tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/bee-forage-38990/articlesbee forage – The Conversation2023-06-09T00:51:23Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2033342023-06-09T00:51:23Z2023-06-09T00:51:23ZHelp, bees have colonised the walls of my house! Why are they there and what should I do?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519472/original/file-20230405-16-pony0a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C14%2C5000%2C3308&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Have you spotted a swarm of flying insects emerging from a wall? Or noticed a buzzing noise coming from inside the house?</p>
<p>If this sounds familiar, a colony of European honeybees (<em><a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/honey-bee/">Apis mellifera</a></em>) may be making their home in your walls.</p>
<p>Why does this happen, and what should you do?</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528721/original/file-20230528-15-s3g4d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528721/original/file-20230528-15-s3g4d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528721/original/file-20230528-15-s3g4d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528721/original/file-20230528-15-s3g4d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528721/original/file-20230528-15-s3g4d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528721/original/file-20230528-15-s3g4d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528721/original/file-20230528-15-s3g4d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528721/original/file-20230528-15-s3g4d4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">If they are inside homes or high traffic areas, honeybees will usually need to be removed by a professional.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>
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<h2>Are they honeybees?</h2>
<p>First, work out who these house guests really are. Honeybees are often the culprits, but European <a href="https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/european-wasp/european-wasp-identification-guide">wasps</a> (<em><a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/european-wasp/">Vespula germanica</a></em>) also occasionally build their nests inside human-made structures. Their nests have a papery appearance and are made from chewed-up plant fibres. </p>
<p>European wasps are a more dramatic yellow and black, and have narrower waists. Honeybees have less slender waists, appear furrier, and are a duller orange-brown colour.</p>
<p>If they are inside homes or high-traffic areas, both honeybees and European wasps will usually need to be removed by a professional.</p>
<p>Depending on where you live, other social bees such as <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/stingless-bee/#:%7E:text=The%20Stingless%20Bee%20stores%20pollen,a%20number%20of%20different%20flowers.">stingless bees</a> and <a href="https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/pest-insects/bumble-bee">bumblebees</a> may occasionally build colonies in human-built structures, but they rarely cause any serious problems. </p>
<p>Solitary native bees such as <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/peacock-carpenter-bee/">carpenter bees</a>, <a href="https://australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/common-blue-banded-bee/">blue banded bees</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amegilla_bombiformis">teddy bear bees</a> do not live in colonies. However, they sometimes build their individual nests close to one another. These insects are rarely aggressive and can often be left alone.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528733/original/file-20230529-228237-x6t3t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528733/original/file-20230529-228237-x6t3t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528733/original/file-20230529-228237-x6t3t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528733/original/file-20230529-228237-x6t3t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528733/original/file-20230529-228237-x6t3t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528733/original/file-20230529-228237-x6t3t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528733/original/file-20230529-228237-x6t3t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528733/original/file-20230529-228237-x6t3t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Once inside, bees produce wax to build the hexagonal cells that make up the nest.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>How did they get there?</h2>
<p>When a honeybee <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_bee_life_cycle">colony outgrows</a> its current dwelling, the bees embark on a quest to find a new home. </p>
<p>In preparation, the queen bee lays eggs in special cells known as “queen cells”. The larvae in these cells are fed with royal jelly, which helps them develop into new queens. </p>
<p>Once the new queens emerge, the old queen leaves the hive accompanied by a substantial number of worker bees.</p>
<p>Now homeless, the house-hunting bees gather together in a tight cluster called a “swarm ball” on a nearby object. From this temporary base of operations, the bees send out scouts to find potential nesting sites. </p>
<p>When a scout <a href="https://www.sciencefriday.com/articles/how-do-bees-find-a-home/">discovers a suitable location</a>, she returns to the swarm ball and performs an extraordinary routine known as a “waggle dance”.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/12Q8FfyLLso?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>Astonishingly, this dance communicates the location of the potential new home to other scouts, who then venture out to inspect the advertised site. If they agree with its suitability, they return to the hive and do their own waggle dance.</p>
<p>Once enough scouts agree on the suitability of the new home, the entire swarm <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222540064_How_does_an_informed_minority_of_scouts_guide_a_honeybee_swarm_as_it_flies_to_its_new_home">soars through the air</a> to their new home. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, the bees occasionally choose to settle in human-made structures. Once inside, they produce wax to build the hexagonal cells that make up the nest. Some cells are used as nurseries for larvae, while others are used to store pollen and honey. </p>
<p>The most obvious sign is usually a steady stream of bees flying in and out of the hive, usually from a small hole or gap in the wall. </p>
<p>You might also hear a buzzing sound. </p>
<h2>What will the honeybees do to my house?</h2>
<p>The honey and wax produced by bees can melt when the colony dies or during hot weather. This leads to stains and damage to walls, while the lingering honey may draw in rodents. The growing weight of a colony can also cause structural damage over time.</p>
<p>While honeybees are generally not aggressive, they will sting in self-defence, particularly near their colony. </p>
<p>Moving slowly and avoiding swatting can <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-bee-season-to-avoid-getting-stung-just-stay-calm-and-dont-swat-153625">lower the chance of getting stung</a>.</p>
<h2>Dealing with honeybees in the home</h2>
<p>If honeybees have taken up residence in your home, ask a professional, such as a beekeeper, to remove them. </p>
<p>Do not attempt to remove the bees yourself; this could be dangerous. Spraying insecticides or repellents into your walls may not kill all the bees and could trigger aggression. </p>
<p>Even if the insecticide does kill the colony, the dead bees, wax and honey will decay and melt, creating a bigger mess and attracting pests.</p>
<p>Not all beekeepers are equipped to remove bees from homes. Look for beekeepers who advertise “bee removal” or “bee rescue” services. </p>
<p>You can also try contacting <a href="https://www.beekeepers.asn.au/">amateur beekeeping associations</a>, which may maintain a list of experienced bee removers. If there are no appropriate beekeepers in your area, or the colony is not easy to access, you may need to contact a pest controller.</p>
<p>Sometimes, colonies can be removed alive and relocated but this is not always possible. Your options will depend on the size of the colony, whether or not the beekeeper can access the colony, their level of experience and how long the colony has been there.</p>
<p>If you live in certain regions of New South Wales, it’s very important you <a href="https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/emergencies/biosecurity/current-situation/varroa-mite-emergency-response/how-to-deal-with-a-swarm">report</a> honeybee swarms or wild colonies to the Department of Primary Industries. </p>
