tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/beauty-industry-39926/articlesBeauty industry – The Conversation2024-02-08T19:17:16Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2194922024-02-08T19:17:16Z2024-02-08T19:17:16ZWhat is micellar water and how does it work?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/564426/original/file-20231208-19-wzr2mp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C15%2C3498%2C2313&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bottle-micellar-water-cotton-pad-1409151146">Geinz Angelina/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Micellar water, a product found in supermarkets, chemists and bathroom cabinets around the world, is commonly used to remove make-up. It’s a very effective cleanser and many people swear by it as part of their skincare routine. </p>
<p>So, what is micellar water and why is it so good at getting makeup and sunscreen off? Here’s the science.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-should-i-add-sunscreen-to-my-skincare-routine-now-its-getting-hotter-213453">How should I add sunscreen to my skincare routine now it's getting hotter?</a>
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<h2>What are micelles?</h2>
<p>Oil and water generally don’t mix, which is why you’ll struggle to remove makeup and sunscreen (which both contain oils) with just plain water.</p>
<p>But micellar water products contain something called micelles – clusters of molecules that are <em>very</em> effective at removing oily substances. To understand why, you need to first know two chemistry terms: hydrophilic and hydrophobic.</p>
<p>A hydrophilic substance “loves” water and mixes easily with it. Salt and sugar are examples.</p>
<p>A hydrophobic substance “hates” water and generally refuses to mix with it. Examples include oil and wax. </p>
<p>Hydrophilic materials will happily mix with other hydrophilic materials. The same goes for hydrophobic substances. But if you try to combine hydrophilic and hydrophobic materials, they won’t mix.</p>
<h2>How are micelles formed? It’s all about surfactants</h2>
<p>The micelles in micellar water are formed by special molecules known as surfactants.</p>
<p>Surfactant stands for surface active agent. These molecules looked at their hydrophilic and hydrophobic brethren and said, why not both? They are typically comprised of two ends: a head group that is hydrophilic and a tail that is hydrophobic.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573298/original/file-20240204-27-skrj1x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram shows a surfactant, which has a head that is hydrophilic and a tail that is hydrophobic." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573298/original/file-20240204-27-skrj1x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573298/original/file-20240204-27-skrj1x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573298/original/file-20240204-27-skrj1x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573298/original/file-20240204-27-skrj1x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573298/original/file-20240204-27-skrj1x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573298/original/file-20240204-27-skrj1x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573298/original/file-20240204-27-skrj1x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A surfactant has a head that is hydrophilic and a tail that is hydrophobic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daniel Eldridge</span></span>
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<p>When a small amount of surfactant is added to water, the two ends of the molecule have competing interests. The hydrophilic head wants to be in the water, but the hydrophobic tail can’t stand water.</p>
<p>Add enough surfactant and, eventually, we will pass a critical micelle concentration and the surfactants will self-assemble into clusters of approximately 20 to 100 surfactant molecules. </p>
<p>All the hydrophilic heads will be pointing outwards, while the hydrophobic tails remain “hidden” at the centre. These clusters are micelles.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573299/original/file-20240204-23-u7z1sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram shows surfactant molecules arranging themselves into a micelle, with the hydrophilic heads pointing outwards and the hydrophobic tails pointing inwards." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573299/original/file-20240204-23-u7z1sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573299/original/file-20240204-23-u7z1sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573299/original/file-20240204-23-u7z1sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573299/original/file-20240204-23-u7z1sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573299/original/file-20240204-23-u7z1sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573299/original/file-20240204-23-u7z1sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573299/original/file-20240204-23-u7z1sn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Surfactant molecules arrange themselves into a micelle, with the hydrophilic heads pointing outwards and the hydrophobic tails pointing inwards.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daniel Eldridge</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These micelles have a hydrophilic exterior, meaning that they are very happy to remain mixed throughout water. However, in the centre remains a hydrophobic pocket that’s very good at attracting oils.</p>
<p>This is very handy, and helps explain why adding some detergent (a surfactant) to water will allow you to wash an oily saucepan. The surfactant first helps lift of the oil, and then the oil can remained mixed into the water, finding a new home in the hydrophobic centre of the micelle.</p>
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<h2>Micellar water in action</h2>
<p>Surfactants are in your dishwashing detergent, your body wash, your shampoo, your toothpaste and even many foods. In all of these cases, they are there to help the water interact with the dirt and oils, and micellar water is no different.</p>
<p>When you apply some micellar water to a cotton pad, another convenient interaction occurs. The wet cotton is hydrophilic (loves water). Consequently, some of the micelles will unravel, with the hydrophilic heads being attracted to the wet cotton pad. </p>
<p>Now, sticking out from the surface will be a layer of hydrophobic tail groups. These hydrophobic tails cannot wait to attract themselves to makeup, sunscreen, oils, dirt, grease and other contaminants on your face. </p>
<p>As you sweep the cotton pad across your skin, these contaminants bind to the hydrophobic tails and are removed from the skin. </p>
<p>Some contaminants will also find themselves encapsulated in the hydrophobic centres of the micelle.</p>
<p>Either way, a cleaner surface is left behind.</p>
<p>Look at how a cotton wipe soaked in micellar water cleans up a small oil spill, in comparison to water alone.</p>
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<h2>So why shouldn’t I just use dishwashing detergent to wash my face?</h2>
<p>Technically, that would work as detergent does indeed contain lots of micelle-forming surfactants.</p>
<p>But these particular surfactants would probably cause a lot of skin and eye irritation, while also damaging and drying out your skin. Not nice.</p>
<p>The surfactants in micellar water are chosen to be mild and well tolerated by most people’s skin. But micellar water isn’t the only skincare product to contain micelles. There are many other face-cleaning products that also make great use of surfactant molecules and work very well too.</p>
<p>Now, it’s not perfect. While it is effective at removing a wide range of contaminants, thick or heavy makeup might not come off easily with micellar water (you might need to do a more vigorous clean).</p>
<p>Some products say there is “zero residue”, although the fine print clearly states this refers to visible residue.</p>
<p>Many products also state there is no rinse off required. Surfactants will remain on your skin after product use, but for many people they don’t cause irritation. If your skin is feeling irritated after using a micellar water product, you can try rinsing afterwards or discontinuing use.</p>
<p>And as is the case with many cosmetic products, you should test it first on a small patch of skin before using it all over your face.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-paraben-and-why-are-so-many-products-advertised-as-paraben-free-198994">What is a paraben and why are so many products advertised as 'paraben-free'?</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Eldridge does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The molecules that make micelles are in your dishwashing detergent, your body wash, your shampoo, your toothpaste and even many foods. They are there to help the water interact with the dirt and oils.Daniel Eldridge, Senior Lecturer in Chemistry, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1870182022-07-24T20:01:33Z2022-07-24T20:01:33ZDoes Amber Heard really have the world’s most beautiful face? An expert explains why the Golden Ratio test is bogus<p>Amber Heard has one of the world’s most beautiful faces – that is, <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/life-style/beauty/83807166/plastic-surgeon-dr-julian-de-silva-identifies-the-worlds-most-wanted-female-face">according</a> to cosmetic surgeon Julian De Silva. The claim has been <a href="https://torontosun.com/entertainment/celebrity/physical-perfection-amber-heards-face-deemed-one-of-worlds-most-beautiful">recycled</a> for some years now, and recently resurfaced in the wake of Heard’s (widely reported) trial with ex-husband Johnny Depp. </p>
<p>But what is this claim based on? </p>
<p>Well, according to De Silva, Heard rates highly on the “Golden Ratio test”. This test rates a person’s facial beauty based on how close their facial proportions are to the Golden Ratio. But is it really a formula for beauty?</p>
<h2>The Pythagoreans and the Golden Ratio</h2>
<p>The Pythagoreans first discovered the Golden Ratio, also called the “Divine Proportion”, about 2,400 years ago. It’s a mathematical value called “phi”, represented by the Greek symbol φ, and equal to about 1.618.</p>
<p>The Pythagoreans were a mystic cult of mathematicians who saw many numbers as having mystical, philosophical and even ethical significance. They chose the pentagram as their symbol. With its five-fold symmetries, it symbolised <a href="https://archive.org/details/greekgeometryfro00allmuoft/page/n31/mode/2up">health</a> to them.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474425/original/file-20220717-16-kdeyk8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474425/original/file-20220717-16-kdeyk8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474425/original/file-20220717-16-kdeyk8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474425/original/file-20220717-16-kdeyk8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=524&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474425/original/file-20220717-16-kdeyk8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=659&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474425/original/file-20220717-16-kdeyk8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=659&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474425/original/file-20220717-16-kdeyk8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=659&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Pentagrams contain the Golden Ratio φ.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Pentagrams are mathematically fascinating, not least because they evince the curious ratio φ. In the pentagram pictured, the four bolded black lines grow in length by φ at each step. So the long horizontal line is φ longer than the bolded side length.</p>
<p>Similarly, consider six circles of the same size, arranged in two rows of three, and nestled inside one large circle (as pictured). The radius of the large circle is φ times larger than the diameter of the small circles.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475423/original/file-20220721-1264-twsznr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475423/original/file-20220721-1264-twsznr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475423/original/file-20220721-1264-twsznr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475423/original/file-20220721-1264-twsznr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475423/original/file-20220721-1264-twsznr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=694&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475423/original/file-20220721-1264-twsznr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=694&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475423/original/file-20220721-1264-twsznr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=694&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">φ is present in this assortment of circles.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Golden Ratio is also related to the famous Fibonacci number <a href="https://www.parabola.unsw.edu.au/2020-2029/volume-56-2020/issue-1/article/fibonacci-numbers-brief-history-and-counting-problems">sequence</a> (which goes 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34 …). The ratios between one number and the next grow closer and closer to φ as the numbers get bigger. For instance: 13/8 = 1.625, 21/13 = 1.615, 34/21 = 1.619 and so on.</p>
<p>Fibonacci numbers and their Golden Ratio are surprisingly prevalent in <a href="https://www.cut-the-knot.org/do_you_know/GoldenRatio.shtml">maths</a>. They also <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0200601">appear</a> in <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/660456.Fascinating_Fibonaccis_">nature</a>, creating pretty spirals in some flowers, pine cones and the whirling arms of certain galaxies.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474999/original/file-20220720-27-79gmsh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474999/original/file-20220720-27-79gmsh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474999/original/file-20220720-27-79gmsh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474999/original/file-20220720-27-79gmsh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474999/original/file-20220720-27-79gmsh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474999/original/file-20220720-27-79gmsh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474999/original/file-20220720-27-79gmsh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Fibonacci numbers are found in the sunflower (helianthus) whorl.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">L. Shyamal/Wikimedia</span></span>
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<h2>Plato’s realm of ideals</h2>
<p>Influenced by the Pythagoreans and their love of beautiful maths, Greek philosopher Plato (423-347 BC) proposed the physical world is an imperfect projection of a more beautiful and “real” realm of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Plato">truth and ideals</a>. After all, no <em>perfect</em> triangles or pentagrams exists in real life.</p>
<p>According to Plato, these truths and ideals can only be glimpsed in the physical world via logical reasoning, or by creating symmetry and order, through which they might shine.</p>
<p>This greatly influenced Western thinking, including modern science and its presumption of universal laws of nature – such as Isaac Newton’s Laws of Motion, or Albert Einstein’s equation for special relativity: E = mc<sup>2</sup> . </p>
<p>One promoter of Plato’s ideas was Renaissance mathematician Luca Pacioli. In 1509, Pacioli published a written trilogy on the Golden Ratio, titled Divina Proportione, with illustrations by Leonardo da Vinci. This widely influential work ignited the first bout of popular interest in the Golden Ratio.</p>
<p>It also promoted the Platonic idea that human bodies should ideally satisfy certain divine mathematical proportions. Da Vinci expressed this ideal in his famous illustration The Vitruvian Man. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474426/original/file-20220717-4540-v47a7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474426/original/file-20220717-4540-v47a7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474426/original/file-20220717-4540-v47a7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474426/original/file-20220717-4540-v47a7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=592&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474426/original/file-20220717-4540-v47a7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474426/original/file-20220717-4540-v47a7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474426/original/file-20220717-4540-v47a7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=744&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s thought The Vitruvian Man was finished aound 1490 AD, some 1,800 years after Plato’s death.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Illustration by Leonardo da Vinci</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The myth of the Golden Ratio in ancient art</h2>
<p>Adolph Zeising, in his books published between 1854 and 1884, expanded on this idea. In his final book, Der Goldne Schnitt, he claimed all of the most beautiful and fundamental proportions relate to the Golden Ratio, not only in bodies but also in nature, art, music and architecture. This led to the popular assertion that ancient Greek art and architecture featured the Golden Ratio and were therefore beautiful.</p>
<p>But as Mario Livio describes in his book The Golden Ratio, this has been dispelled as a myth. There is no record of ancient Greeks mentioning the Golden Ratio outside of maths and numerology, and <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-archaeological-journal/article/abs/did-the-greeks-build-according-to-the-golden-ratio/CB9C3B841188FF449BD7DCC1E0C566B1">studies</a> show φ is very rarely observed in ancient Greek art and architecture. </p>
<p>Voted the most beautiful building in the world <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/worlds-most-beautiful-buildings-2017-3#the-parthenon-in-athens-greece-1">in 2017</a>, the Parthenon in Athens is claimed to have φ among its proportions. But <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2686193#metadata_info_tab_contents">careful calculations</a> show this claim is false. </p>
<p>Yet the myth has endured. Today the Golden Ratio is promoted in art, architecture, photography and plastic surgery for its supposed visual beauty.</p>
<h2>Marquardt’s mask</h2>
<p>Among those promoting the Golden Ratio as a beauty ideal is cosmetic surgeon Stephen R. Marquardt. In 2002, Marquardt claimed to have found the Golden Ratio determines beautiful facial proportions. For example, he <a href="https://www.jco-online.com/archive/2002/06/339-jco-interviews-dr-stephen-r-marquardt-on-the-golden-decagon-and-human-facial-beauty/">claimed</a> an ideal face would have a mouth φ times wider than the nose.</p>
<p>Marquardt then created a geometric face mask that represents “ideal” facial proportions for the benefit of cosmetic surgeons and orthodontists – in <a href="https://www.jco-online.com/archive/2002/06/339-jco-interviews-dr-stephen-r-marquardt-on-the-golden-decagon-and-human-facial-beauty/">his words</a>, “as a paradigm of the ideal, final aesthetic result”. </p>
<p>He also claimed the mask could be used to objectively assess beauty, which led to the Golden Ratio test.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474422/original/file-20220717-18-rn4ksw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474422/original/file-20220717-18-rn4ksw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=746&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474422/original/file-20220717-18-rn4ksw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=746&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474422/original/file-20220717-18-rn4ksw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=746&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474422/original/file-20220717-18-rn4ksw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=938&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474422/original/file-20220717-18-rn4ksw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=938&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/474422/original/file-20220717-18-rn4ksw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=938&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Marquardt’s face mask is also called the ‘repose frontal mask’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">https://www.beautyanalysis.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/RFMask_printable.jpg</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Marquardt’s claims have been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7929632/">highly influential</a>. Plastic surgery is often guided by Golden Ratio measurements, and <a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.golden.ratio.face">apps</a> featuring the Golden Ratio test are popular.</p>
<h2>The Golden Ratio test debunked</h2>
<p>In order to study “attractive” faces, Marquardt measured the facial proportions of <a href="https://www.jco-online.com/archive/2002/06/339-jco-interviews-dr-stephen-r-marquardt-on-the-golden-decagon-and-human-facial-beauty/">movie actors and models</a>. So it was his research on this select group of people that led to his claims and the mask.</p>
<p>But Marquardt’s claims have since been disproven, and the Golden Ratio test debunked. </p>
<p>Studies show Marquardt’s mask does not represent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18175168/">sub-Saharan Africans or East Asians</a>, nor does it represent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27190951/">South Indians</a>. </p>
<p>In fact, it mostly represents the facial features of the small population of masculinised Northwestern European women. This is a look, as one <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18175168/">study</a> notes, “seen in fashion models”. </p>
<p>In fact, evidence suggests that, while facial ratios may correlate with perceived facial beauty, these ratios depend on biological and cultural <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27190951/">factors</a>. </p>
<p>One <a href="https://journals.lww.com/prsgo/Fulltext/2019/02000/What_Is_the_Most_Beautiful_Facial_Proportion_in.1.aspx">study</a> of the 2001-2015 Miss Universe winners illustrated this strikingly. These winners are seen across many cultures to be very beautiful. </p>
<p>However, unlike masculinised fashion models from Northwestern Europe, the correlation between their facial ratios and the Golden Ratio of Marquardt’s mask were “statistically significantly invalid”.</p>
<p>So it’s clear: there is no magic number that universally determines beauty. </p>
<h2>Who’s the fairest?</h2>
<p>Researchers have identified some “Platonic” traits of facial beauty, including <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19394585/">averageness and symmetry</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19285521/">sexual dimorphism</a>, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5483863_New_Insights_into_Skin_Appearance_and_Measurement">skin texture</a>,
<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4244703/">emotion</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/368239a0">randomness</a>.</p>
<p>However, there is currently no evidence suggesting the Golden Ratio φ determines facial beauty – or any visual beauty for that matter. </p>
