyn, Assistant Professor of Law, Faculty of Law, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2239202024-02-21T17:28:05Z2024-02-21T17:28:05ZWhether inserted, ingested or implanted, batteries are a matter of life and death<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576828/original/file-20240220-20-cxgpwq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C9%2C3094%2C1996&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/background-image-lithium-batteries-various-sizes-36585295">dezign56/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve heard about the case of the Australian man who needed emergency removal of the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10825319/">three “button” batteries</a> he’d inserted into his urethra, then it’s likely your eyes will still be watering. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221444202400007X?via%3Dihub">According to the case report</a>, ten days later, he required follow-up surgery for penile tissue necrosis caused by the battery burns.</p>
<p>The urethra is the tube through which urine is expelled from the body. It is typically <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/nau.23509">4.5cm long</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S187952261060019X">7.5mm wide</a> in females and averages <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18778496/">up to 22cm</a> in length and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6196569/">8-9mm wide</a> in males.</p>
<p>The presence of foreign bodies, particularly batteries, in the urethra is not new. There are cases where larger <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8599993/">AA</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7574152/">AAA</a> batteries have been removed, as well as other objects such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9228277/">electrical wire</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6237403/">pencils and medical instruments</a>. </p>
<p>There is a higher incidence of men inserting foreign bodies into cavities <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/6681512">compared to women</a>. But objects such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7494772/">vibrators</a> and sex toys <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214442023000359">four times the width and twice</a> the length of the female urethra have been found in the bladder.</p>
<p>Insertion of foreign bodies and catheters into the urethra can result in damage, which causes longer term issues such as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4106200/">scar tissue</a>. Scar tissue <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/sc201515">narrows the tube</a>, makes it difficult to urinate, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2223845/">increases infections</a> – and objects can travel up to the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210261217300743">bladder, causing it to rupture</a>.</p>
<h2>Small and sweet-like: button batteries appeal to curious kids</h2>
<p>The most common button battery injuries, however, are related to ingestion rather than insertion. </p>
<p>Button batteries are notoriously attractive to children. They’re small – only 5-25mm in diameter – round, shiny and can be easily mistaken for a sweet. Button batteries account for the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20498173/">vast majority of battery ingestion incidents</a> in the US but it’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30663910/">a worldwide problem</a>. </p>
<p>The signs of button battery ingestion can be difficult to recognise until it’s too late. Ingestion causes non-specific symptoms, including <a href="https://journals.lww.com/jsci/fulltext/2016/43010/button_battery_ingestion__a_therapeutic_dilemma.9.aspx">coughing, fever, difficulty swallowing</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9091558/">vomiting</a>. All of which can be easily mistaken for common childhood illnesses if the ingestion is not witnessed by anyone.</p>
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<p>Once swallowed, these batteries, especially those that are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34620806/">20mm or greater in width</a>, often become lodged in the oesophagus where it narrows. Within two hours the batteries can begin to cause irreparable damage. </p>
<p>Moist body tissues cause the battery to <a href="https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2022/july/button-battery-injury">“complete” a circuit</a> between the positive and negative poles, producing sodium (or potassium) hydroxide at the negative pole, making <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/lio2.535">pH locally 12-13</a>. This alkaline substance is highly corrosive and burns the oesophageal lining before continuing deeper. </p>
<p>Burns can occur in <a href="https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article-abstract/125/6/1168/72519/Emerging-Battery-Ingestion-Hazard-Clinical?redirectedFrom=fulltext">15 minutes</a> to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4631271/">an hour</a>, passing through to neighbouring tissues in as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34620806/">little as four hours</a>. The more charge left in the battery, the quicker this occurs.</p>
<p>Erosion of tissues can progress to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00365521.2017.1350284">neighbouring structures</a> at the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165587617302793">natural narrow points</a> of the oesophagus. Batteries lodged at any of these sites – including the opening of the oesophagus, the point where the oesophagus crosses the aorta (the main artery of the body), the left main bronchus (the tube taking air to the left lung) and where the oesophagus enters the stomach – will cause burning and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/01455613211043678">paralysis of the vocal cords</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32305674/">huge blood loss</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9093002/">potentially death</a>. </p>
<p>Alternatively a tunnel can burn through to the trachea, creating <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3895833/">a tracheoesophageal fistula</a> that results in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535376/">respiratory distress and feeding difficulties</a>. Similar issues can occur when batteries are inserted into the nasal cavity, and cause <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6259556/">burning, bleeding, discharge and tissue damage</a>.</p>
<p>Batteries that make it to the stomach pose less risk – unless they are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470298/">stuck there for 48 hours or more</a>. After this time, stomach acid may begin to corrode parts of the battery causing the caustic contents to leak and lead to internal burning. The more batteries are ingested, the higher the risk of becoming <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4612741/">stuck in the stomach</a>.</p>
<p>When they end up where they shouldn’t, batteries in the body can be agonising – and even deadly – but there are other instances where the presence of batteries in the body is a necessity.</p>
<h2>Not all batteries are health hazards</h2>
<p>It’s over 75 years since the installation of the first implantable cardiac pacemaker in a patient. Its nickel-cadmium batteries required charging <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3232561/">once a week for 12 hours</a>. Over time, pacemakers have advanced to lithium-iodide batteries, which have lifespans of <a href="https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/heart-matters-magazine/medical/how-does-a-pacemaker-work">six</a> to <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pacemaker-implantation/recovery/">ten</a> years. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-24417-w">Self-charging</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2211285521000392">pacemakers</a> may not be too far away, converting the electrical energy of heartbeat back into stored energy for the pacemaker. These pacemakers utilise a <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-66187-7_15">very small amount of energy</a> to maintain the rhythm of the heartbeat.</p>
<p>Those with severe issues may need an <a href="https://www.heart.org/en/health-topics/arrhythmia/prevention--treatment-of-arrhythmia/implantable-cardioverter-defibrillator-icd">implanted cardioverter defibrillator</a> (ICD), which delivers a much <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/eom2.12343">larger energy output</a> to ensure hearts with serious irregularities don’t suddenly stop.</p>
<p>Implantable devices such as pacemakers, ICDs, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29994564/">bone growth stimulators</a> for fracture repair and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555994/">neurostimulators</a> for chronic pain use a variety of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3811938/">lithium-based batteries</a>. Many of these devices have batteries located at the surface, beneath the skin, with <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/pacemaker-insertion">insulated wires running</a> to the organ they control or support. This enables performance monitoring, reduces potential for tissue damage and allows batteries to be changed easily.</p>
<p>The major exception is ingestible devices, such as <a href="https://www.guysandstthomas.nhs.uk/health-information/video-capsule-endoscopy-small-bowel">endoscopy pill cameras</a> which use a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4698499/">silver-based battery system</a> for the camera. Unlike lithium batteries, the silver battery based system is not prone to an <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5577247/">explosive chain reaction</a> known as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22273791/">thermal runaway</a>. This is important, given that the camera pills are swallowed and pass all the way through the gastrointestinal system.</p>
<p>All implantable device batteries are stringently tested and regulated by <a href="https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/products-and-medical-procedures/implants-and-prosthetics">government agencies</a>. So problems are connected to <a href="https://www.heartrhythmcasereports.com/article/S2214-0271(21)00209-8/fulltext">battery depletion</a>, which means they don’t last as long as hoped, rather than tissue damage. </p>
<p>The biggest risk from the batteries of these implanted devices actually <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20360143/">comes after death</a>: they can explode if not removed from a body prior to cremation. The elements in the battery form a gas, which reacts at sustained high temperatures to blow apart the battery casing, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1279940/">immediately discharging</a> all of the battery’s energy. </p>
<p>Batteries used in approved devices offer quality of life to millions around the world, but batteries in places they shouldn’t risk serious injury and death.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223920/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adam Taylor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Batteries can power life-saving devices when implanted in the body, but they can also be deadly if inserted into cavities or ingested.Adam Taylor, Professor and Director of the Clinical Anatomy Learning Centre, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2226672024-02-06T13:28:37Z2024-02-06T13:28:37ZSelf-extinguishing batteries could reduce the risk of deadly and costly battery fires<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573199/original/file-20240203-17-od3sxj.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C3%2C1270%2C674&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cutaway view of a Nissan Leaf electric vehicle showing part of its battery array (silver boxes).</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle_battery#/media/File:Nissan_Leaf_012.JPG">Tennen-gas/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-024-01275-0">newly published study</a>, we describe our design for a self-extinguishing rechargeable battery. It replaces the most commonly used electrolyte, which is highly combustible – a medium composed of a lithium salt and an organic solvent – with materials found in a commercial fire extinguisher. </p>
<p>An electrolyte allows lithium ions that carry an electric charge to move across a separator between the positive and negative terminals of a lithium-ion battery. By modifying affordable commercial coolants to function as battery electrolytes, we were able to produce a battery that puts out its own fire.</p>
<p>Our electrolyte worked well across a wide temperature range, from about minus 100 to 175 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 75 to 80 degrees Celsius). Batteries that we produced in the lab with this electrolyte transferred heat away from the battery very well, and extinguished internal fires effectively. </p>
<p>We subjected these batteries to the nail penetration test, a common method for assessing lithium-ion battery safety. Driving a <a href="https://belltestchamber.com/why-do-we-need-to-do-the-nail-penetration-test.html">stainless steel nail through a charged battery</a> simulates an internal short circuit; if the battery catches fire, it fails the test. When we drove a nail through our charged batteries, they withstood the impact without catching fire.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic showing the parts of lithium-ion battery" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">When a lithium-ion battery delivers energy to a device, lithium ions – atoms that carry an electrical charge – move from the anode to the cathode. The ions move in reverse when recharging.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/8Erh2x">Argonne National Laboratory/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
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<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>By nature, a battery’s temperature changes as it charges and discharges, due to <a href="https://data.energizer.com/pdfs/batteryir.pdf">internal resistance</a> – opposition within the battery to the flow of lithium ions. <a href="https://www.latimes.com/business/story/2023-07-13/how-a-heat-wave-will-hurt-your-ev-battery">High outdoor temperatures</a> or uneven temperatures within a battery pack seriously threaten batteries’ safety and durability. </p>
<p>Energy-dense batteries, such as the lithium-ion versions that are widely used in electronics and electric vehicles, contain an electrolyte formulation dominated by organic molecules that are highly flammable. This worsens the risk of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/thermal-runaway">thermal runaway</a> – an uncontrollable process in which excess heat inside a battery speeds up unwanted chemical reactions that release more heat, triggering further reactions. Temperatures inside the battery can rise by hundreds of degrees in a second, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kHTlVmBbnPA&t=5s">causing a fire or explosion</a>.</p>
<p>Another safety concern arises when lithium-ion batteries are charged too quickly. This can cause chemical reactions that produce very sharp lithium needles called dendrites on the battery’s anode – the electrode with a negative charge. Eventually, the needles penetrate the separator and reach the other electrode, short-circuiting the battery internally and leading to overheating.</p>
<p>As scientists studying <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jCXInTYAAAAJ&hl=en">energy generation</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KsW8rMMAAAAJ&hl=en">storage and conversion</a>, we have a strong interest in developing energy-dense and safe batteries. Replacing flammable electrolytes with a flame-retardant electrolyte has the potential to make lithium-ion batteries safer, and can buy time for longer-term improvements that reduce inherent risks of overheating and thermal runaway. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Lithium-ion battery fires in vehicles have become a major concern for firefighters because the batteries burn at very high temperatures for long periods.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>How we did our work</h2>
<p>We wanted to develop an electrolyte that was nonflammable, would readily transfer heat away from the battery pack, could function over a wide temperature range, was very durable, and would be compatible with any battery chemistry. However, most known nonflammable organic solvents contain fluorine and phosphorus, which are expensive and can have <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/phosphorus-and-water">harmful effects</a> <a href="https://www.stormwater.com/home/article/21146477/examining-the-impact-of-fluorine-on-soil-and-plant-health">on the environment</a>.</p>
<p>Instead, we focused on adapting affordable commercial coolants that already were widely used in fire extinguishers, electronic testing and cleaning applications, so that they could function as battery electrolytes. </p>
<p>We focused on a mature, safe and affordable commercial fluid called <a href="https://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/p/d/b40044871/">Novec 7300</a>, which has low toxicity, is nonflammable and does not contribute to global warming. By combining this fluid with several other chemicals that added durability, we were able to produce an electrolyte that had the features we sought and would enable a battery to charge and discharge over a full year without losing significant capacity. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Standard lithium-ion batteries failing the nail penetration test.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Because lithium – an alkali metal - is scarce in our Earth’s crust, it is important to investigate how well batteries that use other, more abundant alkali metal ions, such as potassium or sodium, fare in comparison. For this reason, our study focused predominantly on self-extinguishing potassium-ion batteries, although it also showed that our electrolyte works well for making self-extinguishing lithium-ion batteries. </p>
<p>It remains to be seen whether our electrolyte can work equally well for other types of batteries that are in development, such as <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/news-media/new-sodium-aluminum-battery-aims-integrate-renewables-grid-resiliency">sodium-ion, aluminum-ion</a> and <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/09/06/1079123/zinc-batteries-boost-eos/">zinc-ion</a> batteries. Our goal is to develop practical, environmentally friendly, sustainable batteries regardless of their ion type. </p>
<p>For now, however, since our alternative electrolyte has similar physical properties to currently used electrolytes, it can be readily integrated with current battery production lines. If the industry embraces it, we expect that companies will be able to manufacture nonflammable batteries using their existing lithium-ion battery facilities.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222667/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Apparao Rao receives funding from the R. A. Bowen Endowed Professorship funds at Clemson University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bingan Lu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Lithium-ion battery fires are becoming increasingly common as electric vehicles spread, and are hard to extinguish. A new approach uses an electrolyte based on a commercial fire extinguisher.Apparao Rao, Professor of Physics, Clemson UniversityBingan Lu, Associate Professor of Physics and Electronics, Hunan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2200502024-01-08T19:17:52Z2024-01-08T19:17:52ZAs Australia’s net zero transition threatens to stall, rooftop solar could help provide the power we need<p>Australia is not rolling out clean energy projects nearly fast enough to reach the Australian government’s target of 82% renewable electricity by 2030. A <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-06/australia-likely-to-fall-short-of-82pc-renewable-energy-target/102689392">huge build</a> of solar and wind farms, transmission lines and big batteries is needed. But progress is challenged by the scale required, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-beat-rollout-rage-the-environment-versus-climate-battle-dividing-regional-australia-213863">community resistance to new infrastructure</a> and connecting all that new renewable electricity to the grid.</p>
<p>In the latest obstacle to expanding renewable energy capacity in the longer term, federal Environment Minister Tanya Plibersek <a href="https://www.afr.com/companies/energy/plibersek-delivers-massive-blow-to-victorian-wind-hub-20240108-p5evqq">knocked back</a> a plan by the Victorian government to build a sea terminal to service offshore wind farms, saying it posed “clearly unacceptable” environmental risks.</p>
<p>The roadblocks facing large projects present an opportunity to ramp up the contribution of small-scale technologies in the energy transition. Recently, federal and state energy ministers agreed on the need for <a href="https://www.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/news/energy-ministers-identify-key-areas-to-reinvigorate-australias-energy-transformation">a national roadmap</a> and a co-ordinated approach to integrating into the grid what they call <a href="https://reneweconomy.com.au/ministers-put-consumer-energy-on-agenda-is-this-a-turning-point-or-groundhog-day/amp/">“consumer energy resources”</a> (CER), which include batteries, electric vehicles and rooftop solar.</p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-973" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/973/534c98def812dd41ac56cc750916e2922539729b/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>More than <a href="https://apvi.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/National-Survey-Report-of-PV-Power-Applications-in-AUSTRALIA-2022.pdf">one in three</a> Australian houses have solar panels on their roofs. Australia <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-10-31/how-rooftop-solar-panels-transformed-energy-in-australia/102987100">leads the world</a> in rooftop solar per head. During the past year these systems generated <a href="https://apo.org.au/sites/default/files/resource-files/2023-04/apo-nid322455.pdf">close to 10%</a> of our electricity. Several times over the past few months, they even provided enough electricity to <a href="https://reneweconomy.com.au/rooftop-solar-meets-all-of-south-australia-demand-in-major-new-milestone/">briefly meet all</a> South Australia’s electricity demand.</p>
<p>And the technology still has great potential to grow: although installed capacity has doubled in the last four years, these systems cover only about 10% of <a href="https://www.cefc.com.au/insights/market-reports/how-much-rooftop-solar-can-be-installed-in-australia/">Australia’s estimated usable roof area</a>. So, how large a share of our electricity needs might rooftop solar provide? The answers are not simple.</p>
<h2>Why rooftop solar presents a challenge for the grid</h2>
<p>In electricity systems, demand and supply must be balanced at all times. The <a href="https://aemo.com.au/en">Australian Energy Market Operator</a> (AEMO) runs the grid and keeps it secure to avoid blackouts in case of unexpected events such as the sudden disconnection of a transmission line. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-homes-can-be-made-climate-ready-reducing-bills-and-emissions-a-new-report-shows-how-219113">Australian homes can be made climate-ready, reducing bills and emissions – a new report shows how</a>
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<p>To meet demand, every five minutes AEMO dispatches electricity from large-scale generators such as coal-fired power stations or large solar farms. As the grid operator, AEMO must also procure reserve capacity to balance any differences in demand and maintain security.</p>
<p>But AEMO does not dispatch power from rooftop solar, which is either used on site, or flows into the grid independently of AEMO’s control. This isn’t usually a problem, since AEMO keeps the grid balanced by forecasting how much rooftop solar is being generated.</p>
<p>However, if rooftop solar generates the majority of power in a particular region, there may not be enough dispatchable generation and reserves online to keep the grid balanced and secure. Grid security can also be challenged when <a href="https://aemo.com.au/en/initiatives/major-programs/nem-distributed-energy-resources-der-program/operations/der-behaviour-during-disturbances">unexpected events</a> trigger the safety settings of rooftop solar systems and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114283">cause them to disconnect</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hyped-and-expensive-hydrogen-has-a-place-in-australias-energy-transition-but-only-with-urgent-government-support-219004">Hyped and expensive, hydrogen has a place in Australia’s energy transition, but only with urgent government support</a>
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<p>The other big issue for grid balance is that the network businesses that manage the poles, wires and other infrastructure connecting generators to homes and businesses need to ensure that voltages remain <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341931377_Voltage_Analysis_of_the_LV_Distribution_Network_in_the_Australian_National_Electricity_Market_Available_at_httpsprod-energycouncilenergyslicedtechcomaulv-voltage-report">within defined technical limits</a> to avoid damaging equipment or appliances. When solar generates a lot of power at a time of low electricity demand, voltage can exceed the upper operational limit. Voltage can also go below the lower operational limit when too many people connect big appliances like air-conditioners. </p>
<p>So how are we managing the three challenges of rooftop solar: lack of controllability by the market operator, uncertain behaviour during unexpected grid events and impact on network voltage?</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/green-growth-or-degrowth-what-is-the-right-way-to-tackle-climate-change-218239">Green growth or degrowth: what is the right way to tackle climate change?</a>
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<h2>Ways to manage and expand rooftop solar</h2>
<p>Current Australian standards require solar to automatically disconnect when voltage gets too high. Network businesses also pre-emptively manage this problem by preventing customers in areas where voltage is an issue from connecting solar to the grid, or by limiting the size of solar systems they can connect or the amount of electricity they can export to the grid at any time. But this approach is potentially unfair to those customers who can’t connect or export.</p>
<p>The good news is that standards introduced in 2020 provide more sophisticated ways of managing solar through <a href="https://www.ceem.unsw.edu.au/sites/default/files/documents/CANVAS-Succinct-Final-Report_11.11.21.pdf">more gradual voltage response</a>, and by requiring systems to ride through major disturbances rather than disconnecting. Some networks have also developed <a href="https://www.sapowernetworks.com.au/your-power/smarter-energy/flexible-exports/fixed-v-flexible/">solar-friendly ways</a> to cut off surplus output “dynamically”, meaning only at times when they have to.</p>
<p>Thanks to these measures, solar customers face less constraint on exporting power to the grid. However, since solar sometimes now supplies most of the generation in South Australia, AEMO has also <a href="https://aemo.com.au/-/media/files/learn/fact-sheets/pv-rooftop-solar-consumer-fact-sheet.pdf">tested disconnection of solar</a> to increase its control of the grid in case of threats to system security.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-nuclear-the-answer-to-australias-climate-crisis-216891">Is nuclear the answer to Australia's climate crisis?</a>
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<p>Some of these solar management tools are still quite blunt and <a href="https://onestepoffthegrid.com.au/solar-switch-off-how-aemo-took-control-of-rooftop-pv-and-why-it-didnt-need-to/">some commentators</a> worry they will be overused. While necessary in the short-term, if unchecked they will reduce our ability to realise our rooftop solar potential.</p>
<h2>Getting smarter about when we use power</h2>
<p>There is another way to use our solar systems more effectively: we can shift energy use to times when the sun is shining, and store energy – in batteries, electric vehicles and <a href="https://reneweconomy.com.au/electric-hot-water-is-a-hero-of-flexible-demand-where-does-it-stand-in-the-age-of-rooftop-solar/">hot water tanks</a> – <a href="https://ieefa.org/resources/saturation-der-modelling-shows-distributed-energy-and-storage-could-lower-costs-all">to use when it is not</a>.</p>
<p>To make such a change, consumer electricity prices are a potential lever. Solar customers already have an incentive to use electricity from their own rooftop systems, because they pay more for grid electricity than they are paid to sell solar back to the grid.</p>
<p>South Australia and some other network areas <a href="https://www.aer.gov.au/system/files/Ausgrid%20-%20Att.%208.1%20-%20Tariff%20Structure%20Statement%20compliance%20paper%20%20-%2031%20Jan%202023%20-%20Public.pdf">are introducing</a> low “solar soak” rates to encourage all customers to use electricity in high solar times, such as the middle of the day. Times of plentiful solar also tend to be the <a href="https://opennem.org.au/">cheapest times to buy wholesale electricity from the grid</a>, and innovative retailers like <a href="https://www.amber.com.au/">Amber Electric</a> are passing through these price signals to customers.</p>
<p>However, typical retail plans offered to customers don’t provide much incentive to change patterns of electricity use, especially since many customers are understandably not focused on their electricity bills or <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368464625_Engaging_households_in_electricity_flexibility_-_insights_from_the_UK">cannot easily shift</a> their power use.</p>
<p>In these cases orchestration schemes, often called “virtual power plants,” are an option. Under the schemes, a business will <a href="https://www.ceem.unsw.edu.au/publication/rewarding-residential-electricity-flexibility-customer-friendly-cost-reflective-tariffs">reward household customers</a> that allow it to operate their rooftop solar, batteries, appliances, electric vehicles and hot water systems in ways that reduce costs or grid impacts.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-new-dawn-becoming-a-green-superpower-with-a-big-role-in-cutting-global-emissions-216373">Australia's new dawn: becoming a green superpower with a big role in cutting global emissions</a>
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<p>Better management of electricity use through these schemes can make room for the grid to take on more solar.</p>
<p>Recent trials in Western Australia (<a href="https://www.wa.gov.au/government/announcements/project-symphony-paving-the-way-our-brighter-energy-future">Project Symphony</a>) and Victoria (<a href="https://aemo.com.au/initiatives/major-programs/nem-distributed-energy-resources-der-program/der-demonstrations/project-edge/project-edge-reports">Project EDGE</a>) prove orchestration can work. Nevertheless, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214629621003030?via%3Dihub">people will need good reasons</a> to hand over control of their solar, batteries and appliances, particularly if they bought expensive equipment such as batteries <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629623003018?via%3Dihub">for back-up power or to increase their energy independence</a>.</p>
<p>It would be a major setback to the net zero transition if AEMO and network businesses, lacking better options for managing the grid, continue to cut back and switch off solar systems until people find it unattractive to purchase them.</p>
<p>The new <a href="https://switchedon.reneweconomy.com.au/content/finally-a-national-roadmap-for-decarbonising-homes-and-communities">CER roadmap</a> needs to provide clear guidance on how AEMO and network businesses can manage rooftop solar, and other technologies such as batteries and EVs. Good governance arrangements and meaningful stakeholder consultation are essential if Australia is to maintain the momentum of its people-powered energy transition.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220050/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Bruce receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the Race for 2030 Cooperative Research Centre, the Australian Renewable Energy Agency and the Commonwealth Department of Climate Change, Energy, Environment and Water. She is a member of the Executive Committee of the Australian PV Institute.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Baran Yildiz receives funding from the Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA) and the RACE for 2030 Cooperative Research Australia. Baran is a member of International Energy Agency (IEA) Solar Heating & Cooling Programme Task 69.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dani Alexander receives funding from the Australian Renewable Energy Agency and the RACE for 2030 Cooperative Research Centre. Dani previously was the Business Program Leader for the RACE for 2030 CRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Roberts receives funding from the Race for 2030 Cooperative Research Centre, the Commonwealth Department of Climate Change, Energy, Environment and Water, and Essential Energy. He is a former director of the Australian PV Institute.</span></em></p>Australia leads the world in rooftop solar per head. Can this small-scale power source be the secret weapon to fire up our struggling transition to net zero?Anna Bruce, Associate Professor in the Collaboration on Energy and Environmental Markets and the School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, UNSW SydneyBaran Yildiz, Senior Research Associate, UNSW SydneyDani Alexander, CEO, UNSW Energy Institute, UNSW SydneyMike Roberts, Senior Research Fellow in the Collaboration on Energy and Environmental Markets and the School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2140632023-11-07T19:35:03Z2023-11-07T19:35:03ZMaking money green: Australia takes its first steps towards a net zero finance strategy<p>Just north of Jamestown in South Australia, 70 kilometres east of the Spencer Gulf and next to a wind farm of nearly 100 turbines, stands the world’s <a href="https://www.cefc.com.au/where-we-invest/case-studies/sa-big-battery-a-game-changer/">first big battery</a>. </p>
