tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/cosmetics-5131/articlesCosmetics – The Conversation2024-03-22T12:32:08Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2248152024-03-22T12:32:08Z2024-03-22T12:32:08ZWhat’s in tattoo ink? My team’s chemical analysis found ingredients that aren’t on the label and could cause allergies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581794/original/file-20240313-30-tf41i8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C17%2C5751%2C3811&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tattoo ink ingredients don't always match what's labeled on the bottle. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/CubaTattoos/b36471bdd2ff4e6e8a19a9b9644768d0/photo?Query=tattoo%20ink&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=406&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=0&vs=true&vs=true">AP Photo/Desmond Boylan</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Tattoos are an incredibly common form of permanent self-expression that date back <a href="https://theconversation.com/tattoos-have-a-long-history-going-back-to-the-ancient-world-and-also-to-colonialism-165584">thousands of years</a>. Most tattoo artists follow strict health and sanitation regulations, so you might assume that tattoo inks are carefully regulated, too. </p>
<p>But as work done by <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=F2mp97YAAAAJ&hl=en">my team of chemistry researchers</a> suggests, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.3c05687">up to 90%</a> of tattoo inks in the U.S. might be mislabeled. This isn’t just a case of a missing pigment or a minor discrepancy. These inks contained potentially concerning additives that weren’t listed on the packaging. </p>
<h2>What’s in an ink?</h2>
<p>All inks are made up of one or more pigments, which are molecules that give tattoos their color, and some kind of carrier for that pigment. Before the 20th century, <a href="https://www.trinitybj.com/blog/articles/tattoo-ink-throughout-time">pigments used in tattooing</a> included ash, charcoal, minerals or other natural materials. Around the middle of the 20th century, though, tattoo artists started making their own inks using synthetic pigments and dyes. </p>
<p>Today, nearly all pigments used in tattoos are made of <a href="https://f1000research.com/articles/6-2034/v2">synthetic molecules</a> that allow for bright colors – with the exception of white and black pigments.</p>
<p>In the past few decades, tattoo ink manufacturing has shifted from individual artists making their own to large companies manufacturing inks and selling them to artists. My team wanted to figure out whether these inks contained the ingredients advertised, so we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.3c05687">analyzed 54 tattoo inks</a> from the U.S. market. </p>
<h2>Unlisted ingredients</h2>
<p>More than half the inks my research team analyzed contained unlisted polyethylene glycol, also known as PEG. A variety of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_glycol">medical products</a> contain PEG, including laxatives. It can cause <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/all.14711">allergic reactions</a>, however, and in the case of tattooing, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1739-2">research has suggested</a> that repeated exposure to PEG could lead to kidney failure.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two carbon atoms, with OH groups at each end." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=256&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582031/original/file-20240314-26-uzfyep.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=322&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Polyethylene glycol’s chemical structure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PEG_Structural_Formula_V1.svg">Jü/Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We also found <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Propylene-Glycol">propylene glycol</a> in 15 inks, though it wasn’t listed as an ingredient in any of them. Propylene glycol is generally nontoxic and structurally similar to glycerin, which is used to thicken the ink. Even though propylene glycol is safe for most people, some people are highly allergic to it. In fact, it was the American Contact Dermatitis Society’s <a href="https://dermnetnz.org/topics/contact-allergy-to-propylene-glycol">2018 Allergen of the Year</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Three carbon atoms, with OH groups connected to the first and 2nd carbons." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582037/original/file-20240314-24-hhn63o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Propylene glycol’s chemical structure.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Propylene_glycol_chemical_structure.png">Edgar181/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An <a href="https://www.contactdermatitisinstitute.com/pdfs/allergens/Propylene%20glycol.pdf">allergic reaction</a> to propylene glycol can cause a skin rash, itching and blistering. </p>
<p>In several inks, my research team found unlisted ingredients that are common in cosmetics but have not been tested in tattoo inks. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10915810290096513">These include BHT</a>, <a href="https://www.paulaschoice.com/ingredient-dictionary/ingredient-dodecane.html">dodecane</a> and <a href="https://www.webmd.com/beauty/what-to-know-about-phenoxyethanol">2-phenoxyethanol</a>. In low concentrations, 2-phenoxyethanol can be a preservative. But the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-58170-9">Food and Drug Administration has warned</a> that it could get passed to infants through breastfeeding and lead to vomiting and dehydration in babies.</p>
<p>Of the 54 inks we analyzed, 29 reported the correct pigments, while the rest either did not report or reported the wrong pigments. <a href="https://www.kantonslabor.bs.ch/dam/jcr:ba246390-48da-406f-aa4e-9e1b24726a31/JB_Tattoo_PMU_2011_EN.pdf">This is a known</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cod.13913">problem in tattoo inks</a> that ink manufacturers have not yet addressed. </p>
<h2>Pigment concerns</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics10050141">Studies have found</a> that carbon black, the primary black pigment used in tattooing, can be contaminated with some of the same <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon">cancer-causing molecules</a> found in car exhaust and cigarette smoke.</p>
<p>Many red, yellow and orange pigments are azo pigments, which contain two connected nitrogen atoms. These pigments give ink bright, vivid colors, but over time they may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1739-2">break down into carcinogens</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tattoo artist wearing latex gloves holding a tattooing needle inks a geometric design on an arm." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582029/original/file-20240314-30-w4pn6t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The pigments in many tattoo inks are made up of synthetic molecules.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/InkcarcerationMusicandTattooFestival-Day1/7d0d0d2e40d64d4bbe7a0985aa992734/photo?Query=tattooing&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=382&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=7&vs=true&vs=true">Amy Harris/Invision/AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32020R2081#document1">Regulations in Europe</a> prohibit the use of copper-containing pigment blue 15 and pigment green 7, which my work observed to be the only blue and green pigments in the inks we tested. The EU banned these pigments over concern that their use in hair dyes <a href="https://mobil.bfr.bund.de/cm/349/tattoo-inks-risk-assessment-for-pigment-blue-15-3-and-pigment-green-7.pdf">may cause bladder cancer</a>, though researchers haven’t studied that connection in tattoos yet. </p>