<p>Wild colonies may harbour invasive Varroa mites, which are a deadly honeybee parasite. Varroa mites are currently subject to an <a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-is-in-a-unique-position-to-eliminate-the-bee-killing-varroa-mite-heres-what-happens-if-we-dont-205926">eradication program</a>. Varroa mite is only in NSW at the moment.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528723/original/file-20230528-15-bmpabq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528723/original/file-20230528-15-bmpabq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528723/original/file-20230528-15-bmpabq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528723/original/file-20230528-15-bmpabq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528723/original/file-20230528-15-bmpabq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528723/original/file-20230528-15-bmpabq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528723/original/file-20230528-15-bmpabq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528723/original/file-20230528-15-bmpabq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Colonies can be removed alive and relocated. However, this is not always possible.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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<h2>Prevention is key</h2>
<p>Try to prevent bees getting in your house in the first place. Seal cracks or holes in exterior walls and put fly screen mesh over outdoor vents. </p>
<p>Beekeepers can prevent swarms happening in the first place by making sure they manage their hives appropriately. Joining a local beekeeping club is an excellent way to learn about bee care.</p>
<p>While honeybees are important <a href="https://honeybee.org.au/pdf/PollinationAwareFactSheet.pdf">pollinators</a> and <a href="https://beeaware.org.au/industry/">honey producers</a>, they can also be a nuisance in your home.</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203334/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tanya Latty receives funding from the Australian Research Council, The Branco Weiss Foundation and AgriFutures Australia. She co-founded and works with Invertebrates Australia, a conservation organisation dedicated to the conservation of insects and other invertebrates. She is President of the Australasian Society for the Study of Animal Behaviour, and sits on the Education Committee for the Australian Entomological Society.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nadine Chapman receives funding from AgriFutures Australia and the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. She is a member of the NSW Apiarist Association and the Amateur Beekeepers Association.</span></em></p>Honeybees have the potential to cause damage to the structure of homes. The honey and wax produced by bees can melt under certain circumstances, like when the colony dies or during hot weather.Tanya Latty, Associate professor, University of SydneyNadine Chapman, Postdoctoral Research Associate, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1722222021-11-21T18:55:44Z2021-11-21T18:55:44ZJust like how humans recognise faces, bees are born with an innate ability to find and remember flowers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432803/original/file-20211119-22-1sm80mr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C2%2C1510%2C1196&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scarlett Howard</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>We’ve all watched a honeybee fly past us and land on a nearby flower. But how does she know what she’s looking for?</p>
<p>And when she leaves the hive for the first time, how does she even know what a flower looks like?</p>
<p>Our paper, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.662336/full?&utm_source=Email_to_authors_&utm_medium=Email&utm_content=T1_11.5e1_author&utm_campaign=Email_publication&field=&journalName=Frontiers_in_Ecology_and_Evolution&id=662336">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>, set out to discover whether bees have an innate “flower template” in their minds, which allows them to know exactly what they are looking for even if they’ve never seen a flower before.</p>
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Read more:
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<h2>A story of partnership</h2>
<p>Plants and pollinators need each other to survive and prosper. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18644.x">Many plants require animals to transport pollen between flowers</a> so the plants can reproduce. Meanwhile, pollinators rely on plants for nutrition (such as pollen and nectar) and nesting resources (such as leaves and resin).</p>
<p>As such, flowering plants and pollinators have been <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.aay3662">in partnership for millions of years</a>. This relationship often results in flowers having evolved certain signals such as colours, shapes and patterns that are more attractive to bees. </p>
<p>At the same time, bees’ reliance on flower resources such as nectar and pollen has led them to be effective learners of flower signals. They must be able to tell which flowers in their environment will provide a reward and which will not. If they didn’t know the difference, they would waste time searching for nectar in the wrong flowers.</p>
<p>Our findings show bees can quickly and effectively learn to discriminate between flowers of slightly different shapes – a bit like how humans can expertly tell faces apart.</p>
<h2>The amazing brains of honeybees</h2>
<p>Honeybee brains are tiny. They weigh less than a milligram and contain just 960,000 neurons (compared to 86 billion in human brains). But despite this, they demonstrate exceptional learning abilities.</p>
<p>Their learning extends to many cognitively challenging tasks, including maze navigation, <a href="https://theconversation.com/which-square-is-bigger-honeybees-see-visual-illusions-like-humans-do-87673">size discrimination</a>, counting, <a href="https://theconversation.com/bees-can-learn-higher-numbers-than-we-thought-if-we-train-them-the-right-way-124887">quantity discrimination</a> and even <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-bees-do-maths-yes-new-research-shows-they-can-add-and-subtract-108074">simple math</a>!</p>
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Read more:
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<p>So we know bees can learn all sorts of flower-related information, but we wanted to discover how they find flowers on their first foraging trip outside the hive. We also investigated whether experienced foragers developed a bias in their foraging strategies and flower preferences.</p>
<p>To test this, we prompted two groups of bees to discriminate between sets of flower images. One group was raised in a hive inside a greenhouse with no flowers, and had therefore never been exposed to flowers. We put a colour mark on these bees at birth, so we could track them once they emerged from the hive to forage two weeks later.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432792/original/file-20211119-26-aaa6cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="There are four images in the panel. A) shows a transparent plastic greenhouse from the outside. B) Shows the inside of the greenhouse with a hive inside. C) shows honeybees on a frame, marked with colour dots on their thorax. D) shows a wider view of C." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432792/original/file-20211119-26-aaa6cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432792/original/file-20211119-26-aaa6cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432792/original/file-20211119-26-aaa6cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432792/original/file-20211119-26-aaa6cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432792/original/file-20211119-26-aaa6cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=666&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432792/original/file-20211119-26-aaa6cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=666&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432792/original/file-20211119-26-aaa6cg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=666&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Keeping a hive inside the greenhouse ensured these bees had never been exposed to flowers. We colour marked the bees to identify them after they emerged from the hive to forage.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scarlett Howard</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The second group consisted of experienced foragers which had encountered many flowers in their lives.</p>