<p>You can (informally) test this yourself. Below are rectangles with ratios φ:1, 3:2, 1.414:1, 4:3 and 1:1. Does one of these have a beauty surpassing the others?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475432/original/file-20220721-13094-3tldnf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475432/original/file-20220721-13094-3tldnf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=63&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475432/original/file-20220721-13094-3tldnf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=63&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475432/original/file-20220721-13094-3tldnf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=63&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475432/original/file-20220721-13094-3tldnf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=79&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475432/original/file-20220721-13094-3tldnf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=79&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/475432/original/file-20220721-13094-3tldnf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=79&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Which of these rectangles seems most beautiful to you?</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-there-really-a-single-ideal-body-shape-for-women-38432">Is there really a single ideal body shape for women?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187018/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Britz does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It has long been thought the ancient Greeks used the Golden Ratio to beautify their art and architecture. Turns out that’s not really true.Thomas Britz, Senior Lecturer, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1701082021-11-01T02:27:07Z2021-11-01T02:27:07ZLED face masks are popular on social media for glowing skin – but they could disrupt your sleep<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/429513/original/file-20211101-23-k9xukq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=42%2C42%2C4681%2C3109&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-led-light-therapy-facial-beauty-1506384749">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>LED face masks are the latest device promoted on social media as a marriage of technology and beauty. </p>
<p>A range of celebrities have endorsed portable versions of the product that was previously offered in beauty salons. Actress Olivia Munn <a href="https://www.usmagazine.com/stylish/pictures/celebrities-who-use-led-light-therapy-at-home-treatment-benefits/olivia-munn-19/">carries hers with her at all times</a>. Julia Roberts, Victoria Beckham and Chrissy Tiegen are also <a href="https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/beauty/skincare/a31908990/celebrity-led-mask/">reportedly</a> fans. The trend has even achieved the social media holy grail – a Kardashian Instagram <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/BCemzbnk1qQ/?taken-by=kourtneykardash&hl=en%22">post</a>. </p>
<p>But regardless of whether they’ll help make your skin glow, our understanding of circadian rhythms suggests they have the potential to disrupt users’ sleep-wake cycles.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://twitter.com/TheCut/status/1445116733170278403","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/6-ways-to-stop-daylight-saving-derailing-your-childs-sleep-123871">6 ways to stop daylight saving derailing your child’s sleep</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Daily rhythms</h2>
<p>The human body has its own internal clock which, among other things, helps to control our sleep-wake patterns. This internal clock is influenced by several factors, the most potent being light exposure directly into the eyes. More specifically, short-wavelength “blue light” <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0748730415585413">influences this system the most</a>. </p>
<p>Exposure to this type of light at night has been shown <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jpi.12562">interrupt the production of melatonin</a> – also known as “the sleep hormone”. <a href="https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/role-melatonin-circadian-rhythm-sleep-wake-cycle">Melatonin</a> is produced by the pineal gland in the brain and released within 2 hours of your habitual bedtime – preparing the body for sleep. But bright blue light exposure may interrupt this process. </p>
<p>There are a range of sources for blue light – including our beloved phones, electronic devices and also the room lighting in our homes. While it has become a common recommendation to avoid using electronic devices close to bedtime, in the context of blue light exposure, our phones and tablets <a href="https://winksleep.online/blog/65-blue-screenlight-making-it-harder-to-fall-asleep-is-the-number-1-sleep-myth-of-our-time">do not seem to be bright enough to impact sleep</a>. In fact, home lighting appears to have a greater influence – likely due to the <a href="https://sleepjunkies.com/home-lighting-circadian-rhythms/">transition to energy-efficient LED, “blue light” wavelength light</a>.</p>
<p>Last year, Monash University researchers examined sleep and light exposure in 57 participants, finding that <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-75622-4#Sec7">nearly half of them had LED lighting that suppressed melatonin by 50%</a>. The study also found those with greater evening light exposure had increased wakefulness after bedtime. </p>
<p>Insufficient sleep has been shown to increase the likelihood of poor health outcomes, including <a href="https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/32/12/1484/502022">cardiovascular disease</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427973/original/file-20211022-23-1twj2py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="woman with phone in bed" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427973/original/file-20211022-23-1twj2py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/427973/original/file-20211022-23-1twj2py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427973/original/file-20211022-23-1twj2py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427973/original/file-20211022-23-1twj2py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427973/original/file-20211022-23-1twj2py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427973/original/file-20211022-23-1twj2py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/427973/original/file-20211022-23-1twj2py.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Room LED lighting may be a bigger issue than phones and devices when it comes to sleep disruption.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/closeup-asian-women-using-smartphone-late-1746438284">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/poor-sleep-is-really-bad-for-your-health-but-we-found-exercise-can-offset-some-of-these-harms-163270">Poor sleep is really bad for your health. But we found exercise can offset some of these harms</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How face masks compare to other LED sources</h2>
<p>LED mask manufacturers say they are <a href="https://www.marieclaire.com/beauty/g32894063/led-light-therapy-masks/">the “future of skin care”</a>, with masks emitting light at different wavelengths to target particular skin-related outcomes. </p>
<p>Several devices are FDA-approved in the United States, and claim to <a href="https://www.violetgrey.com/product/led-mask/DG-BA568110?utm_source=pepperjam&utm_medium=affiliate&utm_campaign=21181&clickId=3730626806">target acne with “blue light” modes</a> – the precise wavelength range that may impact melatonin production. </p>
<p>To date, no experimental research studies have examined the impact of these devices, and their blue light settings, on sleep or the human body clock. But given the device’s proximity to users’ eyes and the intensity of LED light bulbs, it is reasonable to flag concerns about their possible impact on our body clock. </p>
<p><a href="https://lens.monash.edu/@sean-cain">Sean Cain</a>, a leading scientist on the impact of light exposure on human health, coined an analogy to provide perspective to the sources of artificial light. The light we receive from electronic devices can be thought of as like a glass of water being poured over your head, while home LED lighting is more like a bucket of water. In keeping with this analogy, could LED masks be something on the scale of a bathtub or swimming pool? Further research could quantify their effect. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/BCemzbnk1qQ/?taken-by=kourtneykardash\u0026hl=en","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/snooze-blues-how-using-your-favourite-song-as-an-alarm-can-help-you-wake-up-more-alert-158233">Snooze blues? How using your favourite song as an alarm can help you wake up more alert</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>You can still make like a Kardashian … in the daytime</h2>
<p>These concerns, based on well-established circadian principles, do not rule out the use of these devices entirely. However, it is important for people who use them to avoid doing so at night – especially on the blue light settings. </p>
<p>Ideally, use of the masks should be during daylight hours, to avoid potential sleep disturbances and/or shifts in the human body clock. Future research could clarify any negative outcomes associated with these devices and potentially prompt manufacturers to provide recommendations on the timing of their use.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170108/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dean J. Miller's position at CQUniversity is funded by WHOOP inc . </span></em></p>LED face masks are popular with celebrities and promise a glowing complexion. But should they come with ‘daytime use’ recommendation?Dean J. Miller, Research Officer, CQUniversity AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1579522021-04-19T16:01:37Z2021-04-19T16:01:37ZThe #advancedstyle movement celebrates and empowers stylish older women<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395801/original/file-20210419-23-1r2whno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=152%2C0%2C4639%2C3774&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Diana Ross rides on a float at 92nd Annual Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade on the streets of Manhattan in 2018.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Until recently, the idea of paying close attention to mature women’s style would have, at best, been met with little interest from other consumers and the fashion industry but most likely completely ignored. </p>
<p>After all, to be fashionable and feminine has typically been viewed as requiring youth. What could older female consumers possibly teach us about being stylish?</p>
<p>Following the unexpected popularity of what’s known as the “<a href="https://www.advanced.style/">advanced style</a>” phenomenon, discussions about ageism, gender and fashion have been attracting increasing attention in the popular media, including <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/20/style/instagram-grandmas.html">the <em>New York Times</em></a>. The <a href="https://www.instagram.com/advancedstyle/">@advancedstyle Instagram account</a>, created in 2008 by American street style photographer Ari Seth Cohen, helped fuel these critical conversations. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CNampJuBitR/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Cohen’s celebration of the personal styles of regular women 50 years of age and older has launched a flourishing consumer movement. </p>
<p>More than a decade after its creation, the Advanced Style Instagram account has more than 300,000 followers, boasts a hashtag <a href="https://www.instagram.com/explore/tags/advancedstyle/">(#advancedstyle)</a> that’s been used more than 205,000 times, is regularly featured in major fashion magazines around the world, like <a href="https://www.vogue.com.au/fashion/street-style/advanced-styles-ari-seth-cohen-on-sydneys-senior-style-scene/news-story/0264eec1ded0e57824f23f9c14f4c42e"><em>Vogue Australia</em></a>, and expanded into the realm of coffee table books <a href="https://powerhousebooks.com/books/advanced-style1/">in 2012</a> <a href="https://powerhousebooks.com/books/advanced-style-older-and-wiser/">and 2016</a>, as well as <a href="https://powerhousebooks.com/books/advanced-style-coloring-book/">adult colouring books</a>. </p>
<p>There is even a feature-length documentary dedicated to the <em>Advanced Style</em> documentary:</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/NX46yvihOGU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The trailer for the Advanced Style documentary via Moviefone.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In light of this social media success story, my colleague <a href="https://www.hec.ca/en/profs/marie-agnes.parmentier.html">Marie-Agnès Parmentier</a> and I decided to explore how women over 50 are amplifying their voices and changing representations in the fashion and beauty industries by becoming official Instagram influencers. </p>
<h2>The study</h2>
<p>To do so, we conducted a focused media <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.4135/9781412995511">and netnographic</a> investigation of the advanced style movement and its Instagram influencers. In particular, we followed 10 popular Advanced Style influencers from our personal Instagram accounts for 12 months. </p>
<p>This online participant observation, which is a big part of conducting netnographic research, provided us with first-hand experiences of the influencers’ marketing activities and fan interactions. </p>
<p>Our complete study is now published online in a special issue of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/712609">the <em>Journal of the Association for Consumer Research</em></a> focusing on gender, markets and consumers. Overall, we have found that all 10 Advanced Style influencers use the social media platform to actively fight gendered ageism rampant in the fashion and beauty industries.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395770/original/file-20210419-23-q1xv8p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An aging woman in a trench coat, colourful scarf and head scarf." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395770/original/file-20210419-23-q1xv8p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395770/original/file-20210419-23-q1xv8p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395770/original/file-20210419-23-q1xv8p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395770/original/file-20210419-23-q1xv8p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395770/original/file-20210419-23-q1xv8p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=942&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395770/original/file-20210419-23-q1xv8p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=942&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395770/original/file-20210419-23-q1xv8p.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=942&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Older women are defying ageist and sexist beauty standards.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Advanced Style Facebook page)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Specifically, these women enact two forms of embodied resistance informed by the western dominant discourse of successful aging: They deconstruct gendered and ageist fashion, and they defy gendered and ageist beauty standards. </p>
<p>Successful aging not only turns people’s inevitable biological deterioration into a personal project, it also provides concrete strategies of how to best be old. In 1997, American physician John W. Rowe and his psychologist colleague Robert L. Kahn, defined successful aging, first and foremost, as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/37.4.433">encompassing the avoidance of disease and disability, the maintenance of high physical and cognitive function, and sustained engagement in social and productive activities</a>.”</p>
<h2>Gendered ageism in fashion</h2>
<p>The fashion market makes sustained engagement difficult, given it’s replete with discriminatory rules about what to wear and especially what not to wear once a woman turns 50. These style rules include no longer showing one’s body through tight, short or low-cut clothing, adopting a less colourful wardrobe and makeup and retreating from ultra-modern, cutting-edge styles.</p>
<p>In response, we find the advanced style consumers-turned-influencers engage in <a href="https://montecristomagazine.com/essay/defying-ageist-fashion-rules">online “style activism,”</a> demanding designers create ready-to-wear options for their changing bodies. </p>
<p>In the sphere of influencer marketing, style activism also means deciding what brands to endorse and collaborate with, and what brands to pass and avoid. The advanced style influencers often refuse to be “<a href="https://thekit.ca/style/canadian-fashion-designers-roundtable/">the token senior</a>” of a marketing campaign. </p>
<h2>Gendered ageism in beauty industry</h2>
<p>The majority of the advanced style influencers equally reject the anti-aging beauty industry that <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/WN/selling-fountain-youth-author-arlene-weintraub-anti-aging/story?id=11533763">transforms getting older into a disease</a>. The multi-billion-dollar industry also falsely promises everlasting youth in a bottle. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Helen Mirren in a dark suit with gold buttons and stiletto-heeled boots" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395352/original/file-20210415-23-1rfkrm2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C61%2C4452%2C2959&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/395352/original/file-20210415-23-1rfkrm2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395352/original/file-20210415-23-1rfkrm2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395352/original/file-20210415-23-1rfkrm2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395352/original/file-20210415-23-1rfkrm2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395352/original/file-20210415-23-1rfkrm2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/395352/original/file-20210415-23-1rfkrm2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Actress Helen Mirren poses for photographers during the 70th Berlin International Film Festival, in February 2020.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Markus Schreiber)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We find that these women opt instead to popularize natural, greying hair, wrinkles and body scars through their Instagram posts. For eons, beauty brands have told aging women that greying hair is a mortifying problem that must be hidden, whereas for older men <a href="https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/gallery/mens-grey-hair-care-guide">it remains a sign of mature sexiness</a>. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yvQoh6CSGvY">Grey hair</a> is consequently a defining feature of these influencers’ embodied resistance, and one that’s front and centre in their style activism. </p>
<p>We encourage everyone to follow the advanced style influencers’ consumer activism journeys on Instagram by engaging with the hashtag #advancedstyle.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/157952/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ela Veresiu receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC). </span></em></p>A new study finds that women influencers over the age of 50 engage in style activism to combat ageist and sexist fashion and beauty industries.Ela Veresiu, Associate Professor of Marketing, York University, CanadaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1358112020-04-14T20:01:24Z2020-04-14T20:01:24ZCoronavirus shutdowns: what makes hairdressing ‘essential’? Even the hairdressers want to close<p>As part of sweeping social-distancing measures, on March 24 Prime Minister Scott Morrison announced nail salons, tanning, waxing and most other beauty services would be closed – but hair salons could remain open with a 30-minute per client time restriction. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1242397806179971073"}"></div></p>
<p>There was much criticism this limit was both unfeasible and highly gendered, and it was <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-03-26/coronavirus-hairdresser-limit-to-be-scrapped/12091700">reversed</a>. Salons can operate if they maintain one person per four square metres. </p>
<p>While many hairdressing businesses have voluntarily closed their doors, others remain open. The issue has become <a href="https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/health/health-problems/hairdressers-petition-to-scott-morrison-were-not-lab-rats/news-story/fe874cf24ca3cda98a7d98938e9e74b9">a flashpoint</a> in Australia for debate about what is an “essential” service. </p>
<h2>Touch and talk</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/more-than-skin-deep-beauty-salons-are-places-of-sharing-and-caring-127006">My previous research</a> on the emotional aspects of salon work has shown hairdressers and beauty workers act like makeshift counsellors for many clients. </p>
<p>The salon is not just about makeovers: it is a space of touch and talk. For some, the salon might be one of the only places they encounter regular verbal and physical contact. Increasingly, salon workers are being recognised as an important channel between members of the community and services such as <a href="https://www.edvos.org.au/hair-3rs/">family violence</a> shelters. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/more-than-skin-deep-beauty-salons-are-places-of-sharing-and-caring-127006">More than skin deep, beauty salons are places of sharing and caring</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>In ordinary circumstances, hair and beauty services might be considered essential due to the social and community welfare aspects of the job. However, in the context of a pandemic the close proximity required for hairdressing is a problem. </p>
<p>Fearing for the well-being of those in the industry, the Australian Hairdressing Council has <a href="https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/health/health-problems/hairdressers-petition-to-scott-morrison-were-not-lab-rats/news-story/fe874cf24ca3cda98a7d98938e9e74b9">petitioned the government</a> for hairdressers and barbers to be shut down. The initial mixed messages about rules for salons appear to have created <a href="https://www.bodyandsoul.com.au/beauty/hair/im-a-hairdresser-and-i-wish-i-could-stay-at-home-too/news-story/ac180915f43adb4b4e9a344d2077678e">confusion</a> for salons and customers alike. This includes uncertainty about what subsidies are available for salons that have already closed voluntarily. </p>
<p>It is not yet clear why the government continues to deem hair services “essential”. Given the original 30-minute ruling, it is unlikely the decision is based on concern for the maintenance of the social work aspects of hairdressing. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://joboutlook.gov.au/Occupation?code=3911">67,000 people</a> employed as hairdressers may be a more significant factor in the decision at a time when so many others have lost their jobs. Of course, the shutdown has already affected the <a href="https://joboutlook.gov.au/Occupation?search=Career&code=4511">36,100 beauty therapists</a> employed across Australia, but there may be an impression much beauty work (such as maintaining nails and body hair) can be done at home. </p>