<h2>A new focus on regulation</h2>
<p>The FDA is beginning to pay more attention to what is in tattoo inks. In 2022, Congress passed the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetics-laws-regulations/modernization-cosmetics-regulation-act-2022-mocra">Modernization of Cosmetics Regulation Act, or MoCRA</a>, which gave the FDA expanded authority to regulate tattoo inks. </p>
<p>The FDA is still deciding how to implement MoCRA, but the act will require accurate ingredient labeling and expand the FDA’s authority to recall ink. In the past, tattoo inks have very rarely, and only voluntarily, been recalled because of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1279884">bacterial contamination</a>.</p>
<p>So what does this mean for tattoo clients and artists? Right now, there’s no clear research consensus on whether tattoos are safe or not, as they can cause infection and allergic reactions. Plus, tattoos vary widely in size, color and physical location on the body.</p>
<p>Studies like the one from my lab are an important piece in establishing what is actually in a tattoo, so that researchers can better understand any adverse events, such as long-term allergic reactions, that they might cause.</p>
<p>Understanding what is in ink also helps physicians identify what particular health concerns they should look for in tattooed individuals.</p>
<p>The tattoo-related health issues that researchers <a href="https://www.aerzteblatt.de/int/archive/article/182859">do know about</a> come from unskilled artists following poor sanitation protocols. To prevent potential health concerns, those considering a tattoo can work with an experienced and trained artist who follows best practices for hygiene and tattoo aftercare.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224815/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Swierk receives funding from National Institute of Health, National Science Foundation, and American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund. </span></em></p>Some tattoo inks contain unlabeled materials that can cause allergic reactions.John Swierk, Assistant Professor, Chemistry, Binghamton University, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2249062024-03-20T16:35:39Z2024-03-20T16:35:39ZIs hyaluronic acid as effective as skincare brands claim?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583097/original/file-20240320-16-b542dv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5184%2C3445&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hyaluronic acid is now in many beauty products and cosmetics.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-woman-asian-using-skin-care-271800461">TuiPhotoEngineer/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Hyaluronic acid has become a huge buzzword in the beauty industry, with everything from creams and cleansers to shampoos containing it. Often, these products are marketed to consumers with the promise that hyaluronic acid will boost hydration – important for keeping the skin looking its best.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2019.00192/full">Hyaluronic acid</a> is ubiquitous in our organs and tissues, playing a crucial role in the function of our cells and tissues.</p>
<p>Hyaluronic acid has been in clinical use for decades, for example, as an injectable between joints to help <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31294035/">lubricate cartilage</a>. But at the turn of the century, cosmetic companies began using it as a moisturising ingredient in cosmetic products. </p>
<p>Topically, it’s thought that hyaluronic acid works by holding and retaining water molecules in order to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S014181301833770X">hydrate the skin</a> and restore elasticity, preventing wrinkles. When combined with sunscreen, hyaluronic acid may be capable of protecting the skin against ultraviolet radiation as it has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.09.188">antioxidant properties</a> (meaning it prevents damage caused by oxidising agents, such as ultraviolet radiation). </p>
<p>One of the most frequent marketing claims used to sell hyaluronic acid is the long-held belief that hyaluronic acid holds 1,000 times its weight in water. This means it can maintain moisture and reduce moisture loss.</p>
<p>But this claim has been called into question recently, with <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2418345-benefits-of-hyaluronic-acid-in-skincare-products-have-been-oversold/">numerous publications</a> recently discussing <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-13140853/Benefits-hyaluronic-acid-skincare-oversold.html">the findings</a> of a <a href="https://chemrxiv.org/engage/chemrxiv/article-details/64b5b086b053dad33a6cdcaf">pre-print paper</a> which suggests this claim is not true.</p>
<p>The authors of the pre-print, researchers from the University of California, looked into the molecule-binding properties of hyaluronic acid and water to test the claim that it can hold 1,000 times its weight in water.</p>
<p>To do this, the researchers created a solution containing 1g of hyaluronic acid and 1,000g of water (0.1% of hyaluronic acid), which was compared with just water. They then applied heat to both solutions, measuring the thermal changes that occurred. They found that there was not much difference in the changes that occurred in the 0.1% hyaluronic acid solution compared with the pure water. They therefore concluded that the long-held claim is not true.</p>
<p>These findings may have consumers wondering how well their hyaluronic acid products actually work if it doesn’t hydrate the skin as much as previously claimed. </p>
<h2>How hyaluronic acid works</h2>
<p>While there’s no disputing the experimental results obtained, the conclusion on hyaluronic acid’s water-holding capacity is not applicable to all forms of hyaluronic acids. </p>
<p>Hyaluronic acid comes in different molecular sizes. This pre-print only looked at one medium-sized hyaluronic acid molecule in their experiments. This means the results may only be true for products containing medium and smaller sized hyaluronic acid molecules. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A digital drawing of hyaluronic acid molecules forming networks." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583098/original/file-20240320-24-ulu9l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583098/original/file-20240320-24-ulu9l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583098/original/file-20240320-24-ulu9l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583098/original/file-20240320-24-ulu9l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583098/original/file-20240320-24-ulu9l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583098/original/file-20240320-24-ulu9l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/583098/original/file-20240320-24-ulu9l2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hyaluronic acid molecules form honeycomb-like networks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/hyaluronic-acid-molecules-hydrated-chemicals-molecular-1480643630">Tartila/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When hylauronic acid interacts with water, its water-loving and water-hating parts lead to electrostatic repulsion. This enables large numbers of hyaluronic acid molecules to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-3083.2004.01180.x">form networks</a>, which look a bit like honeycombs, and expand.</p>