<p>We trained both groups to discriminate between images of two flowers found in nature, using a reward of sugar water for choosing the correct option when directed. We also trained both groups to discriminate between the same flowers with the petals separated and randomly scrambled.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Images of the stimuli used. On the top there are two real flower images in greyscale. On the bottom is the same visual information but scrambled so it doesn't resemble a flower." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432797/original/file-20211119-19-1w03h4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/432797/original/file-20211119-19-1w03h4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=713&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432797/original/file-20211119-19-1w03h4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=713&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432797/original/file-20211119-19-1w03h4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=713&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432797/original/file-20211119-19-1w03h4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=896&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432797/original/file-20211119-19-1w03h4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=896&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/432797/original/file-20211119-19-1w03h4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=896&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We trained ‘flower-naïve’ and experienced bees to discriminate between images of different flowers, and another set where the visual information was scrambled.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scarlett Howard</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>How well and how quickly the bees learnt to discriminate between the images of whole flowers, versus how long they took to discriminate between the scrambled petals, would tell us which information they preferred to learn.</p>
<p>Both the flower-naïve and experienced foragers learnt to discriminate between the images of whole flowers better, and more quickly, than the scrambled petals. However, the flower-naïve honeybees appeared to have less bias as they also learnt to discriminate between the scrambled information, while the experienced foragers could not.</p>
<p>The results reveal flower-naïve bees have an innate flower template that aids them with learning new flowers and discriminating between them. At the same time, experienced foragers become biased towards certain flower shapes as they gain foraging experience.</p>
<p>Overall, bees use an innate flower template to first find flowers, and also draw on their past knowledge as they become more experienced.</p>
<h2>Innate recognition in other animals</h2>
<p>While our findings on honeybees are remarkable, they do tie into similar capabilities in other species.</p>
<p>Different species have evolved brains which tune into important stimuli. For example, <a href="https://theconversation.com/super-recognisers-accurately-pick-out-a-face-in-a-crowd-but-can-this-skill-be-taught-112003">humans</a> and other primates can detect, process, recognise and discriminate between the faces of other members of their species. Research has shown even <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00969/full">human infants can detect</a> and recognise other people’s faces very well. </p>
<p>Our preference for faces, and ability to recognise them, has probably evolved due to the importance of needing to discriminate between friends, enemies and strangers. This is akin to the bees needing to process images of whole flower shapes better than scrambled petal images – due to the importance of recognising flower shape for survival.</p>
<p>Similarly, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/111202-wasps-people-faces-recognition-insects-science-animals">social paper wasps</a> evaluate their relationship with hive-mates based on the different facial markings of friends and foes. Just like bees, they do this using a combination of innate mechanisms and lived experience.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172222/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scarlett Howard receives funding from the Alfred Deakin Postdoctoral Research Fellowship, Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship, and the Fyssen Foundation. She is affiliated with Pint of Science Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrian Dyer receives funding from The Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>When a bee leaves the hive for the first time to go foraging, how does she know what a flower even looks like?Scarlett Howard, Postdoctoral research fellow, Deakin UniversityAdrian Dyer, Associate Professor, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1663692021-08-30T15:28:39Z2021-08-30T15:28:39ZWhat honeybees in South Africa need from people: better managed forage<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/417801/original/file-20210825-15-7rnh07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cape Honeybee gathering pollen from a rock rose flower - South Africa</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Honeybees are often in the news. <a href="https://www.arc.agric.za/arc-ppri/Pages/Insect%20Ecology/Research.aspx">Research</a> constantly updates what’s known about their importance to the environment, biodiversity, economies and food security. </p>
<p>In South Africa, managed honeybees support livelihoods in various ways, such as honey production. In the last decade or so, pollination services to agriculture have also become a huge revenue area for beekeepers. It is estimated that honeybees pollinate over <a href="https://www.sanbi.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/infosheet-south-africas-indigenous-honey-bees-19-11-2014.pdf">50 crops in South Africa</a>.</p>
<p>In just one province, the Western Cape, about 91,000 hives are currently required to serve the deciduous fruit industry. And this number is expected to increase to at least 100,000 in the next five years. In February 2020, the government’s beekeeper registration <a href="http://opus.sanbi.org/bitstream/20.500.12143/6924/1/Simba_V_2019_Hons%20Thesis.pdf">database</a> recorded 77,088 managed hives for the province – more than 45% of the country’s total of 161,610. If these numbers are accurate, then there is already a shortfall of hives in the Western Cape.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343290894_Securing_forage_resources_for_indigenous_managed_honey_bees_-_thoughts_from_South_Africa">book chapter</a> I co-authored with my colleagues, we outlined the importance of the two honeybee subspecies, <em>Apis mellifera capensis</em> (Cape honeybee) and <em>Apis mellifera scutellate</em> (African honeybee). We explored their importance for pollinating agricultural crops and indigenous plants, helping to maintain various ecosystem functions. These honeybees require a diverse quality and quantity of good forage resources to survive and produce. But those resources are under threat and need to be better managed.</p>
<h2>The bee forage challenge</h2>
<p>Studies conducted by the South African National Biodiversity Institute, between 2011 and 2014, found that beekeepers manage a variety of forage resources important to <a href="https://www.sanbi.org/biodiversity/building-knowledge/applied-biodiversity-research/global-pollination-project-and-honeybee-forage-project-results/">honeybees</a>. Some are indigenous; others are exotic – such as forestry plantations, agricultural crops, garden plants and tree lanes in cities.</p>
<p>These <a href="https://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/100915">various resources</a> all have preferred and complementary uses and are all important. They may be best for honey flow, colony build-up, or swarm trapping, or be available at different flowering times and accessible to different users. </p>
<p>Therefore, an overarching strategy for managing forage resources has to consider indigenous and exotic plants, as well as use, availability and accessibility.</p>
<p>We note with great <a href="https://theconversation.com/meeting-the-dietary-needs-of-honey-bees-is-tough-for-south-african-beekeepers-77257">concern</a> that honeybee forage resources are under increasing pressure in South Africa. Threats to forage availability and accessibility directly affect beekeeper livelihoods and pollination services. They put both wild and managed honeybee populations at risk. </p>
<p>Here are some of the threats. </p>
<ul>