<p>Built in partnership with <a href="https://www.tesla.com/videos/powerpack-hornsdale">Tesla</a> and financed and operated by <a href="https://www.energy-storage.news/upgrade-at-tesla-battery-project-demonstrates-feasibility-of-once-in-a-century-energy-transformation-for-australia/">Neoen</a>, a French multinational renewable energy developer, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornsdale_Power_Reserve">Hornsdale Power Reserve</a> and other big battery projects could stimulate a homegrown battery industry, contributing many <a href="https://fbicrc.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Charging-Ahead_Final-Report_Full-17-March-2023-1.pdf">billions of dollars and thousands of jobs</a> to the Australian economy. But for that industry to rise, it will need money.</p>
<p>Australia aspires not only to transition its economy to net zero emissions, but to become a green energy superpower. That means building a host of solar and wind farms, batteries, electric vehicle charging stations, upgrades to the grid and to all kinds of buildings, as well as investments in new technology. </p>
<p>These investments and big infrastructure projects don’t come cheap. Getting to net zero emissions by 2050 requires investment in renewable energy of A$754 billion in power generation alone, according to <a href="https://www.uts.edu.au/sites/default/files/2022-06/Supercharging%20transition%202021%20Update%20-%20Oct%2022%20update.docx.pdf">research</a> by the <a href="https://www.uts.edu.au/isf">UTS Institute for Sustainable Futures</a> and funded by Future Super.</p>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-973" class="tc-infographic" height="400px" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/973/534c98def812dd41ac56cc750916e2922539729b/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>The size of the green finance challenge</h2>
<p>By 2030, the world will have to invest <a href="https://www.climatepolicyinitiative.org/publication/global-landscape-of-climate-finance-a-decade-of-data/">an estimated US$4.3 trillion</a> a year – roughly <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true">the GDP of Japan</a>, the world’s third-largest economy – in climate finance. These financial flows need to grow by 21% a year, on average. Without this enormous increase, the economic transition will not happen in time to avoid the worst impacts of climate change. </p>
<p>The scale of financing means that superannuation funds and other big institutional investors <a href="https://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/financial-services/super-funds-voice-concerns-over-reaching-2030-green-targets/news-story/43aed4b3d27a80c1f8cc349390acc4a8">must be involved</a>. They need to know where their money is going, and whether investments are genuine or a case of “greenwashing”. They need certainty that companies in which they invest have solid plans to reduce their climate risk, and the ability to ask the companies questions when they don’t.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australias-new-dawn-becoming-a-green-superpower-with-a-big-role-in-cutting-global-emissions-216373">Australia's new dawn: becoming a green superpower with a big role in cutting global emissions</a>
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<p>But current financial regulation is not set up to support such best practice. To give just one example, default superannuation funds lack the <a href="https://www.apra.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-12/Methodology%20paper%20-%20MySuper%20Heatmap.pdf">benchmarks</a> – measures of performance assessed by the Australian Prudential Regulation Authority – they need to invest in start-up businesses that are developing clean energy technologies. </p>
<p>Successive Australian governments have been slow to grasp this reality, and we are now playing catch-up with many other countries. </p>
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<h2>Australia releases its strategy</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://treasury.gov.au/consultation/c2023-456756#:%7E:text=The%20strategy's%20policy%20priorities%20are,Australian%20Government%20leadership%20and%20engagement.">Australian government’s Sustainable Finance Strategy</a>, <a href="https://ministers.treasury.gov.au/ministers/jim-chalmers-2022/media-releases/new-steps-albanese-governments-sustainable-finance">released by Treasurer Jim Chalmers</a> last Thursday, lays solid foundations for this recovery. Yet more needs to be done if Australia is to achieve the strategy’s stated ambition to be a global sustainability finance leader.</p>
<p>The strategy is arranged around <a href="https://treasury.gov.au/consultation/c2023-456756#:%7E:text=The%20strategy's%20policy%20priorities%20are,Australian%20Government%20leadership%20and%20engagement.">three core pillars</a>. The first focuses on creating access to information that is credible, accurate and of practical value. It seeks to ensure markets operate efficiently and money flows to where it is most needed.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/beyond-juukan-gorge-how-first-nations-people-are-taking-charge-of-clean-energy-projects-on-their-land-213864">Beyond Juukan Gorge: how First Nations people are taking charge of clean energy projects on their land</a>
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<p>From July 1 2024, large Australian companies and financial institutions will have to <a href="https://www.climateworkscentre.org/news/mandatory-climate-related-financial-disclosures-for-australian-companies-explained/#:%7E:text=Under%20Treasury's%20proposal%2C%20companies%20will,requiring%20substantial%20forward%2Dlooking%20information.">disclose information</a> about the impacts of climate on their business, the risks climate change poses to their operations, and how they plan to decarbonise. </p>
<p>The disclosure requirements will be based on <a href="https://www.ifrs.org/issued-standards/ifrs-sustainability-standards-navigator/ifrs-s2-climate-related-disclosures/#:%7E:text=IFRS%20S2%20requires%20an%20entity,related%20risks%20and%20opportunities%20that">internationally accepted standards</a>, to ensure Australian and overseas investors can compare data across companies and countries. </p>
<p>The government is also supporting the development of an <a href="https://www.asfi.org.au/taxonomy">Australian sustainable finance taxonomy</a> – a set of criteria that enables investors to evaluate whether and to what extent an investment supports sustainability goals. </p>
<p>A taxonomy spells out which investments result in real decarbonisation, and reduces the likelihood of false claims about the sustainability of projects and investments. A government agency will manage the taxonomy, which will start as a voluntary code but may eventually become mandatory. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-beat-rollout-rage-the-environment-versus-climate-battle-dividing-regional-australia-213863">How to beat 'rollout rage': the environment-versus-climate battle dividing regional Australia</a>
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<p>Large companies will also be required to disclose their net zero transition plan, if they have one. With companies representing <a href="https://acsi.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Promises-Pathways-Performance-Climate-reporting-in-the-ASX200-August-2023.pdf">80% of the market capitalisation</a> of ASX 200 companies pledging to achieve net zero emissions, the government wants to ensure their plans are credible. It wants the corporate regulator, the <a href="https://asic.gov.au/">Australian Securities and Investment Commission</a> (ASIC), to set out its expectations of the plans – a welcome step.</p>
<p>The second pillar focuses on building the capabilities of Australia’s financial system regulators to manage risk and to clamp down on greenwashing – the practice of making misleading or deceptive claims about the environmental benefits of activities or assets. </p>
<h2>Fighting greenwashing</h2>
<p>ASIC Deputy Chair Karen Chester believes the economic cost and loss of investor confidence caused by greenwashing “<a href="https://asic.gov.au/about-asic/news-centre/speeches/climate-change-urgency-integrity-ambition/">cannot be overstated</a>”. Her organisation has set out guidelines to help financial institutions identify it. This year ASIC launched its <a href="https://asic.gov.au/about-asic/news-centre/find-a-media-release/2023-releases/23-043mr-asic-launches-first-court-proceedings-alleging-greenwashing/">first three legal actions</a>, including one against the local arm of US investment giant <a href="https://asic.gov.au/about-asic/news-centre/find-a-media-release/2023-releases/23-196mr-asic-commences-greenwashing-case-against-vanguard-investments-australia/">Vanguard</a>, and another against <a href="https://asic.gov.au/about-asic/news-centre/find-a-media-release/2023-releases/23-215mr-asic-commences-greenwashing-case-against-active-super/">Active Super</a>, which allegedly falsely claimed it had eliminated investments, such as coal mining, that posed too great a risk to the environment and the community. </p>
<p>The third pillar concerns government leadership and engagement. Such a large and rapid increase in the scale of private sector finance requires growth in a range of financial assets, including shares, bonds and other kinds of debt. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-australia-urgently-needs-a-climate-plan-and-a-net-zero-national-cabinet-committee-to-implement-it-213866">Why Australia urgently needs a climate plan and a Net Zero National Cabinet Committee to implement it</a>
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<p>The government is supporting the development of a <a href="https://www.rba.gov.au/publications/bulletin/2023/sep/green-and-sustainable-finance-in-australia.html">green bond market</a> by issuing <a href="https://www.moneymanagement.com.au/features/all-eyes-australias-inaugural-sovereign-green-bonds">Australia’s first green sovereign bond</a> in June. These bonds are designed to establish standards for lending and borrowing for all green finance; they will also help the government to fund projects such as electric vehicle charging infrastructure. </p>
<p>Finally, the strategy recognises the importance of <a href="https://www.adb.org/what-we-do/funds/australian-climate-finance-partnership">collaboration across the Asia-Pacific</a>. If Australia achieves its goal of becoming a regional sustainable finance hub it would not only benefit our national interest but help Pacific Island nations to raise the finance to decarbonise. </p>
<h2>What’s missing from the strategy?</h2>
<p>The strategy does not focus on <a href="https://www.uts.edu.au/sites/default/files/2022-10/Advancing%20climate%20skills%20in%20the%20Australian%20financial%20system%20FINAL_0.pdf">green finance skills</a> and competencies. Yet these capabilities, ranging from a basic understanding of what business activities are unsustainable to specialist expertise in the use of scenario analysis to assess climate risk, are essential to the net zero transition. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-original-and-still-the-best-why-its-time-to-renew-australias-renewable-energy-policy-213879">The original and still the best: why it's time to renew Australia's renewable energy policy</a>
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<p>LinkedIn’s recent <a href="https://economicgraph.linkedin.com/research/global-green-skills-report">Green Skills Report</a> shows that, globally, the finance sector is lagging behind other sectors in building green skills. And Australia ranks only 30th in a list of countries on its share of talent for green finance.</p>
<p>Australia’s financial system must urgently transform itself to meet the climate challenge. If the financing of the transition were a bicycle race, Australia has now caught up to the global peloton. The next step is to take the lead.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214063/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison Atherton is a member of the Australian Sustainable Finance Institute's Capability Reference Group</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gordon Noble does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If big money is going to invest in clean energy and technology, the rules have to be clear. Australia’s launch of a green finance strategy last week was a good start but there is further to go.Alison Atherton, Program Lead, Business, Economy and Governance at the Institute for Sustainable Futures., University of Technology SydneyGordon Noble, Research Director, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2148082023-11-06T18:10:13Z2023-11-06T18:10:13ZWhy surging sales of large electric vehicles raises environmental red flags<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557707/original/file-20231106-252784-a0wdu3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6016%2C3998&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/electric-cars-suvs-parked-row-on-1380375332">alexfan32/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Electric cars are getting bigger and heavier. In 2019, <a href="https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/dacf14d2-eabc-498a-8263-9f97fd5dc327/GEVO2023.pdf">30% of the electric vehicle</a> (EV) models available worldwide were sports utility vehicles (SUVs). </p>
<p>Fast forward to 2022 and that figure stood at 40% – equivalent to the share of small and medium car options combined. Other large models accounted for more than 15%.</p>
<p>There’s an issue with this. Larger and heavier EVs require bigger batteries to power them. In fact, the battery of an SUV can be double the size of that in a smaller vehicle. </p>
<p>As with many other batteries, the lithium-ion cells that power the majority of electric vehicles rely on raw materials such as cobalt, lithium and nickel. In a standard 60 kWh lithium-ion battery pack designed for smaller EVs, there can be as much as <a href="https://elements.visualcapitalist.com/the-key-minerals-in-an-ev-battery/">170kg of minerals</a>, including 39kg of nickel and 5kg of lithium. </p>
<p>Batteries for electric SUVs demand that up to <a href="https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/57318397-fdd4-11ed-a05c-01aa75ed71a1">75% more raw materials</a> are extracted from the environment than this.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/battery-2030-resilient-sustainable-and-circular#/">research</a> suggests that there could be shortages in the supply of battery materials in the future. By 2030, there could be a 55% less lithium and 8% less nickel and manganese than is needed to meet the demand for EV batteries.</p>
<p>If the demand for electric SUVs continues to increase over the coming decade, this could severely escalate the pressure on the already tight supply of critical raw materials.</p>
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<img alt="A Ford Mustang Mach-E All-Electric SUV." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557455/original/file-20231103-26-7cut8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557455/original/file-20231103-26-7cut8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557455/original/file-20231103-26-7cut8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557455/original/file-20231103-26-7cut8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557455/original/file-20231103-26-7cut8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557455/original/file-20231103-26-7cut8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557455/original/file-20231103-26-7cut8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">More and more people are opting for larger EVs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/szczecinpolandfebruary-2021-ford-mustang-mache-allelectric-1927403225">Mike Mareen/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>But that’s not all</h2>
<p>The production of batteries is also a highly carbon-intensive process, with emissions increasing as batteries grow in size. For example, the CO₂ emissions resulting from materials processing and battery manufacturing can soar to <a href="https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/dacf14d2-eabc-498a-8263-9f97fd5dc327/GEVO2023.pdf">levels 70% higher</a> for electric SUVs compared to smaller EVs.</p>
<p>Mining activities have been linked with several negative environmental effects too. For instance, one <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2021.2388">study</a> found that lithium mining activities in the Salar de Atacama – Chile’s largest salt flat – have <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/flamingo-bird">disturbed flamingo breeding sites</a> and reduced the birds’ access to food and water. </p>
<p>Expanding mining operations to support the growing SUV market could lead to further habitat destruction, excessive water consumption, increased mining waste and heightened risks to local biodiversity.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557454/original/file-20231103-22-yc1vd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Pink flamingos feeding in a lake." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557454/original/file-20231103-22-yc1vd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557454/original/file-20231103-22-yc1vd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557454/original/file-20231103-22-yc1vd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557454/original/file-20231103-22-yc1vd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557454/original/file-20231103-22-yc1vd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557454/original/file-20231103-22-yc1vd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557454/original/file-20231103-22-yc1vd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lithium mining has disturbed flamingos in the Salar de Atacama, Chile.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pink-flamingos-salar-de-talar-atacama-1490667356">SierraLemon/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Adding to the complexity is the EU’s <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32023R1542">recent decision</a> to mandate a minimum proportion of recycled material in new EV batteries. As of 2021, regulations have required that 6% of the nickel and lithium, and 14% of the cobalt in EV batteries must be sourced from recycled materials.</p>
<p>Given the sharp upswing in battery demand, coupled with the need for more recycled materials, we could once again encounter a strained supply chain, with particular implications for larger batteries.</p>
<h2>We need clean electricity</h2>
<p>To charge larger batteries in an environmentally friendly manner will require an increased supply of low-carbon electricity. But, as the energy sources used to generate electricity are influenced by factors including availability and the dynamics of the energy market, the <a href="https://carbonintensity.org.uk/">carbon intensity</a> of the electricity supply can often vary. </p>
<p>Even if electricity grids do become cleaner, the increasing demand generated by the need to charge these larger batteries could put pressure on power grids.</p>
<p>Transmission and distribution systems were designed at a time when power plants were large and centralised, and electricity demand was relatively low. However, the energy landscape has evolved. </p>
<p>We are now moving towards decentralised energy sources, such as wind turbines and solar panels. These energy sources are often smaller and located in areas where electricity generation was previously absent. </p>
<p>As a result, the grid infrastructure in these locations is less developed. Electricity demand is also growing, as more people buy electric vehicles and install heat pumps. </p>
<p>The overall grid capacity might be sufficient to accommodate these changes. But there could still be periods, especially during specific times of the day or year, when the grid experiences bottlenecks. </p>
<p>For example, there may be a surplus of renewable energy generation in one location and significant demand in a distant area, but the electrical infrastructure might be insufficient to transfer power from one end to the other.</p>
<p>This exact situation often occurs in the UK. In 2022, bottlenecks in the transmission system meant Scottish wind farms were <a href="https://carbontracker.org/britain-wastes-enough-wind-generation-to-power-1-million-homes/">paid to stop generating power</a> on 200 separate occasions and gas power stations in England were paid to increase output to compensate for this. </p>
<p>Utilities companies are working to <a href="https://roadnighttaylor.co.uk/connectology/what-is-network-reinforcement/">reinforce electricity grids</a> worldwide by, for example, building more lines to transfer the additional power.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A close-up shot of a wind turbine in a field." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557457/original/file-20231103-21-agxdj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557457/original/file-20231103-21-agxdj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557457/original/file-20231103-21-agxdj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557457/original/file-20231103-21-agxdj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557457/original/file-20231103-21-agxdj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557457/original/file-20231103-21-agxdj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557457/original/file-20231103-21-agxdj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The power generation landscape has evolved.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-view-wind-turbine-renewable-green-2050094282">CloudVisual/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Motorists are increasingly opting for large electric SUVs. But the environmental impact of these vehicles should not be underestimated. The relentless demand for battery materials and electricity raises the question of whether SUVs will continue to be a viable green option.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><strong><em>Don’t have time to read about climate change as much as you’d like?</em></strong>
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<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214808/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More and more motorists are opting for bigger EVs – but there are several environmental concerns to consider.Laura Lander, Lecturer in Engineering, King's College LondonGrazia Todeschini, Reader in Engineering, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2147642023-11-05T13:01:50Z2023-11-05T13:01:50ZCobalt nanoparticles could become a significant player in the pursuit of clean energy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555884/original/file-20231025-19-xeztbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C2492%2C1645&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cobalt nanoparticles can be used in fuel cells and increase their applications.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/cobalt-nanoparticles-could-become-a-significant-player-in-the-pursuit-of-clean-energy" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>To help address climate change, we urgently need to transition to clean energy. The energy sector is a <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/4-charts-explain-greenhouse-gas-emissions-countries-and-sectors">significant contributor</a> to greenhouse gas emissions, which are <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_SPM.pdf">the primary drivers of global warming</a>. </p>
<p>Our research team at Western University is innovating ways to generate clean electricity. Fuel cells are at the forefront of this endeavour, offering numerous advantages in the pursuit of sustainable energy solutions. </p>
<p>These devices offer a promising pathway to clean energy by efficiently converting chemical energy into electricity with only <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/fuel-cell-basics">water and heat as byproducts</a>. This makes them an environmentally friendly choice for electricity generation.</p>
<p>One of the most promising types of fuel cells is the <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/types-fuel-cells">polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)</a> because of its applications in transportation, and portable and stationary power sources, where efficiency, responsiveness and reduced emissions are crucial factors.</p>
<h2>Platinum as a catalyst</h2>
<p>One of the major challenges hindering the widespread adoption of PEMFCs lies with the <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/fuel-cells">use of platinum</a>, which is problematic due to its <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/01352385-372f-4b79-9446-a03c518ba28a">scarcity</a>. This dependency on platinum is due to its ability to facilitate the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84800-936-3_2">oxygen reduction reaction (ORR)</a>, which is a fundamental process in producing electrical energy within PEMFCs. </p>
<p>The ORR involves the reduction of oxygen molecules into water through a series of complex reactions. This process is responsible for generating the electrical power these fuel cells provide. The presence of platinum as a catalyst lowers the energy required for the reduction of oxygen molecules. Without platinum, the ORR would occur too slowly to yield practical and efficient electricity production.</p>
<p>However, the <a href="https://www.hydrogeninsight.com/analysis/analysis-will-rising-platinum-and-iridium-prices-restrict-the-growth-of-pem-hydrogen-electrolysers-and-fuel-cells-/2-1-1460113">high cost and scarcity</a> of platinum present substantial challenges to the commercial viability of PEMFCs. The <a href="https://www.ief.org/news/energy-transition-to-trigger-huge-growth-in-platinum-for-hydrogen">increasing price</a> of platinum has made it economically prohibitive to use it in large-scale fuel cell production, preventing PEMFCs from becoming <a href="https://www.anl.gov/partnerships/enabling-fuel-cell-adoption">a mainstream clean energy solution</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556866/original/file-20231031-19-rbll9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a truck on a pile of rocks and dirt, three people in safety gear are in the foreground" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556866/original/file-20231031-19-rbll9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556866/original/file-20231031-19-rbll9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556866/original/file-20231031-19-rbll9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556866/original/file-20231031-19-rbll9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=349&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556866/original/file-20231031-19-rbll9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556866/original/file-20231031-19-rbll9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556866/original/file-20231031-19-rbll9z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The high cost and scarcity of platinum present substantial challenges to its use in large-scale fuel cell production.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our research works on creating catalysts that can replace platinum effectively. Our research team leverages cutting-edge facilities like the <a href="https://www.lightsource.ca/">Canadian Light Source</a>, <a href="https://www.aps.anl.gov/">Advanced Photon Source</a>, and the <a href="https://www.nsrrc.org.tw/English/tps.aspx">Taiwan Photon Source</a>. </p>
<p>By harnessing these resources and technologies, we explore various strategies for catalyst development, gain profound insights into their structural and chemical characteristics, and better understand how they can advance our goal of reducing dependence on platinum. </p>
<h2>Intricate realm of catalyst design</h2>
<p>Our research explores catalyst design, with a specific focus on two fundamental techniques: alloying platinum with transition metals and crafting complex core-shell structures. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-21017-6">Alloying platinum</a> is the process of mixing platinum with other transition metals, to enhance catalytic performance. This approach results in catalysts with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/cnma.201900319">improved reactivity and durability</a>, rendering them highly effective across a broad spectrum of applications, including fuel cells.</p>
<p>In addition to alloying, our research also delves into the development of intricate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00057">core-shell structures</a>. In this approach, a cost-effective metallic core is enveloped by several layers of shell made of another material, providing protection while further enhancing catalytic efficiency. </p>
<p>This design allows for precise control over catalytic reactions, surface property optimization and minimization of material wastage.</p>
<h2>Persistent challenges</h2>
<p>Despite our advancements, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/catal5031622">the durability of these catalysts</a> poses a challenge. Their inherent instability, which refers to their tendency to degrade, diminish in effectiveness or undergo undesirable alterations, is a substantial roadblock for real-world applications.</p>
<p>Our research team has found a potential solution: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.3c04274">the infusion of cobalt dopants into the surface and near-surface region of catalysts</a>. This creates platinum-based catalysts capable of withstanding harsh conditions and the passage of time. This significantly enhances the durability and effectiveness of these catalysts.</p>
<p>Our team developed novel particles — cobalt-doped palladium-platinum core-shell — which possess a distinctive octahedral structure and exceptional resilience to both harsh chemical environments and prolonged use. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1718689162940014831"}"></div></p>
<p>This innovative nanoscale structure, featuring a core of palladium and an outer shell of platinum, with the addition of cobalt atom into the platinum shell, provides these nanoparticles with exceptional durability. They exhibit a remarkable ability to withstand degradation and maintain their catalytic activity over extended periods.</p>
<p>Following a thorough examination involving 20,000 accelerated durability test cycles, designed to provide a better understanding of how catalysts degrade in carefully controlled laboratory conditions, their performance only saw a minimal decrease of two per cent when compared to their initial state at the beginning of the testing.</p>
<h2>Potential future</h2>
<p>Cobalt-doped palladium-platinum core-shell nanoparticles have the potential to revolutionize fuel cell technology. Their promise as highly efficient and enduring ORR catalysts points the way toward a more sustainable energy future.</p>
<p>Our research aligns with the urgent need to combat <a href="https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/climate-change">climate change as a global crisis</a>. By replacing fossil fuels with cleaner energy alternatives, we can contribute to a more sustainable and resilient future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214764/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tsun-Kong (T.K.) Sham receives funding from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), Canada Research Chair (CRC), Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ali Feizabadi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Nanoparticles can help address a dependency on platinum — a rare and expensive material — to generate clean power.Tsun-Kong (T.K.) Sham, Distinguished University Professor, Chemistry, Western UniversityAli Feizabadi, Research Assistant, Chemistry, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2161702023-10-24T04:23:53Z2023-10-24T04:23:53ZPushing water uphill: Snowy 2.0 was a bad idea from the start. Let’s not make the same mistake again<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555503/original/file-20231024-15-9cuz0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C28%2C3822%2C2126&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last night <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-10-23/snowy-hydro-sinkhole-toxic-gas-tunnelling-four-corners/102995568">ABC’s Four Corners</a> investigated the problem-plagued Snowy 2.0 pumped hydro power station, focusing on a bogged tunnelling machine, toxic gas and an unexpected volume of sludge. </p>
<p>While these specific problems are new, we have criticised this project <a href="https://theconversation.com/snowy-2-0-will-not-produce-nearly-as-much-electricity-as-claimed-we-must-hit-the-pause-button-125017">since 2019</a> and outlined <a href="https://theconversation.com/nsw-has-approved-snowy-2-0-here-are-six-reasons-why-thats-a-bad-move-139112">six key problems</a> even earlier <a href="https://www.afr.com/opinion/why-snowy-20-is-a-writeoff-from-the-start-20180104-h0d9z4">elsewhere</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555484/original/file-20231024-15-oy1pz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="snowy hydro scheme hydroelectricity plant, with pipes and turbines and a lake" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555484/original/file-20231024-15-oy1pz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/555484/original/file-20231024-15-oy1pz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555484/original/file-20231024-15-oy1pz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555484/original/file-20231024-15-oy1pz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555484/original/file-20231024-15-oy1pz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555484/original/file-20231024-15-oy1pz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/555484/original/file-20231024-15-oy1pz3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The original Snowy Hydro scheme is regarded as a major nation-building project for Australia. But will Snowy 2.0 be seen the same way?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How did we get here?</h2>
<p>In March 2017, then-Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull <a href="https://www.malcolmturnbull.com.au/media/securing-australias-energy-future-with-snowy-mountains-2.0">announced the project</a>, lauding it as a game changer for our clean-energy revolution. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://reneweconomy.com.au/turnbull-says-his-biggest-leadership-failure-was-on-climate-change-83289">his memoir</a>, Turnbull dubbed Snowy 2.0 “the single most important and enduring decision of the many I made on energy”.</p>