<p>The larger the hyaluronic acid’s molecule size, the more capable it is of forming these honeycomb structures – and also the more able it is to retain water relative to its own weight. </p>
<p>Hyaluronic acid with larger molecular sizes will form these networks at a concentration of 0.1%, meaning it can hold 1,000 times its own weight in water. Some very large molecules will even form these networks at a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2012600/">concentration as low as 0.05%</a>. This means it can hold 2,000 times its weight in water.</p>
<p>It’s also worth noting that hyaluronic acid doesn’t just hold moisture and hydrate the skin. Because of its <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-3083.2004.01180.x">hydrating and antioxidant effects</a>, it also promotes cell regeneration and stimulates collagen production. So hyaluronic acid’s benefits go beyond its ability to retain water.</p>
<p>Although this paper may have partially debunked one popular claim about hyaluronic acid’s moisturising abilities, that doesn’t mean you should stop using it. The research still shows there’s no doubt about hyaluronic acid’s moisturising abilities, which can leave skin softer, smoother and with fewer wrinkles. Plus, hyaluronic acid’s antioxidant effects promote the growth of new skin cells and collagen.</p>
<p>But if you want to make sure you’re getting the most effective product possible, look for one containing multiple weights of hyaluronic acid molecules (sometimes labelled as “triple weight”, “multiweight” or “multi-molecular weight”). Also look for a product containing a minimum hyaluronic acid concentration of 0.1%. </p>
<p>This is because research suggests products containing a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jocd.14981">formulation of multiple sizes</a> of hyaluronic acid molecules could be more beneficial for skin than formulations containing only one molecule size. This is partly due to smaller molecules permeating skin better, while the larger ones hold more water.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224906/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lian Liu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A pre-print paper has called into question the long-held marketing claim that hyaluronic acid can hold 1,000 times its weight in water.Lian Liu, Reader, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of SurreyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2202802024-03-01T00:15:33Z2024-03-01T00:15:33ZWhy and how often do I need to wash makeup brushes and sponges?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576120/original/file-20240216-24-9aako6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C4928%2C3268&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/@anniespratt?utm_content=creditCopyText&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=unsplash">Annie Spratt</a> on <a href="https://unsplash.com/photos/selective-focus-photography-of-woman-applying-blush-on-on-her-face-xOEmZX6YSu8">Annie Spratt/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>From the bristles of brushes to the porous surfaces of sponges, your makeup kit can harbour a host of bacteria and fungi.</p>
<p>These potentially hazardous contaminants can originate not only from the cosmetics themselves, but also from the very surface of our skin. </p>
<p>So, how can we keep things hygienic and avoid microbial growth on makeup brushes and sponges? Here’s what you need to know.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-micellar-water-and-how-does-it-work-219492">What is micellar water and how does it work?</a>
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</em>
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<h2>How do germs and fungi get in my brushes and sponges?</h2>
<p>Germs and fungi can make their way into your makeup kit in lots of ways. </p>
<p>Ever flushed a toilet with the lid open with your makeup brushes nearby? There’s a good chance <a href="https://theconversation.com/mobile-phones-are-covered-in-germs-disinfecting-them-daily-could-help-stop-diseases-spreading-135318">faecal particles</a> have landed on them. </p>
<p>Perhaps a family member or housemate has used your eyeshadow brush when you weren’t looking, and transferred some microbes across in the process. </p>
<p>Bacteria that trigger a pimple outbreak can be easily transferred from the surface of your skin to a makeup brush or sponge. </p>
<p>And tiny little mites called Demodex mites, which have been linked to certain rashes and acne, live on your skin, as well, and so may end up in your sponge or brushes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A young Asian man applies makeup at a cluttered vanity." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=316&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579069/original/file-20240229-16-csz1bk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Germs and fungi can make their way into your makeup in lots of ways.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/gay-queer-man-nonbinary-beauty-blogger-2361479535">Chay_Tee/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/invisible-skin-mites-called-demodex-almost-certainly-live-on-your-face-but-what-about-your-mascara-195451">Invisible skin mites called Demodex almost certainly live on your face – but what about your mascara?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Bacterial contamination of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38020232/">lip cosmetics</a>, in particular, can pose a risk of skin and eye infections (so keep that in mind if you use lip brushes). Lipsticks are frequently contaminated with bacteria such as <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em>, <em>E. coli</em>, and <em>Streptococcus pneumoniae</em>.</p>
<p>Low-quality cosmetics are more likely to have higher and more diverse microbial growth compared to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1319562X23002978?pes=vor">high-quality cosmetics</a>.</p>
<p>Brushes exposed to sensitive areas like the eyes, mouth and nose are particularly susceptible to being potential sources of infection. </p>
<p>The range of conditions caused by these microorganisms includes:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>abscesses</p></li>
<li><p>skin and soft tissue infections</p></li>
<li><p>skin lesions</p></li>
<li><p>rashes</p></li>
<li><p>and dermatitis.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>In severe cases, infections can lead to invasion of the bloodstream or deep tissues. </p>
<p>Commercially available cosmetics contain varying amounts and types of preservatives aimed at inhibiting the growth of fungi and bacteria.</p>
<p>But when you apply makeup, different cosmetics with unique formulations of preservatives can become mixed. When a preservative meant for one product mixes with others, it might not work as well because they have different water amounts or pH levels.</p>
<p>So preservatives are not foolproof. We also need to observe good hygiene practices when it comes to brushes and other cosmetics applicators. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman washes a makeup brush in a sink." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576113/original/file-20240216-16-qqim5d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You don’t need to use micellar water to clean your brushes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-washing-makeup-brush-under-water-2020030193">Pixel-Shot/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Keeping brushes clean</h2>