<li><p>Changes in land use and landscape management. Changes and competing priorities resulting from <a href="https://sajs.co.za/article/view/4037">land use and its management</a>, including <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10841-011-9445-0">agricultural practices</a>, have been shown to threaten bee populations through habitat loss. </p></li>
<li><p>Removal of invasive alien plant species that are important <a href="https://wcba.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/gumreport.pdf">forage resources</a>. Although invasive alien plants have a negative impact on biodiversity and ecosystem functions, some of these plants also serve as important forage for honeybees. Managing them must take trade-offs into account. </p></li>
<li><p>Accessibility to important and secure <a href="http://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/100915">forage resources</a>. Most beekeepers do not own the land where their hives are kept or where they can access forage. Permission to access good forage sites remains a challenge for beekeepers. This puts pressure on the foraging area and encourages overstocking, which may hinder hive productivity, increase competition with other pollinators and promote the transmission of diseases, pests and pathogens.</p></li>
<li><p>Crop chemical regimes that affect the <a href="https://research.assaf.org.za/bitstream/handle/20.500.11911/131/2019_assaf_neonicotinoids_african_agriculture_policymakers'_booklet.pdf">viability of crops</a>. Various crops serve as important forage for bees, especially at times when natural vegetation might be out of flower. However, these crops are often subjected to heavy pesticide application to manage pests, and this can kill bees. Beekeepers are then reluctant to place hives in agricultural areas. </p></li>
<li><p>Impacts of climate change. Extreme events associated with climate change, such as high frequency of <a href="https://www.westerncape.gov.za/general-publication/protecting-bees-western-cape">fires and droughts</a>, has an impact on forage and habitat for bees. Adverse changes in temperature also affect flowering, <a href="https://portlandpress.com/emergtoplifesci/article/4/1/77/222529/Global-warming-and-plant-pollinator-mismatches">creating a mismatch in seasonal timing</a> of when flowers produce adequate nectar and pollen for bees. </p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Planning and action</h2>
<p>Taking into account the projected pollination demands for years to come, there’s an urgent need to plan for expansion and provision of forage resources for managed honeybees in South Africa. </p>
<p>In the Western Cape, a strategy for the industry was developed <a href="https://wcba.co.za/bee-industry-strategy/">in 2017</a> with the assistance of the Western Cape Department of Agriculture. However, the plans are yet to take off, through lack of funding and, to some degree, political will to commit in the areas of demand. A public-private partnership is critical at this stage to plant and provide enough forage. Government needs to take leadership and responsibility, realising the importance of the beekeeping industry, and the services it provides to the agricultural sector – food production.</p>
<p>In our chapter, we put forward for consideration various management recommendations. A few are ready for action, while others still need to be developed further. </p>
<p><strong>Raising awareness and building understanding.</strong> The public has to realise why the current situation needs to change. This process must be informed by facts and focus on the right target audience. It must also be monitored to ensure effectiveness.</p>
<p><strong>Practices that protect existing forage resources.</strong> The goal is a viable and sustainable honeybee population. This must be a concerted effort among policy makers, agriculture and environmental sectors, researchers and the public at large.</p>
<p><strong>Practices that promote planting of honeybee forage.</strong> The initiatives and practices around planting bee forage needs to happen on both public land and private land. There are successful campaigns to draw from internationally.</p>
<p>The pollination demands in agriculture are expected to keep rising. This means that more land and forage is required to feed the bees naturally. Hive theft and vandalism have increased tremendously in most areas across the country as hives are in demand <a href="https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-06-22-honeybees-are-disappearing-overnight-theft-and-vandalism-of-bee-boxes-and-honey-is-rife-throughout-sa/">for pollination</a>. This adds to security costs for beekeepers. Beekeepers have started passing the cost of feeding and hive security to growers. They will no doubt pass these costs on to consumers.</p>
<p>Unlike some countries, South Africa is in no position to import any other species of bees for crop pollination. It’s up to us to keep them alive for the continuous provision of pollination services.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166369/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tlou Masehela receives funding from the National Research Foundation. He is affiliated with the Western Cape Bee Industry Association. </span></em></p>Honeybees are crucial for pollinating crops and plants. They need good forage resources to do this and these resources are under threat in South Africa.Tlou Masehela, Scientist, South African National Biodiversity InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1647822021-07-26T04:11:04Z2021-07-26T04:11:04ZHow a bee sees: tiny bumps on flower petals give them their intense colour — and help them survive<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413061/original/file-20210726-5107-125ckdl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=48%2C54%2C3977%2C1901&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scarlett Howard</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The intense colours of flowers have inspired us for centuries. They are celebrated through poems and songs praising the red of roses and <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-mystery-of-the-blue-flower-natures-rare-colour-owes-its-existence-to-bee-vision-153646">blue of violets</a>, and have inspired iconic pieces of art such as Vincent Van Gogh’s sunflowers.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Vase with Three Sunflowers by Vincent Van Gough" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412670/original/file-20210722-15-n0fxwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412670/original/file-20210722-15-n0fxwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=742&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412670/original/file-20210722-15-n0fxwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=742&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412670/original/file-20210722-15-n0fxwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=742&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412670/original/file-20210722-15-n0fxwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=932&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412670/original/file-20210722-15-n0fxwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=932&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412670/original/file-20210722-15-n0fxwg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=932&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vase with Three Sunflowers by Vincent Van Gogh.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But flowers did not evolve their colour for our pleasure. They did so to attract pollinators. Therefore, to understand why flowers produce such vibrant colours, we have to consider how pollinators such as bees perceive colour. </p>
<p>When observed under a powerful microscope, most flower petals show a textured surface made up of crests or “bumps”. Our research, published in the <a href="https://pollinationecology.org/index.php/jpe/article/view/606">Journal of Pollination Ecology</a>, shows that these structures have frequently evolved to interact with light, to enhance the colour produced by the pigments under the textured surface.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412697/original/file-20210722-27-dtm6qp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412697/original/file-20210722-27-dtm6qp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=175&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412697/original/file-20210722-27-dtm6qp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=175&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412697/original/file-20210722-27-dtm6qp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=175&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412697/original/file-20210722-27-dtm6qp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=220&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412697/original/file-20210722-27-dtm6qp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=220&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412697/original/file-20210722-27-dtm6qp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=220&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A flower of <em>Tibouchina urvilleana</em> observed under a powerful scanning electron microscope shows a typical bumpy petal surface (left). In comparison, the opposite (abaxial) petal side, rarely seen by an approaching pollinator, shows a less textured surface (right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sunshiney daze</h2>