<p>Alas, Snowy 2.0 has not gone well. The warning signs were there from the start. Both the government-appointed Snowy Hydro Board and federal government were warned they had <a href="https://www.afr.com/opinion/why-snowy-20-is-a-writeoff-from-the-start-20180104-h0d9z4">greatly under-costed it</a>, underestimated the construction time and failed to recognise the <a href="https://majorprojects.planningportal.nsw.gov.au/prweb/PRRestService/mp/01/getContent?AttachRef=SUB-5110%2120191106T014221.508%20GMT">damage it would do</a> to the Kosciuszko National Park. </p>
<p>In August this year, the government bumped up funding for Snowy 2.0 to A$12 billion – triple the October 2018 figure, when the final decision was made to go ahead, and six times what Turnbull first claimed it would cost in March 2017. That’s before counting the new transmission lines through the controversial HumeLink and VNI West transmission projects. When complete, Snowy 2.0 plus transmission could cost upwards of $20 billion – over ten times the figure Turnbull claimed. </p>
<p>Energy minister Chris Bowen put the Snowy failures and blowouts down to poor execution. Was it still worthwhile? Yes, he said. But Bowen also admits to being swayed by the sunk cost – the government has <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/florence-the-2400-tonne-machine-that-came-to-symbolise-snowy-2-0-s-woes-20230901-p5e17w.html">already spent</a> over $4 billion on it. </p>
<p>Snowy Hydro’s new CEO Dennis Barnes <a href="https://www.snowyhydro.com.au/news/securing-the-future-of-critical-energy-transformation-resets/">has claimed</a> that while costs have blown out, the public benefits have increased as well. </p>
<p>To date, nothing has been released to substantiate claims of extra benefit despite requests by journalists and by the Senate. All that has been released is a one-page <a href="https://minister.dcceew.gov.au/bowen/media-releases/joint-media-release-snowy-hydro-corporate-plan-update">press release</a> and a <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Tabled_Documents/3774">highly redacted report</a>. </p>
<h2>What are the lessons here?</h2>
<p>Pumped hydro is essentially a hydroelectricity plant with the ability to pump water back up to the top reservoir. You use cheap power to pump it uphill, and run water back down through turbines to generate power as needed. </p>
<p>The technology isn’t new. It had a previous burst of popularity in developed nations in the 1970s. But since then, there’s been very little pumped hydro built <a href="https://www.hydroreview.com/hydro-industry-news/pumped-storage-hydro/china-three-gorges-begins-construction-of-1-7-gw-tiantai-pumped-storage-power-station/#gref">except in China</a>. </p>
<p>Since the 1970s, Australia has had three pumped-hydro generators supplying the National Electricity Market, two in New South Wales and one in Queensland. Data on their generation shows they have only <a href="https://www.vepc.org.au/v-nem">a minor role in energy storage</a>.</p>
<p>None of these are comparable to Snowy 2.0, which would be vastly bigger than any we’ve built before. Snowy 2.0 has by far the longest tunnels – 27 kilometres – of any pumped-hydro station ever built. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nsw-has-approved-snowy-2-0-here-are-six-reasons-why-thats-a-bad-move-139112">NSW has approved Snowy 2.0. Here are six reasons why that's a bad move</a>
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<p>Even our smaller pumped-hydro projects are proving harder to complete than expected. The depleted Kidston gold mine in Queensland is being converted to a 250 megawatt pumped-hydro station. The project is much simpler and smaller than Snowy 2.0 and has had extensive policy and financial support by federal and state governments. But it too is running <a href="https://reneweconomy.com.au/genex-resumes-work-on-pumped-hydro-flagship-as-billionaire-bidder-bides-his-time/#:%7E:text=The%20company%20insists%20that%20the,to%20%2415%20million%20over%20budget.">over budget and late</a>, although not remotely close to the same extent as Snowy 2.0.</p>
<p>These projects present hard and expensive engineering problems. They do not deliver economies from learning because each is different from the other. </p>
<p>By contrast, chemical batteries are increasingly standardised. They’re attracting huge investment in research and production. They improve the capacity of existing transmission. They’re made in factories so become cheaper as the industry scales, they have much lower capital outlays per unit of storage, so you get a much quicker payback. And you can resell them easily. </p>
<h2>How did we make such an expensive mistake?</h2>
<p>One simple explanation is that it was a political decision. The original Snowy Hydro scheme is famed as a nation-building project in post-war Australia. Snowy 2.0 was framed in the same way. Then there’s the need to be seen to “do something”, with economic and technical merit a distant third place. </p>
<p>But there’s another factor – a failure to acknowledge the pace of technology change in ever-better solar panels and wind turbines as well as in battery storage. Apparently insurmountable problems are being solved quickly, such as rapid manufacturing and installation of solar panels, the ability to harness low quality winds, and producing batteries able to service different markets at different points in the grid.</p>
<p>Given the pace of change, it would seem sensible to make the most of cheaper solutions which can be built quickly and don’t lock us in or out to technologies for the long term. </p>
<p>In practice, that means we should focus first on Australia’s <a href="https://www.cefc.com.au/insights/market-reports/how-much-rooftop-solar-can-be-installed-in-australia">huge potential</a> for solar on warehouse and factory rooftops close to our cities. It’s easy to store rooftop solar surpluses for local use. We should make the most of the enormous local potential before reaching for complex, risky, expensive and distant alternatives. </p>
<p>By analogy, don’t try to summit the mountain before climbing its foothills. From base camp, we are bound to find the mountain looks quite different to how we imagined it from a great distance. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-ensure-the-worlds-largest-pumped-hydro-dam-isnt-a-disaster-for-queenslands-environment-191758">How to ensure the world's largest pumped-hydro dam isn't a disaster for Queensland's environment</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p><em>Energy expert Ted Woodley contributed to this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216170/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bruce Mountain does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Storing energy in large pumped hydro schemes sounds simple. But engineering and terrain challenges have put Snowy 2.0 well off track – while grid-scale batteries get better and betterBruce Mountain, Director, Victoria Energy Policy Centre, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2139992023-10-17T12:20:30Z2023-10-17T12:20:30ZWhat is a virtual power plant? An energy expert explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553720/original/file-20231013-23-zo06aw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C8%2C5964%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A large-scale battery storage system in Long Beach, Calif., provides renewable electricity during peak demand periods.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/weikko-wirta-aes-southland-director-of-operations-and-vice-news-photo/1243414725">Patrick T. Fallon/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>After nearly two decades of stagnation, U.S. electricity demand <a href="https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/">is surging</a>, driven by growing numbers of electric cars, data centers and air conditioners in a warming climate. But traditional power plants that generate electricity from <a href="https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=54559">coal</a>, <a href="https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=55439">natural gas</a> or <a href="https://www.nei.org/resources/statistics/decommissioning-status-for-shutdown-us-plants">nuclear energy</a> are retiring faster than new ones are being built in this country. Most <a href="https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=57340">new supply</a> is coming from wind and solar farms, whose output varies with the weather.</p>
<p>That’s left power companies seeking new ways to balance supply and demand. One option they’re turning to is virtual power plants. </p>
<p>These aren’t massive facilities generating electricity at a single site. Rather, they are aggregations of electricity producers, consumers and storers – collectively known as distributed energy resources – that grid managers can call on as needed. </p>
<p>Some of these sources, such as batteries, may deliver <a href="https://theconversation.com/these-3-energy-storage-technologies-can-help-solve-the-challenge-of-moving-to-100-renewable-electricity-161564">stored electric power</a>. Others may be big electricity consumers, such as factories, whose owners have agreed to cut back their power use when demand is high, freeing up energy for other customers. Virtual power sources typically are quicker to site and build, and can be cleaner and cheaper to operate, than new power plants. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-KQEt5QqPXU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Virtual power plants are more resilient against service outages than large, centralized generating stations because they distribute energy resources across large areas.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>A growing resource</h2>
<p>Virtual power plants aren’t new. The U.S. Department of Energy <a href="https://liftoff.energy.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/20230911-Pathways-to-Commercial-Liftoff-Virtual-Power-Plants_update.pdf">estimates</a> that there are already 30 to 60 gigawatts of them in operation today. A gigawatt is 1 billion watts – roughly the output of <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/articles/how-much-power-1-gigawatt">2.5 million solar photovoltaic panels</a> or one large nuclear reactor.</p>
<p>Most of these virtual power plants are industrial customers that have agreed to reduce demand when conditions are tight. But as growing numbers of homes and small businesses add rooftop solar panels, batteries and electric cars, these energy customers can become not only consumers but also suppliers of power to the grid. </p>
<p>For example, homeowners can charge up their batteries with rooftop solar when it’s sunny, and discharge power back to the grid in the evening when demand is high and prices sometimes spike. </p>
<p>As smart thermostats and water heaters, rooftop solar panels and batteries enable more customers to participate in them, DOE estimates that virtual power plants could <a href="https://liftoff.energy.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/20230911-Pathways-to-Commercial-Liftoff-Virtual-Power-Plants_update.pdf">triple in scale by 2030</a>. That could cover roughly half of the new capacity that the U.S. will need to cover growing demand and replace retiring older power plants. This growth would help to limit the cost of building new wind and solar farms and gas plants. </p>
<p>And because virtual power plants are located where electricity is consumed, they’ll ease the burden on aging transmission systems that have <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2023/02/21/why-its-so-hard-to-build-new-electrical-transmission-lines-in-the-us.html">struggled to add new lines</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553740/original/file-20231013-26-wjqdxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A hand points to a lighted electronic panel." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553740/original/file-20231013-26-wjqdxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553740/original/file-20231013-26-wjqdxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553740/original/file-20231013-26-wjqdxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553740/original/file-20231013-26-wjqdxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553740/original/file-20231013-26-wjqdxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553740/original/file-20231013-26-wjqdxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553740/original/file-20231013-26-wjqdxl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A battery display panel inside a model home in Menifee, Calif., where 200 houses in a development are all-electric, equipped with solar panels and batteries and linked by a microgrid that can power the community during outages.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/scott-hensen-vice-president-of-floor-planning-for-kb-home-news-photo/1244677704">Watchara Phomicinda/MediaNews Group/The Press-Enterprise via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>New roles for power customers</h2>
<p>Virtual power plants scramble the roles of electricity producers and consumers. Traditional power plants generate electricity at central locations and transmit it along power lines to consumers. For the grid to function, supply and demand must be <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-curtailment-an-electricity-market-expert-explains-185279">precisely balanced at all times</a>.</p>
<p>Customer demand is typically assumed to be a given that fluctuates with the weather but follows a fairly predictable pattern over the course of a day. To satisfy it, grid operators dispatch a mix of <a href="https://www.eia.gov/tools/glossary/?id=B">baseload sources</a> that operate continuously, such as coal and nuclear plants, and more flexible sources such as gas and hydropower that can modulate their output quickly as needed.</p>
<p>Output from wind and solar farms rises and falls during the day, so other sources must operate more flexibly to keep supply and demand balanced. Still, the basic idea is that massive facilities produce power for millions of passive consumers. </p>
<p>Virtual power plants upend this model by embracing the fact that consumers can control their electricity demand. Industrial consumers have long <a href="https://emp.lbl.gov/publications/past-present-and-future-us-utility">found ways to flex their operations</a>, limiting demand when power supplies are tight in return for incentives or discounted rates.</p>
<p>Now, thermostats and water heaters that communicate with the grid can let households modulate their demand too. For example, <a href="https://neep.org/blog/smart-energy-home-blog-series-smart-water-heaters">smart electric water heaters</a> can heat water mostly when power is abundant and cheap, and limit demand when power is scarce. </p>
<p>In Vermont, Green Mountain Power is <a href="https://greenmountainpower.com/news/gmps-request-to-expand-customer-access-to-cost-effective-home-energy-storage-is-approved/">offering its customers incentives</a> to install batteries that will provide power back to the grid when it’s needed most. In Texas, where I live, deadly <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2021.102106">blackouts in 2021</a> highlighted the importance of bolstering our isolated power grid. Now, utilities here are using <a href="https://www.utilitydive.com/news/tesla-virtual-power-plants-vpp-ercot-puc-texas-grid/691713/">Tesla Powerwalls</a> to help turn homes into virtual power sources. South Australia aims to connect 50,000 homes with solar and batteries to build that country’s <a href="https://www.energymining.sa.gov.au/consumers/solar-and-batteries/south-australias-virtual-power-plant">largest virtual power plant</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553749/original/file-20231013-15-n4pyp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People wait at a propane gas station, bundled in heavy clothes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553749/original/file-20231013-15-n4pyp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/553749/original/file-20231013-15-n4pyp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553749/original/file-20231013-15-n4pyp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553749/original/file-20231013-15-n4pyp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553749/original/file-20231013-15-n4pyp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553749/original/file-20231013-15-n4pyp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/553749/original/file-20231013-15-n4pyp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People line up to refill propane tanks in Houston after a severe winter storm caused electricity blackouts and a catastrophic failure of Texas’ power grid in February 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-line-up-at-a-propane-gas-station-to-refill-their-news-photo/1231242378">Go Nakamura/Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Virtual power, real challenges</h2>
<p>Virtual power plants aren’t a panacea. Many customers are reluctant to give up even temporary control of their thermostats, or have a delay when charging their electric car. Some consumers are also concerned about the <a href="https://smartgrid.ieee.org/bulletins/july-2018/security-and-privacy-concerns-in-smart-metering-the-cyber-physical-aspect">security and privacy of smart meters</a>. It remains to be seen how many customers will sign up for these emerging programs and how effectively their operators will modulate supply and demand.</p>
<p>There also are challenges at the business end. It’s a lot harder to manage millions of consumers than dozens of power plants. Virtual power plant operators can overcome that challenge by rewarding customers for allowing them to flex their supply and demand in a coordinated fashion. </p>
<p>As electricity demand rises to meet the needs of growing economies and replace fossil fuel-burning cars and furnaces, and reliance on renewable resources increases, grid managers will need all the flexibility they can get to balance the variable output of wind and solar generation. Virtual power plants could help reshape electric power into an industry that’s more nimble, efficient and responsive to changing conditions and customers’ needs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213999/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Cohan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Some power plants don’t have massive smokestacks or cooling towers – or even a central site.Daniel Cohan, Associate Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2093592023-09-26T12:24:07Z2023-09-26T12:24:07ZLithium-ion battery fires are a growing public safety concern − here’s how to reduce the risk<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549853/original/file-20230924-31-w9syu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C35%2C5973%2C3952&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In June 2023, a fire started at this e-bike shop in New York City and spread to upper floors of the building.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/EBikeBatteriesFires/832138180d9d4e699f17a2629753f9fd/photo">AP Photo/Bebeto Matthews</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In today’s electronic age, rechargeable lithium-ion batteries are ubiquitous. Compared with the lead-acid versions that have dominated the battery market for decades, lithium-ion batteries can charge faster and store more energy for the same amount of weight.</p>
<p>These devices make our electronic gadgets and electric cars lighter and longer-lasting – but they also have disadvantages. They contain a lot of energy, and if they catch fire, they burn until all of that stored energy is released. A sudden release of huge amounts of energy can lead to explosions that threaten lives and property.</p>
<p>As scientists who study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=jCXInTYAAAAJ&hl=en">energy generation</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KsW8rMMAAAAJ&hl=en">storage</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=z7C3_h8AAAAJ&hl=en">conversion</a>, and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4WwXknoAAAAJ&hl=en">automotive engineering</a>, we have a strong interest in the development of batteries that are energy-dense and safe. And we see encouraging signs that battery manufacturers are making progress toward solving this significant technical problem.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yRPW8zN_c0E?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Avoiding overcharging is one way to reduce the risk of lithium-ion battery fires.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A new fire hazard</h2>
<p>Urban transportation is undergoing a transformative shift toward electrification. As concerns grow in cities around the world about climate change and air quality, <a href="https://theconversation.com/boosting-ev-market-share-to-67-of-us-car-sales-is-a-huge-leap-but-automakers-can-meet-epas-tough-new-standards-203663">electric vehicles</a> have taken center stage. </p>
<p>At the same time, e-bikes and electric scooters are transforming urban transit by providing convenient, low-carbon ways to navigate crowded streets and reduce traffic congestion. From 2010 through 2022, shared e-bikes and e-scooters – those owned by rental networks – accounted for <a href="https://nacto.org/2022/12/01/half-a-billion-rides-on-shared-bikes-and-scooters/">more than half a billion trips</a> in U.S. cities. Privately owned e-bikes add to that total: In 2021, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/electric-bike-sustainable-transportation">more than 880,000 e-bikes were sold in the U.S.</a>, compared with 608,000 electric cars and trucks. </p>
<p>Battery-powered vehicles account for <a href="https://www.vox.com/the-highlight/2023/1/17/23470878/tesla-fires-evs-florida-hurricane-batteries-lithium-ion">a small share</a> of car fires, but <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/lithium-ion-battery-fires-electric-cars-bikes-scooters-firefighters/">controlling EV fires is difficult</a>. Typically, an EV fire burns at roughly 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit (2,760 Celsius), while a gasoline-powered vehicle on fire burns at 1,500 F (815 C). It takes about 2,000 gallons of water to extinguish a burning gasoline-powered vehicle; putting out an EV fire can take <a href="https://www.bostonglobe.com/2023/01/20/metro/tesla-fire-takes-over-two-hours-20000-gallons-water-extinguish-after-wakefield-crash-police-say/">10 times more</a>.</p>
<p>This is a major concern in large cities where electric vehicles are popular. Fire departments in New York City and San Francisco report handling <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/lithium-ion-battery-fires-electric-cars-bikes-scooters-firefighters/">more than 660 fires</a> involving lithium-ion batteries since 2019. In New York City, these fires caused <a href="https://www.nyc.gov/office-of-the-mayor/news/195-23/mayor-adams-plan-combat-lithium-ion-battery-fires-promote-safe-electric-micromobility#/0">12 deaths and more than 260 injuries</a> from 2021 through early 2023. Clearly, there is a need for safer handling and charging practices, as well as technical improvements to batteries.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An e-bike with an Uber Eats bag hanging from the handlebars leans against a building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549854/original/file-20230924-27-qr7gss.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">E-bikes are popular for urban delivery services, which means that many users rely on them for income.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/uber-eats-electric-bike-parked-on-sidewalk-manhattan-new-news-photo/1428511600">Lindsey Nicholson/UCG/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Many batteries in an EV</h2>
<p>To understand lithium-ion battery fires, it’s important to know some basics. A battery holds chemicals that contain energy, with a separator between its positive and negative electrodes. It works by <a href="https://engineering.mit.edu/engage/ask-an-engineer/how-does-a-battery-work/">converting this energy into electricity</a>.</p>
<p>The two electrodes in a battery are surrounded by an electrolyte – a substance that allows an electrical charge to flow between the two terminals. In a lithium-ion battery, for example, lithium ions carry the electric charge. When a device is connected to a battery, chemical reactions take place on the electrodes and create a flow of electrons in the external circuit that powers the device.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic showing the parts of lithium-ion battery" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=564&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/549855/original/file-20230924-27-91vn7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When a lithium-ion battery delivers energy to a device, lithium ions – atoms that carry an electrical charge – move from the anode to the cathode. The ions move in reverse when recharging.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/8Erh2x">Argonne National Laboratory/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
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<p>Cellphones and digital cameras can operate on a single battery, but an electric car needs much more energy and power. Depending on its design, an EV may contain <a href="https://www.samsungsdi.com/column/all/detail/54344.html">dozens to thousands of single batteries</a>, which are known as cells. Cells are clustered together in sets called modules, which in turn are assembled together in packs. A standard EV will contain one large battery pack with many cells inside it.</p>
<h2>What causes battery fires</h2>
<p>Typically, a battery fire <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41557-023-01254-6">starts in a single cell</a> inside a larger battery pack. There are three main reasons for a battery to ignite: mechanical harm, such as crushing or penetration when vehicles collide; electrical harm from an external or internal <a href="https://www.thespruce.com/what-causes-short-circuits-4118973">short circuit</a>; or overheating. </p>
<p>Battery short circuits may be caused by faulty external handling or unwanted chemical reactions within the battery cell. When lithium-ion batteries are charged too quickly, chemical reactions can produce very sharp lithium needles called dendrites on the battery’s anode – the electrode with a negative charge. Eventually, they penetrate the separator and reach the other electrode, short-circuiting the battery internally. </p>
<p>Such short circuits heat the battery cell to over 212 F (100 C). The battery’s temperature rises slowly at first and then all at once, spiking to its peak temperature in about one second. </p>
<p>Another factor that makes lithium-ion battery fires challenging to handle is oxygen generation. When the metal oxides in a battery’s cathode, or positively charged electrode, are heated, they <a href="https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1526722">decompose and release oxygen gas</a>. Fires need oxygen to burn, so a battery that can create oxygen can sustain a fire. </p>
<p>Because of the electrolyte’s nature, a 20% increase in a lithium-ion battery’s temperature causes some unwanted chemical reactions to occur much faster, which releases excessive heat. This excess heat increases the battery temperature, which in turn speeds up the reactions. The increased battery temperature increases the reaction rate, creating a process called <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/first-xray-views-into-overheating-lithiumion-batteries">thermal runaway</a>. When this happens, the temperature in a battery can rise from 212 F (100 C) to 1,800 F (1000 C) in a second. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">In thermal runaway, a lithium-ion battery enters an uncontrollable, self-heating state that can lead to fire or explosion.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Managing the thermal runaway problem</h2>
<p>Methods to ensure battery safety can focus on conditions outside or inside of the battery. External protection typically involves using electronic devices, like temperature sensors and pressure valves, to ensure that the battery isn’t subjected to heat or force that could cause an accident.</p>
<p>However, these mechanisms make the battery larger and heavier, which can reduce the performance of the device it powers. And they may not be reliable under extreme temperatures or pressures, such as those produced in a car crash.</p>
<p>Internal protection strategies focus on using intrinsically safe materials for battery components. This approach offers an opportunity to address potential hazards at their source.</p>
<p>Making a thermal runaway in a battery pack less intense requires a mix of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2017.05.013">software and hardware improvements</a>. Scientists are working to develop cathodes that release less oxygen when they break down; nonflammable electrolytes; <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-023-01178-3">solid-state electrolytes</a>, which do not catch fire and also may help alleviate dendrite growth; and separators that can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202302280">withstand high temperatures without melting</a>. </p>
<p>Another solution is already in use: <a href="https://www.synopsys.com/glossary/what-is-a-battery-management-system.html">battery management systems</a>. These are hardware and software packages built into battery packs that can monitor vital battery parameters, such as the state of charge, internal pressure and the temperature of the cells in the battery pack. </p>
<p>Just as a physician uses a patient’s symptoms to diagnose and treat their illness, battery management systems can diagnose conditions within the battery pack and make autonomous decisions to shut off batteries with hot spots, or to alter the load distribution so that any individual battery does not get too hot. </p>
<p>Battery chemistries are evolving rapidly, so new designs will require new battery management systems. Many battery producers are <a href="https://www.graphene-info.com/nanotech-energy-soteria-battery-innovation-group-and-voltaplex-energy-join">forming partnerships</a> that bring together manufacturers with complementary battery expertise to tackle this challenge. </p>
<p>Users can also take steps to <a href="https://www.usfa.fema.gov/prevention/vehicle-fires/electric-vehicles/">maximize safety</a>. Use manufacturer-recommended charging equipment and outlets, and avoid overcharging or leaving an EV plugged in overnight. Inspect the battery regularly for signs of damage or overheating. Park the vehicle <a href="https://www.latimes.com/business/story/2023-07-13/how-a-heat-wave-will-hurt-your-ev-battery">away from extremely hot or cold surroundings</a> – for example, park in shade during heat waves – to prevent thermal stress on the battery. </p>
<p>Finally, in the event of a collision or accident involving an EV, follow the manufacturer’s safety protocols and disconnect the battery if possible to minimize the risk of fire or electrocution.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209359/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Lithium-ion batteries power many electric cars, bikes and scooters. When they are damaged or overheated, they can ignite or explode. Four engineers explain how to handle these devices safely.Apparao Rao, Professor of Physics, Clemson UniversityBingan Lu, Associate Professor of Physics and Electronics, Hunan UniversityMihir Parekh, Postdoctoral Fellow in Physics and Astronomy, Clemson UniversityMorteza Sabet, Research Assistant Professor of Automotive Engineering, Clemson UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2113282023-09-12T21:45:51Z2023-09-12T21:45:51ZHow zinc-ion batteries may solve our renewable energy storage problem<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/how-zinc-ion-batteries-may-solve-our-renewable-energy-storage-problem" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p><a href="https://www.economist.com/leaders/2023/07/20/how-cities-can-respond-to-extreme-heat">Hotter summers</a>, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230612-did-climate-change-cause-canadas-wildfires">drier forests</a>, <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/climate-change-rising-sea-levels-transforming-coastlines-world/story?id=91681973">rising waters</a>: climate change is not just a threat to our future, it’s hurting our world right now. </p>
<p>While there are many ways human activity has brought about climate change, <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/co2-emissions-in-2022">global electricity generation sources are among the leading culprits</a>. <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2022">Despite small upticks in the supply of wind and solar power</a>, we have not yet reached a point where we are able to dislodge the fossil fuels that are entrenched in the power mix of many countries. </p>
<p>But why is this still the case? </p>
<p>Since renewable sources deliver an intermittent supply of power, we also need a way to store this energy to meet the demand of the grid when the sun is not shining, or the wind is not blowing. This is a major challenge, as the switch to renewable power also requires establishing long lasting, safe and affordable energy storage systems. As such, finding a cheap, safe and alternative battery to lithium is the key to moving the needle to a completely renewable power sector. </p>
<h2>Beyond lithium-ion batteries</h2>
<p>As with electric vehicles, lithium-ion batteries have become a popular option for the grid, as they offer a high energy density, modular solution for energy storage. But the use of lithium-ion batteries has also brought along its own challenges with high cost of materials, risk of fire and explosion and lack of recycling practices limiting the widespread adoption of lithium-ion batteries for the grid. </p>
<p>One incredibly promising option to replace lithium for grid scale energy storage is the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2023.06.007">rechargeable zinc-ion battery</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2016.119">Emerging only within the last 10 years</a>, zinc-ion batteries offer many advantages over lithium. These include cheaper material costs, increased safety and easier recycling options. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/batteries-are-the-environmental-achilles-heel-of-electric-vehicles-unless-we-repair-reuse-and-recycle-them-205404">Batteries are the environmental Achilles heel of electric vehicles – unless we repair, reuse and recycle them</a>
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<p>With grid-scale energy storage potential at a considerably cheaper cost — and higher levels of safety — widespread commercialization of zinc-ion batteries could be exactly what is needed to integrate renewables into energy infrastructure in Canada and other countries.</p>
<h2>The cost of a battery</h2>