<p>There may also be a gendered element to this: these beauty services are more frequented by women and therefore may be more culturally coded as “inessential” or frivolous. </p>
<p>It seems likely we would follow the lead of other countries that have already closed hair salons if further physical distancing measures are required. </p>
<h2>Digital salons</h2>
<p>In times of severe economic downturn, hair and beauty services remain popular. </p>
<p>Even during the Great Depression people continued to <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/encyclopedia-of-hair-a-cultural-history/oclc/61169697">pay for salon visits</a>, forgoing other essentials. </p>
<p>However, the length of time between salon visits appears to expand in times of downturn. Dubbed the “<a href="https://www.cnbc.com/id/46796981">haircut index</a>”, consumer confidence is thought to be signalled by more frequent trips. On the flip side, some argue consumers tend to buy more small luxury beauty items such as lipstick during recession (the so-called “<a href="https://business.time.com/2011/09/14/what-lipstick-tells-us-about-the-economy/">lipstick index</a>”). </p>
<p>Even in difficult economic periods, people still care about keeping up appearances. </p>
<p>In the context of COVID-19, however, social distancing complicates the situation for the beauty industry. </p>
<p>With many shopfronts closed already, businesses have shifted to online services, finding creative ways to maintain connections with existing clients. </p>
<p>Many salons have begun selling “lockdown” product packs online, producing short “home maintenance” videos, and some are even offering one-on-one live digital consultations. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/tv/B-GOLu0Ao3B","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Then there are some who are simply taking matters into their own hands. </p>
<p>Google Trends <a href="https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?q=how%20to%20cut%20your%20own%20hair">reveal</a> an exponential increase in searches for “how to cut your own hair” since March 8. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2020/mar/30/locks-down-shaving-hair-buzzcuts-coronavirus-craze">Buzzcuts</a> are also gaining popularity as a no-fuss way to maintain short hair at home. People appear to be using the lack of salon guidance as an opportunity to get inventive with their appearance, or to try things at home they might be too scared to ask for from a professional. </p>
<p>Limited social contact and the availability of online filters mean people might feel they can get more creative with their style. <a href="https://www.tiktok.com/tag/hairtutorials?lang=en">#hairtutorials</a> continues to trend on TikTok. <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/quarantinehair">#QuarantineHair</a> is being used on Twitter to document some of the highs and lows people are having experimenting with their looks in lockdown. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1245155454818357248"}"></div></p>
<h2>Zoom beauty</h2>
<p>While it may seem ludicrous to some that people still care about makeup and hair products during a public health crisis, there are multiple reasons why this may be the case. Though sociality is reduced, many entrenched beauty norms will persist. People may feel the need to keep up some sense of appearance while still seeing colleagues, clients and friends on screen.</p>
<p>There is also an important ritual element to maintaining one’s appearance. In Western culture, one’s outer presentation is seen <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/sociology/article/look-good-feel-better-beauty-therapy-as-emotional-labour/7D9B8796C8C93F757C6E350E1D071B25">as intimately connected</a> to one’s sense of identity and well-being. Maintaining a daily routine, including skin care, putting on makeup and styling one’s hair, might give some people a sense they are looking after themselves – especially when other things around them are much harder to control. </p>
<p>At the very least, sharing mishaps and humorous experiences with self-styling in this digital beauty world offers people a new way to gain a sense of social connection.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/135811/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Hannah McCann received funding from the Eastern Domestic Violence Service (EDVOS) in 2018 to review their Hair-3R's training. Dr McCann is also the recipient of a Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DECRA) from the Australian Research Council, commencing July 2020, for a project titled "Beyond Skin-Deep: Social and Emotional Work in the Beauty Industry" that will examine the issues outlined in this article in further detail.</span></em></p>Nail salons, tanning, waxing and most beauty services have been forced to close – but hairdressers have been deemed ‘essential’ and are still operating.Hannah McCann, Lecturer in Cultural Studies, The University of MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1238722019-11-14T19:07:37Z2019-11-14T19:07:37ZFriday essay: shaved, shaped and slit - eyebrows through the ages<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301462/original/file-20191113-77326-pyg9vs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C517%2C4483%2C2622&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">In ancient China, India and the Middle East, the art of eyebrow threading was popular. It is now enjoying a resurgence.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-female-face-during-eyebrow-correction-295769573">www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Eyebrows can turn a smile into a leer, a grumpy pout into a come hither beckoning, and sad, downturned lips into a comedic grimace. </p>
<p>So, it’s little wonder these communicative markers of facial punctuation have been such a feature of beauty and fashion since the earliest days of recorded civilisation. </p>
<p>From completely shaved mounds to thick, furry lines, eyebrows are a part of the face we <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/beauty/what-you-get-for-40-120-or-1000-worth-of-eyebrow-care-20191113-p53acj.html">continue</a> to experiment with. We seek to hide, exacerbate and embellish them. And today, every shopping strip and mall has professionals ready to assist us with wax, thread and ink. </p>
<h2>Minimising distraction</h2>
<p>In the court of Elizabeth I, to draw attention to the perceived focal point of a woman’s body – her breasts – the monarch would pluck her eyebrows into thin lines or remove them completely, as well as shaving off hair at the top of her forehead. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301415/original/file-20191113-37464-uifye2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301415/original/file-20191113-37464-uifye2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301415/original/file-20191113-37464-uifye2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1039&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301415/original/file-20191113-37464-uifye2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1039&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301415/original/file-20191113-37464-uifye2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1039&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301415/original/file-20191113-37464-uifye2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1305&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301415/original/file-20191113-37464-uifye2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1305&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301415/original/file-20191113-37464-uifye2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1305&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many of her subjects followed Queen Elizabeth’s shaved eyebrow example.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47de-6079-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99">New York Public Library</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This was an attempt to make her face plain and blank, thereby directing the viewer’s gaze lower to her substantial <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=mNLZkzxmiEIC&pg=PA107&dq=eyebrows+breasts+elizabethan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjrq9p1t_lAhUTXisKHffJCSYQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=eyebrows%20breasts%20elizabethan&f=false">décolletage</a>. </p>
<p>Although the intentions were different, nonexistent or needle-thin brows had also been common in ancient China and other Asian cultures, where women plucked their eyebrows to resemble specific shapes with designated names such as “distant mountain” (likely referring to a central and distinctive point in the brow), “drooping pearl” and “willow branch”. </p>
<p>In ancient China, as well as in India and the Middle East, the technique of threading - the removal of hairs by twisting strands of cotton <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1046/j.1365-4362.1997.00189.x">thread</a> - was popular for its accuracy. The technique, referred to as “khite” in Arabic and “fatlah” in Egyptian, is enjoying renewed <a href="https://journals.lww.com/dermatologicsurgery/Abstract/2011/06280/Eyebrow_Epilation_by_Threading__An_Increasingly.26.aspx">popularity</a> today. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301484/original/file-20191113-77342-1n7ymcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301484/original/file-20191113-77342-1n7ymcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301484/original/file-20191113-77342-1n7ymcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=682&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301484/original/file-20191113-77342-1n7ymcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=682&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301484/original/file-20191113-77342-1n7ymcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=682&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301484/original/file-20191113-77342-1n7ymcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301484/original/file-20191113-77342-1n7ymcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301484/original/file-20191113-77342-1n7ymcj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Detail from Tayu with Phoenix Robe, a Japanese painting by an anonymous artist.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%27Tay%C3%BB_with_Phoenix_Robe%27,_anonymous_19th_century_Japanese_painting,_Honolulu_Academy_of_Arts.jpg">Honolulu Academy of Arts/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Japan between 794 and 1185, both men and women plucked their eyebrows out almost entirely and replaced them with new pencilled lines higher up on the <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=9Z6vCGbf66YC&pg=PA120&dq=eyebrows+robyn+cosio&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiJ1uCXx-TkAhU0IbcAHSc3D_IQ6AEIPjAD#v=onepage&q&f=false">forehead</a>.</p>
<p>Eyebrows of Ancient Greece and Rome, on the other hand, are frozen in contemplation. </p>
<p>They are often represented in sculptures through expressive mounds devoid of individual or even vaguely suggested hairs: in men they are strong and masterful furrows above a purposeful gaze; in women, soft and emotive. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295560/original/file-20191004-118222-4xfro6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295560/original/file-20191004-118222-4xfro6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=803&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295560/original/file-20191004-118222-4xfro6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=803&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295560/original/file-20191004-118222-4xfro6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=803&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295560/original/file-20191004-118222-4xfro6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1009&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295560/original/file-20191004-118222-4xfro6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1009&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295560/original/file-20191004-118222-4xfro6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1009&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bronze portrait of a man from early first century with masterful furrows.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This lack of detail demonstrates a fondness, in some corners of ancient Greek and Roman society, for joined or “continuous” brows. </p>
<p>Poet of tenderness, Theocritus, openly admired eyebrows “<a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=37MDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP9&dq=The+British+Poets,+including+Translations+in+One+Hundred+Volumes:+Theocritus&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjw-fiWjoLlAhXBXisKHfPBC50Q6AEIMjAB#v=onepage&q=The%20British%20Poets%2C%20including%20Translations%20in%20One%20Hundred%20Volumes%3A%20Theocritus&f=false">joined over the nose</a>” like his own, as did Byzantine Isaac Porphyrogenitus. </p>
<h2>Brows as barometers</h2>
<p>For much of the 19th century, cosmetics for women were viewed with suspicion, principally as the province of actresses and prostitutes. This meant facial enhancement was subtle and eyebrows, though gently shaped, were kept relatively natural. </p>
<p>Despite this restraint, a certain amount of effort still went into cultivation. A newspaper <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/189261094?searchTerm=%22If%20a%20child%27s%20eyebrows%20threaten%22&searchLimits=">article</a> from 1871 suggested intervention during childhood to thicken them:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>If a child’s eyebrows threaten to be thin, brush them softly every night with a little coconut oil, and they will gradually become strong and full; and, in order to give them a curve, press them gently between the thumb and forefinger after every ablution of the face or hands. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>As fashions became freer after the first world war, attention was once again focused more overtly on the eyes and eyebrows. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301505/original/file-20191113-77305-1jafapf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301505/original/file-20191113-77305-1jafapf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301505/original/file-20191113-77305-1jafapf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301505/original/file-20191113-77305-1jafapf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301505/original/file-20191113-77305-1jafapf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301505/original/file-20191113-77305-1jafapf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1077&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301505/original/file-20191113-77305-1jafapf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1077&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301505/original/file-20191113-77305-1jafapf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1077&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Louise Brooks’ high brow bob showed off her neck and her eyebrows.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/252f8180-ff5d-012f-38ab-58d385a7bc34">New York Public Library</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This was partly to do with the development of beauty salons during the 1920s, many of which offered classes in makeup application so women could create new, bold looks at home. </p>
<p>The fashion for very thin eyebrows was popularised by silent film stars such as Buster Keaton and Louise Brooks, for whom thick kohl was a professional necessity and allowed a clearer vision of the eyebrows – so crucial, after all, for nonverbal expression on screen. </p>
<p>The amount of attention paid to eyebrows continued to change according to specific global events. </p>
<p>In the 1940s, women began to favour thicker, natural brows after several decades of rigorous plucking to achieve pencil-thin lines. Considering the outbreak of the second world war had forced many out of a wholly domestic existence and into the workforce, it stands to reason they had less time to spend in front of the mirror, wielding a pair of tweezers and eyebrow pencil. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295563/original/file-20191004-118222-1tliwfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/295563/original/file-20191004-118222-1tliwfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295563/original/file-20191004-118222-1tliwfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295563/original/file-20191004-118222-1tliwfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=857&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295563/original/file-20191004-118222-1tliwfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1077&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295563/original/file-20191004-118222-1tliwfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1077&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/295563/original/file-20191004-118222-1tliwfk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1077&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The natural look, circa 1943.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The post-war 1950s saw wide, yet more firmly defined brows and from the 1960s onwards various shapes, sizes and thicknesses were experimented with, accompanied by a firm emphasis on individuality and personal preference. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301670/original/file-20191113-77310-11rfw4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301670/original/file-20191113-77310-11rfw4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301670/original/file-20191113-77310-11rfw4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=739&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301670/original/file-20191113-77310-11rfw4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=739&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301670/original/file-20191113-77310-11rfw4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=739&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301670/original/file-20191113-77310-11rfw4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=929&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301670/original/file-20191113-77310-11rfw4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=929&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301670/original/file-20191113-77310-11rfw4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=929&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A brow beautician in a South Yarra salon in 1960.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/work/222938930?q=eyebrows&c=picture&versionId=244447695">Laurie Richards Studio/National Library of Australia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>More than mono</h2>
<p>When Dwight Edwards Marvin’s <a href="https://www.bartleby.com/346/14.html">collection</a> of adages and maxims, Curiosities in Proverbs, was published in 1916 it included the old English advice: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>If your eyebrows meet across your nose, you’ll never live to wear your wedding clothes. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>The “mono-” or “uni-brow” had become suggestive of a lack of self care, particularly in women. </p>
<p>Research undertaken in 2004 reported American women felt judged and evaluated as “dirty”, “gross” or even “repulsive” if they did not shave their underarm or leg hair, or pluck and shape their <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=y5Enl3JamIgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Embodied+Resistance:+Challenging+the+Norms,+Breaking+the+Rules,&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi54bWkjoLlAhVs7nMBHSOJCe8Q6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=Embodied%20Resistance%3A%20Challenging%20the%20Norms%2C%20Breaking%20the%20Rules%2C&f=false">eyebrows</a>. As the most visible of these areas, untamed eyebrows perhaps point to the bravest exhibition of natural hair. </p>
<p>Today, model Sophia Hadjipanteli sports a pair of impressively large, dark joined eyebrows, and has assertively fought back against the legion of online trolls who have abused her for this point of difference. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301470/original/file-20191113-77338-2u31d2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301470/original/file-20191113-77338-2u31d2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301470/original/file-20191113-77338-2u31d2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301470/original/file-20191113-77338-2u31d2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301470/original/file-20191113-77338-2u31d2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=750&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301470/original/file-20191113-77338-2u31d2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301470/original/file-20191113-77338-2u31d2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301470/original/file-20191113-77338-2u31d2.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=943&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Model Sophia Hadjipanteli and her distinctive brow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/sophiahadjipanteli/">Instagram</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A reference back to the distinctive brows of Frida Kahlo, Hadjipanteli’s look is linked to an ongoing debate surrounding women’s body hair. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301469/original/file-20191113-77326-q7f2uo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301469/original/file-20191113-77326-q7f2uo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301469/original/file-20191113-77326-q7f2uo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301469/original/file-20191113-77326-q7f2uo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301469/original/file-20191113-77326-q7f2uo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301469/original/file-20191113-77326-q7f2uo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301469/original/file-20191113-77326-q7f2uo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301469/original/file-20191113-77326-q7f2uo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Artist Frida Kahlo and her famous monobrow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frida_Kahlo,_by_Guillermo_Kahlo.jpg">Guillermo Kahlo/Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Giving a pluck</h2>
<p>For many, excessive plucking and shaping has become emblematic of the myriad requirements women are expected to comply with to satisfy restrictive societal beauty norms. </p>
<p>Still, plenty of people with eyebrows are dedicating time and money to their upkeep. In Australia, the personal waxing and nail salon industry has grown steadily over five years to be worth an estimated <a href="https://www.ibisworld.com.au/industry-trends/specialised-market-research-reports/consumer-goods-services/personal-waxing-nail-salons.html">A$1.3 billion</a> and employ more than 20,000 people. </p>
<p>Over this time, social media has offered a diverse and changing menu of brow choices and displays. </p>