<p>Bees such as honeybees and bumblebees can perceive flower colours that are invisible to us — such as those produced by <a href="https://academic.oup.com/aob/advance-article/doi/10.1093/aob/mcab076/6313001">reflected ultraviolet radiation</a>. </p>
<p>Plants must invest in producing reliable and noticeable colours to stand out among other plant species. Flowers that do this have a better chance of being visited by bees and pollinating successfully.</p>
<p>However, one problem with flower colours is sunlight may directly reflect off a petal’s surface. This can potentially reduce the quality of the pigment colour, depending on the viewing angle.</p>
<p>You may have experienced this when looking at a smooth coloured surface on a sunny day, where the intensity of the colour is affected by the direction of light striking the surface. We can solve this problem by changing our viewing position, or by taking the object to a more suitable place. Bees, on the other hand, have to view flowers in the place they bloom.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412673/original/file-20210722-21-1h666q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/412673/original/file-20210722-21-1h666q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412673/original/file-20210722-21-1h666q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412673/original/file-20210722-21-1h666q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412673/original/file-20210722-21-1h666q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412673/original/file-20210722-21-1h666q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/412673/original/file-20210722-21-1h666q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bumblebee on a smooth blue surface, where the colour is affected by light reflection.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We were interested in whether this visual problem also existed for bees, and if plants have evolved special tricks to help bees find them more easily.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/our-bee-eye-camera-helps-us-support-bees-grow-food-and-protect-the-environment-110022">Our 'bee-eye camera' helps us support bees, grow food and protect the environment</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How bees use flower surfaces</h2>
<p>It has been known for some time that flowering plants most often have conical-shaped cell structures within the texture of their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.1981.tb00129.x">petal surfaces</a>, and that flat petal surfaces are relatively rare. A single plant <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9693152/">gene can manipulate</a> whether a flower has conical-shaped cells within the surface of a petal — but the reason why this evolved has remained unclear. </p>
<p>Past research suggested the conical petal surface acted as a signal to attract pollinators. But experiments with bees have shown this isn’t <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/cz/zoy096">the case</a>. Other explanations relate to hydrophobicity (the ability to repel water). But again, experiments have revealed this can’t be <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-67663-6">the only reason</a>.</p>
<p>We investigated how bumblebees use flower surfaces with or without conical petal shapes. Bees are a useful animal for research as they can be trained to collect a reward, and tested to see how they perceive their environment. </p>
<p>Bumblebees can also be housed and tested indoors, where it is easier to precisely mimic a complex flower environment as it might work in nature. </p>
<h2>Flowers cater to a bee’s needs</h2>
<p>Our colleague in Germany, Saskia Wilmsen, first measured the petal surfaces of a large number of plants and identified the most common conical surfaces. </p>
<p>She then selected some relatively smooth petal or leaf surfaces reflecting light from an artificial source as a comparison. Finally, blue casts were made from these samples, and subsequently displayed to free-flying bees. </p>
<p>In the experiment, conducted with bumblebees in Germany, a sugar solution reward could be collected by bees flying to any of the artificial flowers. They had to choose between flying either towards “sunlight” — which could result in light reflections affecting the flower’s coloration — or with the light source behind the bee.</p>
<p>The experiment found when light came from behind the bees, there was no preference for flower type. But for bees flying towards the light, there was a significant preference for choosing the flower with a more “bumpy” conical surface. This bumpy surface served to diffuse the incoming light, improving the colour signal of the flower.</p>
<p>The results indicate flowers most likely evolved bumpy surfaces to minimise light reflections, and maintain the colour saturation and intensity needed to entice pollinators. Humans are probably just lucky beneficiaries of this solution biology has evolved. We also get to see intense flower colours. And for that, we have pollinators to thank.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/plants-use-advertising-like-strategies-to-attract-bees-with-colour-and-scent-92673">Plants use advertising-like strategies to attract bees with colour and scent</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164782/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrian Dyer receives funding from The Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jair Garcia does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Bees can perceive flower colours and hues which are invisible to us — such as those produced by reflected ultraviolet radiation.Adrian Dyer, Associate Professor, RMIT UniversityJair Garcia, Research fellow, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1434502020-08-21T03:33:07Z2020-08-21T03:33:07ZCurious Kids: how do bees make honey?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/353320/original/file-20200818-22-1mc897p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=247%2C53%2C11547%2C8789&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Worker bees with capped brood (brown), open brood (white larva), all sorts of coloured pollen and shiny fresh nectar.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cooper Schouten</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p><strong>How do bees make honey? Finn, age 7, Sunshine Coast, Queensland</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/curious-kids-36782"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/291898/original/file-20190911-190031-enlxbk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=90&fit=crop&dpr=1" width="100%"></a></p>
<p>Hi Finn, that’s a sweet question! </p>
<p>Well, when we talk about “bees”, we’re usually referring to the European honey bee (its scientific name is <em>Apis Mellifera</em>). Humans have been drooling over its honey and taking advantage of its pollination powers for <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/089279394787001835?journalCode=rfan20">thousands of years</a>.</p>
<p>So how do these insects make honey, you ask? You’ll find the task is one requiring <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/video/honeybee-decision-making">teamwork and organisation</a>.</p>
<h2>Busy buzzing bees</h2>
<p>You probably already know about the most important ingredient needed to make honey: flowers.</p>
<p>A colony of bees can visit up to 50 million flowers each day, with as many as 60,000 bees in each colony. They’re not called busy bees for nothing! </p>