<p>For Canada to reach the decarbonization targets set in the Canadian <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/services/environment/weather/climatechange/climate-plan/net-zero-emissions-2050/canadian-net-zero-emissions-accountability-act.html">Net-Zero Emissions Accountability Act</a>, <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/canada-2022/executive-summary">including a grid powered by 90 per cent renewable electricity</a>, the deployment of zinc-ion batteries will be crucial. </p>
<p>Studies have shown that for renewables to become the source of 90 to 95 per cent of all electricity, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2019.06.012">the cost of energy storage must be below US$150/kWh</a>. Modern lithium-ion systems are <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/lithium-ion-battery-lfp-and-nmc">still sitting around US$350/kWh</a>. In part, this is due to high manufacturing costs and their reliance on expensive raw materials to achieve the high energy density needed for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0130-3">modern electric vehicles</a>.</p>
<p>Zinc-ion batteries on the other hand, could solve the cost and abundance issues. Using inexpensive, abundant materials such as zinc and manganese not only makes them cheaper to produce, but lowers risk from supply chain disruptions or material shortages that affect lithium-ion materials such as lithium and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2020.101505">cobalt</a>. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://natural-resources.canada.ca/our-natural-resources/minerals-mining/minerals-metals-facts/zinc-facts/20534">annual production of zinc</a> globally is <a href="https://natural-resources.canada.ca/our-natural-resources/minerals-mining/minerals-metals-facts/lithium-facts/24009">over 100 times that of lithium</a>. Not to mention that <a href="https://earth911.com/eco-tech/recycling-critical-minerals-for-circular-clean-energy-solutions/">demand for lithium and cobalt is anticipated to outweigh the supply within the next decade</a>.</p>
<h2>Zinc is a safer option</h2>
<p>With <a href="https://www.ul.com/news/ul-9540-energy-storage-system-ess-requirements-evolving-meet-industry-and-regulatory-needs">rigorous safety standards</a> being created for batteries used in homes, factories or within the electrical grid, safety is key to getting the public to embrace them. In this way, zinc-ion batteries offer further advantage. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.pv-magazine.com/2021/04/21/two-firefighters-killed-and-one-missing-after-beijing-battery-blaze/">flammable and toxic solvent based electrolyte of lithium-ion batteries</a> is replaced with a water-based alternative, removing the risk of fire and explosion. </p>
<hr>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-could-need-6-times-more-of-the-minerals-used-for-renewables-and-batteries-how-can-we-avoid-a-huge-increase-in-mining-impacts-206864">We could need 6 times more of the minerals used for renewables and batteries. How can we avoid a huge increase in mining impacts?</a>
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<p>Conversely, the safe disposal of lithium-ion batteries can also be a difficult task, as they contain toxic compounds. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/cey2.29">Recycling these batteries is currently economically infeasible due to high costs</a> leading to large numbers of spent cells ending up in landfills. </p>
<p>Fortunately, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.202100308">zinc-ion batteries simplify end of life treatment</a>. The nontoxic, aqueous electrolyte used in zinc-ion batteries means that <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/sustainable-business/key-facts-about-used-lead-acid-battery-recycling-2021-04-20/">well established methods like those for lead-acid battery disposal</a> can be used. Also, the metallic zinc anode could be easily reused in new batteries. </p>
<h2>The future of energy storage</h2>
<p>To reach its goal of 90 per cent renewable energy by 2030, Canada must look for alternatives to lithium-ion batteries to enable decarbonization of its power sector. Leveraging the cost, abundance and safety benefits of zinc-ion batteries, Canada can accelerate the integration of wind and solar power across the nation. </p>
<p>Zinc-ion batteries support Canada’s decarbonization goals and prove an opportunity to capitalize on a rapidly expanding battery market. While zinc-ion batteries are a relatively new technology, their potential to support grid scale energy storage within Canada and worldwide cannot be understated. </p>
<p>With the help of Canadian research and manufacturing, including efforts from <a href="https://brighterworld.mcmaster.ca/articles/drew-higgins-clean-energy-low-carbon-electricity-canada-green-tech/">McMaster University</a> and Dartmouth, N.S.-based <a href="https://salientenergyinc.com/">Salient Energy Inc.</a>, the integration of zinc-ion batteries could become a reality within the next several years, establishing Canada as an industry leader.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211328/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Storm William D Gourley receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Drew Higgins' research program at McMaster University receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Alliance grant program and Salient Energy Inc. to develop new battery electrode materials. </span></em></p>Lithium-ion batteries are holding back the full-scale decarbonization of Canada’s energy grid. Zinc-ion batteries may be the solution.Storm William D Gourley, PhD Candidate, Chemical Engineering, McMaster UniversityDrew Higgins, Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2123742023-09-06T20:11:52Z2023-09-06T20:11:52ZFarmers are famously self-reliant. Why not use farm dams as mini-hydro plants?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546595/original/file-20230906-29-akhiiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=178%2C125%2C3316%2C2195&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Farmers often pride themselves on their self-reliance. When you live far from the cities, it makes sense to do as much as possible yourself. Australia’s sheer size has meant many remote farms have long been off grid as it’s often simply too expensive to get a power connection. But for those still on the grid, there are now new options. </p>
<p>As solar gets cheaper, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-11-27/rural-properties-going-off-grid-rewewables-for-energy-security/101637758">more and more</a> farms are aiming to become self-reliant in power. But until now, getting fully off the grid has had a sticking point – solar intermittency. Solar power might be cheaper than ever, but if you don’t have storage or backup, you’re still reliant on the grid when the sun doesn’t shine.</p>
<p>Batteries are a compelling solution. But they might not offer a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125089">full day’s backup</a> and come <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125089">with concerns</a> about fire risk and waste. </p>
<p>Generators offer reliable backup. But they too <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125089">have downsides</a> – they have to be resupplied and produce harmful emissions. </p>
<p>For farmers, there’s now another option: connect one of your dams to a river – or link two dams together – to create a small pumped hydro plant to store electricity from solar to use at night. The water in your dams could offer yet another form of self-reliance.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121715">new research</a> has identified over 30,000 rural sites where micro pumped hydro could work. A typical site could produce two kilowatts of power and store 30 kilowatt hours of energy – enough to run a <a href="https://ahd.csiro.au/other-data/typical-house-energy-use">typical home</a> in South Australia for 40 hours. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545207/original/file-20230829-17-sr0s41.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="farm dam" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545207/original/file-20230829-17-sr0s41.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545207/original/file-20230829-17-sr0s41.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545207/original/file-20230829-17-sr0s41.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545207/original/file-20230829-17-sr0s41.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545207/original/file-20230829-17-sr0s41.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=661&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545207/original/file-20230829-17-sr0s41.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=661&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545207/original/file-20230829-17-sr0s41.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=661&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Micro pumped hydro is surprisingly simple: two dams, a pump and a turbine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<h2>Massive to micro? Yes, pumped hydro can work on farms</h2>
<p>Pumped hydro is essentially turning hydroelectric power into a battery as well. </p>
<p>Take two reservoirs, where one is higher than the other. When you have extra solar power, you store it. How? By using the energy to pump water uphill to the top reservoir. When you need power later on, you release water down to the lower reservoir and produce electricity with a turbine.</p>
<p>At large scale, these plants are an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/2516-1083/abeb5b">established and efficient</a> way to store energy, though they can suffer from cost blowouts, as in the <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/bowen-backs-snowy-2-0-pumped-hydro-project-despite-6-billion-blowout-20230831-p5e0u7.html">Snowy 2.0 scheme</a>. Queensland’s government <a href="https://www.epw.qld.gov.au/about/initiatives/borumba-dam-pumped-hydro">is planning</a> massive pumped hydro schemes to act as batteries. </p>
<p>Until recently, small-scale pumped hydro hasn’t made much economic sense. </p>
<p>But the steadily falling cost of solar means the numbers have changed. It’s now more cost effective to get larger arrays. And that opens up opportunities to find ways to store surplus electricity generated in daytime. </p>
<p>For farmers, another opportunity is the ability to use existing dams and reduce pumped hydro construction costs.</p>
<p>If it’s cheaper, it’s much more viable. Early research on solar-powered irrigation systems using pumped hydro suggests the payback period for this kind of energy storage could be up to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114284">four times shorter</a> than for batteries.</p>
<p>What’s the catch? As you might have guessed, this solution depends on the size of existing farm dams and rivers, and topography of the land.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/despairing-about-climate-change-these-4-charts-on-the-unstoppable-growth-of-solar-may-change-your-mind-204901">Despairing about climate change? These 4 charts on the unstoppable growth of solar may change your mind</a>
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<p>The steeper the slope between the two water bodies, the more useful the system will be as energy storage. To get the most out of these systems means finding the sites with the most potential value. And it’s likely the solution won’t work for farms on flat ground – you need a drop of at least 20 metres. </p>
<p>You’re probably wondering how this stacks up financially. We compared a micro pumped hydro system with 42.6kWh capacity and able to discharge 3.6kW to a commercial lithium-ion battery, the Tesla Powerwall, able to store 13.5kWh and discharge 5.0kW. </p>
<p>We found micro pumped hydro storage was 30% cheaper than a battery if locally generated solar was regularly needed overnight – such as to power a 24/7 irrigation system. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546596/original/file-20230906-21-5xaf8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="pumped hydro" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546596/original/file-20230906-21-5xaf8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546596/original/file-20230906-21-5xaf8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546596/original/file-20230906-21-5xaf8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546596/original/file-20230906-21-5xaf8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546596/original/file-20230906-21-5xaf8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546596/original/file-20230906-21-5xaf8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546596/original/file-20230906-21-5xaf8v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">To date, most pumped hydro plants have been larger – but they can now work on a smaller scale too. This image shows Turlough Hill pumped hydro station in Ireland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Australia has thousands of potential sites</h2>
<p>Our research is the first continent-wide assessment of potential pumped hydro farm dam sites. </p>
<p>How did we figure out how many sites would suit micro pumped hydro? The magic of maths. We used algorithms from graph theory, as these are used to model networks, and set them loose on a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/RS13020319">2021 survey</a> of 1.7 million Australian farm dams. We didn’t want to raise people’s hopes if their dams weren’t suitable, so we set the minimum capacity at 24kWh (similar to a typical home battery after efficiency losses) and with a minimum slope of 17%, to make it price competitive with a battery. </p>
<p>That’s how we came up with our figure of 30,000 promising sites, including dam-to-dam and dam-to-river sites. Dam-to-river sites are a good option if you have a dam at a reasonable elevation above a river – you can pump water uphill from the river and return it later to make power. </p>
<p><iframe id="MoC99" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/MoC99/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>What’s next for this approach?</h2>
<p>You can make this approach more efficient by using new <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.03.018">all-in-one hardware</a>, such as combined turbines and water pumps, as well as integrating it with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114284">smart irrigation management</a>.</p>
<p>To be clear, this solution won’t work for every landholder. If you’re farming wheat on flat plains, you’re unlikely to have the slope needed to make it work. </p>
<p>If you’re considering getting storage to go off grid, it’s essential to consider the pros and cons of each technology and how it would suit your local conditions. </p>
<p>For instance, if you’re in a drought-prone area with limited groundwater, it may not make sense to install pumped hydro. During a drought, you may well need the water on the farm. Our research assumes 70% of the water in the dams is available for use, which does not account for droughts or irrigation needs.</p>
<p>But for some landholders, this may be the missing part of the puzzle. Wind and solar installation is skyrocketing [around the world]. This, in turn, is boosting demand for cost-effective energy storage. Given there are 30,000 suitable farm dams in Australia alone, it’s likely this technology could play a valuable role around the world – especially for farmers in remote areas or where grid connection is too expensive. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/batteries-of-gravity-and-water-we-found-1-500-new-pumped-hydro-sites-next-to-existing-reservoirs-194330">Batteries of gravity and water: we found 1,500 new pumped hydro sites next to existing reservoirs</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212374/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Study co-author Martino E. Malerba is supported by the Australian Government through the Australian Research Council (project ID DE220100752).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martino Malerba is supported by the Australian Government through the Australian Research Council (project ID DE220100752)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Britz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our research has found 30,000 farm dams which could be used as energy storage. Solar by day, hydro by night.Nicholas Gilmore, Lecturer in Engineering Design, UNSW SydneyMartino Malerba, ARC DECRA Fellow, Deakin UniversityThomas Britz, Senior Lecturer, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2096902023-07-20T20:04:49Z2023-07-20T20:04:49ZMining the seabed for clean-tech minerals could destroy ecosystems. Will it get the green light?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538452/original/file-20230720-21-tkg1l4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1920%2C1077&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Crab on polymetallic nodules</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NOAA Ocean Exploration</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A little-known organisation is meeting this week in a conference centre in Jamaica. The rules the <a href="https://www.isa.org.jm/">International Seabed Authority</a> (ISA) are drafting could have immense impact. </p>
<p>That’s because this United Nations body has the power to permit – or deny – mining on the deep seabed, outside any nation’s exclusive economic zones. Boosters say the billions of tonnes of critical minerals like nickel, manganese, copper and cobalt lying in metal-dense nodules on the seabed could unlock faster decarbonisation and avoid supply shortages. </p>
<p>Developing Pacific nation Nauru has <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2023/7/9/nauru-prepares-to-mine-deep-seas-in-big-climate-controversy">led the charge</a> to open up the seabed for mining, seeing it as a new source of income. (Ironically, Nauru itself was strip-mined for guano, leaving a moonscape and few resources.) </p>
<p>But researchers warn the mining could trash entire ecosystems, by ripping up the sea floor or covering creatures with sediment. Early indications from trial mining efforts suggest the process is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jul/14/deep-sea-mining-causes-huge-decreases-in-sealife-across-wide-region-says-study">worse than expected</a>, with long-lasting impact on sealife. </p>
<p>Almost 20 governments <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/canada-joins-nearly-20-nations-calling-for-halt-to-deep-sea-mining-as-negotiators-meet-to-agree-rules-efbb32b5">are calling</a> for a moratorium or slowdown on mining. But China, Russia and South Korea <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/545da351-bd86-4145-9269-44857b89650e">are pushing</a> for mining to begin. </p>
<p>The ISA has already missed its July 9 <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/jul/07/gold-rush-deep-sea-devastation-seabed-oceans">deadline</a> to produce regulations governing seabed mining. That could mean we’re heading for a deep-sea free-for-all. </p>
<h2>Why mine the deep sea at all?</h2>
<p>Because no one owns it, and because parts of it are rich in easily accessible metals (once you get to the bottom, that is). Land-based mining usually involves processing vast volumes of rock, taking out the minerals you want and leaving the tailings behind. But on the seabed, things are different. </p>
<p>The main area prospectors are eyeing off is the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, an abyssal plain 4,000–5,000 metres deep east of Hawaii. Here, plate tectonics and underwater volcanoes have produced huge numbers of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0027-0">polymetallic nodules</a>, accretions of minerals about 10-15 centimetres wide. They grow glacially slowly, about one centimetre every million years. But there are a lot of them – an estimated 21 billion tonnes in this zone alone, according to the ISA. </p>
<p>By 2050, demand for nickel and cobalt to make electric vehicle batteries could grow by up to 500%, according to the <a href="https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/extractiveindustries/brief/climate-smart-mining-minerals-for-climate-action#:%7E:text=Smart%20Mining%20Video-,Overview,demand%20for%20clean%20energy%20technologies.">World Bank</a>. That’s why companies like Nauru’s partner, The Metals Company, <a href="https://metals.co/nodules/">are investing</a> in this type of mining. </p>
<p>Seabed mining, they argue, is an environmentally better option than expanding land-based mining into more challenging locations, mining low-grade ore bodies and risking contaminating waterways. </p>
<p>Boosters say seabed mining in international waters avoids the risk of dominance by a few countries or suppliers. For instance, the Ukraine-Russia war has hit battery grade nickel availability, as Russia is the primary global supplier.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-rush-is-on-to-mine-the-deep-seabed-with-effects-on-ocean-life-that-arent-well-understood-139833">A rush is on to mine the deep seabed, with effects on ocean life that aren't well understood</a>
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<h2>But what about the environment?</h2>
<p>This is the sticking point. The seabed in question is a pristine environment. While fishing trawlers already tear up <a href="https://europe.oceana.org/our-work-responsible-fishing-dirty-fishing-bottom-trawling-images-2/#:%7E:text=The%20largest%20deep%2Dsea%20bottom,miles%20of%20seabed%20each%20day.">large areas</a> of seafloor to devastating effect, mining would open up even more of the seabed. </p>
<p>Opposition has come from many conservation organisations, civil society representatives, governments like Canada, Germany, Fiji and Papua New Guinea. They want a moratorium on seabed mining based on the precautionary principle – not acting until we know what impact it will have. They argue we lack the technology to monitor the seabed and knowledge of the ecosystems of the deep, meaning we cannot be certain seabed mining can proceed without causing serious and long lasting harm. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02290-5">Early research</a> shows this type of mining can be destructive. </p>
<h2>Should the ISA have the power to decide this?</h2>
<p>It took 25 years for the UN to negotiate the <a href="https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf">law of the sea treaty</a>. The treaty is clear about how we should protect and use the seabed, as part of the “common heritage of mankind”. The ISA was created to steward these commons, with the power to make rules in international waters. These cover two-thirds of the world’s oceans and 90% of known polymetallic nodule deposits. </p>
<p>The problem is many governments and organisations don’t think it’s fit for purpose. </p>
<p>The ISA is, like some other UN bodies, a complex bureaucracy and has been criticised for lacking transparency. Even though all 167 nations which signed the law of the sea treaty are automatically ISA members, critical decisions can be made with far fewer. </p>
<p>Applications to mine the seabed are approved or denied by the ISA’s council, which has 36 members. Council decisions stem from recommendations by a legal and technical commission, made up of 30 members appointed by the council. Dominated by lawyers and geologists, this commission, according to NGOs and governments, has <a href="https://savethehighseas.org/isa-tracker/2022/03/29/day-6-a-clear-demonstration-that-the-isa-is-not-fit-for-purpose/">ignored comments</a> and critique. Only a handful of the members have environmental expertise. </p>
<p>The council is also geared towards mineral extraction, with <a href="https://www.isa.org.jm/organs/the-council/">many members</a> elected on the basis they already export minerals like nickel and manganese, have invested heavily in seabed mining technology, and already use significant volumes of these minerals. </p>
<p>The ISA’s secretary general Michael Lodge was earlier this year <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/mar/21/row-erupts-over-deep-sea-mining-as-world-races-to-finalise-vital-regulations">criticised</a> by the German government for allegedly pushing to permit mining, an accusation Lodge rejected. </p>
<h2>So is it a done deal?</h2>
<p>Ideally, the authority would have more time to develop rigorous rules based on good environmental assessments. </p>
<p>But time is up. Two years ago, Nauru <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/jul/07/gold-rush-deep-sea-devastation-seabed-oceans">triggered a clause</a> giving the ISA two years to produce a mining code and rules – a feat it had not previously managed. Those two years were up on July 9th and the code isn’t out. That means it’s now legally possible to lodge mining applications. </p>
<p>So because of the delays, we may be heading for a future where seabed mining becomes legal by default – without rules to govern it at all. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/deep-seabed-mining-plans-pit-renewable-energy-demand-against-ocean-life-in-a-largely-unexplored-frontier-193273">Deep seabed mining plans pit renewable energy demand against ocean life in a largely unexplored frontier</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209690/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Claudio Bozzi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Deep sea metallic nodules could help us shift to clean energy. But we don’t know how much damage it will do to ecosystemsClaudio Bozzi, Lecturer in Law, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2080182023-07-10T20:08:26Z2023-07-10T20:08:26ZNew transmission lines are controversial for nearby communities. But batteries and virtual lines could cut how many we need<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536451/original/file-20230710-29-38ma5o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C4493%2C2984&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s power grid was built to transport power from coal-fired power stations or the Snowy Hydro scheme to large cities and industrial precincts. The large transmission lines were designed with generation supply and demand, the shortest routes, and cost in mind. </p>
<p>But this ageing grid isn’t designed to cope with a green future where power flows into the grid from solar farms and windfarms on land and out at sea. To cope, Australia’s energy market operator is proposing over 10,000 kilometres of <a href="https://aemo.com.au/-/media/files/major-publications/isp/2022/2022-documents/2022-isp-infographic.pdf?la=en">new transmission lines</a>, linking major renewable precincts with the cities. </p>
<p>The problem? No one likes having large, unsightly lines built near them. There’s already been <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2022-07-01/aemo-renewable-roadmap-flawed-expert-says/101199938">strong pushback</a> from communities near sites slated for new power lines. Community resistance has now forced the federal government to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-04/federal-government-launches-transmission-line-review/102559232">launch a review</a> of how transmission projects are approved. </p>
<p>The good news is, some alternatives to large-scale transmission lines have come of age. Grid-scale battery banks have already proven their use to store intermittent flows of green electricity for later. And we may be able to build more lightly if we adopt dynamic line rating, which means letting more power flow through when, say, cold winds cool the lines and stop them overheating. Western Australia – which has its own grid – is having <a href="https://www.westernpower.com.au/our-energy-evolution/grid-technology/stand-alone-power-system/?utm_source=twitter&utm_medium=organic&utm_campaign=sps-100&utm_content=video-15s-4000-sps-units">success with microgrids</a> as a way to avoid having to send power long distances. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536453/original/file-20230710-29-5s02q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="gippsland power lines" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536453/original/file-20230710-29-5s02q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536453/original/file-20230710-29-5s02q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536453/original/file-20230710-29-5s02q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536453/original/file-20230710-29-5s02q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536453/original/file-20230710-29-5s02q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536453/original/file-20230710-29-5s02q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536453/original/file-20230710-29-5s02q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Most of Australia’s transmission lines were built decades ago, like these in Gippsland, Victoria. Some rural communities are already resisting proposals for new high voltage lines.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>How can we minimise new transmission lines?</h2>
<p>Coal power was concentrated in coal-rich areas such as the LaTrobe Valley in Victoria and the Hunter Valley in New South Wales. </p>
<p>But the best renewable resources are often located in different places. That means a green grid has to connect new renewable zones such as Victoria’s <a href="https://www.energy.vic.gov.au/renewable-energy/renewable-energy-zones">Murray River zone</a> and New South Wales’ <a href="https://www.energyco.nsw.gov.au/ilw-rez">Illawarra zone</a>. (Some coal areas, like the LaTrobe Valley, will be able to take advantage of resources such as offshore wind and pair this with existing transmission infrastructure). </p>
<p>We will have to build some new transmission infrastructure. That’s unavoidable. But we can do this cleverly and minimise the impact on communities and landowners. </p>
<p>How? Battery banks allow us to store energy for later use. So if new transmission lines are built leaner and smaller, we could use these grid batteries to store excess energy and <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8973986">transmit it later</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-clean-energy-grid-means-10-000km-of-new-transmission-lines-they-can-only-be-built-with-community-backing-187438">A clean energy grid means 10,000km of new transmission lines. They can only be built with community backing</a>
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<p>Dynamic line rating offers <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0196890413002999?via%3Dihub">another way</a> to reduce the scale of new transmission lines. </p>
<p>Every transmission line is rated to a certain power capacity. A key factor limiting how much electricity can flow through a given line is heat. As electrons move, they produce heat. Too high a current and the line will overload. </p>
<p>But if, say, the wind is blowing strongly, it can cool the power lines and let them carry more capacity. That’s especially useful in a grid with a lot of wind energy flowing in. When the weather conditions are right, it could mean carrying as much as 20% more current. </p>
<h2>Aren’t grid batteries more about reliability?</h2>
<p>At present, large-scale lithium batteries are the most technically viable way to store electricity relatively cheaply. These are already up and running. South Australia’s Hornsdale battery was one of the first, but other states are now joining in. Victoria recently installed a new big battery <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-06-14/first-big-battery-at-ex-coal-site-goes-live/102477230">on the site</a> of a former coal power station. </p>
<p>To date, these batteries have mainly been used to firm up output and boost system reliability.</p>
<p>But they can do more. We can use them as <a href="https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2020/Jul/IRENA_Virtual_power_lines_2020.pdf?la=en&hash=C58043124D596D1CF75395066817C38B55AC1983">virtual power lines</a>, storing excess power close to a renewable zone and transmitting it to another storage system close to cities and towns as the peak load arrives. </p>
<p>The virtual power line concept has been adopted in <a href="https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/features/virtual-transmission-storage/">Germany and Chile</a> to relieve transmission systems at risk of congestion when bursts of renewable power arrive.</p>
<p>We can even use them as <a href="https://www.aeschile.com/en/virtual-reservoir-reservoir-made-energy-not-water">virtual reservoirs</a>, storing energy from hydro plants for later transmission. </p>
<h2>How can we put these to use?</h2>
<p>It’s in everyone’s interests to minimise how many new transmission lines we build. For the government, being able to reduce the size of the build means savings – and less demand on our already stretched workforce. And for local communities, it means some – but not all – new lines could be avoided. </p>
<p>How do we make it a reality? Essentially, by embedding these new approaches into the way we plan for the electricity grid of the future. When considering any new transmission lines, planners should assess whether part of the needed transmission capacity could instead be provided by virtual powerlines in the form of batteries, and whether the area is suitable for dynamic line rating schemes. </p>
<p>If we integrate these methods of making the most out of our grid’s capacity, we could keep the number of new lines to the minimum while ensuring we can take clean power from where it’s produced to where it’s needed. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/to-hit-82-renewables-in-8-years-we-need-skilled-workers-and-labour-markets-are-already-overstretched-188811">To hit 82% renewables in 8 years, we need skilled workers – and labour markets are already overstretched</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208018/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lasantha Meegahapola does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>We’ll need some new transmission lines to make Australia’s grid ready for the green energy shift. But there are clever ways of making more use out of our existing network.Lasantha Meegahapola, Associate Professor, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2068642023-06-28T20:03:53Z2023-06-28T20:03:53ZWe could need 6 times more of the minerals used for renewables and batteries. How can we avoid a huge increase in mining impacts?<p>We are seeing the biggest changes in our energy and transport systems since industrialisation. By 2026, global renewable energy generation is <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions/executive-summary">expected to match</a> total fossil fuel and nuclear output. Building the wind and solar farms, batteries and electricity networks we need to run our system on renewables will use a huge array of mined minerals, known as “transition minerals”.</p>
<p>The numbers are staggering. The International Energy Agency <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions/executive-summary">estimates</a> a sixfold increase in demand for these minerals by 2040 to meet climate targets of well below 2°C of warming. We could need 21.5 million tonnes for electric vehicles and battery storage alone. </p>