<p>Start with the basics: never <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Isolation-of-Pathogenic-Microbes-from-Beauty-Salons-Hassan-Hamad/0199635290628fe326fcd04a2b8a2422884a8240">share makeup brushes or sponges</a>. Everyone carries different microbes on their skin, so sharing brushes and sponges means you are also sharing germs and fungi.</p>
<p>If you need to share makeup, use something disposable to apply it, or make sure any shared brushes are washed and sterilised before the next person uses it.</p>
<p>Clean makeup brushes by washing with hot soapy water and rinsing thoroughly.</p>
<p>How often? Stick to a cleaning routine you can repeat with consistency (as opposed to a deep clean that is done annually). <a href="https://www.aad.org/public/everyday-care/skin-care-secrets/routine/clean-your-makeup-brushes#:%7E:text=To%20protect%20your%20skin%20and,every%207%20to%2010%20days.">Once a week</a> might be a good goal for some, while others may need to wash more regularly if they are heavy users of makeup. </p>
<p>Definitely wash straight away if someone else has used your brushes or sponges. And if you’ve had an eye infection such as conjunctivitis, ensure you clean applicators thoroughly after the infection has resolved. </p>
<p>You can use bactericidal soap, 70% ethanol or chlorhexidine solutions to wash. Just make sure you wash very thoroughly with hot water after, as some of these things can irritate your skin. (While some people online say alcohol can degrade brushes and sponges, opinion seems to be mixed; in general, most disinfectants are unlikely to cause significant corrosion.)</p>
<p>For some brushes, heating or steaming them and letting them dry may also be an effective sterilisation method once they are washed with detergent. Microwaving sponges isn’t a good idea because while the heat generated by a domestic microwave would kill microbes, it would need temperatures approaching 100°C for a decent period of time (at least several minutes). The heat could melt some parts of the sponge and hot materials could be a scalding hazard.</p>
<p>Once clean, ensure brushes and sponges are stored in a dry place away from water sources (and not near an open toilet).</p>
<p>If you’re having makeup applied professionally, brushes and applicators should be sterilised or changed from person to person. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A bunch of makeup brushes are set out to dry on a towel." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576114/original/file-20240216-30-c04ns7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dry brushes thoroughly after washing.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/after-cleaning-makeup-brushes-finish-will-653637367">prachyaloyfar/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Should I wash them with micellar water?</h2>
<p>No. </p>
<p>Not only is this expensive, it’s unnecessary. The same benefits can be achieved with cheaper detergents or alcohol (just rinse brushes carefully afterwards).</p>
<p>Disinfection methods such as using bactericidal soap, 70% ethanol, or chlorhexidine are all very good at reducing the amount of microbes on your brushes and sponges.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-micellar-water-and-how-does-it-work-219492">What is micellar water and how does it work?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220280/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rosalie Hocking is currently the recipient of an Australian government Future Fellowship.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Enzo Palombo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Yes, you need to wash them but no, you don’t need to use micellar water to do it.Enzo Palombo, Professor of Microbiology, Swinburne University of TechnologyRosalie Hocking, Swinburne University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2159982024-02-14T13:24:03Z2024-02-14T13:24:03ZDon’t let ‘FDA-approved’ or ‘patented’ in ads give you a false sense of security<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557351/original/file-20231102-29-y77wkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=10%2C0%2C7156%2C4764&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Is that really a stamp of approval?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/approved-concept-rubber-stamp-with-fda-and-pills-on-royalty-free-image/1186545957">iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’ve ever reached for a bottle of moisturizer labeled “patented” or “FDA approved,” you might want to think twice. In a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4366900">recent study</a> of hundreds of advertisements, I found that supplements and beauty products often misleadingly use these terms to suggest safety or efficacy.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://law.indiana.edu/about/people/details/mattioli-michael.html">law professor</a>, I suspect this is confusing for consumers, maybe even dangerous. Having a patent means only that you can stop others from making, using, selling or importing your invention. It doesn’t mean the invention works or that it won’t blow up in your face.</p>
<p>“FDA approved,” meanwhile, means <a href="https://www.fda.gov/drugs/development-approval-process-drugs">a product’s benefits have been found to outweigh its risks</a> for a specific purpose – not that it’s of high quality or low risk in general.</p>
<h2>Led astray by the label</h2>
<p>I wanted to know whether companies exploit these sorts of misunderstandings, so I analyzed hundreds of ads from print, television and social media that mention patents or FDA approval. I found that advertisers throw these terms around in confusing ways. </p>
<p>For example, I found an ad for a probiotic supplement stating, “The proof is in the patent”; an ad for an earwax removal product stating its “patented formula is safe, effective, and clinically proven”; and an ad for a headache remedy that made the words “FDA approved” a bold visual focal point. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1312044681551917058"}"></div></p>
<p>Here’s the concerning part: I looked at all kinds of products and found that these terms appear most often in ads for things you eat or rub onto your skin, such as supplements, insecticides, toothpaste and lotions. </p>
<p>That’s probably no coincidence. Products like this aren’t tightly regulated, yet consumers want to know they’re safe. It seems likely that advertisers are name-dropping the government to make people think just that.</p>
<h2>Risks to consumers − and to innovation</h2>
<p>One danger is clear: Ads with vague references to government authorities could dupe consumers into thinking products are safer or more effective than they actually are. In fact, there’s some evidence <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2011.396">this is already happening</a>.</p>
<p>Another risk is that this creates perverse incentives for business. Companies could chose to forgo actual innovation, focusing instead on securing dubious patents or regulatory nods to <a href="https://www.voguebusiness.com/beauty/how-patents-became-the-beauty-industrys-secret-weapon">keep up in the advertising race</a>. </p>
<p>These practices could distort competition, burden government agencies with frivolous patent applications and deter new entrants from competing in markets where they can’t employ similar advertising tactics. </p>