<p>Honey bees work together as a team to make decisions about where the best flowers are. They communicate with each other using bumps, noises and even dance moves known as the waggle dance. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LOZrNs22FAU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Some bees do the “waggle dance”.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>All bees during their life have <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/03/honey-bee-job-queen-hive-animals/">different roles</a>, depending on how old they are. To make honey, worker honey bees fly up to 5km searching for flowers and their sweet nectar. Usually, they’ll visit between 50 and 100 flowers per trip.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/one-then-some-how-to-count-like-a-bee-138815">One, then some: how to count like a bee</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p>Nectar is the main ingredient for honey and also the main source of energy for bees. Using a long straw-like tongue called a proboscis, honey bees suck up nectar droplets from the flower’s special nectar-making organ, called the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/nectary">nectary</a>.</p>
<p>When the nectar reaches the bee’s honey stomach, the stomach begins to break down the complex sugars of the nectar into more simple sugars that are less prone to <a href="http://honeypedia.info/why-does-honey-crystallize-fast">crystallization</a>, or becoming solid. This process is called “inversion”.</p>
<p>Once a worker honey bee returns to the colony, it passes the nectar onto another younger bee called a house bee (between 12-17 days old). </p>
<p>House bees take the nectar inside the colony and pack it away in hexagon-shaped beeswax honey cells. They then turn the nectar into honey by drying it out using a warm breeze made with their wings.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Bees crawling on honeycomb" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350589/original/file-20200731-19-yg6ygv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350589/original/file-20200731-19-yg6ygv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350589/original/file-20200731-19-yg6ygv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350589/original/file-20200731-19-yg6ygv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350589/original/file-20200731-19-yg6ygv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350589/original/file-20200731-19-yg6ygv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350589/original/file-20200731-19-yg6ygv.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Honey bees filling honey beeswax cells before ‘capping’ the cells.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cooper Schouten/Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Once the honey has dried out, they put a lid over the honey cell using fresh beeswax – kind of like a little honey jar. In the winter, when the flowers have finished blooming and there’s not as much nectar available, the bees can open this lid and share the honey they saved. </p>
<h2>Honey: a food fit for all workers, human and bee</h2>
<p>Because nectar comes from flowers, there are hundreds of different types of honey with different colours, smells and flavours. Some honey can even be used as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1319562X16301863">medicine</a>.</p>
<p>Also, bees don’t just collect nectar to make honey. When they visit flowers, they also collect pollen – which is a great source of protein to keep them healthy and strong. </p>
<p>Pollen is a kind of powder which flowering plants, trees and grasses make (and must spread) to help more of the same plants grow around them. Pollen can spread in ways such as being blown around by the air, or being carried between two of the same plant by an insect.</p>
<p>So by transferring pollen between flowers, bees also help pollinate flowers. These often turn into the seeds of the fruit and nuts we eat. In fact, about <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/10/061025165904.htm">one-third</a> of the food we eat is pollinated by bees. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man holds up section from beehive" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350584/original/file-20200731-25-udfvt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350584/original/file-20200731-25-udfvt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350584/original/file-20200731-25-udfvt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350584/original/file-20200731-25-udfvt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350584/original/file-20200731-25-udfvt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350584/original/file-20200731-25-udfvt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350584/original/file-20200731-25-udfvt7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Beekeeping entrepreneur and manager at Highlands Honey, Henao Longgar, holds up a bee-utiful pollen frame covered in bees in the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cooper Schouten/Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Pollinators around the globe</h2>
<p>Did you know the yellow fuzzy honey bee is just one of over 20,000 bee species in the world? There are more than 1,700 in Australia alone, some of which can make honey. </p>
<p>Some native stingless bees <a href="https://www.aussiebee.com.au/beesinyourarea.html">only found in Australia</a>, such as <em>Tetragonula carbonaria</em> and <em>Austroplebeia australis</em>, produce honey too. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350585/original/file-20200731-21-1d1twuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Beekeeper cuts honeycomb from tree branch" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350585/original/file-20200731-21-1d1twuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/350585/original/file-20200731-21-1d1twuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350585/original/file-20200731-21-1d1twuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350585/original/file-20200731-21-1d1twuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350585/original/file-20200731-21-1d1twuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350585/original/file-20200731-21-1d1twuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/350585/original/file-20200731-21-1d1twuu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Collecting honey made by giant honey bees in Sumbawa, Indonesia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cooper Schouten/Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are also ten other honey bee species overseas, such as the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1745-5871.12380">giant honey bee</a> (<em>Apis dorsata</em>) in Nepal and Indonesia, which live at the top of high cliffs and large trees. </p>
<p>There’s also the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0005772X.2018.1564497">Eastern honey bee</a> (<em>Apis cerana</em>) which is managed by beekeepers in rural and remote areas throughout Southeast Asia. </p>
<p>There’s never been a better time to put in native flowering plants and stop to smell the flowers. It’s important to remember, just like your puppy or kitten, bees need to be looked after too.</p>
<iframe src="https://giphy.com/embed/8shyTgbZKKLzW" width="100%" height="374" frameborder="0" class="giphy-embed" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<p><a href="https://giphy.com/gifs/food-bees-8shyTgbZKKLzW"></a></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143450/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cooper Schouten receives funding from The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.</span></em></p>A single colony of bees can have 60,000 bees in it. Together, they can visit up to 50 million flowers each day to collect pollen and nectar. They’re not called ‘busy bees’ for nothing!Cooper Schouten, Project Manager - Bees for Sustainable Livelihoods, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1388152020-05-19T20:00:28Z2020-05-19T20:00:28ZOne, then some: how to count like a bee<p>If you were a honeybee, how would you choose where to find flowers? Imagine your first flight out of the hive searching for food. What would you do if you saw flower patches with one flower, or three, or twelve, or twenty? </p>
<p>Our new study, published in the <a href="https://jeb.biologists.org/content/223/9/jeb223610">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>, tested honeybees on exactly this question. We wanted to understand how honeybees choose where to forage in environments like greenhouses where our food is pollinated, in local parks, or in our own backyards. </p>
<p>Specifically, our research looked at whether honeybees with no specific numerical training could choose a flower patch based on the quantity of flowers it had. </p>