<iframe title="Total mineral demand for clean energy technologies" aria-label="Stacked Column Chart" id="datawrapper-chart-aci04" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/aci04/3/" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border: none;" width="100%" height="400" data-external="1"></iframe>
<p>Transitional minerals include metals such as lithium, cobalt, copper, graphite, magnesium and nickel. They also include rare earths like neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium and terbium. </p>
<p>Currently, mining provides almost our entire supply. The scale of demand for these minerals could result in almost <a href="https://source.benchmarkminerals.com/article/more-than-300-new-mines-required-to-meet-battery-demand-by-2035">400 new mines</a> by 2035.</p>
<p>To put this in perspective, Australia has around <a href="https://www.ga.gov.au/education/classroom-resources/minerals-energy/australian-mineral-facts">350 operating mines</a>. <a href="https://www.minister.industry.gov.au/ministers/king/media-releases/australias-lithium-powering-global-energy-transition">More than 50%</a> of the world’s lithium and much of its copper, cobalt, nickel and rare earths come from our mines. </p>
<p>Australia is hosting the <a href="https://wmc2023.org/">World Mining Congress</a> this week. A key issue for the industry is how we can ensure the minerals needed for the energy transition are sourced responsibly.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-clean-energy-means-more-mines-we-shouldnt-sacrifice-communities-in-the-name-of-climate-action-170938">More clean energy means more mines – we shouldn't sacrifice communities in the name of climate action</a>
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<h2>How can we manage demand?</h2>
<p>We can design energy and transport systems to minimise mineral demand. Strategies include:</p>
<ul>
<li>reducing our dependence on cars and using smaller vehicles</li>
<li>improving energy efficiency</li>
<li>moving to a circular economy that makes reuse and recycling a priority. </li>
</ul>
<p>All these changes can reduce the need for new mines. </p>
<p>Recycling, for example, could reduce demand for mined materials. For lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles, <a href="https://earthworks.org/resources/recycle-dont-mine/">estimated reductions</a> are 25% for lithium, 35% for cobalt and nickel, and 55% for copper by 2040. </p>
<p>This recycled content will mainly come from waste batteries. However, large volumes of lithium-ion batteries won’t start reaching the end of their lives for at least a decade. Recycling will only have a <a href="https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.lib.uts.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0921344923000885">significant impact from 2035</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/batteries-are-the-environmental-achilles-heel-of-electric-vehicles-unless-we-repair-reuse-and-recycle-them-205404">Batteries are the environmental Achilles heel of electric vehicles – unless we repair, reuse and recycle them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Mining is unavoidable, so we must limit its impacts</h2>
<p>If we are destined to continue mining for the minerals needed for the energy transition, how can this be done responsibly? And what exactly do we mean by responsible sourcing?</p>
<p>Responsible sourcing minimises the environmental, social and governance impacts and risks of mining. Key concerns include the use of child labour and forced labour, damage to the environment, impacts on Indigenous rights and cultural heritage, and corruption.</p>
<p>In 2011, the Australian government released <a href="https://www.industry.gov.au/publications/leading-practice-handbooks-sustainable-mining">guidance on sustainable mining</a>. Historical and recent harmful impacts highlight the need for a fresh look at mining practices. In 2020, for example, Rio Tinto <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/may/24/a-year-on-from-the-juukan-gorge-destruction-aboriginal-sacred-sites-remain-unprotected">destroyed</a> a 46,000-year-old Aboriginal heritage site in Juukan Gorge. </p>
<p>First Nations people worldwide are calling for free, prior and informed consent when mining and renewable energy developments are proposed for their land. This approach recognises the right to be consulted early in the process, informed of the impacts, and supported to take part in negotiation and making agreements. Most importantly, it includes the right to say no. </p>
<p>In many parts of Australia, Indigenous communities have been <a href="https://theconversation.com/native-title-and-australias-resource-boom-a-lost-opportunity-2725">locked out of economic opportunities</a>, despite mining generating enormous wealth on their Country. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/54-of-projects-extracting-clean-energy-minerals-overlap-with-indigenous-lands-research-reveals-195438">54% of projects extracting clean energy minerals overlap with Indigenous lands, research reveals</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What does responsible sourcing involve?</h2>
<p>How do we do things more responsibly? We need to ensure activities comply with a range of sustainability criteria. An agreed standard will mean we have information that enables us to compare the good and bad apples.</p>
<p>The problem is there isn’t a common approach to measuring, managing and reporting environmental, social and governance performance. Our <a href="https://fbicrc.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/FBICRC-Certification-Commonalities-Report-Spreads-VFINAL30November.pdf">recent research</a> analysed the plethora of voluntary standards and certifications available to battery materials producers. No common global or Australian standard has been adopted. </p>
<p>Smaller mining companies also struggle with the administrative complexities of sustainability reporting and management criteria. An agreed common language for reporting and management is needed. Only then can traceability solutions, such as the Global Battery Alliance’s blockchain-enabled “<a href="https://www.globalbattery.org/battery-passport/">battery passport</a>”, produce trustworthy and comparable results. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1348312760950677506"}"></div></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-has-rich-deposits-of-critical-minerals-for-green-technology-but-we-are-not-making-the-most-of-them-yet-182331">Australia has rich deposits of critical minerals for green technology. But we are not making the most of them ... yet</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Let’s set the bar high</h2>
<p><a href="https://fbicrc.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/FBICRC-Certification-Commonalities-Report-Spreads-VFINAL30November.pdf">Our research</a> identified the Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance (IRMA) as one of the more rigorous standards. Its credibility is built on how it is governed. This involves six stakeholder groups: mining companies, purchasers, NGOs, affected communities, labour organisations and the finance sector. </p>
<p>There are still questions to be answered. How do practices in Australia measure up to the standard? And how can regulatory reform help to steer mining operations in the right direction? </p>
<p>A focus on environmental, social and governance practices in the <a href="https://www.industry.gov.au/publications/critical-minerals-strategy-2023-2030/our-focus-areas/4-promoting-australia-world-leader-esg-performance">Australian Critical Minerals Strategy</a>, released last week, is a welcome first step.</p>
<p>Issues that must be front and centre include:</p>
<ul>
<li>mining impacts on water supply</li>
<li>free, prior and informed consent from First Nations communities</li>
<li>integrated planning for climate change impacts such as extreme weather that may affect management of mine tailings</li>
<li>biodiversity protection</li>
<li>mine closure planning that integrates progressive rehabilitation of ecosystems</li>
<li>circular business practices to make the most of what we have. </li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tapping-mineral-wealth-in-mining-waste-could-offset-damage-from-new-green-economy-mines-183232">Tapping mineral wealth in mining waste could offset damage from new green economy mines</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>As a leading mining nation, Australia is in a position to leverage its historical environmental leadership, show renewed responsibility and integrity, and lead by example. We can then help leave the planet in a shape that future generations will be proud to inherit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206864/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rusty Langdon receives funding from a range of government and non-government organisations. In 2022-23 this included the BSC and the FBI CRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elsa Dominish receives funding from various government and non-government organisations. In 2022-23 this includes DFAT, Earthworks, WWF-Australia and UNESCAP. </span></em></p>Nearly 400 new mines could open by 2035 to meet demand for the minerals used in global electrification. Better recycling can help with supply, but mining’s impacts will have to be better managed.Rusty Langdon, Senior Research Consultant, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology SydneyElsa Dominish, Research Principal, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2064202023-05-26T12:58:23Z2023-05-26T12:58:23ZHow electric vehicle batteries could save the UK auto industry<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528396/original/file-20230525-8753-c6j51h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=76%2C76%2C4989%2C2797&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/car-factory-female-automotive-engineer-wearing-2075084878">Gorodenkoff/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK may have <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/eurovision/eurovision-2023-songs-results-winner-loreen-b2338855.html">lost Eurovision</a> this year, but it recently beat European rivals for an arguably more valuable prize. Jaguar Land Rover (JLR) is expected to build <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-65698529">a multi-billion-pound electric vehicle (EV) battery plant</a> in the UK rather than Spain – welcome news for British car makers. After decades of decline, this could help turn Britain into a base for battery production, saving its ailing auto sector.</p>
<p>The news about JLR’s expected investment brings relief after recent comments from manufacturers including <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-65612295">Stellantis (owner of Vauxhall, Citroën and Peugeot)</a>, about the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/may/17/vauxhall-maker-says-brexit-deal-must-be-renegotiated-or-it-could-shut-uk-plant">future of the UK car sector</a>. These <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/jan/24/ford-says-no-deal-brexit-would-mean-costs-of-800m-dollars--in-2019-alone">companies are largely concerned</a> about producing EVs under stricter “<a href="https://trade.ec.europa.eu/access-to-markets/en/content/quick-guide-working-rules-origin#:%7E:text=Rules%20of%20origin%20determine%20in,that%20businesses%20benefit%20from%20them.">rules of origin</a>” post-Brexit. </p>
<p>This dictates the duty levied on a product based on where it was made, which could add tariffs on UK cars with Asia-made batteries. According to the rule of origin requirements, a percentage of a “made in Britain” product must be <a href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/proving-originating-status-and-claiming-a-reduced-rate-of-customs-duty-for-trade-between-the-uk-and-eu">sourced from the UK</a> to be sold without a tariff in the EU. </p>
<p>It’s unlikely that one new battery plant alone will save the UK auto industry, but it’s certainly a step in the right direction. To understand why, it’s important to explain how the UK became an attractive place to make vehicles in the past, when that changed, and why the industry has struggled to reach past highs in recent decades.</p>
<p>The UK automotive industry has travelled a bumpy road during its <a href="https://nationalmotormuseum.org.uk/ufaqs/what-was-the-first-motor-car-to-run-on-the-british-highway/">130-year history</a> – especially when it comes to production numbers. In the 1950s, the UK was the second largest producer of cars in the world, reaching peak production of <a href="https://www.thebusinessdesk.com/westmidlands/news/373408-midlands-auto-industry-set-to-return-to-70s-heyday">nearly 2 million cars a year</a> by the 1970s.</p>
<p>Throughout the 1980s, Japanese car manufacturers built factories in the UK because it helped them to gain a foothold in the lucrative European market. Rules <a href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199899/cmselect/cmtrdind/064/64r04.htm">set in 1975</a> aimed to limit Japanese imports to around <a href="https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10124384/1/EWLR-4-10.pdf">11% of the total UK car sales</a>. Getting around this meant designing cars in Japan and then producing them (<a href="https://www.aronline.co.uk/cars/triumph/acclaim/japanese-or-british/">which often had English names like Triumph</a>) in the UK to ensure they were exempt from these production caps. Honda started this strategy, but it was so successful that Nissan and Toyota were soon doing the same. In fact, <a href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/honda-swindon-factory-japan-brexit">the UK has been home to many major Japanese companies</a> over the years as a result, <a href="https://www.smmt.co.uk/2017/10/japan-uk-auto-trade-strong-ever-third-british-car-buyers-choose-japanese-brands/">not just automakers</a>.</p>
<p>Alongside the Japanese-owned car factories, by the turn of the century, Britain’s output was also being bolstered by homegrown brands like Rover and Jaguar – producers of iconic vehicles such as the Land Rover and the Mini. UK production of <a href="https://www.smmt.co.uk/2017/01/17-year-high-british-car-manufacturing-global-demand-hits-record-levels/">1.7 million cars in 2016</a> doesn’t really come close to <a href="https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/germany/motor-vehicle-production">the 5 million vehicles produced per year by Germany</a> at this time, but it’s respectable for a nation that was thought to be <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/rfcb/1662">losing its manufacturing prowess in the 1970s</a> to foreign competition.</p>
<p>Since Brexit, UK car production has been <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/298923/total-number-of-cars-produced-in-the-united-kingdom/">dropping every year</a>, however, reaching <a href="https://www.smmt.co.uk/2023/01/uk-car-production-down-but-electric-vehicle-output-surges-to-new-record/">a low of 775,000 in 2022</a>. Even before the EU Referendum, manufacturers warned that uncertainty around the future of trade <a href="https://www.regionalstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Bailey-De-Propris-What-does-Brexit-mean-for-UK-automotive-and-industrial-policy.pdf">may jeopardise UK factories</a>. </p>
<p>After the UK voted to leave the EU, <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/9fbd7d3e-fba6-4855-870f-c3feedb24cdb">the government stepped</a> in with <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-takes-historic-step-towards-net-zero-with-end-of-sale-of-new-petrol-and-diesel-cars-by-2030">investment pledges</a>. But it’s become harder to make the business case for UK auto manufacturing as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2023/may/17/vauxhall-maker-says-brexit-deal-must-be-renegotiated-or-it-could-shut-uk-plant">the realities of Brexit</a> have set in.</p>
<h2>British-made batteries</h2>
<p>The shift from petrol and diesel engines to batteries is possibly one of the biggest opportunities for the UK to protect what’s left of its auto industry. This is why the JLR battery plant deal is so important. The batteries used to power EVs are large, expensive and difficult to transport because <a href="https://www.phmsa.dot.gov/lithiumbatteries#:%7E:text=Lithium%20batteries%20are%20regulated%20as,property%20when%20transported%20in%20commerce">regulators often class them as hazardous materials</a> making transportation subject to strict regulations.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/electric-vehicles-if-the-uk-is-serious-about-being-a-major-player-heres-what-needs-to-happen-195960">Electric vehicles: if the UK is serious about being a major player, here's what needs to happen</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The answer to these regulations and the rules of origin requirements is to build battery factories in the UK. Otherwise, the UK simply can’t make anything like the volume of cars it once did. It currently only has the capacity to make enough batteries for <a href="https://www.investorschronicle.co.uk/news/2023/03/29/uk-auto-industry-being-held-back-by-battery-capacity/">40,000 cars a year</a>.</p>
<p>But EV battery factories are serious undertakings to build and run. Tesla’s “gigafactories” are <a href="https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/takeaway/segments/world-largest-building-gigafactory">some of the largest buildings in the world</a>. And after <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-64303149">the collapse of the planned British Volt Gigafactory</a> in Blyth in Northumberland, investors are understandably nervous about making such a plan work in the UK.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Aerial view of very large building surrounded by grass and roads, trucks, cars." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528384/original/file-20230525-15-vvw2tt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528384/original/file-20230525-15-vvw2tt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528384/original/file-20230525-15-vvw2tt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528384/original/file-20230525-15-vvw2tt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=319&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528384/original/file-20230525-15-vvw2tt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528384/original/file-20230525-15-vvw2tt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528384/original/file-20230525-15-vvw2tt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A gigfactory in Austin, Texas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/austin-texas-usa-october-1-2022-2211169131">Roschetzky Photography/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The road ahead</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.iea.org/news/demand-for-electric-cars-is-booming-with-sales-expected-to-leap-35-this-year-after-a-record-breaking-2022">explosion in global demand for EVs</a> is likely to continue. Countries like <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/02/21/1068880/how-did-china-dominate-electric-cars-policy/">China</a>, <a href="https://think.ing.com/articles/us-ev-market-set-for-sustained-growth-despite-stricter-subsidy-rules/">the US</a> and <a href="https://autovista24.autovistagroup.com/news/strong-ev-sales-help-german-new-car-market/">Germany</a>
have moved faster than the UK to attract and even build the necessary infrastructure and manufacturing capabilities to start trying to meet this demand.</p>
<p>But it seems the UK government hopes to catch up, with the help of the largest “British” car manufacturer JLR (actually owned by Indian group Tata). This is why <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/business-65698529">JLR’s plan to build the largest battery plant in the UK</a> is very welcome news for UK auto manufacturing. Alongside a significant number of jobs, it should finally lead to an increase in British production again, and crucially, meet the new rules of origin for the batteries.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="White Tesla car driving on a suspension bridge at sunset, trees and buildings in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528379/original/file-20230525-15-n7lizu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528379/original/file-20230525-15-n7lizu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528379/original/file-20230525-15-n7lizu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528379/original/file-20230525-15-n7lizu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528379/original/file-20230525-15-n7lizu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528379/original/file-20230525-15-n7lizu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528379/original/file-20230525-15-n7lizu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Tesla Model 3 on the Clifton Suspension Bridge in Bristol, England.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bristol-uk-june-29-2022-white-2299665477">Sergii Figurnyi/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But getting the strategy right will be key. Tesla and China’s top-selling EV manufacturer BYD already have infrastructure set up to build EVs. The Tesla Model 3 and Model Y have seemingly come out of nowhere to rank among <a href="https://www.smmt.co.uk/vehicle-data/car-registrations/">the UK’s top ten best-selling cars</a> in just a few years (not just among EVs but all cars). BYD, the <a href="https://europe.autonews.com/automakers/byd-build-12b-ev-battery-plant-central-china">largest EV manufacturer in the world</a> could repeat this success having <a href="https://www.byd.com/uk/news-list/The_All-New_BYD_ATTO_3_Debuts_in_the_UK.html">launched their cars in the UK</a> this year. </p>
<p>Rather than establishing its own industry, the UK should woo these manufacturers to set up a British base for production with more battery plants. This could build on the blueprint British car manufacturing already designed with Japanese automakers in the 1980s.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206420/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Stacey receives funding from South-Eastern New Energy, an ERDF funded project. </span></em></p>One new battery plant is unlikely to save the UK auto industry, but it’s a step in the right direction.Tom Stacey, Senior Lecturer in Operations and Supply Chain Management, Anglia Ruskin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2026262023-05-16T20:10:00Z2023-05-16T20:10:00ZCommunity batteries are popular – but we have to make sure they actually help share power<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526126/original/file-20230515-15-odirz2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C24%2C5464%2C3599&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>To power Australia without fossil fuels will mean using batteries to store power from solar and wind. We often think this means home batteries – or large grid-scale installations. </p>
<p>There’s another size too: community-scale or neighbourhood batteries, which are growing rapidly in Australia due to support from state governments like <a href="https://www.energymagazine.com.au/vic-promises-42m-for-100-new-community-batteries/">Victoria</a> and Western Australia and, more recently, from the <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/about/news/community-battery-grant-guidelines-now-available">federal government</a>. They seem to solve a lot of problems we know people are concerned about – such as enabling more rooftop solar and helping to speed up a transition to renewables. </p>
<p>But the popularity of these batteries shouldn’t be the only factor in decisions about where they are rolled out. Sometimes – and in some parts of the grid – they make sense. At other times, they may not be the best solution. </p>
<p>Our research explores when community batteries are – and are not – useful. In short, we find the main use of these batteries is to make the grid able to handle more solar and electric vehicles. But they’re not the only option. This is why we have produced a decision-making tool for policymakers to figure out where and when these batteries are worthwhile. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526118/original/file-20230515-27-66xt42.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C67%2C720%2C452&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="north fitzroy battery" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526118/original/file-20230515-27-66xt42.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C67%2C720%2C452&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526118/original/file-20230515-27-66xt42.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526118/original/file-20230515-27-66xt42.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526118/original/file-20230515-27-66xt42.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526118/original/file-20230515-27-66xt42.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526118/original/file-20230515-27-66xt42.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526118/original/file-20230515-27-66xt42.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Community batteries have gained traction. This photo shows the unveiling of the community battery in North Fitzroy in 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Yarra Energy Foundation</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What exactly is a community battery – and why is the idea popular?</h2>
<p>Think of a community battery as like a neighbourhood asset – battery packs similar in size to a 4WD that can store locally produced solar or help serve local electric vehicle charging. </p>
<p>The idea is for these batteries to reduce carbon emissions and energy bills while benefiting all energy users nearby, rather than only those with access to rooftop solar. These are great ambitions – small wonder they’ve proven a hit. </p>
<p>But the success of these batteries is far from certain. </p>
<p>Over the last four years, our research has found two areas we have to fix to maximise the chances these batteries actually do what we want them to do. </p>
<p>First, we need greater clarity on how we decide whether community batteries are a good investment. </p>
<p>Second, we need better measurement and evaluation of what these batteries actually contribute to the grid and to energy users. </p>
<p>Why does it matter? Making sure neighbourhood batteries deliver what they promise is particularly important because they have generated so much public interest and excitement. </p>
<p>If they don’t work, they could undermine public support for collective solutions - the type of solutions we know are more efficient and equitable than households going it alone. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526121/original/file-20230515-27-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C11%2C915%2C505&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="port kennedy battery" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526121/original/file-20230515-27-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C11%2C915%2C505&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526121/original/file-20230515-27-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526121/original/file-20230515-27-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526121/original/file-20230515-27-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526121/original/file-20230515-27-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526121/original/file-20230515-27-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526121/original/file-20230515-27-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Community batteries can help the green energy transition – but we have to make sure they’re in the right locations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Western Power</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why put batteries into communities at all?</h2>
<p>Batteries will play a crucial role in getting us towards our goal of 82% renewables by 2030. One way they can do this is by storing energy from solar and wind for later use. </p>
<p>Surprisingly, this doesn’t necessarily mean emissions will go down. Recent research <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301421522006280">has shown</a> that if batteries are run to maximise profits, they could actually increase emissions by charging from coal power. By contrast, if they are run to maximise the use of solar and wind, they could contribute to lowering emissions.</p>
<p>What batteries do better than any other technology, however, is to provide (or soak up) power at extremely short notice to tide the grid through sudden shocks, such as the storm <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-11-21/sa-interconnector-repairs-delayed-due-to-bad-weather/101677018">knocking over</a> a transmission line or a coal-fired power station <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-06-02/qld-cs-energy-releases-photo-of-damaged-callide-power-station/100186330">exploding</a>. </p>
<p>But batteries can do this from anywhere on the grid. So the real question is: why put batteries into our suburbs and small towns at all? </p>
<p>In a new <a href="https://bsgip.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/202305-Community-batteries-1.pdf">discussion paper</a>, this article’s lead author argues the primary purpose of community batteries ought to be addressing constraint in the local electricity grid. This reiterates a <a href="https://arena.gov.au/assets/2020/12/implementing-community-scale-batteries-bsgip.pdf">consistent finding from our research</a>.</p>
<p>While this sounds reasonable, community batteries aren’t the only option to fix local grid issues. That means we should only turn to them where they are clearly better than the <a href="https://onestepoffthegrid.com.au/do-neighbourhood-batteries-stack-up-five-reasons-for-caution-on-shared-grid-storage/">alternatives</a>, such as upgrading transformers. </p>
<p>What about storing solar and shoring up the grid? These tasks may be done more efficiently and with less environmental impact with grid-scale batteries, <a href="https://theconversation.com/batteries-of-gravity-and-water-we-found-1-500-new-pumped-hydro-sites-next-to-existing-reservoirs-194330">pumped hydro</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/owners-of-electric-vehicles-to-be-paid-to-plug-into-the-grid-to-help-avoid-blackouts-132519">electric vehicle batteries</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/small-communities-could-be-buying-selling-and-saving-money-on-electric-power-right-now-heres-how-190740">Small communities could be buying, selling and saving money on electric power right now – here’s how</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>And what about sharing the benefits of solar with people who can’t afford an array or who have nowhere to put one? While this vision is in line with public sentiment, the complexity of the privatised energy system makes it very difficult to redistribute financial benefits.</p>
<p>Community batteries are also no panacea for the desire of people to see and be included in national planning for the decarbonisation transition. An inclusive planning process can address uncertainties in how the transition will affect us and our communities and ensure it upholds public values. </p>
<p>Time will tell if the newly announced <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-finally-has-a-net-zero-authority-heres-what-should-top-its-agenda-205029">Net Zero Authority</a> will deliver this. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526129/original/file-20230515-15-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="victoria big battery" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526129/original/file-20230515-15-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526129/original/file-20230515-15-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526129/original/file-20230515-15-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526129/original/file-20230515-15-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526129/original/file-20230515-15-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526129/original/file-20230515-15-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526129/original/file-20230515-15-kb5wcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grid-scale batteries like Victoria’s Big Battery will likely be more efficient in many situations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Neoen</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Build these batteries only when warranted</h2>
<p>So does this mean we should avoid community batteries altogether? No – but it does mean we should carefully track and evaluate these projects to see where they work best. </p>
<p>To help with this, several of this article’s authors developed a <a href="https://bsgip.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/NBI-Impact-and-Evaluation-Framework-Policymakers-Version.pdf">framework</a> to figure out what impact these batteries have on the clean energy transition, how to do it with social acceptance and good oversight, and to do so in a way which is economically beneficial. </p>
<p>Community batteries are not a silver bullet, but they do have promise. Used wisely, they could help accelerate the transition away from fossil fuels while reducing network costs. </p>