<h2>Questions remain</h2>
<p>Even though my study has shed light on how often these tricky advertising methods are used, it leaves some big questions unanswered. What exactly makes consumers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2016.1179367">respond so favorably</a> to terms like “patented” or “FDA approved”? And who is most likely to be confused by these tactics? </p>
<p>As a next step, I plan to conduct comprehensive surveys of consumers, along with in-depth interviews, to explore how these labels resonate emotionally. I hope to coordinate with researchers from psychology and media studies. Research along these lines could offer policymakers the robust evidence they need to make changes to the law.</p>
<p>What might those changes look like? For one thing, the law could make it easier for groups of consumers to sue in federal courts over misleading ads. The Federal Trade Commission could also place more of a burden on companies to prove their ads are honest. These changes could make a big difference in ensuring companies persuade shoppers without confusing them. </p>
<p>At a time when ads are everywhere and Americans are losing trust in institutions – and each other – the stakes for truthful product claims are high.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215998/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Mattioli does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Most people don’t know what these labels really mean − and advertisers take advantage of that fact.Michael Mattioli, Professor of Law and Louis F. Niezer Faculty Fellow, Indiana UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2164882023-11-30T12:20:37Z2023-11-30T12:20:37ZGhana’s shea industry is not taking care of the women behind its growth<p>Ghana’s shea industry has a rich history. Shea – <em>nkuto</em>, <em>karite</em>, <em>galam</em> in some west African languages – is deeply embedded in the culture and tradition of the country’s northern regions. It is often considered a woman’s crop – women pick the fruit and extract its “butter” – and has acquired the name “woman’s gold” because rural women earn income from its sale. </p>
<p>The crop is not just locally important, though. Shea butter, derived from the nuts of the shea tree, has become a global commodity. It is used widely as an ingredient in the confectionery, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/shea-butter-market">report</a> by Future Markets Insights values the global shea butter market at US$2.75 billion. It’s expected to reach US$5.58 billion in 2033. In Ghana, shea is one of the <a href="https://www.gepaghana.org/export-statistic/non-traditional-export-statistics-2022/">top</a> export commodities. According to the Ghana Export Promotion Authority, the export of shea butter was <a href="https://www.gepaghana.org/export-statistic/non-traditional-export-statistics-2022/">estimated</a> to be worth US$92.6 million (38,792 tonnes) in 2022 and kernels US$20 million (36,162 tonnes) in 2021. </p>
<p>In spite of shea’s global prominence, primary actors in this sector aren’t reaping the benefits from these exports. Rural women, who are the primary producers, are also the <a href="https://sun.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma998897791203436&context=L&vid=27US_INST:27US_V1&lang=en&search_scope=Combined&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,shea%20butter&offset=0">lowest earners</a> in the shea value chain, with an annual income of about US$234 per capita.</p>
<p>The reasons behind this were the subject of my <a href="https://sun.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma998897791203436&context=L&vid=27US_INST:27US_V1&lang=en&search_scope=Combined&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,shea%20butter&offset=0">PhD dissertation</a>. I discovered that the shea environment was poorly regulated and “empowerment” policies had actually enabled poverty. </p>
<h2>Importance of shea</h2>
<p>Economically, shea has gained international prominence stemming from its properties and value. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Specifications-of-whole-and-processed-shea-butters_tbl1_272022836">Stearin</a>, a creamy fat, is used industrially as a cocoa butter equivalent in chocolate production and confectionery. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Specifications-of-whole-and-processed-shea-butters_tbl1_272022836">Olein</a> is used to make cosmetics.</p>
<p>Socially, activities in the shea industry confer on women a level of respect and power that they do not possess in other economic sectors. It’s also an area where women pass on indigenous knowledge from one generation to another by observing and participating in shea activities.</p>
<p>Shea trees also <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/12/12/1740">provide</a> carbon sinks and storage, improve soil fertility and promote better yields in agroforestry systems. </p>
<p>The shea industry is potentially a vehicle for economic development, environmental sustainability, gender empowerment and social progress.</p>
<h2>Shea policies</h2>
<p>These benefits are not all being realised, however.</p>
<p>Structural adjustment reforms were implemented in Ghana in the late 1980s and early 1990s to address economic woes. The shea export policy devised within that framework has been <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-modern-african-studies/article/abs/market-reforms-and-the-state-the-case-of-shea-in-ghana/E0584FCC3B95AF6A2026A14F7840C4F8">identified</a> as a watershed moment for the problems inherent in the industry. The state’s involvement in the economy was reduced, and this created the conditions for continued gender inequality and exploitation. The plight of women in the shea industry was not helped, either, by long-held gender norms and cultural underpinnings in northern Ghana.</p>
<p>Successive governments and institutions over the years have sought to revamp the industry through regulatory policies and interventions. A chapter of my <a href="https://sun.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma998897791203436&context=L&vid=27US_INST:27US_V1&lang=en&search_scope=Combined&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,shea%20butter&offset=0">PhD thesis</a> conducted in 2017 analysing the yearly budget statements from 2002 to 2017 noted the government’s knowledge of the persistent challenges of rural women. </p>
<p>These challenges relate to quality control and standardisation. Others are the lack of fair-trade practices, limited access to direct markets and resources, and challenges in land tenure and resource management. </p>
<p>Liberalising the shea market was expected to promote economic growth through reducing trade barriers and encouraging foreign investment. However, a downside was the breakdown of social contracts, leading to a “gold rush” mentality that prevails when there are no structures and regulations.</p>
<p>The 2008 <a href="http://gis4agricgh.net/POLICIES/GHANA'S%20TREE%20CROPS%20POLICY.pdf">Tree Crops Policy</a> was supposed to support agricultural growth, rural development and food security. A <a href="https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/business/COCOBOD-opens-Shea-office-amale-676131">Shea Unit</a> under the <a href="https://cocobod.gh/">Ghana Cocoa Board</a> was formed in 2011 to develop strategy for the sector. This unit was expected to become a Shea Development Board, responsible for introducing effective production, post-production and marketing initiatives. But it remains under the cocoa board. </p>