<p>One choice: the “eyebrow slit” – thin vertical cuts in eyebrow hair – has re-emerged online and in suburban high schools. It’s important to emphasise <em>re-emerged</em> because, with beauty as with clothing, what goes around comes around. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301683/original/file-20191114-77363-1x8k3a4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301683/original/file-20191114-77363-1x8k3a4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301683/original/file-20191114-77363-1x8k3a4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301683/original/file-20191114-77363-1x8k3a4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301683/original/file-20191114-77363-1x8k3a4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=785&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301683/original/file-20191114-77363-1x8k3a4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301683/original/file-20191114-77363-1x8k3a4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301683/original/file-20191114-77363-1x8k3a4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vanilla Ice, working the eyebrow slit since 1991.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://twitter.com/smashhitsmag/status/1019841015874715648">Smash Hits/Twitter</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The eyebrow slit was especially popular amongst hip hop artists in the 1990s, and draws appeal due to its flexibility: there are no firm rules as to the number or width of the slits, which originally were meant to suggest scarring from a recent fight or gangsta adventure. More recent converts have been accused of <a href="https://www.teenvogue.com/story/eyebrow-cuts-cultural-appropriation">cultural appropriation</a>. </p>
<p>Some have experimented by replacing plain slits with other shapes, such as hearts or stars, though plucking or shaving brows into unusual shapes is – as we have seen – by no means new either. </p>
<h2>Facing the day</h2>
<p>If the popularity of recent trends is anything to go by, eyebrow fashion will remain on the lush side for some time.</p>
<p>The “<a href="http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news-features/TMG8997240/Scouse-Brow-a-beginners-guide.html">Scouse</a>” brow (very thick, wide and angular eyebrows emphasised with highly defined dark pencil shapes: named after natives of Liverpool in the United Kingdom) is still trending. </p>
<p>The “Instagram eyebrow” (thick brows plucked and painted to create a gradient, going from light to very dark as the brow ends) is inescapable on the platform and beyond. Makeup for brows is therefore also likely to continue, providing a clear linear connection through nearly all the eyebrow ideals since ancient times. </p>
<p>The latest offering to those seeking a groomed look is “<a href="https://www.elle.com.au/beauty/eyebrow-lamination-22517">eyebrow lamination</a>”, a chemical treatment that uses keratin to straighten individual hairs - a kind of anti-perm for your brow. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/B4R-fgynQmr","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>Those still searching for their eyebrow aesthetic may benefit from some wisdom shared by crime and society reporter Viola Rodgers in an 1898 edition of the San Francisco Call newspaper. </p>
<p>In a piece which ran alongside an interview with the man who had inspired Mark Twain’s Tom Sawyer character, she advised that the appearance of one’s brow conveyed more than just their grooming <a href="https://cdnc.ucr.edu/?a=d&d=SFC18981023.2.141.22&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------1">habits</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>An arched eyebrow … is expressive of great sensibility … Heavy, thick eyebrows indicate a strong constitution and great physical endurance … Long, drooping eyebrows indicate an amiable disposition and faintly defined eyebrows placed high above the nose are signs of indolence and weakness. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Eyebrow slits? We can only imagine what Viola would think.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123872/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lydia Edwards does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Moulding eyebrows to make a statement is nothing new. A journey through history, across Asia, Europe, the Middle East and the United States, shows some of the highs and lows of brow fashion.Lydia Edwards, Fashion historian, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1115292019-06-27T20:44:33Z2019-06-27T20:44:33ZFriday essay: how 19th century ideas influenced today’s attitudes to women’s beauty<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281299/original/file-20190626-81737-1jlatc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An advertisement for breast implants in Sydney in 2015. Advertisements often promote a 'natural' ideal of beauty, even when advocating surgical intervention.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Paul Millar/AAP</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the 19th century, a range of thinkers attempted to pinpoint exactly what it was that made a woman beautiful. Newly popular women’s magazines began to promote ideas about the right behaviours, attitudes, and daily routines required to produce and maintain beauty.</p>
<p>The scientific classification of plants and animals - influenced by Charles Darwin - also shaped thinking about beauty. It was seen to be definable, like a plant type or animal species. Increasingly, sophisticated knowledge of medicine and anatomy and the association of beauty with health also saw physicians weigh into the debate. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-darwins-on-the-origin-of-species-96533">Guide to the classics: Darwin's On the Origin of Species</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>A look at three significant books that focused on beauty shows several influential ideas. These include the classification of distinct beauty types, the perception of “natural” beauty as superior to the “artificial”, and the eventual acceptance of beauty as something that each woman should try to cultivate through a daily regimen of self-care.</p>
<h2>Classifying beauty types</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266614/original/file-20190330-70993-qyv7h3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266614/original/file-20190330-70993-qyv7h3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266614/original/file-20190330-70993-qyv7h3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266614/original/file-20190330-70993-qyv7h3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266614/original/file-20190330-70993-qyv7h3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266614/original/file-20190330-70993-qyv7h3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266614/original/file-20190330-70993-qyv7h3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266614/original/file-20190330-70993-qyv7h3.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘The three species of beauty as affecting the head and face’ in Alexander Walker’s Beauty; Illustrated Chiefly by an Analysis and Classification of Beauty in Woman (New York: William H. Colyer).</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Alexander Walker, a Scottish physiologist, wrote three books on the subject of “woman”. The first was <a href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011616485">Beauty; Illustrated Chiefly by an Analysis and Classification of Beauty in Women</a>. Here, Walker focuses on women’s beauty because he suggests it is “best calculated to ensure attention from men”. He assumes that men have the power to choose sexual partners in a way that women do not, therefore men have a crucial responsibility “to ameliorate the species”.</p>
<p>Given that one of its key functions is to signal fertility, a woman’s appearance is therefore not a frivolous topic. It is linked to the development of humanity. </p>
<p>Walker defines three types or “species” of female beauty: locomotive, nutritive, and thinking. These types derive from a knowledge of anatomy and each is related to one of the bodily “systems”.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266615/original/file-20190330-70999-1iqlubi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266615/original/file-20190330-70999-1iqlubi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=868&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266615/original/file-20190330-70999-1iqlubi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=868&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266615/original/file-20190330-70999-1iqlubi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=868&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266615/original/file-20190330-70999-1iqlubi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1091&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266615/original/file-20190330-70999-1iqlubi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1091&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266615/original/file-20190330-70999-1iqlubi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1091&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Front view illustrating mental beauty’ in Alexander Walker’s Beauty; Illustrated Chiefly by an Analysis and Classification of Beauty in Woman (New York: William H. Colyer).</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The locomotive or mechanical system is highly developed in women with “precise, striking, and brilliant” bodies. The nutritive or vital system is evident in the “soft and voluptuous”. The thinking or mental system is conducive to a figure “characterised by intellectuality and grace”. </p>
<p>Walker’s ideal is the mental or thinking beauty. She has less pronounced breasts and curves and admirable inner qualities that are evident in her “intensely expressive eye”. </p>
<p>Not coincidentally, he understands intelligence to predominate in men. Walker’s ideal thinking beauty is effectively most like his idea of a man in contrast to the locomotive beauty (connected with the lower classes) and the nutritive beauty (primed to have children). </p>
<h2>‘Firm and elastic’ breasts</h2>
<p>Daniel Garrison Brinton was an army surgeon in the American Civil War. He later became a professor of ethnology and archaeology and edited The Medical and Surgical Reporter. In 1870, he and medical editor George Henry Napheys published <a href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011601289">Personal Beauty: How to Cultivate and Preserve it in Accordance with the Laws of Health</a>. </p>
<p>The book proposes ideal measurements for areas such as the forehead and the most distinctive features of the female body. Breasts are viewed as essential to beauty and the ideal they describe is youthful, with “firm and elastic” tissue that forms “true hemispheres in shape”.</p>
<p>Very specific distances between nipples, the collar bone, and between the breasts themselves are specified, setting out perfect proportions. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281290/original/file-20190626-81758-134udlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281290/original/file-20190626-81758-134udlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281290/original/file-20190626-81758-134udlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=911&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281290/original/file-20190626-81758-134udlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=911&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281290/original/file-20190626-81758-134udlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=911&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281290/original/file-20190626-81758-134udlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1145&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281290/original/file-20190626-81758-134udlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1145&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281290/original/file-20190626-81758-134udlt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1145&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Very specific distances between breasts were specified in this beauty manual.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Brinton and Napheys claim that few European and American women meet these requirements, owing to the “artificial life” adopted in both locations. Controversially, they remark that such breasts do not exist in America, apart from in “some vigorous young country girl, who has grown up in ignorance of the arts which thwart nature”. The idea that beauty was more often destroyed by “artificial” beauty methods than improved by it was predominant.</p>
<p>Personal Beauty promotes a device for improving the shape of the breast through suction because it meets the criteria for “natural” improvement. It is described similarly to <a href="https://www.amazon.ca/Lovely-Exercise-Muscle-Massager-nl-argement/dp/B07PQQSPWV">breast enlargement pumps</a> that are sold today as an alternative to breast augmentation. </p>
<p>Brinton and Napheys’ reference to the potential of such a device to “restore the organs in great measure to their proper shape, size, and function” suggests they are referring to breasts that may have lost their fullness and symmetry after breastfeeding. </p>
<p>It is unclear how such a device would not only improve the shapeliness of breasts, but also render them “better adapted to fulfil their functions”. However, the notion that function, which is reliant on health, is essential to beauty helps to support a medicalised understanding of the topic. </p>
<h2>Beauty destroyed</h2>
<p>This emphasis on health contributes to a tendency to focus on the ways that women destroy their own beauty through clothing, cosmetics, or certain types of exercise. A specific target in this book is the wearing of garters below the knee, which the authors claim is the reason why a “handsome leg is a rarity, we had almost said an impossibility, among American women”. </p>
<p>Tightly-laced corsets, sucked-upon lips, and white face powders are frowned upon for potential harms to health. Yet, as doctors, Brinton and Napheys embrace early manifestations of cosmetic surgery, such as the removal of skin that might hang over the eyes. </p>
<p>A significant point in guiding the acceptability of cosmetic usage is whether such a practice appears natural and undetectable. Imitation itself is not described as distasteful, if it can be achieved convincingly, but “the failure in the attempt at imitation” does inspire revulsion. </p>
<p>As such, a wig that meshes with a women’s age and appearance can be acceptable. In contrast, it is “contrary to all good taste” to “give to the top of the head an air of juvenility which is flatly contradicted by all other parts of the person”. </p>
<p>Personal Beauty focuses on preventative measures for retaining beauty and delaying the visible onset of ageing, rather than remedying flaws once they have taken hold. The book ultimately concludes that if all the measures recommended are undertaken, “there will be little need for the purely venal cosmetic arts, such as paint, powder, patches, or rouge”.</p>
<h2> Embracing beauty culture</h2>
<p>This understanding of cosmetics as pure reflections of vanity and as separate from beauty practices related to health was gradually challenged by women writers towards the end of the 19th century. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266616/original/file-20190330-71009-1ltefwd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/266616/original/file-20190330-71009-1ltefwd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=929&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266616/original/file-20190330-71009-1ltefwd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=929&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266616/original/file-20190330-71009-1ltefwd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=929&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266616/original/file-20190330-71009-1ltefwd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1168&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266616/original/file-20190330-71009-1ltefwd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1168&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/266616/original/file-20190330-71009-1ltefwd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1168&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Frontispiece, Mrs H.R. Haweis, [1878] 1883. The Art of Beauty. London: Chatto & Windus.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Eliza Haweis wrote about the decoration and stylistic adornment of the home and body in British magazines and a series of books, the first of which was <a href="https://archive.org/details/artofbeauty00hawe/page/n10">The Art of Beauty </a>(1878). Its premise is that personal beauty and adornment of the body is of “the first interest and importance” for women. </p>
<p>Many beauty manuals warned against any significant attempts to alter the face or body beyond basic health and hygiene. Such practices, <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/663140/summary">as academic Sarah Lennox suggests</a>, were seen as “objectionable — as a hiding of inner truth”. Haweis, however, encourages young women to enhance their beauty and older women to continue to use methods that “conceal its fading away”. </p>
<p>The methods that Haweis advocates reproduce prevalent ideas found in women’s magazines and beauty manuals that discouraged any visible sign of artifice and which championed the “natural”. </p>
<p>Hygienic and cosmetic intervention are framed as exposing or fostering physical qualities as they ought to be seen, or providing a delicate “veil” for flaws, rather than attempting to entirely transform them.</p>
<p>However, Haweis goes further than many beauty advisors at the time. Unlike many male writers, she is not opposed to cosmetics. She likens their use in “hiding defects of complexion, or touching the face with pink or white” to adding padding to a dress, piercing ears, or undergoing cosmetic dentistry.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270391/original/file-20190423-175518-brairf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270391/original/file-20190423-175518-brairf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/270391/original/file-20190423-175518-brairf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=758&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270391/original/file-20190423-175518-brairf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=758&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270391/original/file-20190423-175518-brairf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=758&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270391/original/file-20190423-175518-brairf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=952&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270391/original/file-20190423-175518-brairf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=952&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/270391/original/file-20190423-175518-brairf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=952&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Eliza Haweis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Part of the reason Haweis supports cosmetics and other methods of improving the appearance is because she observes that ugly people are treated differently. </p>
<p>Walker sees beauty as a sign of higher intelligence. Many publications at the time presented a similar line of reasoning in suggesting that mean-spirited and nasty individuals would age horribly. </p>
<p>Haweis, however, is unique in her entertainment of the possibility of ugliness negatively influencing character. She proposes that “an immense number of ill-tempered ugly women are ill-tempered because they are ugly”. She acknowledges that ugliness is in fact an “impediment” and a “burden”, which thereby supports her call to all women to work to improve their appearance. </p>
<h2>Beauty today </h2>
<p>Our understanding of what makes a woman beautiful is influenced by dominant cultural beliefs and hierarchies. Though Walker’s physiological beauty types were replaced by acceptance of the idea that women can retain beauty into older age or remedy unappealing features, many historic precepts about beauty continue to influence modern beauty culture. </p>
<p>Ideas about “natural” beauty as superior to “artificial” beauty are reflected in cosmetic advertisements and plastic surgery procedures, with a “natural” or “undetectable” look to any product, facelift, or implant being the desired outcome for many women. </p>
<p>Most of all, the idea that beauty is of prime importance to girls and women remains predominant, even as the cultural conditions surrounding marriage, employment, and family have substantially transformed since the 19th century. </p>
<p>Haweis’ ideas about the significance of self-care resonate with contemporary feminists who point to women’s pleasure and empowered use of cosmetics.</p>
<p>We have recently seen the emergence of male beauty bloggers and YouTubers. However, the continued sense that beauty is largely women’s preserve and a unique form of power that requires a continual fight to keep shows how an emphasis on women’s physical appearance is still entwined with gender inequality.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/111529/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Smith has previously received funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>Many historic ideas about women’s beauty - from prizing firm breasts to emphasising the ‘natural’ - continue to resonate today.Michelle Smith, Senior Lecturer in Literary Studies, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1040962018-10-05T13:32:38Z2018-10-05T13:32:38ZFrida Kahlo to Rihanna: there’s a reason eye-catching brows are front and centre<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/238916/original/file-20181002-85632-1pacqqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C102%2C586%2C508&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Frida Kahlo: self-portrait with Bonito.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Irina via Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mexican artist Frida Kahlo is the subject of a major exhibition at London’s V&A museum, which has been running since July and <a href="https://fashionunited.uk/news/culture/inside-the-frida-kahlo-exhibition-at-the-v-a/2018061430221">tells the story of her life</a> through more than 200 artefacts and clothing. Among the items on display is the eyebrow pencil she used to accentuate the monobrow which – along with her instantly recognisable colourful costumes and the flowers with which she habitually dressed her hair – became her trademark, with which she stressed her indigenous heritage.</p>
<p>I am a specialist in Mexican studies, so Kahlo’s life and work are important to me. So too is the work of another famous Mexican woman of the period, María Félix. An unlikely friend of Kahlo’s, Félix was more conventionally glamorous, and was the biggest film star of Mexican cinema’s “golden age”. Her defined eyebrow arch and its predominance in her performances led me to consider the significance of the brow on screen. </p>
<p>As a Liverpool-based academic, my attention has also been drawn to the “Scousebrow” – a term bandied about on social media. It’s a product of the scripted reality show <a href="https://www.channel4.com/programmes/desperate-scousewives">Desperate Scousewives (2011-12)</a> and, shortlived as the series was, the term has lasted. A Scousebrow describes a brow that is arched, highly structured, tinted or drawn above the brow line, darker than the wearer’s natural hair colour and clearly artificial. This stylised look is not unique to the Scousebrow, but it has led to an unjustified level of abuse and mockery.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"141284202686578688"}"></div></p>