<p>We found the bees could tell the difference between groups of 1 vs 4 flowers – but not between, say, 4 vs 5. Basically, they couldn’t differentiate between groups of 2 or more flowers.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335700/original/file-20200518-83352-fwijts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335700/original/file-20200518-83352-fwijts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335700/original/file-20200518-83352-fwijts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335700/original/file-20200518-83352-fwijts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335700/original/file-20200518-83352-fwijts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335700/original/file-20200518-83352-fwijts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335700/original/file-20200518-83352-fwijts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335700/original/file-20200518-83352-fwijts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A honeybee pollinating a raspberry plant flower in a greenhouse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adrian Dyer/RMIT University</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A mathematical matter of life and death</h2>
<p>The ability to tell the difference between two quantities can mean life or death for an animal. “Quantity discrimination” can be vital for survival in tasks including: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>resource comparison: choosing a larger quantity of food</p></li>
<li><p>aggressive interactions: choosing to avoid conflicts with larger groups of individuals, and</p></li>
<li><p>avoiding predators: choosing to stay with a larger group of animals of the same species to reduce your chance of being eaten.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>We are gaining a better understanding of quantity discrimination across the animal kingdom. <a href="http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150826-the-animals-that-can-count">Primates and other mammals, amphibians, reptiles, birds and fish</a> all display some form of quantity discrimination in day-to-day tasks. For example, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance">fish</a> use quantity discrimination to stay in larger groups to reduce the chance of being eaten by a predator. </p>
<p>However, little is known about spontaneous number choices by insects.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-taught-bees-a-simple-number-language-and-they-got-it-117816">We taught bees a simple number language – and they got it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How do bees choose where to forage?</h2>
<p>Honeybees assess the available flowers based on several factors, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/plants-use-advertising-like-strategies-to-attract-bees-with-colour-and-scent-92673">scent, colour</a>, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cz/article/65/4/457/5244969">shape</a> and <a href="https://digital.library.txstate.edu/handle/10877/2557">size</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335702/original/file-20200518-83384-1wojymu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335702/original/file-20200518-83384-1wojymu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335702/original/file-20200518-83384-1wojymu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335702/original/file-20200518-83384-1wojymu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335702/original/file-20200518-83384-1wojymu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335702/original/file-20200518-83384-1wojymu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335702/original/file-20200518-83384-1wojymu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Backyard flowers; which patch to choose if you were a bee?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adrian Dyer/RMIT University</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Honeybees typically visit around 150 individual flowers per flight from the hive to collect resources such as nectar or pollen. For a honeybee, a high quantity of flowers in a single area would mean less energy exertion than having to fly to many flower patches with less flowers.</p>
<p>Using different numbers of artificial flowers, we wanted to test whether individual honeybees could discriminate between a range of quantities, and how they might determine the quality of a flower patch.</p>
<p>Our honeybees were shown pairs of flower quantities ranging from easier number comparisons (such as 1 flower vs 12 flowers) to more challenging scenarios (such as 4 flowers vs 5 flowers).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335750/original/file-20200518-83384-16zo2tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335750/original/file-20200518-83384-16zo2tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335750/original/file-20200518-83384-16zo2tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335750/original/file-20200518-83384-16zo2tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335750/original/file-20200518-83384-16zo2tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335750/original/file-20200518-83384-16zo2tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335750/original/file-20200518-83384-16zo2tg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=708&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The experimental set-up (left) and the quantity comparisons (right). Honeybees succeeded at spontaneously discriminating between 1 vs 12, 1 vs 4, and 1 vs 3 flowers, but no other comparisons. The honeybees were trained to associate single yellow dots with sugar water before being shown quantity comparisons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scarlett Howard</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Interestingly, despite previous findings that trained honeybees can discriminate between <a href="https://theconversation.com/bees-can-learn-higher-numbers-than-we-thought-if-we-train-them-the-right-way-124887">challenging quantities</a> and can also learn to <a href="https://theconversation.com/can-bees-do-maths-yes-new-research-shows-they-can-add-and-subtract-108074">add and subtract</a>, the bees performed poorly in our spontaneous number task.</p>
<p>We found they were only able to discriminate between 1 vs 3, 1 vs 4, and 1 vs 12 flowers – wherein they preferred the larger quantity. When 1 flower was an option they succeeded, but confused any comparisons between groups of 2 flowers or more.</p>
<p>This result suggests flower patch choice based on numerical-type cues is difficult for honeybees. And this has implications for how flower displays are interpreted.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335656/original/file-20200518-83348-gp9tqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335656/original/file-20200518-83348-gp9tqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335656/original/file-20200518-83348-gp9tqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335656/original/file-20200518-83348-gp9tqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=581&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335656/original/file-20200518-83348-gp9tqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=730&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335656/original/file-20200518-83348-gp9tqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=730&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335656/original/file-20200518-83348-gp9tqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=730&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A honeybee flies towards three flowers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Scarlett Howard</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With today being <a href="https://blog.publish.csiro.au/world-bee-day/">World Bee Day</a>, why not take the opportunity to discover what bees are doing in gardens near you. Chances are they’re going to any flower patch with more than one flower, rather than paying much attention to absolute numbers. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/bees-learn-better-when-they-can-explore-humans-might-work-the-same-way-129439">Bees learn better when they can explore. Humans might work the same way</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<hr>