<p>The shea industry over time has been a niche where middlemen and women buy shea from rural women at low prices. Price negotiations are done on behalf of rural women on a mostly informal contractual basis. A chapter of my <a href="https://sun.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma998897791203436&context=L&vid=27US_INST:27US_V1&lang=en&search_scope=Combined&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=Everything&query=any,contains,shea%20butter&offset=0">PhD thesis</a> analysing the cost structure and assigning a value to the unpaid labour of rural women reported the profit margin of a shea nut picker as Gh₵ 8.82 (66 US cents) while a middleman earned Gh₵ 49.5 (US$4) on a 100kg bag of shea nuts. Similarly, a shea butter extractor earned Gh₵ 1.92 (8 cents) while a middleman earned Gh₵ 63.42 (US$6) on a 25kg box of shea butter.</p>
<p>This is aptly captured in an interview:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We are always here and we see people troop in for them (shea butter). Because
we don’t understand the English language they always request for Madam. She
directs us to sell to them at a certain amount. We don’t know the buyers. They
are those bringing them, we will just be sitting, and they will tell you that they are to buy shea, there is a buyer in, we will not even see the person. She is going to negotiate with the buyer till they finish buying.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Shea business model</h2>
<p>Even with the best of intentions, desired policy objectives can’t always be reached. It’s necessary to analyse why.</p>
<p>Empowering rural women shea actors to make choices and to transform those choices to desired outcomes must start by recognising them as knowledge producers and involve them as knowledge contributors in policies. Ghana needs to bring all the players in the shea industry together to develop a business model. Primary producers, middlemen, sourcing companies and government should collaborate. </p>
<p>Drawing from <a href="https://www.scirp.org/%28S%28351jmbntvnsjt1aadkposzje%29%29/reference/referencespapers.aspx?referenceid=2591801">lessons</a> on the marketing of cocoa in Ghana, this model should focus on:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>regulation of ceiling and floor prices of shea nuts and butter</p></li>
<li><p>promoting community-based rural producer groups</p></li>
<li><p>capacity building</p></li>
<li><p>quality improvement</p></li>
<li><p>preserving the shea landscape. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>There is also a need for a government instituted shea body to enforce a regulatory framework on the licensing and registration of activities and the promotion of partnerships between actors in the shea supply chain. It’s very important for the various stakeholders to keep working together to minimise undesirable effects of proposed interventions.</p>
<p>Shea is indeed golden. But there are real people living with the impact of weak institutional structures and policy frameworks. The most affected are rural women.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216488/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Abiba Yayah was previously funded by the Trans-disciplinary Training for Resource Efficiency and Climate Change Adaptation in Africa II INTRA-ACP (TRECCAFRICA II). She is currently being funded for a Postdoctoral Fellowship by The Mark Grosjean Post-doctoral Fellow in Political Science at the University of Calgary.</span></em></p>Shea is a key economic crop for poor women in the northern parts of Ghana.Abiba Yayah, Postdoctoral Associate, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2065722023-06-07T12:24:04Z2023-06-07T12:24:04ZThe ugly side of beauty: Chemicals in cosmetics threaten college-age women’s reproductive health<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530352/original/file-20230606-20-19o8gg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1300%2C0%2C3332%2C2010&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many types of makeup contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/two-young-women-sitting-applying-make-up-royalty-free-image/200425913-004">Charles Gullung/The Image Bank via Getty Imagges</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Walk through the personal care aisles of your local store and you’ll see dozens of products that promise to soften your skin, make you smell better, extend your lashes, decrease wrinkling, tame your curly hair, or even semi-permanently change the color of your lips, hair or skin.</p>
<p>Remember the adage “If it seems too good to be true, it probably is”?</p>
<p>Many of product promises like these are based on chemicals that can also be hazardous to your health, including endocrine-disrupting chemicals that can interfere with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/mrd.23541">fertility and reproduction</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.11681">fetal growth</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1003178">infant development</a>.</p>
<p>That’s a big concern, because these products are heavily marketed to young women in the years before they might consider starting a family.</p>
<p>Recent studies have demonstrated that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-019-0170-1">college-age women</a> use cosmetic products <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2022.100117">at higher rates</a> than other groups. Additionally, many of these young women are unaware of the health risks from frequent use of popular products containing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-153X-8-15">contaminants of emerging concern</a>. And finding cleaner alternatives often means paying more. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A person's hands test colors of lipstick in store in front of a counter filled with cosmetics." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530353/original/file-20230606-15-c60dar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530353/original/file-20230606-15-c60dar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530353/original/file-20230606-15-c60dar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530353/original/file-20230606-15-c60dar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530353/original/file-20230606-15-c60dar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530353/original/file-20230606-15-c60dar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530353/original/file-20230606-15-c60dar.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cosmetics designed to be free of endocrine-disrupting chemicals are often more expensive.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/this-picture-taken-on-july-29-2018-shows-jiang-cheng-news-photo/1014162178">Wang Zhao/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=list_works&hl=en&user=tQJksK8AAAAJ">an epidemiologist</a> who has fought my own fertility battles, I study exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals found in everyday products, such as cosmetics, shampoos, lotions and plastics. I have been working to raise awareness of the health risks to young people and encourage prudent use of cosmetic products.</p>
<h2>Unregulated and potentially risky</h2>
<p>According to the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/industry/fda-basics-industry/are-all-personal-care-products-regulated-cosmetics">U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a>, the term “cosmetic” can include deodorants, perfumes, lotions, nail polish, shampoos and other hair products, as well as eye, lip and face makeup.</p>