<p>Ironically, just as the <a href="https://brewsnbrows.wordpress.com/2018/04/16/where-did-scousebrow-originate/">Scousebrow</a> was being <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2074240/Kate-Middletons-Scouse-Brow-Why-Duchess-Cambridge-got-WAGs-eyebrows.html">ridiculed by the press</a>, model Cara Delevigne’s <a href="https://www.marieclaire.com/beauty/hair/a9511/cara-delevingne-eyebrows-tutorial/">thick, groomed brows</a> were being <a href="https://www.vogue.com/article/cara-delevingne-actress-july-2015-cover">celebrated as natural</a> by high-end fashion magazines. Just like Kahlo’s monobrow, Delevigne’s carefully cultivated brow is presented as “natural”, while the Scousebrow (like Félix’s) is erroneously read as “false”. So, when it comes to eyebrows, it seem that beauty is being defined by social class.</p>
<p>So, in April 2018 we launched the “<a href="https://brewsnbrows.wordpress.com/">Brews and Brows</a>” project, a collaboration between the University of Liverpool, Liverpool John Moores University, Edge Hill University and Manchester Metropolitan University which aimed to develop a new way of looking – and talking about – eyebrows. As people came into our Brow Booth, or had 3D scans done of their brows, multiple stories emerged about how people feel about their brows.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"989161744596598789"}"></div></p>
<p>There’s no doubt that brows are a big thing: last year the <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/35cc5a98-00d2-11e6-99cb-83242733f755">Financial Times estimated</a> that the eyebrow “industry” in the UK was worth more than £20m – and, when Scottish comedian Gary Meikle recorded a vlog in September about his daughter’s obsession with her eyebrows and asked: “When did eyebrows become the most important part of a woman’s body?” it went viral. The vlog attracted more than 15m views (“three times the population of Scotland”, as one of his Twitter fans noted).</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1042102577951846401"}"></div></p>
<p>Meikle’s vlog is part of a wider conversation taking place around the brow that is gradually getting more attention beyond the beauty pages. It is also about a broader question about how women’s beauty is perceived and policed. </p>
<p>So it was interesting to see the reaction when British Vogue began to promote its September fashion" issue with Rihanna on the cover. Her skinny brows provoked an <a href="https://www.racked.com/2018/8/1/17640286/rihanna-skinny-brows-vogue">enormous debate</a> in the media. As a vocal advocate of black beauty, her skinny brows are a shift away from her “natural” fuller brows and a return to the artifice and thinness of the 1990s more associated with white actors, such as, Courtney Cox as Monica in Friends during its heyday. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1024897604591788032"}"></div></p>
<h2>Brows and brews</h2>
<p>The “Brow Booth” was modelled on a photography booth, where participants could sit in and tell us their brow stories individually or in pairs. Mothers interviewed daughters about their practices or shared what they learnt from one another. Friends prompted one another about funny stories from the past. We heard poignant stories of loss and pragmatic solutions to ageing (considerable hair growth in most men and thinning for women). One such story came from a woman fed up with plucking and grooming who got her brows micro-bladed (temporary tattoo) “to save on all that faffing around”. </p>
<p>From the men and women who have visited our “Brow Booth” we’ve heard stories of evolving fashion trends and practices, plucking and growing back, hair loss and surgical intervention. As one contributor said, “I used to check my mascara before I left the house, now it’s all about the eyebrows”. While we have gathered and analyse significant data, our project continues and the stories are still emerging. But the eyebrow is clearly a micro-detail that reveals much about how we feel about ourselves and an awareness of how we groom (or don’t groom) is read by others. Our findings support research into early human cultures about how our brows are <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-evolutionary-advantage-of-having-eyebrows-94599">integral to us</a> as social beings – we use them to express emotion, recognition, belief or disbelief – but what is clear it that, within this evolutionary function, there are constant shifts and changes in what we like in a brow. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-evolutionary-advantage-of-having-eyebrows-94599">The evolutionary advantage of having eyebrows</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For some years now the “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2018/feb/27/power-brows-bold-eyebrows-perfect-instagram-five-steps">Instabrow</a>” has been in fashion – a well-tended, arched, clearly defined brow structured through carefully artistry and use of specialist products (which explains that £20m industry). And the brow has gradually evolved from thin to thick – although, who knows, Rihanna might change all that, such is her power as an “influencer”. </p>
<p>But what we are hearing through our research is how telling a detail the eyebrow can be and how it challenges assumptions about beauty. From Kahlo’s monobrow to the Instabrow to, perhaps, a return to the sculpted brow championed by Rihanna, fashions change – even if what we convey with our eyebrows doesn’t. So, to answer Meikle’s question: eyebrows have always been one of the most important parts of a woman’s body, even if we haven’t paid enough attention to them before. If you’ve never thought about your brows, you are one of very few – and if you’ve never talked about them, we are keen to listen and share.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/104096/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Niamh Thornton's Brews and Brows project receives funding from the University of Liverpool discretionary fund and Liverpool John Moores University QR fund. She also receives support from the AHRC Student Cohort Fund and the ESRC via Methods North West and <a href="mailto:engage@Liverpool">engage@Liverpool</a>.</span></em></p>Monobrow, Instabrow, Scousebrow: here’s one facial feature that deserves more attention.Niamh Thornton, Reader in Latin American Studies, University of LiverpoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1015592018-08-24T09:24:57Z2018-08-24T09:24:57ZBrazilian butt lifts are the deadliest of all aesthetic procedures – the risks explained<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232651/original/file-20180820-30587-5ao2gq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=245%2C779%2C4437%2C2337&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/598816265?src=tA-X5nY4VFmHdObzy7zJIg-3-96&size=huge_jpg">MaximP/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The desire for a larger bottom is becoming more popular, with the number of so-called Brazilian butt lifts <a href="https://www.plasticsurgery.org/documents/News/Statistics/2017/cosmetic-procedure-trends-2017.pdf">more than doubling</a> in the last five years. </p>
<p>However, a recent high-profile case involving a doctor in Miami who was <a href="https://www.miamiherald.com/latest-news/article216245690.html">banned</a> from operating after the death of a patient during surgery, highlights the risks associated with having this procedure. According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, the Brazilian butt lift (BBL) has the <a href="https://www.plasticsurgery.org/news/press-releases/plastic-surgery-societies-issue-urgent-warning-about-the-risks-associated-with-brazilian-butt-lifts">highest rate of death</a> of all aesthetic procedures. </p>
<h2>What is a Brazilian butt lift?</h2>
<p>Some people have a BBL for aesthetic reasons, but many have it after losing lots of weight, serious disfigurement after pelvic trauma or practical problems, such as holding up trousers. </p>
<p>The procedure involves taking fat from areas of the body where it’s not wanted and transplanting it into the glutes to enlarge them.</p>
<p>To be successful, a fat graft needs nutrition and so has to be injected into tissue that has a blood supply. Fat <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2049080117302406#bib75">can survive</a> if injected into other fat, but up to 90% of it can be absorbed if it is. Fat has more chance of staying in place if it is inserted into muscle – but this is where the risk lies.</p>
<p>Injecting fat into the buttock can easily lead to serious problems if done incorrectly. These include a fat embolism, when fat enters the bloodstream and blocks a blood vessel. In the lungs, for example, it blocks oxygen from entering the bloodstream, while in the brain it can cause a stroke – both can be fatal.</p>
<p>The volume of fat is also important. Most surgeons consider 300ml – slightly less than a can of soda – to be a safe amount. However, some more experienced surgeons use a much larger volume of fat that may be measured in litres. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232330/original/file-20180816-2897-5uztcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2598%2C1730&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232330/original/file-20180816-2897-5uztcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232330/original/file-20180816-2897-5uztcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232330/original/file-20180816-2897-5uztcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232330/original/file-20180816-2897-5uztcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232330/original/file-20180816-2897-5uztcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232330/original/file-20180816-2897-5uztcv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More people are risking surgery to get a bigger bum.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/371181623?src=sCIAWMxSfrQ9iPLhTtiHYw-1-90&size=huge_jpg">Satyrenko/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why is the mortality rate so high?</h2>
<p>A <a href="https://academic.oup.com/asj/article/37/7/796/3075249">2017 survey</a> of 692 surgeons from across the world investigated the rate of mortality among patients undergoing BBL. Throughout their careers, the surgeons reported 32 cases of death from a fat embolism and 103 non-fatal cases, but there are probably many more that remain unreported.</p>
<p>Fat embolism was recently identified as the leading cause of death in aesthetic surgery. The estimated death rate from fat embolism may be as high as <a href="https://www.plasticsurgery.org/news/press-releases/plastic-surgery-societies-issue-urgent-warning-about-the-risks-associated-with-brazilian-butt-lifts">one in 3,000</a> for BBLs. A <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26111314">2015 study</a> of deaths from BBL surgery concluded that they probably occur as a result of gluteal blood vessels becoming damaged during the procedure, allowing fat to enter the bloodstream. The authors recommended that “buttocks lipoinjection should be performed very carefully, avoiding injections into deep muscle planes”.</p>
<p>Deaths in the US <a href="https://www.nbcmiami.com/news/local/NBC-6-Investigation-Prompts-Worldwide-Warning-About-Popular-Cosmetic-Procedure-398954221.html">have caused concern</a>. In one recently <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3594781/Death-mother-two-29-following-liposuction-buttocks-augmentation-surgery-caused-fat-clots-lungs-heart.html">reported</a> case in the US that led to death from a fat embolism, surgeons believed injections had been made into superficial fat, but at post-mortem fat was found in the heart and lungs. There was also some evidence of damage to gluteal blood vessels. </p>
<p>However, it should be noted that fat is also injected into muscle for some breast enhancement surgery, with no reported deaths. This suggests that there are other factors involved in the high mortality rate among BBL patients.</p>
<p>Most of these deaths <a href="https://academic.oup.com/asj/article/37/7/811/3868431">appear to have been caused</a> by inappropriately qualified practitioners working in non-approved facilities, including homes and garages. </p>
<p>Other post-surgery problems, such as gangrene and <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/3899372/youngest-euromillions-winner-jane-park-is-fighting-for-her-life-with-sepsis-after-brazilian-bum-lift-went-wrong/">sepsis</a>, can also be fatal.</p>
<h2>Is it worth the risk?</h2>
<p>The potential risk of death from a fat embolism has to be weighed against the benefits, especially in cases where there are physical and functional benefits to having the surgery. In the case of the Brazilian butt lift, perhaps the risks outweigh the benefits. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, in a celebrity and beauty obsessed society, the procedure remains popular, despite the risks. So it is important that surgeons make the risks of the procedure very clear to anyone considering it. Patient safety should always be the top priority. And surgeons need to do more to increase the safety of the procedure and lower the unnecessarily high mortality rate.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/101559/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jim Frame does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The number of people going under the knife for a big bum is increasing – but it carries the highest risk of death in any cosmetic surgery.Jim Frame, Professor of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, Anglia Ruskin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/989992018-07-18T15:12:01Z2018-07-18T15:12:01ZHealth clubs using tanning beds to attract members despite cancer risks, new study shows<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/224982/original/file-20180626-112598-pyftsg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Individuals using indoor tanning are exposed to two types of UV rays -- UVA and UVB -- that damage skin and DNA and can lead to cancer, including the deadliest one: melanoma. Young users are most at risk.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-beautiful-latin-lady-lying-on-88135858?src=BpuO-_EIkjDyv8-TxSQmZA-1-12">By Rido/shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I drove past Planet Fitness on the way to my 10-year-old’s gymnastics class and had to chuckle at their sign advertising free pizza as part of a new member promotion. I decided to use this as a teaching moment, explaining to my daughter why we should avoid using junk food as a reward for exercise. This is one of many lectures she has heard from her mom, a cancer prevention scientist. </p>
<p>When I decided to look a little deeper into what gyms are offering to entice people to sign up, pizza turned out to be the least of my concerns. Many gyms offer access to tanning beds, a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.22453">known carcinogen</a>, to their patrons. We would be astounded if gyms provided tobacco to patrons, so we must pose serious questions to gyms who provide ultraviolet radiation.</p>
<p>The comparison of tobacco and tanning beds might seem like hyperbole, but it is not. They are both rated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.22453">group 1 carcinogens</a> and <a href="http://doi.org/10.1001/jamadermatol.2013.6896">research</a> shows that we now have more cancers related to tanning beds than cancers related to tobacco.</p>
<h2>Gyms are supporting the tanning industry</h2>
<p>To explore how pervasive these gym-tanning salons were, I asked my research assistant to call every Planet Fitness, Anytime Fitness and Gold’s Gym in Massachusetts and Connecticut to find out just how many had tanning beds. Of the 167 gyms we found on Google, 66 percent offer patrons tanning beds, with Planet Fitness the biggest offender where a whopping 100 percent of their franchises have tanning beds. In total, these gyms have 408 tanning beds. <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/2687548">Extrapolating this to all 50 states</a> would mean that these three gym chains alone house over 10,000 tanning beds nationwide. That’s an equivalent capacity to 1,600 tanning salons. The tanning industry must be thrilled.</p>
<p>Making the presence of tanning beds in gyms even more shocking is a recent <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.1548">study</a> showing that people who are physically active are at increased risk for melanoma, the deadly form of skin cancer. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/dju112">Tanning bed use</a> is a major risk factor for melanoma, which is now the <a href="https://www.cancer.org/content/dam/cancer-org/research/cancer-facts-and-statistics/annual-cancer-facts-and-figures/2018/cancer-facts-and-figures-2018.pdf">third most prevalent cancer</a> in women under 49 years old, a popular gym demographic. Why would we put a carcinogen in the facility frequented by people who are at increased risk for the very cancer it causes? </p>
<p><a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/2687548">I decided to conduct a study</a> to learn more about people who use those gym tanning beds. We surveyed 636 people who have ever used a tanning bed in their life and found that about a quarter of them had tanned in gyms. When I compared the group who had tanned in a gym to the group who had not, I was surprised to find that the gym tanner is a much harder core tanner. They hit the tanning bed 67 percent more often than other salon tanners and were far more likely to report tanning addiction. Gyms seem to be a great place for tanners to get their fix.</p>
<p>We also found in our sample of tanners that more tanning was associated with more exercise. Now we may be onto why gyms provide tanning beds – people who tan a lot love to workout. </p>
<h2>Undermining public health messaging</h2>
<p>We do not know why tanning and exercise is linked so I can only speculate. Both activities are driven by a desire to look and feel better. Regardless, gyms that provide tanning beds reinforce the idea that tanning is part of a beauty regimen, and perhaps even worse, that tanning is part of a healthy lifestyle. Tanning is part of neither. It will destroy your skin and has the potential to completely destroy your health. For decades <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/skin/burningtruth/base_tan_not_safe_tan.htm">public health campaigns</a> have attempted to dismantle the popular misconception that tanned skin is a sign of good health. </p>
<p>Tanning is a sign the body is receiving too much cancer-causing ultraviolet radiation. It is a warning sign.</p>
<p>Gyms should not provide tanning beds to patrons. Removing tanning beds from gyms surely won’t stop everybody from tanning, but that is certainly no argument for making them convenient for people at higher than average risk of melanoma. By pairing exercise with tanning beds, gyms undermine public health messaging and contribute to the cancer risk of their patrons. If you are
joining a gym to get healthy, my advice is: pick one that has your back.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98999/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sherry Pagoto receives funding from the National Institutes of Health.</span></em></p>Many gyms use free tanning beds to lure in new members who are eager to look and feel their best. But this, argues Sherry Pagoto, runs against the health lifestyle premise these gyms are advocating.Sherry Pagoto, Professor of Allied Health Sciences, University of ConnecticutLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/931092018-03-28T14:56:23Z2018-03-28T14:56:23ZWhy the beauty industry will never fully embrace spots, scars and pimples<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211962/original/file-20180326-148729-13an34g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Trying to achieve that 'flawless finish'. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?src=nY-I5IeL2KiU5ANGN8N1yw-1-70">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/BfjAjGWgMC3/?hl=en&taken-by=emeraldxbeauty">L’Oreal recently fired beauty vlogger Kadeeja Khan</a> from a hair advert. An agency working for the company approached Kadeeja through her Instagram account, arranged her travel and sent her details of the shoot. But on the day of the shoot, <a href="http://metro.co.uk/2018/03/03/beauty-vlogger-kadeeja-khan-dropped-loreal-campaign-skin-issues-7357688/">L'Oreal’s agency emailed</a> Kadeeja saying it was sorry but “L'Oreal can’t be involved with people with skin issues”. Kadeeja has acne. </p>
<p>L’Oreal claims <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/fabulous/5685213/acne-suffering-instagram-star-humiliated-loreal-drop-offer-work-skin-issues/">this was just a mix up</a>, that their <a href="https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/beauty-hair/a19052256/kadeeja-khan-loreal-dropped-campaign-acne-skin-issues/">agency had made a mistake</a> “where the wrong profile had been cast” and that they actually “work with women and men with all skin types and celebrate beauty in all its diversity”. But as Kadeeja pointed out, apparently not women like her. She wasn’t invited back to do the shoot. </p>
<p>The reality, as research shows, is that not all skin types are represented by L’Oreal or in the media generally. In our previous research, my and colleagues and I coded every image of a man featured in <a href="https://glenjankowski.files.wordpress.com/2017/11/jankowskiea2014.pdf">popular men’s magazines</a>, <a href="https://glenjankowski.files.wordpress.com/2016/09/the-appearance-potency-of-mens-websites.pdf">dating websites and porn sites</a>. Unsurprisingly, we found the majority of the images used were of men who were muscular, had full heads of hair and were young. </p>
<p>We also found just 203 – or three per cent of the 6,349 images featured – had a skin blemish or an unsymmetrical facial feature. These features were minor such as faint eye wrinkles or a slightly unsymmetrical nose. There were no images of men with acne. We also found similar results for the images of women.</p>
<h2>No acne, scars or blemishes</h2>
<p>In general, people with visible facial differences, such as acne, are rarely represented and when they are represented in media they are often <a href="http://www.rudermanfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/TV-White-Paper_final.final_.pdf">villified</a>. Just think of Scar from The Lion King, Lord Voldemort from Harry Potter and more recently <a href="https://themighty.com/2015/06/how-hollywood-portrays-people-with-facial-difference-as-villians/">Dr Poison from Wonder Woman</a> – these are all characters with prominent facial scarring who represent the “baddies”. </p>
<p>Acne also faces stigma. The NHS has <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/acne/causes/">tried to break this stigma</a> by rebutting the persistent myths surrounding acne: that it is caused by a bad diet or how clean your face is. It’s not. </p>
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<p>Blemished skin isn’t the only under represented skin type. Older skin and darker skin is also seen less often in popular culture. Such is the poor representation of darker skin that my colleagues and I found there were twice as many lighter skinned Black women featured than darker skinned Black women, even in <a href="https://glenjankowski.files.wordpress.com/2017/07/jankowski-et-al-2017-light-except-lupita.pdf">Black women’s magazines</a>. </p>
<h2>Extreme airbrushing</h2>