<p>To make the most of them, we need to understand how and where these batteries will best serve the work of building a just, reliable and sustainable energy system. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/solar-curtailment-is-emerging-as-a-new-challenge-to-overcome-as-australia-dashes-for-rooftop-solar-172152">Solar curtailment is emerging as a new challenge to overcome as Australia dashes for rooftop solar</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202626/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bjorn Sturmberg has received funding from the State and Federal governments, including from the Australian Renewable Energy Agency, for work related to solar, batteries (including medium-scale batteries), microgrids, and electric vehicles.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alice Wendy Russell has received funding from State (Vic) and Commonwealth governments for work on neighbourhood batteries and microgrids. She is affiliated with the Canberra Alliance for Participatory Democracy. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hedda Ransan-Cooper has received funding from State and Federal governments, including from the Australian Renewable Energy Agency, for work related to community batteries.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Bardwell has received funding from State (Vic) and Federal governments for work on neighbourhood batteries.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marnie Shaw has received funding from State and Federal governments, including from the Australian Renewable Energy Agency, for work related to community batteries.</span></em></p>Community batteries are popular. But that doesn’t mean they’re always the right tool for the job. We have to make sure they do what we want them to doBjorn Sturmberg, Senior Research Fellow, Battery Storage & Grid Integration Program, Australian National UniversityAlice Wendy Russell, Research fellow, Battery Storage and Grid Integration Program, Australian National UniversityHedda Ransan-Cooper, Senior Research Fellow, College of Engineering and Computer Science, Australian National UniversityLouise Bardwell, Research Assistant, Battery Storage and Grid Integration Program, Australian National UniversityMarnie Shaw, Associate professor, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2000472023-04-21T12:39:52Z2023-04-21T12:39:52ZRaw materials, or sacred beings? Lithium extraction puts two worldviews into tension<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522020/original/file-20230420-3136-24zus.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2585%2C2014&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A salt pyramid in Uyuni, Bolivia. The rainy season produces a mirror effect in the salt flat.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mario Orospe Hernandez</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Located in the heart of South America, Bolivia contains <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-lithium.pdf">the largest lithium deposits</a> in the world – an enviable position, in many countries’ eyes, as the market for electric vehicles takes off. Though EVs <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/26/lifetime-emissions-of-evs-are-lower-than-gasoline-cars-experts-say.html">emit fewer greenhouse gases</a> than fuel-powered vehicles, their batteries <a href="https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/minerals-used-in-electric-cars-compared-to-conventional-cars">require more minerals</a> – <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/11/23/1135952359/lithium-mines-batteries-electric-vehicles-climate-change-carbon%20%22%22">especially lithium</a>, which is also used to make batteries for smartphones and computers.</p>
<p>Unlike its neighbors <a href="https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/uploads/documents/Lithium%20Production%20in%20Chile%20and%20Argentina_Inverted%20Roles_JAN%202023.pdf">Chile and Argentina</a>, Bolivia has yet to become a major player in the <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/01/chart-countries-produce-lithium-world/">global lithium market</a>. In part, this is because its <a href="https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20190703-bolivias-surreal-rainbow-landscape">high-altitude salt flats</a> aren’t suited to the usual <a href="https://www.saltworkstech.com/articles/lithium-brine-extraction-technologies-and-approaches/">extraction method</a>, solar evaporation.</p>
<p>But that looks poised to change: In January 2023, state company YLB <a href="https://thediplomat.com/2023/02/in-bolivia-china-signs-deal-for-worlds-largest-lithium-reserves/">signed an agreement</a> with the Chinese consortium CBC, which includes the world’s <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/22/business/china-catl-electric-car-batteries.html">largest producer of lithium-ion batteries</a>, to <a href="https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/two-new-ways-of-extracting-lithium-from-brine/21807823">introduce a new method</a> called direct lithium extraction.</p>
<p>It may prove an economic boon. But since colonial times, the <a href="https://oxfordre.com/latinamericanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.001.0001/acrefore-9780199366439-e-2;jsessionid=E39888132A5FB9312DEDF72A288896C2">legacy of mineral abundance</a> in Bolivia has also been one of pollution, poverty and exploitation. While some residents are hopeful about the potential benefits of the growing lithium industry, others are concerned about <a href="https://energynews.pro/en/lithium-mining-in-south-america-between-hopes-and-disillusionment/">extraction’s local impact</a>. In particular, direct lithium extraction demands a great deal of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-022-00387-5">fresh water</a>, potentially <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/lithium-mining-water-andes-argentina">endangering surrounding ecosystems</a> as has happened in other parts of <a href="https://dialogochino.net/en/extractive-industries/35354-white-gold-the-violent-water-dispute-in-argentina/">South America’s “lithium triangle</a>.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521465/original/file-20230418-14-zy1au9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="The pale expanse of a salt flat beneath a bright blue sky." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521465/original/file-20230418-14-zy1au9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521465/original/file-20230418-14-zy1au9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521465/original/file-20230418-14-zy1au9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521465/original/file-20230418-14-zy1au9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521465/original/file-20230418-14-zy1au9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521465/original/file-20230418-14-zy1au9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521465/original/file-20230418-14-zy1au9.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lithium lies in the underground brine beneath this salt flat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mario Orospe Hernandez</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A rapid escalation of lithium extraction in the Bolivian Andes also represents a looming clash between two fundamentally different views of nature: <a href="https://www.cbhd.org/dignitas-articles/ivan-illich-on-the-convivial-industrial-society">modern industrial society’s</a> and that of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0962629821001165">Indigenous communities</a> who call the region home – a focus of my current <a href="https://csrc.asu.edu/beyondsecularization">research collaborations</a> and <a href="https://search.asu.edu/profile/3431913">dissertation project</a>. </p>
<h2>The Pachamama</h2>
<p>Bolivia is home to <a href="https://www.iwgia.org/en/bolivia.html">36 ethnic groups</a> across its highland and lowland regions. <a href="https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/who-are-the-aymara-people.html">Aymara</a> and <a href="https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/quechua-people.html">Quechua</a> peoples comprise most of the Indigenous communities in <a href="https://www.livescience.com/27897-andes-mountains.html">the Andes Mountains</a>.</p>
<p>For these cultures, nature is not a means to human ends. Instead, it is seen as a group of beings with personhood, history and power beyond human reach. For example, the female divinity of fertility, to whom people owe respect, is the <a href="https://www.reutersagency.com/en/reuters-community/thanking-pachamama-the-andean-peoples-pay-tribute-to-mother-earth/">Pachamama</a>. Since she sustains and secures the reproduction of life, Andean Indigenous people make offerings to the Pachamama in <a href="https://www.telesurenglish.net/news/Bolivians-Honour-Mother-Earth-Pachamama-With-Traditional-Ceremony-20180801-0020.html">ancestral rituals</a> known as <a href="https://bolivianexpress.org/blog/posts/challa">“challas”</a> that seek to reinforce their connection with her.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521463/original/file-20230418-20-9bmg0y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A handful of people bend over rows of crops while working in a hillside area." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521463/original/file-20230418-20-9bmg0y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521463/original/file-20230418-20-9bmg0y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521463/original/file-20230418-20-9bmg0y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521463/original/file-20230418-20-9bmg0y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521463/original/file-20230418-20-9bmg0y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521463/original/file-20230418-20-9bmg0y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521463/original/file-20230418-20-9bmg0y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=553&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Local food producers in Chicani, a village on the outskirts of La Paz, Bolivia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mario Orospe Hernandez</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Similarly, highland groups recognize mountains not as a set of inert rocks, but as ancestral guardians called <a href="https://bolivianexpress.org/blog/posts/the-achachilas">“Achachilas” in Aymara</a> and <a href="https://www.ticketmachupicchu.com/apus-spirits-mountain/">“Apus” in Quechua</a>. Each Andean community praises a nearby mountain whom they believe protects and oversees their lives.</p>
<p>In Uyuni, for example, where one of the <a href="https://source.benchmarkminerals.com/article/bolivia-chooses-chinese-consortium-led-by-catl-for-1-billion-lithium-investment">two new lithium plants</a> will be constructed, Indigenous communities acknowledge the presence of these sacred beings. To this day, worshipers in nearby Lipez region explain the salt flat’s origin with <a href="https://beyondbeanie.com/blogs/news/the-legend-of-tunupa-origin-of-the-salar-de-uyuni">a traditional legend</a>: It is the mother’s milk of their Apu, a female volcano named Tunupa.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://politicaltheology.com/talal-asad/">religious concepts</a> such as “sacred” or “divine” do not necessarily capture the relationships that Andean Indigenous people have long established with these <a href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/earth-beings">more-than-human beings</a>, who have been <a href="https://explorersweb.com/huacas-sacred-objects-of-the-incas/">known since pre-colonial times as “huacas</a>.” These entities are not considered “gods,” or thought of as dealing with otherworldly beliefs. Rather, they are treated as integral to people’s earthly everyday life.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521464/original/file-20230418-28-ly3xzi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A small stack of stones sits before a sandy-colored hill." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521464/original/file-20230418-28-ly3xzi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521464/original/file-20230418-28-ly3xzi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521464/original/file-20230418-28-ly3xzi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521464/original/file-20230418-28-ly3xzi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521464/original/file-20230418-28-ly3xzi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521464/original/file-20230418-28-ly3xzi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521464/original/file-20230418-28-ly3xzi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Quechua huaca, also known as the sanctuary of the sacred rock, on the Island of the Sun in Lake Titicaca.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mario Orospe Hernandez</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For instance, <a href="https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/honoring-pachamama-central-to-bolivian-culture/5267444.html">before meals</a>, Quechua and Aymara peoples throw coca leaves or spill their drinks on the ground to share their food with these beings as a sign of gratitude and reciprocity. </p>
<h2>Lifeless matter</h2>
<p>In industrial societies, on the other hand, nature is understood as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-230-21244-2_2">something external to humanity</a> – an object that can be mastered through science and technology. The <a href="https://depts.washington.edu/chid/intersections_Winter_2012/Adam_Holzman_Karl_Polanyi_and_the_Rise_of_Modernity.pdf">modern economy</a> turns nature into a source of <a href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/rawmaterials.asp">raw materials</a>: morally and spiritually inert matter that is there to be extracted and mobilized worldwide. Within this framework, a mineral like lithium is a resource to be developed in the pursuit of economic gains for human beings.</p>
<p>In fact, the history of these competing notions is deeply entwined with the history of the colonial era, as different cultures <a href="https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/a-billion-black-anthropocenes-or-none">came into violent conflict</a>. As the Spanish discovered the mineral bounty of the so-called New World, like gold and silver, they began an intensive <a href="https://sldinfo.com/2020/12/potosi-and-its-silver-the-beginnings-of-globalization/">extraction of its riches</a>, relying on forced labor from local people and imported slaves.</p>
<p>The concept of “raw materials” can be traced to the theological notion of “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/agph-2020-0147">prime matter</a>.” The term originally comes from Aristotle, whose work was introduced to Christianity via Latin translations around the 12th century. In the way Christians adapted his idea of prime matter, everything was <a href="https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Great_Chain_of_Being">ordered by its level of “perfection</a>,” ranging from the lowest level – prime matter, the most basic “stuff” of the world – to rocks, plants, animals, humans, angels and, finally, God.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521467/original/file-20230418-22-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black and white engraving shows people working in a mine with a ladder leading to the entrance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521467/original/file-20230418-22-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521467/original/file-20230418-22-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521467/original/file-20230418-22-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521467/original/file-20230418-22-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521467/original/file-20230418-22-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=638&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521467/original/file-20230418-22-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=638&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/521467/original/file-20230418-22-zqggqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=638&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A silver mine at Potosi, New Spain – now Bolivia – depicted by Theodor de Bry around 1590.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/indians-working-in-a-goldmine-at-potosi-new-spain-line-news-photo/542860359?adppopup=true">ullstein bild/ullstein bild via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>The Catholic Church and the Spanish Empire later used this medieval understanding of matter as something passive, without spirit, to <a href="https://upittpress.org/books/9780822944607/">justify the extraction</a> of resources during colonial times. The closer things were to prime matter, their argument supposed, the more they needed human imprint and an external purpose to make them valuable.</p>
<p>This notion was also used by Christian colonizers who were intent on destroying traditions that they saw as idolatrous. In their eyes, reverence toward a mountain or the earth itself was worshiping a mere “thing,” a false god. The church and the empire believed it was critical to <a href="https://digitalcommons.chapman.edu/vocesnovae/vol5/iss1/7/?utm_source=digitalcommons.chapman.edu%2Fvocesnovae%2Fvol5%2Fiss1%2F7&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages">desacralize these more-than-human beings</a> and treat them as mere resources.</p>
<p>This flattened vision of nature served as the basis for the modern economic concept of raw materials, which was introduced in the 18th century with the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/1668/chapter-abstract/141230548?redirectedFrom=fulltext">birth of economics</a> as a social science.</p>
<h2>The road ahead</h2>
<p>Bolivia’s lithium projects pose a new potential clash of worldviews. However, extraction initiatives have faced <a href="https://lagukinfo.wixsite.com/lag-uk/post/twists-and-setbacks-of-the-lithium-industrialization-process-in-bolivia">severe setbacks</a> in the last few years, including <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/bolivians-protest-over-lithium-deal-with-german-company/a-50732216">social protests</a>, the 2019 <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/07/world/americas/bolivia-election-evo-morales.html#click=https://t.co/HGrEx2Yd1h">political crisis</a> and <a href="https://dialogochino.net/en/extractive-industries/57525-understanding-bolivias-long-struggle-to-exploit-its-lithium-reserves/">a lack of necessary technology</a>. The Chinese deal represents <a href="https://www-mhe-gob-bo.translate.goog/2023/01/20/bolivia-presenta-al-mundo-el-modelo-soberano-de-inversiones-en-la-industria-del-litio/?_x_tr_sl=es&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp">a new milestone</a>, yet <a href="https://fundacionsolon-org.translate.goog/2023/01/20/la-era-de-industrializacion-del-litio/?_x_tr_sl=es&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp">its outcomes are still uncertain</a>: for the economy, for local communities and for the Earth.</p>
<p>Today, electric vehicles are widely considered part of the solution to the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/17/why-the-guardian-is-changing-the-language-it-uses-about-the-environment">climate crisis</a>. Yet they will necessitate <a href="https://techinformed.com/almost-400-new-mines-needed-to-meet-future-ev-battery-demand-data-finds/">a mining surge</a> to <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/09/02/1031726626/these-tribal-activists-want-biden-to-stop-a-planned-lithium-mine-on-their-sacred">meet their battery demands</a>. If societies really want a greener future, technological shifts such as EVs will be just part of the answer, alongside other changes like more sustainable <a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-planning-is-now-on-the-front-line-of-the-climate-crisis-this-is-what-it-means-for-our-cities-and-towns-193452">urban planning</a> and improved public transportation. </p>
<p>But in addition, perhaps other cultures could learn from Andean relations with nature as more-than-human beings: an inspiration to <a href="https://greattransition.org/publication/farewell-to-development">rethink development</a> and turn our own way of living into something less destructive.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200047/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mario Orospe Hernández receives funding from Arizona State University, the Fulbright-García Robles Program and the Mexican National Council for Science and Technology (CONACyT).</span></em></p>Lithium extraction in Bolivia poses more than environmental questions: It illustrates how notions about ‘raw materials’ can be at odds with Indigenous relations with the land.Mario Orospe Hernández, Ph.D. Candidate in Religious Studies, Arizona State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2036632023-04-13T12:28:26Z2023-04-13T12:28:26ZBoosting EV market share to 67% of US car sales is a huge leap – but automakers can meet EPA’s tough new standards<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520691/original/file-20230413-16-72ns9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C8256%2C5487&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">President Joe Biden speaks with Ford Motor Co. Executive Chairman William Clay Ford Jr. beside an electric Mustang.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/president-joe-biden-speaks-with-ford-motor-company-news-photo/1243225721">Mandel Ngan/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One big question keeps surfacing after the Biden administration announced <a href="https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/biden-harris-administration-proposes-strongest-ever-pollution-standards-cars-and">plans to raise auto standards</a> so sharply they would likely boost electric vehicle production to 67% of all new passenger vehicle sales in under a decade: Can automakers pull that off?</p>
<p>The proposal would require a huge change in production and consumer choice. To put it in perspective, in 2022 about 6% of U.S. passenger vehicle sales were all-electric.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=h-2TvzUAAAAJ&hl=en">I study the electric vehicle</a> industry and policy. Here’s why I think the Environmental Protection Agency’s plan can succeed.</p>
<h2>Automakers have met tough targets before</h2>
<p>Automakers typically push back against tougher rules and often <a href="https://www.teslarati.com/tesla-evs-pushback-from-legacy-automakers/">lobby to get standards relaxed</a>. However, U.S. car companies have also shown that they can meet ambitious goals.</p>
<p>When California began requiring that car companies sell a certain percentage of zero-emissions vehicles, its initial target translated to <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/biggest-driver-of-cleaner-car-rulesis-california-not-washington-1486904401">about 15% of all new car sales</a> by 2025. Automakers quickly exceeded that goal. By <a href="https://www.energy.ca.gov/data-reports/energy-almanac/zero-emission-vehicle-and-infrastructure-statistics/new-zev-sales">2022, nearly 19%</a> of California’s new light-duty vehicle sales were electric. In response, the rules were ramped up last year to <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/news/california-moves-accelerate-100-new-zero-emission-vehicle-sales-2035">100% of all new cars by 2035</a>.</p>
<p>U.S. automakers are already ramping up to meet the California rules, as well as aggressive requirements in Europe and China.</p>
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<p>The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency can’t set quotas for EV sales, but it <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-inflation-reduction-act-doesnt-get-around-the-supreme-courts-climate-ruling-in-west-virginia-v-epa-but-it-does-strengthen-epas-future-abilities-189279">can require</a> automakers to progressively lower total greenhouse gas emissions from the vehicles they sell. Emission rates are inherently tied to fuel economy – more fuel-efficient vehicles emit less carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that is warming the planet.</p>
<p>The new federal proposal, which still faces a comments period and could change before being finalized, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissions-vehicles-and-engines/proposed-rule-multi-pollutant-emissions-standards-model">would set emissions</a> restrictions tight enough that it will effectively result in <a href="https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/biden-harris-administration-proposes-strongest-ever-pollution-standards-cars-and">about two-thirds</a> of new light-duty vehicles sold by 2032 being electric. That’s almost as aggressive as rules in the European Union. A second EPA proposal, also announced April 12, 2023, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/regulations-emissions-vehicles-and-engines/proposed-rule-greenhouse-gas-emissions-standards-heavy">affects heavy-duty vehicles</a> in the same way, but sets a lower target.</p>
<h2>The government is offering lots of incentives</h2>
<p>While the proposed rules are strict, the federal government has provided unprecedented support over the last year and a half to help meet demand for EV battery parts and production, <a href="https://www.commerce.gov/news/press-releases/2023/02/biden-harris-administration-launches-first-chips-america-funding">computer chips</a> and charging infrastructure.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/3684/text">Bipartisan Infrastructure Law</a>, in conjunction with 2022’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/big-new-incentives-for-clean-energy-arent-enough-the-inflation-reduction-act-was-just-the-first-step-now-the-hard-work-begins-188693">Inflation Reduction Act</a>, are providing billions of dollars in <a href="https://www.atlasevhub.com/data_story/3-billion-in-federal-funding-for-evs-to-date/">grants and loans</a> for EV and battery manufacturing, plus tax breaks for EV buyers. The infrastructure law also allocated <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/02/15/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-announces-new-standards-and-major-progress-for-a-made-in-america-national-network-of-electric-vehicle-chargers">US$7.5 billion to build a network of EV chargers</a> throughout the country under the <a href="https://afdc.energy.gov/laws/12744">National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure</a> program.</p>
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<p>In an ideal world, “carrots” like these would be enough to encourage automakers to embrace the technological shift. But the EPA’s new greenhouse gas emissions standards represent the “stick” designed to guarantee the shift happens.</p>
<h2>EVs aren’t just luxury anymore</h2>
<p>Making EVs affordable will be crucial to success. Tightening fuel economy and greenhouse gas emission standards is known to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2003.08.015">increase the average price</a> of new vehicles. For now, EVs have a higher sticker price than gasoline vehicles, which is a <a href="https://apnews.com/article/electric-vehicles-biden-epa-poll-climate-change-32fd2232e6a053848ebfe7756fa21556">major barrier to their adoption</a>.</p>
<p>The cost of batteries is one reason EV prices are higher. But there’s another important reason, and it may be changing: the types of electric vehicles being produced.</p>
<p>Many of the current EV models are large or luxury vehicles. Those vehicle classes have <a href="https://www.autonews.com/article/20170724/RETAIL01/170729911/crossovers-and-suvs-fatten-profit-margins">higher profit margins</a>, meaning automakers make more money off the sales, which helps them invest in production.</p>
<p>But <a href="https://theicct.org/publication/ev-cost-benefits-2035-oct22/">more entry-level EVs</a> are coming on the market soon. And many of them, <a href="https://www.chevrolet.com/electric/bolt-ev">such as the Chevrolet Bolt</a>, are already fairly cost competitive with comparable gas cars – and cheaper overall when taking into account lower energy and maintenance costs.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Nissan Leaf EV charges in a parking garage." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520690/original/file-20230413-663-ajhtdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520690/original/file-20230413-663-ajhtdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520690/original/file-20230413-663-ajhtdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520690/original/file-20230413-663-ajhtdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520690/original/file-20230413-663-ajhtdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520690/original/file-20230413-663-ajhtdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520690/original/file-20230413-663-ajhtdp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">EVs are getting more affordable, but creating enough charging infrastructure is still a challenge in many areas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/electric-vehicles-are-displayed-before-a-news-conference-news-photo/1232464481">Drew Angerer/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Increasing EV production will bring down costs over time as manufacturing processes improve and sales and competition grow.</p>
<p>In the meantime, the Inflation Reduction Act’s tax credits can help narrow the current price gap between certain EVs and gas vehicles. Buyers can get up to $7,500 for <a href="https://www.irs.gov/credits-deductions/manufacturers-and-models-for-new-qualified-clean-vehicles-purchased-in-2023-or-after">qualifying new electric vehicles</a>.</p>
<h2>Investments are already underway</h2>
<p>Meeting the EPA’s standards won’t be easy, and the industry will face other challenges. For example, the U.S. needs to train workers in new skills, both for auto production and for charger installation, and it will need to boost renewable energy production to power EVs cleanly.</p>
<p>The ramp-up will also come with costs. Ford announced in early 2023 that its EV division had <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/ford-sees-3-billion-pretax-loss-its-ev-business-this-year-2023-03-23/">lost $3 billion</a> in each of the previous two years and would likely lose a similar amount in 2023 as it invested in new production.</p>
<p>But Ford also said it expects to see an <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/03/23/business/ford-ev-losses/index.html">8% profit margin by 2026</a> and to boost production that year to 2 million electric vehicles. Ford and several other automakers have announced large investments in electric vehicle capabilities. A recent Reuters analysis found that 37 global automakers expected to <a href="https://www.reuters.com/graphics/AUTOS-INVESTMENT/ELECTRIC/akpeqgzqypr/">invest $1.2 trillion</a> in EVs, batteries and materials through 2030.</p>
<p>John Bozzella, CEO of the industry trade group <a href="https://www.autosinnovate.org/about/our-members">Alliance for Automotive Innovation</a>, said automakers were <a href="https://www.autosinnovate.org/posts/papers-reports/get-connected-2022-q4">committed to the EV transition</a> and would work with U.S. regulators, but he also called the EPA plan “<a href="https://www.autosinnovate.org/posts/blog/how-to-think-about-epas-new-greenhouse-gas-rules">aggressive by any measure</a>.” Whether it’s feasible, he said, will depend in part on how the U.S. manages charging infrastructure, supply chains and the resilience of the power grid.</p>
<h2>The proposed rules provide clear targets</h2>
<p>The aggressive nature of the EPA’s proposed regulation is a major departure from the norm. Efficiency standards have traditionally meant incremental improvements in vehicle technologies, like increasing engine efficiency. The proposed rule likely will be challenged once finalized, and since it isn’t written into law, there’s a chance it could be reversed by future administrations.</p>
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<p>But these standards can help companies set goals for the future by providing clear targets. Failing to meet EPA rules can come with tough penalties, up to <a href="https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/clean-air-act-vehicle-and-engine-enforcement-case-resolutions">$45,000 per vehicle per day</a> in some cases. That’s enough to very rapidly put any automaker out of business.</p>
<p>In my view, the updated standards are necessary to ensure that the U.S. can keep pace with EV adoption around the world.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203663/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alan Jenn does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An EV industry expert offers five reasons to be optimistic that the government’s ambitious proposed rules to clean up auto emissions can succeed.Alan Jenn, Associate Professional Researcher in Transportation, University of California, DavisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1996002023-02-13T04:21:24Z2023-02-13T04:21:24ZElectric utes can now power the weekend – and the work week<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509668/original/file-20230213-16-iapt69.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C30%2C4058%2C2638&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Four years ago, then-Prime Minister Scott Morrison <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oOBZOsVlUWs&ab_channel=Qldaah">famously claimed</a> electric vehicles (EVs) would end the weekend. “It’s not going to tow your trailer. It’s not going to tow your boat. It’s not going to get you out to your favourite camping spot,” he said. </p>
<p>His comments drew on the <a href="https://electricvehiclecouncil.com.au/about-ev/myth-busting">popular misconception</a> EVs are underpowered relative to petrol, gas or diesel cars. Experts <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-05-10/federal-election-fact-check-electric-vehicle-tow-boat/11078464">refuted</a> the claims, while <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7xFDR-aEOpk&ab_channel=MashableDeals">video</a> of a Tesla towing a 130-tonne Boeing 787 circulated. </p>
<p>But one part of Morrison’s critique had longer resonance. Could utes ever go electric? These light utility cars are favoured by <a href="https://www.ceicdata.com/en/australia/employment-by-sex-and-by-occupation/employment-technicians-and-trades-workers">Australia</a> and <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/sponsored-stories/a-treasure-trove-of-tradies/FFOCKMUGR63EHSHM6IS3RPVFO4/#:%7E:text=There%20are%2C%20she%20says%2C%20178%2C000,will%20be%20needed%20by%202022.">New Zealand’s</a> two million strong tradie workforce to take materials and tools to jobs. Ute drivers are more likely to drive longer distances, making range anxiety an obstacle. </p>
<p>The answer is yes, though it may take longer than for cars. Only last week Melbourne company SEA Group <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2023-02-09/sea-mevco-electric-vehicle-mining-ute-toyota-hilux-landcruiser/101896170?utm_campaign=abc_news_web&utm_content=twitter&utm_medium=content_shared&utm_source=abc_news_web">announced</a> a deal to turn thousands of conventional utes electric. </p>
<p>At present, new electric utes are still more expensive. But over time, their advantages will make them an easy choice. </p>
<h2>How are electric utes different?</h2>
<p>Electric utes will have much lower running costs from fuel to maintenance. Electricity is cheaper than petrol or diesel. And doing away with the internal combustion engine means maintenance is much cheaper and less frequent. </p>
<p>They have improved performance, with <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhxVDazb1V4">instant torque</a> and rapid acceleration. This makes them suited for towing and driving in environments where quick manoeuvring and agility are needed.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-electric-cars-for-under-45-000-theyre-finally-coming-to-australia-but-the-battle-isnt-over-191854">New electric cars for under $45,000? They're finally coming to Australia – but the battle isn't over</a>