<p>This is important to know, because unless these products are used to treat a condition, such as dandruff or perspiration, they are not federally regulated in the same way drugs are. That leaves it up to cosmetic companies to decide how to communicate product safety.</p>
<p>Personal care products contain many types of chemicals that manufacturers add for specific purposes, including some that can interfere with or disrupt the normal functioning of the endocrine system. For example, they commonly add UV filters like oxybenzone <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/Benzophenone-3_FactSheet.html">to protect skin from sun damage</a>, phthalates to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2011.01.013">enhance fragrance</a>, parabens and triclosan for their <a href="https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetic-ingredients/parabens-cosmetics">antimicrobial properties</a>, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, or PFAS, to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00240">enhance durability</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="0B09y" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/0B09y/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>However, not all of these chemicals are present in all products, so figuring out how to avoid exposure can be complicated. For example, in a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122642">2021 review</a> of studies detecting endocrine-disrupting chemicals in daily-use cosmetic products, phthalates were present in perfumes, shower gels, shampoo and nail polish. Parabens were detected in lotions, creams, shampoos, body wash, face cleansers and lipstick. Triclosan was detected in toothpastes, soaps and other cleansers. And UV filters were present in sunscreens, lotions, toothpaste, and lipstick. </p>
<p>Many of these chemicals can co-occur in products, putting consumers at risk of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104052">exposure to multiple chemicals</a> at once, and sometimes without warning, as labels <a href="https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetics-labeling-regulations/summary-cosmetics-labeling-requirements">do not always list</a> endocrine-disrupting chemicals among the ingredients.</p>
<h2>Why are chemicals in cosmetics a health risk?</h2>
<p>As you rub cosmetic products onto your skin, breathe in their scent or use them to brush your teeth, <a href="https://www.ewg.org/the-toxic-twelve-chemicals-and-contaminants-in-cosmetics">the chemicals</a> found within can travel throughout your body, targeting your endocrine, nervous and cardiovascular systems.</p>
<p>When these chemicals are endocrine disruptors, such as phthalates, parabens, triclosan <a href="https://theconversation.com/toxic-chemicals-in-cosmetics-and-personal-care-products-remain-in-our-bodies-and-environments-for-a-very-very-long-time-201137">and PFAS</a>, they can mimic naturally produced hormones or block hormone receptors. Their presence can result in abnormal hormone production, secretion or transport throughout the body.</p>
<p>These hormonal changes can lead to reproductive problems, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/01.EDE.0000059950.11836.16">poor sperm quality</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-023-00533-1">miscarriage</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110342">endometriosis</a>. They can also lead to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.05.005">thyroid disruption</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2008.08.007">abnormal growth and development</a>.</p>
<p>Neurological conditions such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052849">attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.01.023">cognitive impairment</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139031">depression</a> have also been linked to chemicals added to cosmetic products. So have cardiovascular issues such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2367-6">high blood pressure</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158218">insulin resistance</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c06488">coronary heart disease</a>.</p>
<p>The level of risk is often difficult to measure and depends in part on the amount of exposure, the type of chemical and how the chemical interacts with the endocrine system. One study of women ages 18-44 in Utah and California found increased exposure to a common phthalate was associated with twice the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fertnstert.2013.03.026">odds of developing endometriosis</a>, which can be painful and interfere with pregnancy. In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2FEHP208">meta-analysis</a> of pregnant women with occupational exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals, researchers calculated a 25% increase in the odds of low birth weight when mothers were exposed to more than one type of endocrine-disrupting chemical.</p>
<h2>States are starting to ban these chemicals</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-019-0170-1">study of college-age females</a> found that, on average, young women use eight different personal care products each day that can contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals, but some report as many as 17. This is concerning, as the number of products people use has been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-017-0003-z">linked to higher exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals</a>.</p>
<p>Furthermore, 80% of the women we surveyed did not know whether their cosmetic products contained harmful chemicals.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two young women in party dresses stand in front of a mirror putting on makeup. The counter in front of them has many types of cosmetics that can contain harmful chemicals." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530354/original/file-20230606-7937-uuaww1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530354/original/file-20230606-7937-uuaww1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=753&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530354/original/file-20230606-7937-uuaww1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=753&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530354/original/file-20230606-7937-uuaww1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=753&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530354/original/file-20230606-7937-uuaww1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=947&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530354/original/file-20230606-7937-uuaww1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=947&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530354/original/file-20230606-7937-uuaww1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=947&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many young women aren’t aware of the risks chemicals in cosmetics can contain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/teenage-girls-applying-make-up-in-bathroom-royalty-free-image/200389334-001">Shannon Fagan/The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Studies have found significantly higher exposure to phthalates and other chemicals among adolescent girls who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-017-0003-z">wore foundation, blush and mascara</a> than among those who did not. One found that when adolescent girls <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1510514">stopped using products containing endocrine-disrupting chemicals</a>, the concentrations in their urine dropped by as much as 45%.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.safecosmetics.org/resources/regulations/">European Union has led</a> the way on regulating the use of these chemicals in cosmetic products, with U.S. policies generally lagging behind, but that’s changing.</p>