<p>The poor representation of all skin types is especially true for many cosmetic companies. In 2009, Proctor & Gamble’s Olay <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/dec/16/twiggys-olay-ad-banned-airbrushing">announced</a> they were using fashion model Twiggy to head up one of their adverts. Twiggy had a skin “type” rarely featured in advertising – one that had some evidence of ageing – she was 59 at the time. So how did Olay celebrate this skin type? They got rid of it. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/dec/16/twiggys-olay-ad-banned-airbrushing">Ofcom banned the advert</a> for its extensive airbrushing of Twiggy’s skin which they argued could give a misleading impression of the effect the product could achieve. </p>
<p>Other companies such as L’Oreal are no better. At least <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2094440/Rachel-Weisz-advert-banned-LOreal-admits-airbrushing.html">three of their adverts have been banned</a> for extensive airbrushing of female celebrities’ faces – including Rachel Weisz and Julia Roberts. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211963/original/file-20180326-148720-ce0mwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211963/original/file-20180326-148720-ce0mwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211963/original/file-20180326-148720-ce0mwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211963/original/file-20180326-148720-ce0mwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211963/original/file-20180326-148720-ce0mwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211963/original/file-20180326-148720-ce0mwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211963/original/file-20180326-148720-ce0mwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Love the skin you’re in.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/success?src=nY-I5IeL2KiU5ANGN8N1yw-1-70">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>L’Oreal’s decision to fire Kadeeja is reminiscent of a <a href="https://jezebel.com/5573505/craigslist-ad-hints-that-dove-wants-real-women-but-only-if-theyre-flawless">casting call</a> for Dove’s Real Beauty campaign in 2010 which aims to create a world where “<a href="https://www.dove.com/uk/stories/campaigns.html">every body is beautiful</a>”. The casting call specified that Dove was looking for “three or four real women for a Dove Print Campaign”. The call stated that the women “must have flawless skin”, “nice bodies” and that “beautiful hair and skin is a must”. </p>
<p>Dove also got into trouble in 2008 when a photo editor claimed he had extensively airbrushed some of the images of real women in Dove’s adverts. This was later backtracked, with the editor claiming his words had been <a href="https://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/dove-dangin-dispute-real-beauty-ad-retouching-claim/808249">taken out of context</a>. </p>
<p>Companies like Dove – or its parent company Unilever – need to sell their next anti-cellulite, anti-wrinkle and skin bleaching creams. So while Dove’s campaign might claim “every body is beautiful”, its profits depend on women believing that bodies with cellulite or wrinkles are not.</p>
<p>Someone like Kadeeja, is an antidote to this and the plethora of images of women and men in the media that have flawless skin. So while, yes, she posts makeup tips, she is also “acne positive”. She regularly posts pictures of herself without makeup, with acne, showing her 146,000 Instagram followers that “<a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/Besw5QuAiLx/?hl=en&taken-by=emeraldxbeauty">looks are not everything</a>” and that “<a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/BgJWPwsg_HN/?hl=en&taken-by=emeraldxbeauty">beauty is self confidence applied directly to the face</a>”. And in that sense, by today’s standards of beauty, she is pretty radical.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93109/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Glen Jankowski does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>People with visible facial differences, such as acne, are rarely represented in the media and when they are, they are often vilified.Glen Jankowski, Senior Lecturer in the School of Social Sciences, Leeds Beckett UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/915162018-03-22T19:08:38Z2018-03-22T19:08:38ZWrinkles, liver spots, crows’ feet: what happens to our skin as we age?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210153/original/file-20180313-30965-1mepa4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Reductions in collagen and elastin as we age are mostly to blame for our laugh lines. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/ZPynRLKjp9I">todd cravens/unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This article is part of our series about skin: why we have it, what it does and what can go wrong. Read other articles in the series <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/skin-series-50414">here</a>.</em></p>
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<p>The main factors that contribute to how old we look include the shape of our face, the number of lines or wrinkles, and the luminosity of our skin. Each of these is influenced by intrinsic and external factors.</p>
<p>Skin is the most visible organ. So ageing skin has a big impact on a person’s self-esteem. Aussies spend <a href="https://stat.mozo.com.au/images/more-on-mozo/media-releases/twenty-two-billion--the-annual-cost-of-vanity.pdf">nearly A$5 billion per year</a> on skin care products and treatments, with Queenslanders spending the most on beauty per capita.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-skin-is-a-very-important-and-our-largest-organ-what-does-it-do-91515">The skin is a very important (and our largest) organ: what does it do?</a>
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<h2>Intrinsic ageing of the skin</h2>
<p>Rates of intrinsic (also known as chronologic) ageing are predicted, to a degree, by our genetic makeup, including our skin colour.</p>
<p>With age, the epidermis (the top layer of the skin) becomes thinner and more transparent. This means that it reflects less light and so appears less luminous as time goes on. </p>
<p>The epidermis may also start to develop growths, including small brown dots (dermatosis papulosa nigra and seborrhoic keratoses) and overgrown oil glands, as well as spots that result from ultra-violet (UV) light exposure such as lentigines (freckles), melasma (pigmentation), solar keratoses (sun spots) and skin cancers.</p>
<p>Our dermis (the layer of skin under the epidermis) loses collagen and elastin as we age, causing the skin to sag and develop wrinkles when our muscles move under the skin. The blood vessels in the dermis also become thinner, which leads to easy bruising. And because the dermis and epidermis are thinner and hence closer together as we age, the blood vessels become more visible on the surface of the skin with time.</p>
<p>The reason collagen decreases as we age is complex, but is partly due to the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1606623/">reduced function of the cells</a> that make collagen (fibroblasts) and an increase in the enzyme that breaks down collagen. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210615/original/file-20180315-104699-c011qh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210615/original/file-20180315-104699-c011qh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210615/original/file-20180315-104699-c011qh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210615/original/file-20180315-104699-c011qh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210615/original/file-20180315-104699-c011qh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210615/original/file-20180315-104699-c011qh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210615/original/file-20180315-104699-c011qh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210615/original/file-20180315-104699-c011qh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Cross-section of the skin.</span>
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<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4174174/">Research has also shown</a> that fat is lost and bone is resorbed from different compartments of the face at different rates, and this affects our perceived age.</p>
<p>When fat disappears from under the eyes (usually in our 20s or 30s), a dark shadow appears, making us look tired. And as the fat pad around the cheeks moves downwards (in our 30s and 40s), lines are created that extend outwards from the nose. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-australia-have-so-much-skin-cancer-hint-its-not-because-of-an-ozone-hole-91850">Why does Australia have so much skin cancer? (Hint: it's not because of an ozone hole)</a>
</strong>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>Decreases in collagen and elastin cause frown lines and crows feet to develop, alongside other dynamic wrinkles (wrinkles from muscle movement). Meanwhile, the edge of the brow begins to drop and the lips start to thin out.</p>
<p>As we move into our 50s, collagen and elastin levels fall further, causing our wrinkles to deepen, and resorption of bone occurs around the eyes causing “bags” to form. Fat hanging from now less-elastic skin causes our eyebrows and nasal tips to droop and the skin on our neck to sag.</p>
<p>But intrinsic factors aren’t the whole story. Our lifestyle, environment and habits also play a role in skin ageing.</p>
<h2>Extrinsic ageing of the skin</h2>
<p>Extrinsic ageing can be induced by environmental factors such as UV exposure, smoking and air pollution. This means the skin’s apparent age and its chronological age are not always the same.</p>
<p>UV light breaks down elastin in the dermis, causing saggy, stretchy skin. The skin also bruises and tears more easily and takes longer to heal with ongoing exposure to UV rays.</p>
<p>Tobacco smoke results in insufficient oxygen supply to the skin and blocked blood vessels. It reduces immunity (meaning skin cancers can develop more easily) and increases the level of an enzyme that breaks down collagen. Reduced collagen results in wrinkles and loss of volume. Smoking also increases dryness, coarseness and a dull appearance of the skin, and increases wrinkles around the mouth.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20664556">Recent research</a> also suggests a positive correlation between air pollution and extrinsic skin ageing, with 20% more pigment spots noted on the forehead and cheeks of those with exposure to more soot and particles from traffic.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210154/original/file-20180313-30958-1twaha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210154/original/file-20180313-30958-1twaha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/210154/original/file-20180313-30958-1twaha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210154/original/file-20180313-30958-1twaha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210154/original/file-20180313-30958-1twaha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210154/original/file-20180313-30958-1twaha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210154/original/file-20180313-30958-1twaha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/210154/original/file-20180313-30958-1twaha.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">More pigmented skin is usually thicker, meaning it won’t wrinkle as much as white skin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/Oed8cpob9VM">tikkho maciel unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Differences in ageing</h2>
<p>So why is it that people of different ethnicities and skin colours seem to age differently? Different types of skin have different amounts of elastin, collagen, pigment cells (melanocytes), and fats. </p>
<p>Darker skin has larger, more numerous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanosome">melanosomes</a>, which manufacture, store and transport melanin, in turn giving the skin pigment. This provides protection against UV rays in people with darker skin types. </p>
<p>The average protective factor against UV-B radiation in black skin was found to be 13.4 – compared with 3.4 for white skin, while the average rate of UV-B transmission into the dermis was 5.7% in black skin, compared with 29.4% in white skin. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/common-skin-rashes-and-what-to-do-about-them-91518">Common skin rashes and what to do about them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While increased melanin serves as an inbuilt sunscreen, it’s also the responses of these pigment cells that make patients with skin of colour more susceptible to pigment problems over time. </p>
<p>And those with darker skin types are said to have a thickened outer layer of the skin with larger and more numerous fibroblasts (cells that make connective tissue and collagen) and compact collagen. This means this type of skin won’t wrinkle as easily, but has a greater chance of keloid scarring (overgrowth of scar tissue).</p>
<p>So it seems that not all skin is created equal, but there are things we can do to optimise our skin health. Sun protection (hat, sunscreen, seeking shade) and avoiding smoking are good places to start. Retinoids have been proven to help minimise fine lines, pigmentation and to increase collagen and repair sun-damaged skin. </p>
<p>As for the myriad lotions and potions that claim to magically make us look 21 again … if I find one that works I’ll let you know. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/four-of-the-most-life-threatening-skin-conditions-and-what-you-should-know-about-them-92610">Four of the most life-threatening skin conditions and what you should know about them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91516/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Rodrigues does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There’s not much we can do about the reduction in collagen and fat that cause lines and circles under our eyes as we age. But sunscreen and a healthy lifestyle can help keep the signs of ageing at bay.Michelle Rodrigues, Consultant Dermatologist, St Vincent's Hospital MelbourneLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/906522018-01-26T10:45:29Z2018-01-26T10:45:29ZGal Gadot, Amena Khan and the peril of being famous, female, and having political opinions<p>Both are female beauty icons, and both tweeted “problematic” tweets about the Gaza–Israel conflict in 2014. And that is where the similarity ends.</p>
<p>Wonder Woman actress Gal Gadot hardly needs an introduction. She’s a <a href="http://www.elleuk.com/life-and-culture/culture/news/a40996/blogger-muslimgirl-revlon-gal-gadot/">brand ambassador</a> for Revlon and the face of <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bm-MLEcon80">Gucci Bamboo</a> fragrance. She has a strong social media presence, with 15.9m followers on <a href="https://www.instagram.com/gal_gadot/?hl=en">Instagram</a> and 1.62m followers on <a href="https://twitter.com/GalGadot?ref_src=twsrc%5Egoogle%7Ctwcamp%5Eserp%7Ctwgr%5Eauthor">Twitter</a>. She’s been <a href="https://www.popsugar.co.uk/celebrity/Gal-Gadot-Soldier-Israeli-Army-43662588">described</a> as the “ultimate badass” for “breaking gender barriers as Wonder Woman”.</p>
<p>Amena Khan is a beauty blogger. She has almost 400,000 subscribers on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC9SlIYeOQb2vrTQ3opSCXkg">YouTube</a> and her videos have been viewed hundreds of thousands of times. Her <a href="https://www.instagram.com/amenaofficial/?hl=en">Instagram</a> presence is even more impressive, with 577,000 followers, and she has become a fashion icon for hijab-wearing women. She shot to national and international fame when she first appeared in a L’Oreal advert for their signature <a href="http://www.loreal-paris.co.uk/inside-loreal-paris/tv-advert/true-match-directors-cut/">True Match foundation</a>. Her most recent campaign saw her appear in a L’Oreal shampoo advert in her hijab, in what was <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/article/42746002/hijab-shampoo-advert-loreal-model-on-game-changing-ad">described</a> as a “game-changing” campaign. So far so good.</p>
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<p>But following the emergence of several tweets posted by Khan condemning Israel’s military action in Gaza in 2014, the beauty icon has been accused of being anti-Israel and she <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/newsbeat-42779188">quickly resigned</a> from the campaign. Her carefully drafted resignation <a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/BeQGp4ZnuuD/?utm_source=ig_embed&utm_campaign=embed_ufi">statement</a> was clearly intended to swiftly but respectfully distance her comments from the L’Oreal inclusivity campaign. But <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/loreal-amena-khan-hijab-tweets_us_5a6617cae4b0022830052a59">some have questioned why</a> that relationship ended – and who really ended it.</p>
<p>Gadot also tweeted during the same 2014 military assault on Gaza in support of the Israeli army, in which she once served. Gadot has not faced similar censure for this, despite the fact that the <a href="http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoIGazaConflict/Pages/ReportCoIGaza.aspx">United Nations Independent Commission of Inquiry</a> on the 2014 Gaza conflict found that the conduct of both parties amounted to violating multiple international laws. </p>
<p>When Gadot’s tweets emerged, she was accused of supporting the killing of civilians – and the Wonder Woman film was <a href="http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/07/tunisia-bans-woman-al-chaab-complaint-170720035511736.html">widely boycotted</a> in countries such as Lebanon, Jordan and Tunisia. But Gadot did not feel pressure to resign from any beauty campaigns as a result of her political views.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/BeQGp4ZnuuD/?taken-by=amenaofficial","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>This article is not about Gaza, it is about the rights of each women to voice an opinion. So from a feminist perspective, how do their positions compare?</p>
<h2>Intersectionality explained</h2>
<p>Feminism is a broad concept and encompasses many schools of thought. In today’s modern and global society, there is a need to take an <a href="https://youtu.be/akOe5-UsQ2o">intersectional approach</a>. </p>
<p>Such an approach acknowledges that not all women are the same and not all women suffer from the same discriminations. A white upper-middle class woman is not going to face the same discriminations as a black working-class woman, for example. The white middle-class woman may face discrimination through unequal pay for equal labour as compared with men. But the black working-class woman may face the same issue, while also facing racist discrimination which may result in her not even being interviewed for the job to begin with. Despite both being women, they are not treated in the same way. </p>
<p>Each woman has a number of characteristics which intersect and in some cases may lead to greater discrimination. The <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/contents">2010 Equality Act</a>, which protects against discrimination on the grounds of sex, unfortunately does not extend its protection to intersectional characteristics. This is a major shortcoming in the legislation.</p>
<p>In the 1980s, the current director of SOAS, Valeria Amos, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1395006?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">accused</a> white feminists of ignoring the particular struggles faced by black women – including racism – and instead prioritising issues which would benefit a small number of white middle-class women, such as equal pay and job sharing. Almost 35 years later, has much changed? The difference in treatment experienced by Khan and Gadot in response to their opposite positions on a political issue suggests not.</p>
<p>Gadot is a beautiful white woman, who is portrayed as a strong soldier, an Amazon of Greek mythology. Khan on the other hand is a beautiful Asian Muslim woman who wears the hijab. <a href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmwomeq/89/89.pdf">Research shows</a> that Muslim women face significant discrimination. The unemployment rate for Muslims in the UK is <a href="https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmwomeq/89/89.pdf">more than double</a> that of any other group, and hijab wearing Muslim women in particular experience greater discrimination – <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/muslims-more-likely-to-be-unemployed-than-any-other-social-group-in-the-uk-mps-warn-a7185451.html">65%</a> of unemployed Muslims are women. So L'Oreal’s inclusivity campaign was much needed.</p>
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<h2>Unequal treatment</h2>
<p>For such women, the characteristics of being female, non-white and Muslim intersect to lead to added discrimination compared with that faced by white women on the whole. This is not recognised by the law. Yet the far-reaching consequences of this can be seen starkly in the treatment faced by Amena Khan and Gal Gadot. Khan’s quick exit from the L’Oreal campaign suggests that she is not entitled to hold a political view on the war in Gaza in 2014. Gadot, on the other hand, faced no such repercussions for airing her views, suggesting she is entitled.</p>
<p>Was the problem that Khan’s comments were indefensible, or that they could not be identified with by L'Oreal’s demographic? Is it that this group do not share some or all of Khan’s character traits – being Muslim, being Asian, being a mother? These are traits which are fundamental to her identity and no doubt influence her opinions and life choices – just as having pets and commuting to work would have an impact on a woman’s views on animal cruelty, train fares and equal pay. Both views are valid and valuable. For L'Oreal, a truly inclusive campaign means taking account of the existence of all this diversity.</p>
<p>It seems clear that neither Gadot nor Khan can be accused of being extreme, and both are entitled to their views. But only one has felt the need to resign as a result.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90652/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Both female beauty icons posted ‘problematic’ tweets about the Israel-Palestine conflict in 2014. But they weren’t received the same way.Rajnaara C Akhtar, Senior Lecturer in Law, De Montfort UniversityKate Wilkinson Cross, Lecturer in Law, De Montfort UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/854462017-10-10T04:29:32Z2017-10-10T04:29:32ZDove, real beauty and the racist history of skin whitening<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189496/original/file-20171010-10908-17sb3zr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Dove ad published on Facebook, which the company took down after many complaints of racial insensitivity. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NayTheMUA/Facebook</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>This week the marketing office of Dove, a personal care brand of Unilever, found itself in hot water over an ad that many people have taken to be racially insensitive. Social media users called for a boycott of the brand’s products. </p>
<p>The offending ad showed a black woman appearing to turn white after using its body lotion. This online campaign was swiftly removed but had already hurtled through social media after a US makeup artist, Naomi Blake (Naythemua), posted her dismay on Facebook, calling the ad “tone deaf”. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"916993830024511488"}"></div></p>
<p>Dove responded <a href="https://twitter.com/Dove/status/916731793927278592">initially via Twitter</a>.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"916731793927278592"}"></div></p>