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<p>They have <a href="https://www.lifewire.com/why-evs-are-roomier-5202177#:%7E:text=That's%20because%20less%20is%20more,room%20for%20passengers%20and%20cargo.">more storage</a> because there’s no large engine, leaving room for a front trunk. Batteries are typically located <a href="https://www.carmagazine.co.uk/electric/ev-car-battery-capacity-tech/">under the floor</a>.</p>
<p>And for tradies, the large battery means they can <a href="https://www.whichcar.com.au/reviews/2023-ldv-et60-review-electric-ute">charge and run</a> their tools without the need for a generator. </p>
<p>Like other electric vehicles, electric utes have better energy efficiency, converting much, much more of the energy stored in the battery into motion. By contrast, internal combustion engines <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/fotw-1044-august-27-2018-12-30-energy-put-conventional-car-used-move-car">lose most of the energy</a> in their fuel to heat. </p>
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<h2>But what about ‘range anxiety’?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/tourism-and-transport/survey-motor-vehicle-use-australia/latest-release">average driver</a> in Australia covers 36 kilometres per day, or around 12,000 kilometres each year. </p>
<p>But averages conceal heavy users. Owners of utes and other light commercial vehicles drive <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/tourism-and-transport/survey-motor-vehicle-use-australia/latest-release">almost 40% more</a> than car drivers. </p>
<p>So, can electric utes handle the extra kilometres? In short – yes. Battery technology improves every year. The average distance an EV can drive on a single charge <a href="https://www.visualcapitalist.com/visualizing-the-range-of-electric-cars-vs-gas-powered-cars/">doubled</a> from 138km to 349km in the decade to 2021, based on US models. </p>
<p>Batteries will get better and cheaper, meaning range will increase. You can charge your electric ute at one of almost 5,000 <a href="https://www.plugshare.com/map/australia">charging stations</a> around Australia – a number which has <a href="https://electricvehiclecouncil.com.au/2022-australian-electric-vehicle-industry-recap">almost doubled</a> in just three years. It’s also possible to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-5BPL4Nm1q0">swap out</a> depleted batteries rather than stopping to recharge. </p>
<p>If there’s power available at a worksite, you can also run a power cable to <a href="https://www.carsguide.com.au/ev/advice/charging-your-electric-car-at-home-everything-you-need-to-know-85675">top up</a> your ute while on the job. </p>
<h2>Electric utes will be slower to arrive – but the bigger change is already here</h2>
<p>This year, Australia <a href="https://electricvehiclecouncil.com.au/2022-australian-electric-vehicle-industry-recap">will have</a> 100,000 electric vehicles on its roads for the first time. </p>
<p>After years in the doldrums, electric cars finally arrived in numbers. Last year, almost 40,000 hit the roads for the first time – doubling the total in a single year. </p>
<p>But there’s still a way to go. That’s just <a href="https://electricvehiclecouncil.com.au/2022-australian-electric-vehicle-industry-recap/">3.8%</a> of all new car sales – well below the global average of <a href="https://electricvehiclecouncil.com.au/2022-australian-electric-vehicle-industry-recap/">12–14%</a> and far behind world leader Norway, where <a href="https://insideevs.com/news/629068/norway-electric-car-sales-december2022/">87%</a> of vehicles sold are now electric.</p>
<p>Cars are comparatively easy to electrify. Utes and trucks are a harder challenge. Even though they come with major advantages, the higher sticker price will deter buyers. </p>
<p>This matters, because transport is now Australia’s <a href="https://www.pwc.com.au/government/government-matters/australias-road-to-zero-transport-emissions.html">third-largest</a> – and fastest growing – source of emissions, accounting for <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/nggi-quarterly-update-march-2022.pdf">close to 20%</a> of the nation’s emissions. </p>
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<p>Of these emissions, freight trucks are responsible for 23%, and light duty road vehicles – which includes utes – <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/national-inventory-report-2020-volume-1.pdf">contribute 18%</a>. </p>
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<p>For years, Australia has been at the back of the pack. Our lack of emission standards for vehicles has made us a <a href="https://thedriven.io/2022/08/08/australias-dirty-and-expensive-car-habit-5-9-billion-in-extra-fuel-costs/">dumping ground</a> for high-polluting cars and trucks. </p>
<p>Electrifying our whole fleet of vehicles – coupled with clean energy to power them – is essential if we are to meet our legislated emissions targets. </p>
<h2>Which electric utes are available now – or coming soon?</h2>
<p>Australia’s first <a href="https://www.whichcar.com.au/news/2023-ldv-et60-pricing-and-features-australia-first-electric-ute">electric ute</a> is the <a href="https://zecar.com/details/LDV-eT60-/Standard?id=7af8d140-5a4a-11ed-a0ad-a7d51a987eae&name=LDV-eT60-&imgLink=https://image.zecar.com/eT60__Standard/1672471504-ldv_et60_1">LDV eT60</a>. It’s hugely expensive at around A$93,000, almost twice the cost of its diesel counterpart.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509554/original/file-20230211-26-ixyoa8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509554/original/file-20230211-26-ixyoa8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509554/original/file-20230211-26-ixyoa8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509554/original/file-20230211-26-ixyoa8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509554/original/file-20230211-26-ixyoa8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509554/original/file-20230211-26-ixyoa8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509554/original/file-20230211-26-ixyoa8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509554/original/file-20230211-26-ixyoa8.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Australia’s first electric ute, LDV eT60.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Zecar</span></span>
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<p>So how can we be confident electric utes will <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-10-11/electric-utes-are-coming-to-australia-can-they-win-over-tradies/101508750">take off</a>? Because the technology isn’t standing still. As EVs get better and as worldwide battery production skyrockets, prices will fall. Many other models will soon be available. </p>
<p>States and territories are also introducing policies to reduce the cost of purchase, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-a-shift-to-basing-vehicle-registration-fees-on-emissions-matters-for-australia-199294">basing the cost</a> of registering a vehicle on its emissions. </p>
<p>Within seven years, electric vans and utes <a href="https://www.bcg.com/news/10october2022-electric-utes-to-boom-in-australia">are predicted</a> to make up over 50% of all light duty commercial vehicles. This could come even sooner with supportive government policies. </p>
<p>There’s also a renewed interest in local manufacturing. Queensland’s <a href="https://www.ace-ev.com.au/">Ace EV Group</a> plans to launch a small, cheap electric ute with the ability to charge your tools from its battery, while other outfits offer <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-03-10/electric-vehicle-conversions-take-off-amid-soaring-petrol-prices/100896286">to convert</a> your existing car to electric. </p>
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<h2>The route to electric utes</h2>
<p>The switch to electric is – at last – beginning in earnest. But time is of the essence. To accelerate, we need more variety and more affordable EVs, including light duty vehicles and utes. </p>
<p>One policy setting still holding us back is the lack of mandatory <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-road-to-new-fuel-efficiency-rules-is-filled-with-potholes-heres-how-australia-can-avoid-them-188814">fuel efficiency standards</a>. If we had these, we would see <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-autoshow-geneva-carbon-explainer-idUSKBN20Q1MM">much faster change</a>. </p>
<p>Labor last year promised Australia would at last have ambitious mandatory <a href="https://www.trendsmap.com/twitter/tweet/1560411828118646784">fuel-efficiency standards</a>. They can’t come soon enough. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-is-failing-on-electric-vehicles-california-shows-its-possible-to-pick-up-the-pace-189871">Australia is failing on electric vehicles. California shows it's possible to pick up the pace</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199600/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hussein Dia receives funding from the Australian Research Council, the iMOVE Cooperative Research Centre, Level Crossing Removal Authority, Transport for New South Wales, Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts, and Beam Mobility Holdings.</span></em></p>Electric cars are now appearing on Australian roads. But can electric utes meet the more exacting needs of our tradies?Hussein Dia, Professor of Future Urban Mobility, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1981042023-01-19T16:26:27Z2023-01-19T16:26:27ZBritishvolt: more evidence UK is falling far behind in race to capture growing EV market<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/505374/original/file-20230119-24-nk6n38.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4000%2C3000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/stuttgart-germany-01222022-smartphone-logo-battery-2112275771">T. Schneider/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Britishvolt, the would-be electric vehicle (EV) battery maker that recently went into <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-64303149">administration</a>, always faced an <a href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/the-collapse-of-britishvolt">uphill struggle</a>. The start-up had no track record developing technology and never confirmed how it would raise the <a href="https://www.expressandstar.com/news/uk-news/2023/01/17/britishvolt-faces-administration-after-failed-rescue-talks/">£3.8 billion</a> needed to start mass producing batteries, which reduces the average cost per battery. </p>
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<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
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<p>The proposed facility near Blyth, a coastal town in north-east England, was slated to contribute around a quarter of what the UK automotive industry needs, or enough for 330,000 battery packs a year. But with no major auto firms as customers, its business model always looked vulnerable. </p>
<p>This was despite <a href="https://twitter.com/borisjohnson/status/1484465521655521281">keen promotion</a> from Boris Johnson when he was prime minister and a pledge of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jan/21/britishvolt-electric-car-battery-uk-gigafactory-blyth-jobs">£100 million in public funding</a> if <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/adf3ee60-4734-4e0c-b27b-55842136d3f7">certain conditions</a> on the factory’s construction were met. They weren’t, and the government <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/britishvolt-on-the-brink-as-100m-of-government-funding-yet-to-materialise-source-12735018">kept the cash</a>. </p>
<p>There remains hope that new ownership could rescue the business and that batteries for EVs could still be assembled at the site. For now, though, Britishvolt’s woes raise wider questions about the future of the UK automotive industry as it transitions to making EVs, and whether the government is doing enough to support it.</p>
<p>For the UK to become a leader in EV manufacturing, it needs <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/electric-cars-batteries-factories-brexit-b1792315.html">large factories</a> (called gigafactories) making EV batteries and quickly, as demand for EVs is <a href="https://heycar.co.uk/blog/electric-cars-statistics-and-projections">taking off</a> ahead of <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/consulting-on-ending-the-sale-of-new-petrol-diesel-and-hybrid-cars-and-vans/outcome/ending-the-sale-of-new-petrol-diesel-and-hybrid-cars-and-vans-government-response">a 2030 ban</a> on new petrol and diesel cars, and the requirement for all new cars to be fully zero emission by 2035. This is particularly urgent given the nature of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement#:%7E:text=The%20EU%E2%80%93UK%20Trade%20and%20Cooperation%20Agreement%20%28%20TCA%29,Energy%20Community%20%28Euratom%29%20and%20the%20United%20Kingdom%20%28UK%29.">trade and cooperation agreement</a> (TCA) between the UK and the EU. </p>
<p>The TCA requires that batteries in EVs have to be assembled in the UK or the EU by the end of 2026 for vehicles traded between the two to avoid tariffs. The <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/nov/04/uk-government-car-battery-industry-gigafactories">UK is lagging well behind</a> EU countries in attracting investment in battery-making, and Britshvolt’s collapse throws this into sharp relief.</p>
<p>Without a major effort to build a domestic supply chain that includes battery manufacturing, UK car assembly lines will increasingly be left producing obsolete internal combustion engine cars and dependent upon imported battery components from the EU to meet <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/rules-of-origin-for-goods-moving-between-the-uk-and-eu">rules of origin requirements</a>. That isn’t going to make much business sense.</p>
<h2>Follow the money</h2>
<p>In recent years, a lot of investment in battery <a href="https://www.investmentmonitor.ai/manufacturing/what-is-a-gigafactory-where-are-they-being-built/">gigafactories</a> has skirted the UK, partly because of uncertainty caused by Brexit. Tesla boss Elon Musk said as much in late 2019 when justifying <a href="https://ukandeu.ac.uk/brexit-uncertainty-means-tesla-choses-germany-for-european-for-new-factory/">his firm’s decision</a> to build its first major European gigafactory in <a href="https://www.tesla.com/giga-berlin">Germany</a>.</p>
<p>Along with Arrival’s decision to shift electric van production to the US and <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-64303149">Mini pulling the plug</a> on EV production in Oxford, for now at least, government hopes for the UK auto industry as an EV powerhouse seem stuck in neutral, if not reverse. The one piece of good news so far is that battery maker Envision has committed to <a href="https://www.electrive.com/2022/12/12/uk-envision-aesc-lays-foundation-for-sunderland-gigafactory/">a new gigfactory in Sunderland</a> that will come onstream in 2025 – the only confirmed investment in the UK.</p>
<p>In a good year, the UK makes between <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/298923/total-number-of-cars-produced-in-the-united-kingdom/">1.3 and 1.5 million cars</a>. As the industry seeks to supply UK and EU markets in which petrol or diesel vehicle sales are being phased out <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-takes-historic-step-towards-net-zero-with-end-of-sale-of-new-petrol-and-diesel-cars-by-2030">from 2030</a>, maintaining a similar level of production will require a lot of batteries.</p>
<p>The UK has been slow to get government support lined up for such investment. So far, only £800 million has been <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-60066432">earmarked</a> for the mass production of EV batteries. Demand for EV batteries in the UK could reach as high as 130 gigawatt-hours (GWh) a year by 2040, equivalent to the output of eight gigafactories with a capacity of 15GWh each. Meeting this demand would require an investment of between £5 billion and £18 billion <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2019/10/30/electric-vehicle-battery-production-could-saviour-uk-automotive/">by 2040</a> according to one estimate.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, there are at <a href="https://www.pv-magazine.com/2022/02/17/europes-gigafactory-boom-in-full-swing-with-another-plant-announcement/">least 35 gigafactories</a> up and running or under construction in the EU, including those by NorthVolt (in Sweden), Saft/Stellantis (in France and Germany), Samsung SDI (in Hungary), LG Chem (in Poland), and Tesla (in Germany).</p>
<p>The European Commission and <a href="https://eur03.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/policy/european-battery-alliance_en&data=04%257C01%257Cjohn-paul.salter@ukandeu.ac.uk%257C1569ec94a20a4184f54508d8c6a20be0%257C8370cf1416f34c16b83c724071654356%257C0%257C0%257C637477746577211157%257CUnknown%257CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0=%257C1000&sdata=sWTprmPmWOE4xXVe6hZnklmBelLB/rsOFnivoYds5EM=&reserved=0">seven member states</a> have allocated around <a href="https://www.manufacturing.net/automotive/news/21244485/eu-approves-funding-for-ev-battery-industry">€6 billion</a> (£5 billion) to help build up to 20 gigafactories and aim at having <a href="https://europe.autonews.com/suppliers/europe-targets-30-global-battery-cell-production#:%7E:text=FRANKFURT%20--%20Europe%20will%20need%20to%20produce%20nearly,maintain%20competitiveness%2C%20German%20Economy%20Minister%20Peter%20Altmaier%20said.">one-third</a> of the world’s EV batteries being made in the EU by 2030. This is expected to serve an estimated €250 billion-a-year market by that time. EU member states are simply doing more to attract investment in battery production than the UK, with heavy financial support and <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2020)646164">special economic zones</a> to woo manufacturers.</p>
<p>If the UK auto industry is to compete, it will need to produce <a href="https://www.electrichybridvehicletechnology.com/news/manufacturing/uk-must-urgently-build-ev-battery-gigafactories-or-risk-losing-its-car-production-report-claims.html">its own batteries at scale</a>. Domestic battery production will reduce supply chain costs and ease logistical difficulties. It should also help UK-based carmakers and battery manufacturers work more closely in areas such as battery cell technology and technician training – critical to the industry’s competitiveness. </p>
<p>For this to be possible, the government must think more creatively about how to target financial support for car and battery makers. And, in turn, the auto industry needs a more active <a href="https://theconversation.com/industrial-policy-is-back-on-the-agenda-and-its-never-been-needed-more-than-it-is-now-119120">industrial strategy</a> and closer partnerships with government, especially with regards to reorientating skills and the supply chain towards EVs. </p>
<p>This isn’t about picking winners – demand for EVs produced in the UK and internationally is forecast to be there. And <a href="https://nextgreencar.com/electric-cars/statistics/">increasing UK sales of EVs</a> indicate a growing domestic market for batteries. McKinsey consultants forecast that by 2040, battery demand for European EVs will reach 1,200GWh per year, <a href="https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/oil-and-gas/our-insights/recharging-economies-the-ev-battery-manufacturing-outlook-for-europe">or the output of 80 gigafactories</a> with an average capacity of 15GWh.</p>
<p>The UK risks missing out on new investment in a growing industry. If the UK wants to maintain its large automotive assembly capacity as it transitions to making EVs, then <a href="https://www.electrichybridvehicletechnology.com/news/manufacturing/uk-must-urgently-build-ev-battery-gigafactories-or-risk-losing-its-car-production-report-claims.html">it will need homemade batteries</a> and on a large scale. Only a revamped industrial strategy can help make this happen.</p>
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<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Bailey receives funding from the Economic and Social Research Council's (ESRC) UK in a Changing Europe programme under grant number ES/X005844/1.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Phil Tomlinson receives funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) for Made Smarter Innovation: Centre for People-Led Digitalisation, and the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) for an Interact project on UK co-working spaces and manufacturing.</span></em></p>The UK needs an industrial strategy to counter the rise of EU battery manufacturing.David Bailey, Professor of Business Economics, University of BirminghamPhil Tomlinson, Professor of Industrial Strategy, Deputy Director Centre for Governance, Regulation and Industrial Strategy (CGR&IS), University of BathLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1932732023-01-17T13:32:55Z2023-01-17T13:32:55ZDeep seabed mining plans pit renewable energy demand against ocean life in a largely unexplored frontier<p>As companies race to expand renewable energy and the batteries to store it, finding sufficient amounts of rare earth metals to build the technology is no easy feat. That’s leading mining companies to take a closer look at a largely unexplored frontier – the deep ocean seabed. </p>
<p>A wealth of these metals can be found in manganese nodules that look like cobblestones scattered across wide areas of deep ocean seabed. But the fragile ecosystems deep in the oceans are little understood, and the mining codes to sustainably mine these areas are in their infancy.</p>
<p>A fierce debate is now playing out as a Canadian company makes plans to launch the first commercial deep sea mining operation in the Pacific Ocean. </p>
<p>The Metals Company completed an <a href="https://www.juniorminingnetwork.com/junior-miner-news/press-releases/3013-nasdaq/tmc/131137-nori-and-allseas-lift-over-3-000-tonnes-of-polymetallic-nodules-to-surface-from-planet-s-largest-deposit-of-battery-metals-as-leading-scientists-and-marine-experts-continue-gathering-environmental-data.html">exploratory project</a> in the Pacific Ocean <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/03/world/deep-sea-mining.html">in fall 2022</a>. Under a treaty governing the deep sea floor, the international agency overseeing these areas could be forced to approve provisional mining there as soon as spring 2023, but several countries and companies are urging a delay until more research can be done. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/01/stop-deep-sea-mining-says-macron-in-call-for-new-laws-to-protect-ecosystems">France</a> and <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/government-backs-seabed-mining-ban-in-international-waters-until-strong-environmental-rules-in-place/F7RANMLZIFA3FLWC4JLAEN5TXU/">New Zealand</a> have called for a ban on deep sea mining. </p>
<p>As scholars who have long focused on the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-benefit-cost-analysis/article/abs/addressing-fundamental-uncertainty-in-benefitcost-analysis-the-case-of-deep-seabed-mining/75801881799BD7EB2D3CF7B33C4DDAC6">economic</a>, <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-poseidon-project-9780190265649?cc=us&lang=en&">political</a> and <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3790524">legal</a> <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/governing-new-frontiers-in-the-information-age/conclusion/3FD2DF4571D325624C012301C94EDF7F">challenges</a> posed by deep seabed mining, we have each studied and written on this economic frontier with concern for the regulatory and ecological challenges it poses.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501179/original/file-20221214-15837-osjj0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A view looking across a sea floor with nodules looking like cobblestones on a street." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501179/original/file-20221214-15837-osjj0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501179/original/file-20221214-15837-osjj0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501179/original/file-20221214-15837-osjj0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501179/original/file-20221214-15837-osjj0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501179/original/file-20221214-15837-osjj0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501179/original/file-20221214-15837-osjj0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501179/original/file-20221214-15837-osjj0p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Manganese nodules on the seafloor in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, between Hawaii and Mexico, captured on camera by a remote vehicle in 2015.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2015-04-14_18-20-14_Sonne_SO239_157ROV11_Logo_original(1).jpg">ROV KIEL 6000, GEOMAR</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s down there, and why should we care?</h2>
<p>A curious journey began in the summer of 1974. Sailing from Long Beach, California, a revolutionary ship funded by eccentric billionaire Howard Hughes set course for the Pacific to open a new frontier — <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining">deep seabed mining</a>. </p>
<p>Widespread media coverage of the expedition helped to focus the attention of businesses and policymakers on the promise of deep seabed mining, which is notable given that the expedition was actually an <a href="https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/0005301269">elaborate cover for a CIA operation</a>.</p>
<p>The real target was a Soviet ballistic missile submarine that had sunk in 1968 with all hands and what was believed to be a treasure trove of Soviet state secrets and tech onboard.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/DOC_0005301269.pdf">expedition, called Project Azorian by the CIA</a>, <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/during-cold-war-ci-secretly-plucked-soviet-submarine-ocean-floor-using-giant-claw-180972154/">recovered at least part</a> of the submarine – and it also brought up several manganese nodules from the seafloor.</p>
<p>Manganese nodules are <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264763450_The_Geology_of_Manganese_Nodules">roughly the size of potatoes</a> and can be found across vast areas of seafloor in parts of the Pacific and Indian oceans and <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/ex2104/features/nodule/welcome.html">deep abyssal plains in the Atlantic</a>. They are valuable because they are exceptionally rich in 37 metals, including nickel, cobalt and copper, which are essential for most large batteries and several renewable energy technologies.</p>
<p>These nodules <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/ex2104/features/nodule/welcome.html">form over millennia</a> as metals nucleate around shells or broken nodules. The Clarion-Clipperton Zone, between Mexico and Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean, where the mining test took place, has been estimated to have over 21 billion metric tons of nodules that could provide <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264763450_The_Geology_of_Manganese_Nodules">twice as much nickel and three times more cobalt</a> than all the reserves on land.</p>
<p>Mining in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone could be some <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/governing-new-frontiers-in-the-information-age/conclusion/3FD2DF4571D325624C012301C94EDF7F">10 times richer</a> than <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining">comparable</a> mineral deposits on land. All told, estimates place the value of this new industry at some US$30 billion annually by 2030. It could be instrumental in feeding the surging global demand for cobalt that lies at the <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/reducing-reliance-cobalt-lithium-ion-batteries">heart of lithium-ion batteries</a>.</p>
<p>Yet, as several scientists have noted, we still know more about the surface of the moon than what lies at the bottom of the deep seabed.</p>
<h2>Deep seabed ecology</h2>
<p>Less than 10% of the deep seabed has been <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/exploration.html">mapped</a> thoroughly enough to understand even the basic features of the structure and contents of the ocean floor, let alone the life and ecosystems therein.</p>
<p>Even the <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/fact-sheets/2017/12/the-clarion-clipperton-zone">most thoroughly studied region</a>, the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, is still best characterized by the persistent novelty of what is found there.</p>
<p>Between <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105006">70% and 90% of living things</a> collected in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone have never been seen before, leaving scientists to speculate about what percentage of all living species in the region has never been seen or collected. Exploratory expeditions regularly return with images or samples of creatures that would richly animate science fiction stories, like a <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/nearly-six-foot-glowing-shark-discovered-deep-sea-new-zealand-180977163/">6-foot-long bioluminescent shark</a>.</p>
<p>Also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105006">unknown is the impact that deep sea mining</a> would have on these creatures.</p>
<p>An experiment in 2021 in water about 3 miles (5 kilometers) deep off Mexico found that seabed mining equipment <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abn1219">created sediment plumes</a> of up to about 6.5 feet (2 meters) high. But <a href="https://scripps.ucsd.edu/news/study-gives-new-insights-nature-deep-sea-sediment-plumes">the project authors stressed that they didn’t study</a> the ecological impact. A similar earlier experiment was conducted off Peru in 1989. When scientists returned to that site in 2015, they found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44492-w">some species still hadn’t fully recovered</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SR6o2WqX6uo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Video from MIT shows the sediment plume created by a nodule-collecting machine during an experiment.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2022/12/08/momentum-builds-to-halt-the-commencement-of-seabed-mining-in-international-waters">Environmentalists have questioned</a> whether seafloor creatures could be smothered by sediment plumes and whether the sediment in the water column could effect island communities that rely on healthy oceanic ecosystems. The Metals Company has argued that its <a href="https://www.mining.com/the-metals-company-reigniting-race-to-mine-the-ocean-floor/">impact is less</a> than terrestrial mining.</p>
<p>Given humanity’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105006">lack of knowledge</a> of the ocean, it is not currently possible to set environmental baselines for oceanic health that could be used to weigh the economic benefits against the environmental harms of seabed mining.</p>
<h2>Scarcity and the economic case for mining</h2>
<p>The economic case for deep seabed mining reflects both possibility and uncertainty.</p>
<p>On the positive side, it could displace some highly destructive terrestrial mining and augment the global supply of minerals used in clean energy sources such as wind turbines, photovoltaic cells and electric vehicles. </p>
<p>Terrestrial mining imposes significant environmental damage and costs to human health of both the miners themselves and the surrounding communities. Additionally, mines are sometimes located in politically unstable regions. The <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/20/world/china-congo-cobalt.html">Democratic Republic of Congo produces 60%</a> of the global supply of cobalt, for example, and China owns or finances 80% of industrial mines in that country. China also accounts for <a href="https://www.brinknews.com/china-is-moving-rapidly-up-the-rare-earth-value-chain/">60% of the global supply</a> of rare earth element production and much of its processing. Having one nation able to exert such control over a critical resource has <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/21/world/us-china-energy.html">raised concerns</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/iydMJToa2iU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Metals Company shared video of its first collection mission.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Deep seabed mining comes with significant uncertainties, however, particularly given the technology’s relatively early state.</p>
<p>First are the risks associated with commercializing a new technology. Until deep sea mining technology is demonstrated, discoveries cannot be listed as “reserves” in firms’ asset valuations. Without that value defined, it can be difficult to line up the significant financing needed to build mining infrastructure, which lessens the first-mover advantage and incentivizes firms to wait for someone else to take the lead. </p>
<p>Commodity prices are also difficult to predict. Technology innovation can reduce or even eliminate the projected demand for a mineral. New mineral deposits on land can also boost supply: Sweden announced in January 2023 that it had <a href="https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/swedens-lkab-finds-europes-biggest-deposit-rare-earth-metals-2023-01-12/">just discovered</a> the largest deposit of rare earth oxides in Europe.</p>
<p>In all, embarking on deep seabed mining involves sinking <a href="https://investors.metals.co/news-releases/news-release-details/metals-company-provides-q3-corporate-update">significant costs</a> into new technology for uncertain returns, while posing risks to a natural environment that is likely to rise in value.</p>
<h2>Who gets to decide the future of seafloor mining?</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Legal/Pages/UnitedNationsConventionOnTheLawOfTheSea.aspx">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a>, which came into force in the early 1990s, provides the basic rules for ocean resources.</p>
<p>It allows countries to control economic activities, including any mining, within 200 miles of their coastlines, accounting for approximately 35% of the ocean. Beyond national waters, countries around the world established the <a href="https://www.isa.org.jm/">International Seabed Authority</a>, or ISA, based in Jamaica, to regulate deep seabed mining.</p>
<p>Critically, the ISA framework calls for some of the profits derived from commercial mining to be shared with the international community. In this way, even countries that did not have the resources to mine the deep seabed could share in its benefits. This part of the ISA’s mandate was controversial, and it was one reason that the <a href="https://www.cfr.org/blog/international-treaties-united-states-refuses-play-ball">United States did not join</a> the Convention on the Law of the Sea.</p>