<p><em>This article was amended on May 21, 2020, to correct a picture caption that originally referred to a strawberry plant. The plant is in fact a raspberry plant.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/138815/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scarlett Howard received funding from Deakin University, the Fyssen Foundation, and the Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adrian Dyer receives funding from The Australian Research Council</span></em></p>Past research has shown honeybees can add, subtract and even understand ‘zero’. But according to new findings, they can’t tell four flowers from five in natural settings.Scarlett Howard, Postdoctoral research fellow, Deakin UniversityAdrian Dyer, Associate Professor, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/772572017-05-25T13:35:56Z2017-05-25T13:35:56ZMeeting the dietary needs of honey bees is tough for South African beekeepers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170780/original/file-20170524-25575-qohjje.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The world is worried about honey bees. There are fears globally that bees may <a href="http://www.globalresearch.ca/death-and-extinction-of-the-bees/5375684">become extinct</a>. This would have implications for food security: between 50% and 80% of the world’s food supply – fruits, vegetables and the seeds used to produce grain for livestock – is directly or indirectly affected by <a href="http://www.nationalhoneybeeday.com/whathoneybeesdo.html">honey bee pollination</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2006/10/25_pollinator.shtml">Most studies</a> suggest that nearly one-third of the world’s crops depend on honey bees for pollination. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0114805">Others</a> have <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/royprsb/281/1794/20141799.full.pdf">shown</a> that disruptions in pollination of various crops could have serious implications for public health, particularly in Africa and Asia. About 56% of populations in most developing countries would be at <a href="https://phys.org/news/2015-01-loss-pollinators-malnutrition-disease.html">risk of nutrient deficiency</a> if pollinators were wiped out. </p>
<p>Amid all the panic, little attention has been paid to the people and systems that make it possible to keep and manage pollinators – like beekeepers. And in particular, what beekeepers need to be able to meet the food needs of bees.</p>
<p>Previous research on bee forage – the nectar and pollen that bees get from plants – in South Africa concentrated on the Western Cape Province. For my research, I looked at <a href="https://www.sanbi.org/sites/default/files/documents/documents/plants-important-south-african-beekeepers-honey-bee-forage-updated-19-11.pdf">bee forage in the country’s nine provinces</a>. The Department of Agriculture estimates that there are 80 000 registered colonies managed by beekeepers in the country. </p>
<p>I set out to <a href="http://scholar.sun.ac.za/browse?value=Masehela%2C+Tlou+Samuel&type=author">research</a> what forage beekeepers in South Africa were relying on for their managed bees. I focused on the contribution that forage makes to honey production, pollination services, swarm trapping and colony maintenance. These form the core basis of most, if not all, beekeeping operations. </p>
<p>My results show that bees rely on a wide variety of both indigenous and exotic forage. But the use, importance, and availability of forage was not the same across the country’s provinces. This is a clear indication that beekeeping cannot depend on a single forage source which makes the business of ensuring bees have what they need to stay healthy a precarious business.</p>
<h2>Keeping bees fed</h2>
<p>In bee nutrition, nectar serves as a carbohydrate source and pollen provides protein. These are provided by a wide variety of plants and are essential for the bees’ diverse diet so their immune systems can function optimally. This keeps them healthy and productive. </p>
<p>There are two indigenous subspecies of Cape honey bee <em>Apis mellifera capensis</em> and African/Savannah honey bee <em>Apis mellifera scutellata</em> in South Africa. They differ in their geographical distribution and several other morphological and behavioural traits. But their nutritional requirements are the same. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170782/original/file-20170524-25597-w0thvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170782/original/file-20170524-25597-w0thvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/170782/original/file-20170524-25597-w0thvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170782/original/file-20170524-25597-w0thvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170782/original/file-20170524-25597-w0thvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170782/original/file-20170524-25597-w0thvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170782/original/file-20170524-25597-w0thvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/170782/original/file-20170524-25597-w0thvv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Beekeeping cannot depend on a single forage source.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/spam/9120000709/in/photolist-eTTZH8-eU7jPE-eTUotx-eTUeAx-eTRGUn-eU5kwm-eU6kfS-eU4iLA-eTUjR4-eU3ZCq-eTSpMe-eU6fzo-eU7fLq-eU6fmq-eTV7aH-eTUN6x-eTS8Ft-eU6yhs-eTSGqi-eU74Dw-eU7sYw-eU636L-eTT4yZ-eU4Yu9-eTUzLk-eTTcct-eU6tY9-eU6UYm-eU5PmA-eU5et7-eTRZVT-eTUsvR-eU4cDN-eTTy4i-eTTMj4-eU4Fc7-9hC1Bn-eU6fT1-eTRDNR-eTV22v-eTTHmX-eTTj22-eTTQGp-eTUHnk-eTTtWt">Samantha Marx/Flickr</a></span>
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<p>There are a number of threats to meeting these requirements. One is that more and more of South Africa’s land is being used for agricultural purposes. This has cut into wild honey bees’ natural habitat and other insect pollinators, resulting in less to no pollination in some areas.</p>
<p>Another threat in some regions is the eradication of eucalyptus trees following a government decision to declare them an invasive species. This has particularly affected the South-Western Cape. The establishment of a forestry industry in the region towards the end of the 19th century provided good, reliable forage through various eucalyptus tree plantations. This contributed to the basis of current beekeeping.</p>
<p>Research shows that eucalyptus trees are <a href="http://www.sanbi.org/sites/default/files/documents/documents/gumsbees-web-version-hyperlinks.pdf">essential to the beekeeping industry</a>. </p>
<h2>Indigenous and exotic</h2>
<p>I was interested in finding out what plants beekeepers in all nine of the country’s provinces use for their beekeeping practices. I also wanted to know if these plants were valued equally for the respective practices. I found that a wide variety of <a href="https://www.sanbi.org/sites/default/files/documents/documents/plants-important-south-african-beekeepers-honey-bee-forage-updated-19-11.pdf">indigenous and exotic plants</a> are used in the different beekeeping practices. </p>
<p>For example, the Eastern and Northern Cape provinces have a heavy dependence on indigenous forage like bushveld aloes, trees and shrubs, fynbos and Karoo vegetation. Beekeepers in the other seven provinces relied mostly on exotics like eucalyptus species, agricultural crops, weeds and suburban plantings.</p>
<p>Different forage types were not contributing equally or used at the same level for each of the beekeeping practices and among provinces. This means that a species of importance in one province – like sugar gum in the Western Cape – would not have the same or similar impact in other provinces. This makes sense as plants and cropping systems differ among provinces due to climatic and soil conditions.</p>
<p>Also, the flowering period differs between plants and this dictates when the plant can be used and for how long. This makes it challenging for beekeepers to continue finding good forage for their bees. In most areas, beekeepers have to travel hundreds of kilometres in search of sites – and the hives have to be moved around when forage become less usable.</p>
<h2>No forage, no bees, no pollination</h2>
<p>The protection of honey bees, their natural habitats and forage, should take centre stage to ensure their health and well-being. But because forage use in each province is different, forage management must be tailored according to each province’s beekeeping needs. This might require a shift in policy and legislative tools – at an agricultural, environmental and economic level. </p>
<p>Policies need to protect honey bees and their forage, and also ensure that good bee forage is extensively planted.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/77257/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tlou Masehela previously received funding from The National Research Foundation (NRF) and the Working for Water Programme. He is affiliated with with the Western Cape Bee Industry Association (WCBA) and serves on the committee. </span></em></p>Beekeeping cannot depend on a single forage source. This makes the business of ensuring bees have what they need to stay healthy a precarious business.Tlou Masehela, Scientist, South African National Biodiversity InstituteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.