<p>The company then followed up with a longer statement: “As a part of a campaign for Dove body wash, a three-second video clip was posted to the US Facebook page … It did not represent the diversity of real beauty which is something Dove is passionate about and is core to our beliefs, and it should not have happened.”</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"917444642047778816"}"></div></p>
<p>One has to ask, were the boys destined for Dove marketing kicking on at the pub instead of going to their History of Advertising lecture, the one with the 1884 Pears’ soap ad powerpoint? Jokes aside, Dove’s troubling ad buys into a racist history of seeing white skin as clean, and black skin as something to be cleansed.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189454/original/file-20171009-25615-nqu1rj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189454/original/file-20171009-25615-nqu1rj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189454/original/file-20171009-25615-nqu1rj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189454/original/file-20171009-25615-nqu1rj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189454/original/file-20171009-25615-nqu1rj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189454/original/file-20171009-25615-nqu1rj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189454/original/file-20171009-25615-nqu1rj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189454/original/file-20171009-25615-nqu1rj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The original Pears’ soap advert based on the fable Washing the Blackamoor white, published in the Graphic for Christmas 1884.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Racist history</h2>
<p>Dove has missed the mark before. In a 2011 ad, three progressively paler-skinned women stand in towels under two boards labelled “Before” and “After”, implying transitioning to lighter skin was the luminous beauty promise of Dove (<a href="http://gawker.com/5804724/dove-body-wash-strong-enough-to-turn-a-black-woman-white">Dove responded</a> that all three women represented the “after” image). </p>
<p>Many of the indignant comments reference the longstanding trope of black babies and women scrubbed white. Australia has particular form on this front. Gamilaraay Yuwaalaraay historian Frances Peters–Little (filmmaker and performing artist) has demanded an apology from Dove. She posted a soap advertisement for Nulla Nulla soap from 1901 on Facebook to show the long reach of racism through entrenched tropes still at work in the Dove ads. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189457/original/file-20171009-25624-ymsneh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189457/original/file-20171009-25624-ymsneh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/189457/original/file-20171009-25624-ymsneh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=651&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189457/original/file-20171009-25624-ymsneh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=651&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189457/original/file-20171009-25624-ymsneh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=651&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189457/original/file-20171009-25624-ymsneh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=818&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189457/original/file-20171009-25624-ymsneh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=818&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/189457/original/file-20171009-25624-ymsneh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=818&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A soap advertisement for Nulla Nulla soap from 1901.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306379190_Representation_and_Power_A_Picture_is_Worth_a_Thousand_Words_-_%27Nulla-Nulla_Australia%27s_White_Hope_The_Best_Household_Soap%27_1920s">Wiradjuri author Kathleen Jackson</a> has also written about the Nulla Nulla ad and the kingplate, a badge of honour given by white settlers to Aboriginal people, labelled “DIRT”. She explains that whiteness was seen as purity, while blackness was seen as filth, something that colonialists were charged to expunge from the face of the Earth. Advertising suggested imperial soap had the power to eradicate indigeneity.</p>
<p>This coincided with policies that were expressly aimed at eliminating the “native”. In Australia the policy of assimilation was based on the entirely spurious scientific whimsy of “biological absorption”, that dark skin and indigenous features could be eliminated through “<a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10314610208596220">breeding out the colour</a>”. </p>
<p>In New South Wales, “half-caste” girls were targeted for removal from their families and placed as domestic servants in white homes where it was assumed “lower-class” white men would marry them. These women were often vulnerable to sexual violence. Any resulting children, however begotten, would be fairer-skinned, due implicitly to the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/09612029300200035">bleaching properties</a> of white men’s semen.</p>
<p>Aboriginal mothers were vilified as unhygienic and neglectful. In fact, they battled against often impossible privation to turn their children out immaculately in the hope police would have less cause to remove them.</p>
<h2>Real beauty?</h2>
<p>Cleanliness and godliness, whiteness and maternal competency: these are the lacerations Dove liberally salted with its history-blind ad. It unwittingly strikes at the resistance and resilience of Aboriginal families who for generations fended off fragmentation, draconian administration and intrusive surveillance by state administrators. Its myopic implied characterisation of beauty as resulting from shedding blackness is mystifying.</p>
<p>In 2004, Dove kicked off a campaign for “<a href="http://www.dove.com/au/stories/campaigns.html">Real Beauty</a>”. It <a href="https://www.unilever.co.uk/brands/our-brands/dove.html">proclaims itself</a> “an agent of change to educate and inspire girls on a wider definition of beauty and to make them feel more confident about themselves”. Dove’s online short films about beauty standards – including <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nTZqHkEwfng">Daughters</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9zKfF40jeCA">Onslaught</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjArfCjNuc8">Amy</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYhCn0jf46U">Evolution</a> – have been recognised with international advertising awards.</p>
<p>Yet Dove also sits in Unilever with <a href="https://www.fairandlovely.in/">Fair and Lovely</a>, a skin whitening product and brand developed in India in 1975. This corporate cousin to Dove touts its bleaching agent as the No. 1 “fairness cream” and purports to work through activating “the Fair and Lovely vitamin system to give radiant even toned skin”. It is <a href="https://www.unilever-ewa.com/brands/our-brands/fair-and-lovely.html">sold in over 40 countries</a>. </p>
<p>Skin whitening products (there is also a <a href="http://www.fairandhandsome.net/">Fair and Handsome</a> for men, not associated with Unilever) are popular in Asia, where more than 60 companies compete in a <a href="https://www.pri.org/stories/2009-03-30/skin-whitening-big-business-asia">market estimated at US$18 billion</a>. They enforce social hierarchies around caste and ethnicity. Since the 1920s the racialised politics of <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=BxQxkiBqXrsC&pg=PA49&lpg=PA49&dq=modern+girl+around+the+world+skin+lighteners&source=bl&ots=NQEiF8I4vz&sig=Xn_7y8mX24xf7KyexWjv6_O3E5Q&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ie24VM3yEIWi8QWnsIKoDQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=skin%20lighteners&f=false">skin lightening</a> have spread around the globe as consumer capitalism reached into China, India and South Africa.</p>
<p>Dove responded to its controversial ad by saying that “the diversity of real beauty… is core to our beliefs”. But “core” here seems skin-deep when it fails to penetrate into the pores of its parent company and its subsidiaries.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85446/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liz Conor receives funding from the Australia Research Council.</span></em></p>Beauty brand Dove caused controversy with an ad seemingly showing a black woman turning white after using its body lotion. While Dove removed the ad, it played into the racist history of skin whitening.Liz Conor, ARC Future Fellow, La Trobe UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/819772017-09-11T00:40:30Z2017-09-11T00:40:30ZAt the beauty salon, Dominican-American women conflicted over quest for straight hair<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184780/original/file-20170905-13783-vgjfdt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Dominican immigrant cuts the hair of a customer at her New York City salon.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/NYC-Immigrant-Business/3d166ad35ba64a43a949182983410738/3/0">Seth Wenig/AP Photo</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When Chabelly Pacheco – a Dominican-American who moved to Long Island when she was five years old – walks into her favorite Dominican salon on Brooklyn’s Graham Avenue, it’s more like entering a home than a business. </p>
<p>The salon is filled with smoke, hair spray and women of all ages. Everyone in the room greets her: The hairdressers kiss her on both cheeks, while the other customers say hello. Daughters sit alongside their mothers with curlers in their hair, feet dangling from their chairs. </p>
<p>For first-generation Dominican women like Pacheco, these salons can serve as a place to bond with fellow Dominicans. </p>
<p>“I don’t really feel connected to my culture,” said Yoeli Collado, a friend of Pacheco’s who moved to Long Island from the Dominican Republic when she was three years old. “When I speak Spanish, I feel powerful… But other than that I don’t have much I can connect to. So going to a Dominican salon is part of my culture. For me, it’s one of the only ways I can identify.”</p>
<p>Other diasporas have a wide range of cultural public spaces. There are Chinese community centers and Indian music venues, Russian tea rooms and Ghanaian restaurants.</p>
<p>For Dominicans, the salon plays an outsized cultural role. </p>
<p>Fascinated by these spaces – and as a scholar studying women’s issues – I wanted to see how salons and Dominican beauty regimens influence female Dominican-American identity. </p>
<p>I found that although Dominican-American women I interviewed spoke warmly of the salons they frequent, Dominican hair culture is far from glamorous. In many ways, it’s a pricey, burdensome ritual steeped in a colonial beauty standards – a contradiction that young Dominican women are grappling with today. </p>
<h2>‘The hair carries the woman’</h2>
<p>As in many cultures, Dominican female beauty standards can be burdensome. Though most Dominicans tend to have curly, textured hair, the culture favors long, straight hair. Curly, frizzy or kinky hair is called “pelo malo,” which translates to “bad hair,” and many women feel pressured to treat it. </p>
<p>“I hear my mom say it all the time,” Pacheco said. “‘The hair carries the woman’ – that’s the mantra in my family. If your hair is fine, you’re fine.”</p>
<p>Despite the lively atmosphere of the salon, it’s not all fun. It can be costly, painful and time-consuming.</p>
<p>Sociologist Ginetta Candelario <a href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/black-behind-the-ears">has found</a> that Dominican women visit salons far more frequently than any other female population in the U.S., spending up to 30 percent of their salaries on beauty regimens.</p>
<p>Many Dominican kids don’t have any say over how to style their hair; their parents force them to get it straightened. This was evident in Pacheco’s salon, where young girls tugged at the tight curlers in their hair, complaining that the dryers were burning their scalps. </p>
<p>“You’re taught from a young age that your hair has to be straight to be pretty, to get a job, to get a boyfriend, to be called pretty by your mother,” Pacheco told me. </p>
<p>It all stems from a strict hair culture in the Dominican Republic, where young women can actually <a href="http://www.essence.com/hair/natural/black-student-natural-hair-asked-to-get-hair-done">be sent home from school or work</a> if their hair isn’t worn in the “preferred way.” Women with untreated, natural hair can even be <a href="http://remezcla.com/features/culture/meet-miss-rizos-the-woman-behind-santo-domingos-first-natural-hair-salon/">barred from some public and private spaces</a>. </p>
<p>Though discrimination against curly hair isn’t as pronounced in New York, many Dominican-American women told me that they nevertheless feel the same sort of pressure. </p>
<h2>No such thing as black</h2>
<p>The Dominican tradition of straight hair has it roots in colonial rule under Spain; it eventually became a way to imitate the higher classes and to separate themselves from their Haitian neighbors, who once occupied their country and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3821341?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">championed the négritude movement</a>, which was started by black writers to defend and celebrate a black cultural identity. </p>
<p>Dominicans believe that Haitians are “black,” while Dominicans – even those who clearly descend from African heritage – fall into other nonblack categories. </p>
<p>The process of differentiation is referred to as <a href="http://www.afropedea.org/whitening-bleaching-branqueamento-por-blanqueamiento-sp">“blanqueamiento</a>,” which translates to “whitening,” and hair straightening is simply one of many ways Dominicans try to distinguish themselves from Haitians. In fact, even though the Dominican Republic <a href="http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/index.php?en_programs_diaspora">ranks fifth</a> in countries outside of Africa that have the largest black populations, many black Dominicans don’t consider themselves black. </p>
<p>“[Blackness] is a taboo in the DR,” Stephanie Lorenzo, a 25-year-old Dominican-American from the Bronx, explained. “You don’t want to be black.”</p>
<p><a href="http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2016/2/23/curly-centric-hair-salon-teaches-dominican-women-to-love-their-pajon.html">According to Yesilernis Peña</a>, a researcher at the Instituto Tecnologico de Santo Domingo who studies race in the Latin Caribbean, there are six established racial categories in the Dominican Republic, and they tend to correlate with one’s economic class: white, mixed race, olive, Indian, dark and black.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, <a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=ASkib7s1QH8C&pg=PA58&lpg=PA58&dq=white+skinned+elite+dominican+republic&source=bl&ots=S-IS78LmcK&sig=BdbIdxL3IVzCZ-LSdfFEN7OIp_8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwikgPzGgpDWAhVIJsAKHY_PAhkQ6AEIgQEwFA#v=onepage&q=white%20skinned%20elite%20dominican%20republic&f=false">a light-skinned elite has consolidated most of the political power</a>, while many of the country’s black people – who make up the majority of the population – live in extreme poverty. So straightening one’s hair can be seen as an attempt to climb the social ladder – or at least imitate those with money and power. </p>
<p>“When people relax their hair or bleach it, they do it because they want to be closer to the people who hold the power,” Dominican salon owner Carolina Contreras told the magazine <a href="http://remezcla.com/features/culture/meet-miss-rizos-the-woman-behind-santo-domingos-first-natural-hair-salon/">Remezcla</a> in 2015. </p>
<h2>‘But I like it straight’</h2>
<p>Given the fraught history of hair, it’s clear that Dominican salons, with the beauty regimens they perpetuate, are complex, contradictory places.</p>
<p>Pacheco – who grew up in America and loves spending time at the salon – is aware that she’s also tacitly succumbing to beauty norms steeped in racism.</p>
<p>“Obviously it’s a construct, and it puts pressure on women and sometimes I feel conflicted about getting my hair straightened,” she said. “That deeply rooted colonial oppression is still there. But then I’m like, ‘I like it straight.’” </p>
<p>In sociologist Ginetta Candelario’s study “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288671633_Hair_Race-ing_Dominican_Beauty_Culture_and_Identity_Production">Hair-Race-ing: Dominican Beauty Culture and Identity Production</a>,” she wonders if beauty can be a source of empowerment, even if it means using time and resources, while suppressing one’s “blackness.” </p>
<p>Through her extensive research in Dominican salons in New York, Candelario did find that women can, in fact, empower themselves through these beauty norms. By physically altering their appearance, they could get better jobs and use their beauty as “symbolic and economic capital.”</p>
<p>But she points out that in order for this beauty regimen to exist in the first place, it requires “ugliness to reside somewhere, and that somewhere is in other women, usually women defined as black.”</p>
<h2>Reimagining beauty, reinventing space</h2>
<p>In 2014, Carolina Contreras opened up Miss Rizos, a natural hair salon located in the colonial city center of Santo Domingo, the nation’s capital. </p>
<p>The 29-year-old Dominican-American wanted her salon to champion “pajón love” (Afro love), and to reimagine what a Dominican salon and a Dominican beauty regimen might look like. The salon, which caters to Dominican-Americans, encourages women to wear their Afro-textured hair with pride.</p>
<p>It was at Contreras’s salon where Stephanie Lorenzo decided to do “the big chop” in 2015: She cut off her chemically altered hair, leaving her with a small Afro. </p>
<p>“Around the same time, I was becoming more in touch with my African roots as an American woman,” she said. “[Cutting my hair] was part of acknowledging that we are also black.”</p>
<p>Back in Brooklyn, Chabelly Pacheco’s hairdresser said that during her 30 years working in salons in the Dominican Republic, Haiti and New York, she’s noticed more women asking for natural hair treatments. In fact, many older Dominican women are now starting to change the way they see their own hair. Carolina Contreras’ mother told me that she decided to go natural to be closer to the way God imagined her. </p>
<p>Contreras, however, is quick to note that the natural hair movement isn’t meant to shame women who do choose to straighten their hair. Instead, it’s simply about making textured hair accepted, appreciated and celebrated. </p>
<p>Perhaps by embracing all different kinds of hair, salons – which bring Dominican women closer to their culture and to each other – can also bring Dominican women closer to their natural selves.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/81977/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Melissa Godin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In New York City, hair salons are one of the few cultural spaces for Dominican women to bond. But they also perpetuate legacies of racism and colonialism.Melissa Godin, Rhodes Scholar Studying Development, New York UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/799302017-08-31T20:24:45Z2017-08-31T20:24:45ZFriday essay: The personal is now commercial – popular feminism online<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184158/original/file-20170831-22614-1skgmb1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Eva Blue/Flickr, Southern Cross Austereo</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Once a week, during electives at primary school in 1980, I walked with a group of girls to the local hairdressing salon where we were taught how to apply eyeshadow, lipstick and smooth foundation onto our perfect skins. We also played AFL with the boys during sports period, but the news from women’s liberation about make-up and women’s oppression hadn’t yet arrived at my little school in the sleepy seaside town of Sorrento.</p>
<p>Second-wave feminism, to a large extent, defined itself against the beauty industry. As Susan Magarey <a href="http://www.outskirts.arts.uwa.edu.au/volumes/volume-28/susan-magarey">writes</a>, one of the Australian Women’s Liberation movement’s first actions was a 1970 protest against Adelaide University’s “Miss Fresher” beauty contest. It was inspired, in part, by a protest in the US against the 1968 Miss America pageant.</p>
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<p>Women’s liberationists did have their disagreements about individual choices and tactics. Anne Summers, writing in the newsletter MeJane in 1973, said she was abused for wearing make-up at a Women’s Liberation conference. Carol Hanisch, a member of the New York Radical Women group behind the 1968 protest, argued later that protesters should target not the women who enter beauty contests, but “the men and bosses who imposed false beauty standards on women”. </p>
<p>In 1963, Betty Friedan had argued women’s magazines were central to creating the feminine mystique, an infantalising image of womanhood built around a myth of beautiful women in beautiful homes tending to handsome husbands and beautiful children. By 1975, Summers agreed. In Damned Whores and God’s Police, she wrote:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Popular magazines have as their principal <em>raison d'être</em> the codification and constant updating of femininity.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>And by 1991, feminists were still linking beauty to women’s oppression. Naomi Wolf’s <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/39926.The_Beauty_Myth?ac=1&from_search=true">The Beauty Myth</a> argued that women’s progress in the public sphere was matched by a fashion and media industry that promoted increasingly narrow standards of physical perfection: the superwoman also had to be a supermodel. </p>
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<p>Wolf’s thesis was an important and galvanising one, but by the 1990s popular culture was in some ways outrunning popular feminism. As an undergraduate, I nodded along with my feminist friends reading Wolf during the day, while at night we frocked up and painted our lips to visit inner-city clubs where androgyny and queer culture were increasingly visible. </p>
<p>Celebrity figures such as Bowie, Prince and Madonna had prompted fans, as well as gender and cultural studies scholars, to ask if fashion and make-up, rather than necessarily being oppressive, could be seen in terms of play, choice and experiments around gender and sexuality. </p>
<p>Scholars had also started to ask whether women who consumed fashion and beauty products really were all passive dupes of big corporations. In more recent years, some have <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08164640701361766">convincingly argued</a> that beauty and fashion magazines might have been slipping feminist messages and empowering information into their pages all along. </p>
<h2>The women’s magazine formula</h2>
<p>The relationship of feminism to the beauty industry and women’s magazines, in other words, has a complex history. Still, as I listened to Elaine Welteroth, the editor-in-chief of Teen Vogue, <a href="https://www.swf.org.au/stories/listen-elaine-welteroth-on-editing-teen-vogue/">speak</a> to the Sydney Writers’ Festival in June this year, it occurred to me that today’s popular feminism would be unrecognisable to many of the Miss America protesters half a century ago. </p>
<p>For Welteroth, an African-American former beauty editor at Teen Vogue, women’s magazines and beauty products <em>are</em> feminism now.