<p>With little public attention, the ISA worked slowly for several decades to develop regulations for exploration of undersea minerals, and those rules still aren’t completed. More than a dozen companies and countries have received <a href="https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts">exploration contracts</a>, including The Metals Company’s work under the sponsorship of the island nation of Nauru.</p>
<p>ISA’s work has started to draw criticism as companies have sought to initiate commercial mining. A <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/29/world/deep-sea-mining.html">recent New York Times investigation</a> of <a href="https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/22266044-seabed-mining-selected-documents-2022">internal ISA documents</a> suggested the agency’s leadership has downplayed environmental concerns and shared confidential information with some of the companies that would be involved in seabed mining. The ISA <a href="https://isa.org.jm/iwg-inspection-compliance-and-enforcement-part-3">hasn’t finalized environmental rules for mining</a>.</p>
<p>Much of the coverage of deep seabed mining has been framed to highlight the climate benefits. But this overlooks the dangers this activity could pose for the Earth’s largest pristine ecology – the deep sea. We believe it would be wise to better understand this existing, fragile ecosystem better before rushing to mine it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193273/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scott Shackelford is a principal investigator on grants from the Hewlett Foundation, Carnegie Corporation of New York, National Science Foundation, and the Microsoft Corporation supporting both the Ostrom Workshop Program on Cybersecurity and Internet Governance and the Indiana University Cybersecurity Clinic.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Bosco has received funding from the Pew Charitable Trusts for research on the work of the International Seabed Authority.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kerry Krutilla was the principal investigator for a World-Bank sponsored project on deep seabed mining. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christiana Ochoa does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Mining nodules from the deep ocean seabed could provide the metals crucial for today’s EV batteries and renewable energy technology, but little is known about the harm it could cause.Scott Shackelford, Professor of Business Law and Ethics, Indiana UniversityChristiana Ochoa, Professor of Law, Indiana UniversityDavid Bosco, Associate Professor of International Studies, Indiana UniversityKerry Krutilla, Professor of Environmental and Energy Policy, Indiana UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1926102022-12-16T00:54:47Z2022-12-16T00:54:47ZThinking of buying a battery to help power your home? Here’s what you need to know<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500341/original/file-20221212-95892-9vw3eu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C6000%2C3979&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Batteries are undoubtedly part of our energy future. Should you put one in your home now to store solar output, manage your energy use and cut costs? It really depends on what you want to achieve.</p>
<p>Studies in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032116307559">2017</a> and <a href="https://arena.gov.au/projects/der-2-0-customer-focused-design-for-der-participation/">2021</a> identified key motivations for installing home batteries:</p>
<ul>
<li>using your own solar energy</li>
<li>good for environment</li>
<li>independence from the grid</li>
<li>saving money.</li>
</ul>
<p>With these goals in mind, our research suggests it’s hard to justify buying a battery right now on cost savings alone. If other reasons also matter to you, it might be justified.</p>
<h2>Using your own solar</h2>
<p><a href="https://arena.gov.au/renewable-energy/solar/">More than 30%</a> of Australian homes have solar systems. They typically generate more than is needed during the middle of the day, less than is needed during morning and evening demand peaks, and nothing at night.</p>
<p>If you don’t have a battery, when you need more power than your solar system generates it’s imported from the grid. You can also export surplus energy to the grid and be paid for it. </p>
<p>But, as solar capacity grows, the maximum power new solar system owners are allowed to export is being limited in many locations. And if too many people in your street are exporting, the local voltage will go high and solar inverters will curtail generation. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/solar-curtailment-is-emerging-as-a-new-challenge-to-overcome-as-australia-dashes-for-rooftop-solar-172152">Solar curtailment is emerging as a new challenge to overcome as Australia dashes for rooftop solar</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>One way you can avoid curtailment is by shifting some of your energy use to the middle of the day. Significant loads that could be shifted include:</p>
<ul>
<li>water heating</li>
<li>pool pumps</li>
<li>air conditioning</li>
<li>appliances such as dishwashers, clothes washers and dryers</li>
<li>electric vehicle charging.</li>
</ul>
<p>If you still have surplus generation, it can be stored in a battery and used later to reduce the energy you import from the grid to cover loads you can’t shift. The energy you could transfer via a battery each day will be whichever is the minimum of your excess generation and the amount you normally import. For example, if you have 3 kilowatt-hours (kWh) of excess generation in a day but import only 2kWh to meet your overnight loads, the maximimum energy you can transfer via a battery is 2kWh.</p>
<p>The graph below shows an example of the energy that could be transferred each day of a year, averaged over 40 houses at <a href="https://renewalsa.sa.gov.au/projects/lochiel-park/">Lochiel Park</a>, a precinct of low-energy housing in Adelaide.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491149/original/file-20221022-37897-tqvnng.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491149/original/file-20221022-37897-tqvnng.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491149/original/file-20221022-37897-tqvnng.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491149/original/file-20221022-37897-tqvnng.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491149/original/file-20221022-37897-tqvnng.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491149/original/file-20221022-37897-tqvnng.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491149/original/file-20221022-37897-tqvnng.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Average energy transfer for each day of a year.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For these households, a battery with an 8kWh capacity could handle the energy transfer most days. However, the average energy transferred each day is only 4kWh because some days have low surplus generation or low overnight demand. Households with large solar systems and large daily energy imports from the grid can transfer more.</p>
<p>The battery itself will limit rates of charging and discharging. If you are generating more power than it can handle, some of the surplus will be exported or the solar output could be curtailed. If your load is more than it can handle, you will need extra power from the grid.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-the-heat-hits-how-to-make-our-homes-comfortable-without-cranking-up-the-aircon-110496">When the heat hits: how to make our homes comfortable without cranking up the aircon</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Environmental benefits</h2>
<p>Storing surplus solar energy and using it instead of fossil-fuel energy from the grid will have environmental benefits.</p>
<p>Most home batteries are lithium-ion batteries. Despite <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-01735-z">concerns about the environmental impacts</a> of a lithium-ion-led energy revolution, efforts are being made to <a href="https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/protection/waste/product-stewardship/products-schemes/battery-stewardship">reduce</a> these impacts.</p>
<p>Other ways to reduce environmental impacts without a battery include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/energy-storage-is-crucial-but-its-not-the-only-piece-in-the-puzzle-41226">use less energy, and shift your load</a> to match your clean energy supply</p></li>
<li><p>choose a <a href="https://www.greenelectricityguide.org.au">green retailer</a> or buy <a href="https://www.greenpower.gov.au">GreenPower</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Independence</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032116307559">2017 study</a> found nearly 70% of respondents wanted to eventually disconnect from the grid. Remote households have done it for decades, but need large solar systems and large batteries backed up by diesel generators and gas for heating and cooking.</p>
<p>Being connected to a grid has significant benefits. When not generating enough solar power you can get energy from somewhere else. And when generating more than you need, you can send the surplus somewhere else that needs it. Connecting many loads to many generators increases flexibility and efficiency.</p>
<p>A home battery can let you run your home when the grid fails, but you may need extra equipment to isolate it from the grid at such times. Being off-grid means you may also need to manage your battery differently to keep enough energy in reserve to meet your needs during outages.</p>
<h2>Saving money</h2>
<p>You could use a battery to reduce costs in two ways:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>store surplus solar energy during periods of a low feed-in tariff (the money you receive for exporting energy to the grid), then use it later instead of importing energy when the price is high</p></li>
<li><p>join a virtual power plant (VPP).</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Let us explain further.</p>
<p>The cost of electricity varies throughout each day, <a href="https://www.aemo.com.au">depending on demand and on available generation</a>. If you have a meter that records when energy is used, time-of-use and dynamic tariffs will allow you to make the most of price fluctuations. </p>
<p>If the difference between your feed-in tariff and your peak import price is 40c/kWh, each kWh of solar energy you store then use during the peak period saves you 40c. The graph above showed an average daily transfer of 4kWh, saving $1.60 per day. But this household requires an 8kWh battery, costing about $9,600. The payback period is over 16 years – beyond the warrantied life of the battery.</p>
<p>In 2017 we simulated battery use for 38 houses with solar to determine the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X17306485">viability and payback period</a>. Each dot in the graph below indicates the payback period for a particular household with given battery size. The horizontal axis shows the annual surplus energy it generated. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490780/original/file-20221020-19-kwfzo9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490780/original/file-20221020-19-kwfzo9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490780/original/file-20221020-19-kwfzo9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490780/original/file-20221020-19-kwfzo9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490780/original/file-20221020-19-kwfzo9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490780/original/file-20221020-19-kwfzo9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490780/original/file-20221020-19-kwfzo9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Energy storage payback periods for 38 households.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The payback period is better for smaller batteries, which cost less, and for houses with larger annual export.</p>
<p>We assumed a price difference of 40c/kWh between import price and feed-in tariff. We also assumed a future battery price of $600/kWh – we are not there yet (unless you can get a generous subsidy).</p>
<p>The other way of reducing the payback period, and <a href="https://aemo.com.au/newsroom/news-updates/aemo-shares-fourth-and-final-vpp-knowledge-sharing-report-ahead-of-trial-conclusion">supporting the grid</a>, is to join a <a href="https://arena.gov.au/assets/2020/10/virtual-power-plant-in-south-australia.pdf">virtual power plant</a> (VPP). A VPP is a network of home solar batteries from which the electricity grid can draw energy in times of need.</p>
<p>VPP operators typically offer discounts on the battery cost, its management to take advantage of the retail tariffs on offer, and payments for allowing them to use your battery to trade energy on the electricity markets. <a href="https://www.solarquotes.com.au/battery-storage/vpp-comparison/">Subsidies and payments</a> vary across VPPs.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1589288756628316161"}"></div></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/teslas-virtual-power-plant-might-be-second-best-to-real-people-power-90319">Tesla's 'virtual power plant' might be second-best to real people power</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Other options might be a better bet at this stage</h2>
<p>Understand why you want a battery before you start looking. There are other options for making better use of your solar generation, getting clean energy and reducing your costs. </p>
<p>If you have a large solar system, high grid imports and can get a good subsidy, or if you just want cutting-edge energy technology, then you might be able to justify a battery.</p>
<p>If you don’t have solar already, the economics of a solar system with a battery can look attractive. But the solar panels will provide most of the savings.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192610/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Pudney received funding from the Cooperative Research Centre for Low Carbon Living. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrian Grantham works for APG Insights and CXC - undertaking contract work for AEMO.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Smith chairs the Coalition for Community Energy. She has received funding from the Australian Government's Remote and Regional Microgrids and Preparing Communities programs and CSIRO. She consults as Changing Weather to community energy groups. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Boland receives funding from the Regional and Remote Communities reliability Fund, and has in the past received funding from the Australian Renewable Energy Agency.</span></em></p>it’s hard to justify buying a battery right now on cost savings alone. If other reasons also matter to you, it’s easier to justify.Peter Pudney, Associate Professor of Industrial and Applied Mathematics, University of South AustraliaAdrian Grantham, Adjunct Research Associate, University of South AustraliaHeather Smith, PhD Candidate, Industrial AI Research Centre, University of South AustraliaJohn Boland, Professor of Environmental Mathematics, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1894532022-08-31T12:30:06Z2022-08-31T12:30:06ZMaking EVs without China’s supply chain is hard, but not impossible – 3 supply chain experts outline a strategy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481667/original/file-20220829-6542-2d2rkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1708%2C1785%2C2823%2C1631&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Automaker GMC shows off its Hummer EVs at a plant in Detroit.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/general-view-of-gmc-hummer-evs-is-pictured-on-november-17-news-photo/1236626057">Nic Antaya/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Two electrifying moves in recent weeks have the potential to ignite electric vehicle demand in the United States. First, Congress passed the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/08/16/1117762225/biden-signs-inflation-reduction-act-into-law">Inflation Reduction Act</a>, expanding federal tax rebates for EV purchases. Then <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/sites/default/files/barcu/board/books/2022/082522/prores22-12.pdf">California approved rules</a> to ban the sale of new gasoline-powered cars by 2035.</p>
<p>The Inflation Reduction Act extends the <a href="https://www.energy.gov/articles/president-obama-announces-24-billion-funding-support-next-generation-electric-vehicles">Obama-era EV tax credit</a> of up to US$7,500. But it includes some high hurdles. Its <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/08/22/1118052620/tax-credit-electric-cars-vehicles-tesla-gm-inflation-reduction-act-climate">country-of-origin rules</a> require that EVs – and an increasing percentage of their components and critical minerals – be sourced from the U.S. or countries that have free-trade agreements with the U.S. The law expressly forbids tax credits for vehicles with any components or critical minerals sourced from a “<a href="https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47202">foreign entity of concern</a>,” such as China or Russia.</p>
<p>That’s not so simple when China <a href="https://www.barrons.com/articles/hp-earnings-outlook-51661537161">controls</a> 60% of the world’s lithium mining, 77% of battery cell capacity and 60% of battery component manufacturing. Many American EV makers, including <a href="https://cleantechnica.com/2022/06/04/how-chinas-lithium-leverage-affects-tesla-other-ev-makers/">Tesla</a>, rely heavily on battery materials from China.</p>
<p>The U.S. needs a national strategy to build an EV ecosystem if it hopes to catch up. As experts in <a href="https://www.hy-mak.com/">supply</a> <a href="https://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty-and-research/decisions-operations-and-technology-management/faculty/tang">chain</a> <a href="https://tinglongdai.com/">management</a>, we have some ideas.</p>
<h2>Why the EV industry depends heavily on China</h2>
<p>How did the U.S. fall so far behind?</p>
<p>Back in 2009, the Obama administration pledged <a href="https://www.energy.gov/articles/president-obama-announces-24-billion-funding-support-next-generation-electric-vehicles">$2.4 billion</a> to support the country’s fledgling EV industry. But demand grew slowly, and battery manufacturers such as A123 Systems and Ener1 failed to scale up their production. Both succumbed to financial pressure and were acquired by <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/usa-batteries/troubled-u-s-battery-makers-recharge-with-overseas-investors-idUKL2E8J99JL20120809">Chinese and Russian</a> investors.</p>
<p>China took the lead in the EV market through an aggressive mix of carrots and sticks. Its <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/exclusive-china-talks-with-automakers-ev-subsidy-extension-sources-2022-05-18/">consumer subsidies</a> raised demand at home, and Beijing and other major cities set <a href="https://www.climatechangenews.com/2016/11/28/beijing-limits-on-car-registration-boost-electric-vehicles/#:%7E:text=Beijing%27s%202016%20quota%20for%20EVs,happen%20for%20domestically%20produced%20EVs.">licensing quotas</a> mandating a minimum share of EV sales.</p>
<p>China also established a world-dominating battery supply chain by <a href="https://www.stradeproject.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/STRADE_PB_02-2018_One_Belt_One_Road.pdf">securing overseas mineral supplies</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/22/business/china-catl-electric-car-batteries.html?">heavily subsidizing its battery manufacturers</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="BpXf5" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/BpXf5/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Today, the U.S. domestic EV supply chain is far from adequate to meet its goals. The new U.S. tax credits are designed to help turn that around, but building a resilient EV supply chain will inevitably entail competing with China for limited resources.</p>
<p>A comprehensive national strategy entails measures for the short, medium and long term.</p>
<h2>Short-term: What can be done now?</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.marketwatch.com/story/the-10-bestselling-evs-in-2022-so-far-11651165570">Six of the 10 best-selling EV</a> models in 2022 are already assembled in the U.S., fulfilling the Inflation Reduction Act’s <a href="https://afdc.energy.gov/laws/inflation-reduction-act">final assembly location clause</a>. The Hyundai-Kia alliance, which has three of the other four bestsellers, plans to open an EV assembly line in <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/hyundai-motor-considers-speeding-up-construction-us-ev-plant-yonhap-2022-08-22/">Georgia</a>. Volkswagen has also started assembling its ID.4 electric SUV in <a href="https://media.vw.com/en-us/releases/1698">Tennessee</a>.</p>
<p>The challenge is batteries. Besides the Tesla-Panasonic factories in <a href="https://www.supplychaindive.com/news/panasonic-to-open-ev-battery-factory-in-kansas/627316/">Nevada and planned in Kansas</a>, U.S.-based battery manufacturers <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/02/11/us-battery-production-china-europe/">trail their Chinese counterparts</a> in both size and growth.</p>
<p>For the U.S. to scale up its own production, it needs to rely on strategic partners overseas. The Inflation Reduction Act allows imports of critical minerals from countries with free trade agreements to still qualify for incentives, but not imports of battery components. This means overseas suppliers like Korea’s “Big Three” – LG Chem, SK Innovation and Samsung SDI – which supply <a href="http://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=97705">26%</a> of the world’s EV batteries, are shut out, even though the U.S. and Korea have a free trade agreement. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A Sankey chart, also known as a spaghetti chart, shows the flow of cobalt Congo, with some resources in the rest of the world, through to the production of EVs." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481890/original/file-20220830-19222-r43fk0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481890/original/file-20220830-19222-r43fk0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481890/original/file-20220830-19222-r43fk0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481890/original/file-20220830-19222-r43fk0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481890/original/file-20220830-19222-r43fk0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481890/original/file-20220830-19222-r43fk0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481890/original/file-20220830-19222-r43fk0.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The bulk of the world’s cobalt is mined in the Democratic Republic of Congo but processed and turned into lithium-ion battery components by Chinese companies. This chart shows the pathways from mining to EVs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nrel.gov/transportation/assets/pdfs/battery-critical-materials-presentation.pdf">Based on an NREL presentation in 2020</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association has <a href="https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20220817000692">asked Congress</a> to make an exception for Korean-made EVs and batteries.</p>
<p>In the spirit of “<a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-06-24/-onshoring-is-so-last-year-the-new-lingo-is-friend-shoring">friend-shoring</a>,” the Biden administration could think of a temporary waiver as a stopgap measure that makes it easier for Korean battery makers to move more of their supply chain to the U.S., such as LG’s planned battery plants in partnerships <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/lg-energy-solution-gm-build-21-bln-battery-factory-us-2022-01-25/">with GM</a> and <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/314d0c95-ceef-492f-8943-06038967ba88">Honda</a>.</p>
<p>The 2021 Infrastructure Act also provided <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/12/13/fact-sheet-the-biden-harris-electric-vehicle-charging-action-plan/">$5 billion</a> to expand charging infrastructure, which <a href="https://article.images.consumerreports.org/image/upload/v1657127210/prod/content/dam/CRO-Images-2022/Cars/07July/2022_Consumer_Reports_BEV_and_LCF_Survey_Report.pdf">surveys show is critical</a> to bolstering demand.</p>
<h2>Medium-term: Diversifying lithium and cobalt supplies</h2>
<p>A strong and concerted effort in trade and diplomacy is necessary for the U.S. to secure critical mineral supplies.</p>
<p>As EV sales rise, the world is expected to face a lithium shortage by <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/07/electric-vehicles-world-enough-lithium-resources">2025</a>. In addition to lithium, cobalt is needed for high-performance battery chemistries.</p>
<p>The problem? The Democratic Republic of the Congo is where 70% of the world’s cobalt is mined, and Chinese companies control <a href="https://globaledge.msu.edu/blog/post/57136/congos-cobalt-controversy">80%</a> of that. The distant second-largest producer is <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-cobalt.pdf">Russia</a>.</p>
<p>The Biden administration’s “friend-shoring” vision has a chance only if it can diversify the lithium and cobalt supply chains.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Bars on a map show countries with the most critical mineral production." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481904/original/file-20220830-35607-7mu3w2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481904/original/file-20220830-35607-7mu3w2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481904/original/file-20220830-35607-7mu3w2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481904/original/file-20220830-35607-7mu3w2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481904/original/file-20220830-35607-7mu3w2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481904/original/file-20220830-35607-7mu3w2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481904/original/file-20220830-35607-7mu3w2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lithium, cobalt and nickel are critical components in many EV batteries. The largest 2021 production sources included the Democratic Republic of Congo for cobalt; Australia, Chile and China for lithium; and Indonesia, the Philippines and Russia for nickel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/mineral-commodity-summaries">The Conversation, USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2022</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/electric-cars-batteries-lithium-triangle-latin-america-11660141017?st=vvmy6presyrpspk&reflink=desktopwebshare_permalink">“Lithium Triangle”</a> of South America is one region to invest in. Also, Australia, a key U.S. ally, <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/268789/countries-with-the-largest-production-output-of-lithium/">leads the world in lithium production</a> and possesses <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-cobalt.pdf">rich cobalt deposits</a>. Waste from many of Australia’s <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/d142bb46-1bc0-49bd-8005-0833497b84e0">copper mines also contains cobalt</a>, lowering the cost. GM has reached an agreement with the Australian mining giant <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/d142bb46-1bc0-49bd-8005-0833497b84e0">Glencore</a> to mine and process cobalt in Western Australia for its Ohio battery plant with LG Chem, bypassing China.</p>
<p>A way to avoid cobalt altogether also exists: lithium-iron-phosphate batteries are about <a href="https://www.morningbrew.com/series/battery-tech-for-evs-and-beyond/stories/2022/04/26/a-previously-ignored-battery-chemistry-is-now-surging-in-popularity-here-s-why">30% cheaper</a> to make because they use minerals that are easy to find and plentiful. However, LFP batteries are heavier and have <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2021/10/20/tesla-switching-to-lfp-batteries-in-all-standard-range-cars.html">less power</a> and range per unit.</p>
<p>For years, Chinese companies like <a href="https://www.onecharge.biz/blog/how-china-came-to-dominate-the-market-for-lithium-batteries-and-why-the-u-s-cannot-copy-their-model/">CATL and BYD</a> were the only ones making LFP batteries. But <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2022/06/26/why-lfp-batteries-are-poised-to-bring-down-entry-level-ev-prices/?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAALB4ZijqV3Jxh5Z1TCOa5rV93l4M6Qu10EW0V1yRHanqmGpTrC6zp3gyS7j1X3e20CHV5z4-3Zmaao334VcwyjN-EufmUz63Z9V8x3z-ecjbH2vJNLZJ2DQfQ50MAuanuEWwmLwX9f8sSQ0e0txwX2XZZ8i0O9OE7bOHWkRb14aD">the patent rights associated with LFP batteries expire this year</a>, opening up an important opportunity for the U.S.</p>
<p>Since not everyone needs a high-end electric supercar, affordable EVs powered by LFP batteries are an option. In fact, Tesla now offers <a href="https://insideevs.com/news/581261/tesla-lfp-battery-nearly-half-deliveries/">Model 3s with LFP</a> batteries that can travel about 270 miles on a charge.</p>
<p>The 2021 Bipartisan Infrastructure Law set aside <a href="https://www.energy.gov/articles/biden-administration-announces-316-billion-bipartisan-infrastructure-law-boost-domestic">$3.16 billion</a> to support domestic battery supply chains. With the Inflation Reduction Act’s emphasis on supporting more affordable EVs – it <a href="https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/treasury-releases-guidance-on-consumer-2136303/">has price caps</a> for vehicles to qualify for incentives – these funds will be needed to help scale up domestic LFP manufacturing.</p>
<h2>Long-term: US critical mineral production</h2>
<p>Replacing overseas critical materials with domestic mining falls under long-term planning.</p>
<p>The scale of current domestic mining is minuscule, and new mining operations can take <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-03-30/despite-biden-battery-metal-push-mine-permits-still-take-years">seven to 10 years</a> to establish because of the lengthy permitting process. Lithium deposits exist in <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/economy/u-s-seeks-new-lithium-sources-as-demand-for-clean-energy-grows">California, Maine, Nevada and North Carolina</a>, and there are cobalt resources in <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-cobalt.pdf">Minnesota and Idaho</a>.</p>
<p>Finally, to build an <a href="https://hbr.org/2009/07/restoring-american-competitiveness">industrial commons</a> for EVs, the U.S. must continue to invest in research and development of new battery technologies.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A field sectioned into rectangles with bright turquoise water or white salt stretches over several miles of otherwise empty landscape with mountains far in the distance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481885/original/file-20220830-31761-l1czz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481885/original/file-20220830-31761-l1czz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481885/original/file-20220830-31761-l1czz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481885/original/file-20220830-31761-l1czz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481885/original/file-20220830-31761-l1czz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481885/original/file-20220830-31761-l1czz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481885/original/file-20220830-31761-l1czz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=531&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pools of brine containing lithium carbonate stretch across a lithium mine in the Atacama Desert of Chile. Local opposition can be a challenge to mining proposals.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/in-this-aerial-view-pools-of-brine-containing-lithium-news-photo/1418002370">John Moore/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Also, end-of-life battery recycling is essential to the sustainability of EVs. The industry has been kicking the can down the road on this, as <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/carltonreid/2022/08/01/electric-car-batteries-lasting-longer-than-predicted-delays-recycling-programs/?sh=4aa2cb675332">recycling demand has been minuscule</a> thus far given the longevity of batteries. Yet, as a proactive step, the Inflation Reduction Act specifically permits battery content recycled in North America to qualify for the critical mineral clause.</p>
<p>To make this happen, the federal and state governments could use takeback legislation similar to producer responsibility laws for electronic waste enacted in <a href="http://www.electronicstakeback.com/promote-good-laws/state-legislation/">more than 20 states</a>, which stipulate that producers bear the responsibility for collecting, transporting and recycling end-of-cycle electronic products.</p>
<h2>What’s ahead</h2>
<p>With the new law, the Biden administration has set its sights on a future transportation system that is built in the U.S. and runs on electricity. But there are supply chain obstacles, and the U.S. will need both incentives and regulations to make it happen.</p>
<p>California’s announcement will help. Under the Clean Air Act, California has a waiver that allows it to set policies more strict than federal law. Other states can choose to follow California’s policies. <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/sites/default/files/barcu/board/books/2022/082522/prores22-12.pdf">Seventeen other states</a> have adopted California’s emissions standards. At least three, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/us/new-york-sets-2035-zero-emission-passenger-car-goal-2021-09-09/">New York</a>, <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/transportation/wa-will-ban-new-gas-powered-cars-by-2035-following-cas-lead/">Washington</a> and <a href="https://nexusmedianews.com/top_story/baker-signs-massachusetts-climate-bill-into-law">Massachusetts</a>, have already announced plans to also phase out new gas-powered cars and light trucks by 2035.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189453/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>China controls much of the global EV supply chain, but electric vehicles that use its parts and minerals won’t qualify for new US EV tax credits. Can America build its own supply chain?Ho-Yin Mak, Associate Professor in Operations & Information Management, Georgetown UniversityChristopher S. Tang, Professor of Supply Chain Management, University of California, Los AngelesTinglong Dai, Professor of Operations Management & Business Analytics, Carey Business School, Johns Hopkins UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.