“Beauty and style are just really great platforms to open up important conversations,” she said. </p>
<p>Welteroth has been widely celebrated for commissioning stories ranging from <a href="http://www.teenvogue.com/story/donald-trump-is-gaslighting-america">Trump gaslighting America</a> and <a href="http://www.teenvogue.com/story/trumps-budget-proposal-to-strip-funding-from-planned-parenthood">abortion rights</a> to <a href="http://www.teenvogue.com/story/coachella-cultural-appropriation">cultural appropriation</a> at the Coachella music festival and the difficulties of being <a href="http://video.teenvogue.com/watch/this-intersex-person-would-do-anything-to-get-their-period">intersex</a>.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183907/original/file-20170830-8679-1h0d78p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183907/original/file-20170830-8679-1h0d78p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=281&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183907/original/file-20170830-8679-1h0d78p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=281&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183907/original/file-20170830-8679-1h0d78p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=281&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183907/original/file-20170830-8679-1h0d78p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183907/original/file-20170830-8679-1h0d78p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183907/original/file-20170830-8679-1h0d78p.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=353&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Teen Vogue’s website this week.</span>
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<p>She told her Sydney audience that fashion and beauty are portals to sisterhood and political awareness:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I can’t tell you how many times I’ve been in the bathroom with another woman … we feel we have nothing in common but we talk about a great lipstick shade or great hair … and it’s just this doorway for connection and for understanding and for dialogue.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>While acknowledging earlier magazines that pioneered this path, like Marie Claire, Sassy and Ms. Magazine, Welteroth claimed Teen Vogue’s pairing of “fashion and beauty” with “radical information” is “special and unprecedented”.</p>
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<p>On my most Pollyannaish days, I want to cheer Welteroth and other online publications that mix politics with fashion and beauty for the way they are mainstreaming feminism. In Australia, <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle">Fairfax’s Daily Life</a> blends wide-eyed articles about <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/fashion/miranda-kerr-reveals-dior-wedding-dress-to-vogue-20170716-gxchf4.html">Miranda Kerr’s wedding dress</a> with <a href="http://www.dailylife.com.au/news-and-views/news-features/outgoing-australian-of-the-year-rosie-batty-hopes-successor-will-continue-work-20160125-gmduts.html">stories</a> about Rosie Batty and <a href="http://www.dailylife.com.au/news-and-views/news-features/outgoing-australian-of-the-year-rosie-batty-hopes-successor-will-continue-work-20160125-gmduts.html">smart commentary</a> by writers such as Ruby Hamad about the relationship between feminism and Islam. </p>
<p>Mia Freedman’s <a href="http://www.mamamia.com.au/">Mamamia</a> mixes stories about making <a href="http://www.mamamia.com.au/make-waxing-less-painful/">waxing less painful</a> with articles on reproductive rights. Freedman’s websites were described as being <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/media/2014/may/27/being-mia-freedman-this-idea-youre-doing-feminism-wrong-i-find-laughable">at the epicentre</a> of the mainstream Australian women’s movement three years ago, although even then, as writer Chloe Hooper observed, Freedman had become “something of a lightning rod for contemporary feminism”. </p>
<p>On closer inspection, though, this lashing together of feminist politics with a women’s magazine sensibility has produced some odd results. In The Feminine Mystique, Friedan ridiculed a 1960s edition of the women’s magazine McCall’s for running articles on baldness in women, on the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, and on finding a second husband. In 2015, when Freedman launched a new (and now defunct) site called Debrief Daily, the site included stories on why <a href="http://www.mamamia.com.au/hair-thinning-in-women/">women’s hair thins</a> out, the name of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge’s <a href="http://www.mamamia.com.au/name-of-the-royal-baby/">new baby</a>, and <a href="http://www.mamamia.com.au/are-second-marriages-happier/">one</a> titled “Four reasons why second marriages are happier marriages”. </p>
<p>In other words, the women’s magazine formula runs deep in many online publications newly rebranded as “feminist”. And as Freedman’s recent and <a href="http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/celebrity/cruel-and-humiliating-bad-feminist-author-roxane-gay-calls-out-treatment-by-mamamia-20170613-gwq7i5.html">widely criticised</a> podcast interview with feminist writer Roxane Gay suggests, the relationship between feminism and online women’s magazines may be at breaking point (more on this below). </p>
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<p>But does this mash-up of fashion and celebrity and feminism <em>have</em> to be incompatible? For Welteroth the answer is no: she says you can cover hard-hitting political and social issues and beauty, fashion and fame. Teen Vogue, she told us, takes news stories that “maybe needed a little bit more context for a younger audience, needed maybe a personal narrative to make [them] seem relevant to them”. </p>
<p>It’s this making the political personal that echoes the second-wave idea of the personal being political, albeit in a reversed way. </p>
<h2>The personal is neoliberal</h2>
<p>In my PhD research, I’ve looked at the origin of the phrase “the personal is political”. Gloria Steinem once said crediting someone for coming up with it would be as absurd as assigning credit to someone for inventing the term “World War II”. Still, its first use in a publication is commonly cited as being the headline of an article by the member of New York Radical Women I mentioned earlier, <a href="http://www.carolhanisch.org/CHwritings/PIP.html">Carol Hanisch</a>, in the 1970 collection of essays Notes from the Second Year.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183908/original/file-20170830-5027-6pu364.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183908/original/file-20170830-5027-6pu364.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183908/original/file-20170830-5027-6pu364.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=771&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183908/original/file-20170830-5027-6pu364.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=771&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183908/original/file-20170830-5027-6pu364.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=771&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183908/original/file-20170830-5027-6pu364.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=968&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183908/original/file-20170830-5027-6pu364.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=968&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183908/original/file-20170830-5027-6pu364.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=968&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Notes from the Second Year.</span>
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<p>Hanisch’s article was a defence of second-wave feminism’s consciousness-raising. Meeting in small groups, women told stories about their lives to understand how their personal problems were actually political ones. And they planned collective action. </p>
<p>Women in the left and the civil rights movement felt that while they protested inequalities between black and white, and the imperialist war in Vietnam, there were glaring injustices in their personal lives. Women took the bulk of responsibility for housework and childcare, did the “shitwork” (Hanisch’s word) in protest movements, were judged on their appearances, and took all the responsibility for contraception and abortion.</p>
<p>Second-wave feminists wanted sexual emancipation and the right to work alongside men, but they didn’t want to do everything. They discussed all kinds of solutions, from communal living to state-provided free childcare, to a total revolution in the consumerist capitalist system. </p>
<p>The jarring thing about the feminism of sites such as Daily Life or Mamamia is that they seem to want to make women responsible for doing everything again. Take a look at the sections at the top of a magazine’s website and you’ll see a list of topics such as “relationships”, “health”, “beauty”, “careers” and so on. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183909/original/file-20170830-10133-1pwcenh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183909/original/file-20170830-10133-1pwcenh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183909/original/file-20170830-10133-1pwcenh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183909/original/file-20170830-10133-1pwcenh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183909/original/file-20170830-10133-1pwcenh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183909/original/file-20170830-10133-1pwcenh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183909/original/file-20170830-10133-1pwcenh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Daily Life’s home page this Wednesday morning.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The endless articles and lists of ways to improve and excel in all those areas can make these sites exhausting just to look at. It seems no coincidence that the same sites will carry articles about managing anxiety, or “ten ways to cope with your depression” and, most famously, Freedman’s own tale of <a href="http://www.mamamia.com.au/living-with-anxiety/">using Lexapro</a> to cope with anxiety, a drug she endorsed to readers.</p>
<p>Many second-wavers were influenced by the counter culture and, with their radical therapy groups and interest in personal growth, they were also interested in self-care. And medication, of course, can be life-saving. But when second-wave feminists like Friedan saw large numbers of women who were anxious and using anti-depressants, they asked how the <em>world</em> needed to change. Or as Hanisch said in 1970: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>There are no personal solutions at this time. There is only collective action for a collective solution. </p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="http://carolhanisch.org/CHwritings/PIP.html">Reflecting on her original article in 2006,</a> Hanisch did acknowledge that we can change ourselves at the same time as we change the world. But now websites like Mamamia are increasingly asking how women can transform and adapt themselves to fit into a competitive, individualistic world. The emphasis is mostly on individual achievement and adaption to the status quo – rather than on changing the status quo.</p>
<h2>The political becomes personal</h2>
<p>The use of first-person stories on women’s websites like Daily Life and Mamamia exploded around the same time as media budgets were cut (a trend writer <a href="http://www.newyorker.com/culture/jia-tolentino/the-personal-essay-boom-is-over">Jia Tolentino</a> has written about in the US). They have been immensely popular, as researcher Kate Wilcox found in her <a href="https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/10137?mode=full">study</a> of Daily Life website.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183910/original/file-20170830-5016-1qd9t2k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183910/original/file-20170830-5016-1qd9t2k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183910/original/file-20170830-5016-1qd9t2k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183910/original/file-20170830-5016-1qd9t2k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183910/original/file-20170830-5016-1qd9t2k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183910/original/file-20170830-5016-1qd9t2k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1137&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183910/original/file-20170830-5016-1qd9t2k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1137&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/183910/original/file-20170830-5016-1qd9t2k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1137&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<p>At their best, these contemporary personal stories are a new form of feminist consciousness-raising, helping women to realise they aren’t alone and to understand that their experiences have social and political contexts. Some great writers with extraordinary stories, such as Mamamia’s Rosie Waterland, emerged from this process. </p>
<p>At their worst, today’s personal story trend never gets beyond the personal to be political, focusing instead on the scandalous, the trivial or sensational, as Roxane Gay recently found. </p>
<p>Gay is an accomplished writer and academic who makes the personal political in her latest book <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22813605-hunger?from_search=true">Hunger</a>. She places the story of her body in the context of her past traumatic sexual abuse. She writes that her body has been pathologised by the medical profession, by the media (singling out shows such as The Biggest Loser) and by people who treat her as an object to be feared and commented on, rather than as a person with opinions and feelings.</p>
<p>Freedman’s <a href="https://www.apple.com/itunes/download/?id=995159486">interview</a> with Gay was not <em>terrible</em>, but it wasn’t very enlightening either. It mostly glided over big political questions. Instead she asked Gay to repeat a series of stories: about her experiences on planes, her relationship with her parents and where Gay sources her clothes.</p>
<p>Freedman’s most egregious mistake, however, was to introduce her podcast by going into minute (and questionable) detail about Gay’s access requirements. Freedman revealed discussions with Gay’s publicists about lifts, stairs and chairs: reducing Gay to a freaky body that doesn’t belong in the world – the very thing her book asks people not to do.</p>
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<p>Feminist books, magazines and now websites have allowed consciousness-raising to move out of small intimate groups, opening up a proliferation of stories for women to read anywhere at any time. Observing the US scene, Tolentino says the personal essay trend is all but <a href="http://www.newyorker.com/culture/jia-tolentino/the-personal-essay-boom-is-over">over</a>. </p>
<p>But books marketed as popular feminist texts have been (and remain) increasingly personal and memoir-based. Often now written by women who are celebrities (Lena Dunham, Sheryl Sandberg, Caitlin Moran …), their life story becomes both the example and proof of the author’s feminist credentials. </p>
<p>The very personal tone in which popular feminism is conducted today can be traced back to both second-wave consciousness-raising <em>and</em> the confessional column of women’s magazines. Although Gay is an academic and cultural commentator as well as a feminist celebrity, as the Mamamia interview debacle showed, these two traditions can collide, creating a new set of problems where the political can become unhelpfully <em>personal</em>. </p>
<p>I’m not suggesting we give Freedman, a publisher who made her name as the youngest editor of Australian Cosmopolitan, a free pass. I am suggesting, though, that we shouldn’t have been <em>surprised</em> by the way this story turned out. Freedman apologised to Gay almost as soon as her interview was published, but her No Filter personal podcast thrives, with Freedman recently tweeting it has reached 4 million downloads. </p>
<h2>Selling consciousness-raising</h2>
<p>With their roots in the new left and anti-capitalist counter culture, it’s not surprising many early women’s liberationists opposed the beauty industry and the commodification of women’s bodies. They weren’t against sex (who is?), but rather the “commercial exploitation of sex”, as an early Sydney women’s liberation group told Julie Rigg in a 1969 interview with The Australian. </p>
<p>Now, on Welteroth’s Teen Vogue, articles about make-up and hairstyles, or a bathing suit brand <a href="http://www.teenvogue.com/story/bella-hadid-fae-swim-suits">worn by</a> model Bella Hadid, jostle with serious stories about <a href="http://www.teenvogue.com/story/eating-disorder-expert-to-the-bone">cinematic representations</a> of eating disorders. And while Mamamia will run body-positive stories, it’s often tied to products you can buy, like <a href="http://www.mamamia.com.au/plus-size-activewear-tights/">active wear</a> and <a href="http://www.mamamia.com.au/cult-buy-plus-size-tights-and-stockings/">tights</a> for larger women. </p>
<p>Welteroth and Teen Vogue haven’t been described as <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/woke-meaning-origin">“woke”</a> without good reason. And they <em>are</em> challenging publishers and the broader community’s preconceptions about what young readers are interested in. </p>
<p>But the site is still bound to the genre’s code of presenting attractive bodies and aspirational lives. So it will run a critical article about <a href="http://www.teenvogue.com/story/coachella-cultural-appropriation">cultural appropriation</a> at Coachella music festival – and illustrate it with Instagram images of stunning models and a Jenner family member wearing an American headdress. </p>
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<p>On the face of it, it was encouraging when Welteroth told her Sydney audience her plans for Teen Vogue include bringing young girls together “IRL” to “actually have conversations around the table where they can have their voices heard and work together to try to now solve some of these problems in the world we talk about”. </p>
<p>But this is consciousness-raising version 2.0, branded VogueTM. It has to be a good thing for a struggling and isolated teen to read about a celebrity coming out, or coping with depression, or the mechanics of safe <a href="http://www.teenvogue.com/story/anal-sex-what-you-need-to-know">anal sex</a>. But I find it hard to celebrate what is also, in many ways, a major corporation effectively “selling your politics” back to you, as one friend recently put it. </p>
<p>I’m not the target audience. And I don’t think it would be <em>terrible</em> if those Vogue-convened consciousness-raising sessions came with a gift pack of a rainbow tattoo for Pride Week, a T-shirt with a Black Lives Matter-endorsed fist logo, and even purple eyeshadow for feminism. But I can’t help feeling like I’m back in primary school, being marched down to the beauty professionals to learn how to be a woman.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79930/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kath Kenny does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The women’s magazine formula runs deep in many online publications branded as ‘feminist’. While the personal was once deemed political, the emphasis now is on adapting to the status quo - not changing it.Kath Kenny, Doctoral candidate, Macquarie UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/797902017-06-23T11:45:10Z2017-06-23T11:45:10ZHow the duty to be beautiful is making young girls feel like failures<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174774/original/file-20170620-32348-6crcd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A booming beauty industry is changing the way we see our bodies.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>From the daily application of <a href="http://www.instyle.com/beauty/hi-tech-beauty-17-products-will-transform-your-skin-instantly#327058">high-tech lotions</a> and potions to non-surgical procedures such as botox, fillers and peels, the beauty industry is booming like never before. </p>
<p>With more products and treatments available there is also a growing pressure around how people feel they “should” or “shouldn’t” look. So whether it’s fake eyelashes, tattooed eyebrows, manicured nails, body waxing or lip fillers, the chances are we all know someone who has these – and often we view these types of treatments as “normal”. </p>
<p>The sociologist Dana Berkowitz, has pointed out the increasing normalisation of botox. In her book <a href="https://nyupress.org/books/9781479825264/">Botox Nation</a> she says:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The fact that Botox injections are temporary, repetitive, addictive, and marketed as preventative has made it such that these injections are fast becoming regular body upkeep, just like teeth cleaning and haircuts.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Sociologist Meredith Jones has also argued that cosmetic surgery is already normalised. <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/265789/summary">She claims</a> it will be “the absolute norm” for women by the middle of the 21st century. </p>
<p>While it is still the case that only a small percentage of women – and an even smaller percentage of men go under the knife – many <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-22277890">more would like to</a>. And the British Association of Aesthetic Plastic Surgeons has reported a rise in what has been termed the “daddy makeover” in a <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/sam-lewishargreave/the-new-face-of-male-cosm_b_13198890.html">recent report</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>There has been an epic rise of 20% in male liposuction and a 13% jump in “man boob” reductions.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Growing old grey</h2>
<p>Growing old gracefully is increasingly seen as a failure to make the best of yourself – and even shows a lack of respect for the self and or for others. It is to “let yourself go”. </p>
<p>In my book <a href="http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/activity/globalethics/news/2014/widdows-leverhulme.aspx">Perfect Me!</a>, I track the increase in what is demanded to meet minimal standards of presentation. And I look at routine practices such as hair colouring. I argue that while women in their 60s and 70s may be grey, very few in their 30s, 40s, and 50s consider grey hair an option. In fact only the young can be grey – which is more of a fashion statement – and grey for young women is high maintenance because it requires near constant colouring. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174759/original/file-20170620-32365-1j0zg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174759/original/file-20170620-32365-1j0zg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174759/original/file-20170620-32365-1j0zg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174759/original/file-20170620-32365-1j0zg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174759/original/file-20170620-32365-1j0zg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174759/original/file-20170620-32365-1j0zg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174759/original/file-20170620-32365-1j0zg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Just for the young?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Body hair is another particularly illustrative example – what once considered the norm has changed dramatically over just a few generations. To show visible body hair is now more of a political statement than a fashion choice – shown by the <a href="https://armpitsforaugust.wordpress.com/">Armpits for August</a> and other campaigns. Body hair is also seen by many people <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0361684313497924">as being unclean</a>, disgusting and something to be ashamed of – and these are judgements with a distinctly moral flavour. And it is now the case that both women and men remove all or some of their pubic hair – and <a href="https://nyupress.org/books/9781479840823/">shame is often attached to non-removal</a>. </p>
<p>Shame is also often cited by doctors as part of the <a href="http://beautydemands.blogspot.co.uk/2017/06/labiaplasty-female-genital-mutilation_19.html">reason why</a> women are wanting a labiaplasty – surgery to reduce the size of the flaps of skin either side of the vaginal opening. According to statistics from the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, labiaplasty procedures spiked 39% in 2016, with more than <a href="https://www.plasticsurgery.org/news/blog/stats-show-labiaplasty-is-becoming-more-popular">12,000 procedures in the US</a> alone.</p>
<h2>Never enough</h2>
<p>This shift in the way beauty is increasingly defining people means it is functioning as an ethical ideal – in that it is the standard we use to judge ourselves and others, whether good and bad. And all of this has a significant impact on how people feel about themselves.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.ymca.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/World-of-Good-report-Central-YMCA.pdf">Recent studies</a>, have revealed how much this is affecting people – particularly girls of a young age. The <a href="https://www.girlguiding.org.uk/globalassets/docs-and-resources/research-and-campaigns/girls-attitudes-survey-2016.pdf">Girls’ Attitudes survey</a> has shown how body image worries affect many aspects of young girls lives – stopping them wearing the clothes they like, having their pictures taken, taking part in sport and speaking up in class. </p>
<p>The survey reports that 47% of girls aged 11 to 21 say the way they look “holds them back”, while 69% of girls age seven to 11 feel like they are not good enough. It is with this in mind that the Youth Select Committee’s <a href="http://www.byc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Terms-of-Reference-2017.pdf">recent consultation</a> focused on this topic.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174765/original/file-20170620-32329-1hox0we.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174765/original/file-20170620-32329-1hox0we.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174765/original/file-20170620-32329-1hox0we.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174765/original/file-20170620-32329-1hox0we.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174765/original/file-20170620-32329-1hox0we.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174765/original/file-20170620-32329-1hox0we.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174765/original/file-20170620-32329-1hox0we.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The new normal?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This culture of beauty obsession is making young girls feel they are failures and that they don’t measure up. To many of these girls, this feels like a “moral failure” – they have “let themselves go” and are ashamed of their very selves. </p>
<p>This is very different from past beauty ideals and recognising the depth and intensity of body shame – and understanding its moral nature – is vital. Because while the demands of what we have to do to be “normal” or “just good enough” continue to rise, there has also been a marked increase in anxiety and body shame in young women – which surely isn’t just a coincidence.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/79790/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Widdows has received funding from the AHRC and the Leverhulme Trust. She is member of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics. </span></em></p>The pressures of perfection.Heather Widdows, John Ferguson Professor of Global Ethics, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.