<p><a href="https://toxicfreefuture.org/press-room/strongest-law-in-the-u-s-regulating-toxic-chemicals-in-cosmetics-signed-by-washington-state-governor-today/">Washington</a> state recently passed legislation that bans <a href="https://toxicfreefuture.org/toxic-chemicals/pfas-forever-chemicals/">PFAS</a>, <a href="https://toxicfreefuture.org/toxic-chemicals/lead/">lead</a>, <a href="https://toxicfreefuture.org/toxic-chemicals/phthalates/">phthalates</a>, <a href="https://toxicfreefuture.org/toxic-chemicals/formaldehyde/">formaldehyde</a> and other harmful chemicals starting in 2025 and creates new incentives for companies to produce safer products. <a href="https://toxicfreefuture.org/press-room/strongest-law-in-the-u-s-regulating-toxic-chemicals-in-cosmetics-signed-by-washington-state-governor-today/">New York</a> banned mercury, a neurotoxin that can be used as a skin lightener, effective June 1, 2023. <a href="https://www.ewg.org/news-insights/news-release/2023/02/california-bill-would-ban-cosmetics-chemicals-linked-cancer">California</a>, <a href="https://legiscan.com/MN/text/HF458/id/731206">Minnesota</a> and <a href="https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/maine-makes-a-bold-move-in-banning-most-3530524/">Maine</a> also have broad restrictions on chemical additives in cosmetics.</p>
<p>While many cosmetic companies offer alternative products without endocrine-disrupting chemicals, they tend to cost more, which can put safer products out of reach of young people. I believe a national ban on the use of harmful chemicals in cosmetic products would be the most equitable means for reducing everyone’s exposure.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206572/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leslie Hart receives funding from The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. </span></em></p>Finding cosmetics that are free of hormone- disrupting chemicals often means paying more. An epidemiologist explains the risk, particularly for young women.Leslie Hart, Associate Professor of Public Health, College of CharlestonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2011372023-05-11T20:28:14Z2023-05-11T20:28:14ZToxic chemicals in cosmetics and personal care products remain in our bodies and environments for a very, very long time<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523554/original/file-20230501-22-rxhhxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C122%2C5472%2C2916&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Better labelling of personal care products is necessary to inform consumers of 'forever chemicals.'</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Cosmetics and personal care products enhance the way we look and feel. During the pandemic, I started a self-care facial routine. It helped me cope with lockdown orders, while simultaneously adjusting to my new identity as a mom. I applied toner, serum and cream to brighten mornings and relax evenings. </p>
<p>But many of these products contain chemicals called <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00240">per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)</a>, also known as ‘forever chemicals.’ They are used as ingredients that can make products waterproof, long-lasting and help them spread smoothly across skin. </p>
<p>European data indicates there are about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EM00123C">170 PFAS ingredients for use in cosmetics and personal care products</a>. Each year, upwards of 80,000 kg of PFAS may be released after product use to wastewater and solid waste streams, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EM00123C">a significant source of PFAS to the environment</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523559/original/file-20230501-24-ewcv53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a table covered in makeup" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523559/original/file-20230501-24-ewcv53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523559/original/file-20230501-24-ewcv53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523559/original/file-20230501-24-ewcv53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523559/original/file-20230501-24-ewcv53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523559/original/file-20230501-24-ewcv53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523559/original/file-20230501-24-ewcv53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523559/original/file-20230501-24-ewcv53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">PFAS can be found in makeup and personal care products.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Jessica Johnston/Unsplash)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Persistent contaminants</h2>
<p>PFAS are persistent environmental contaminants. The properties that make them commercially useful, particularly their stability, also means that there is no environmental mechanism to degrade them, and so they accumulate. PFAS have been found across the globe, <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-5045-2018">including remote regions like the Arctic</a>.</p>
<p>PFAS also accumulate in the body. The Canadian Health Measures survey sampled <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/environmental-workplace-health/reports-publications/environmental-contaminants/fifth-report-human-biomonitoring.html">blood from thousands of people and found several PFAS in all participants</a>. </p>
<p>Major sources of PFAS exposure to people are through diet, from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP4093">drinking contaminated water</a> or ingesting food, such as fish or meat. Agricultural fields can contain PFAS from biosolids used as fertilizer, as wastewater treatment plants cannot remove them. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/toxic-long-lasting-contaminants-detected-in-people-living-in-northern-canada-141256">Toxic, long-lasting contaminants detected in people living in northern Canada</a>
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<p>Therefore, PFAS are transported via biosolids to crops and animals. Similarly, PFAS are added to personal care products, applied, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EM00123C">then washed off to enter wastewater treatment plants</a>, contributing to a global environmental problem.</p>
<h2>PFAS in personal care products</h2>
<p>In our study, we measured PFAS in cosmetics and personal care products purchased in Canada. Products included bronzers, concealers, foundations, shaving creams, sunscreens and moisturizers. </p>
<p>PFAS were extracted from each product and measured using mass spectrometry instrumentation. These instruments identify individual PFAS present in the products, at high milligram amounts or down to a trillionth of a gram. </p>
<p>Particularly high levels stemmed from products containing the following ingredients: C6-16 perfluoroalkyl ethyl phosphates, perfluorooctyl triethoxysilane, and perfluorobutyl ethers. The Canadian government has prohibited some PFAS from products, including perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), <a href="https://gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p2/2016/2016-10-05/html/sor-dors252-eng.html">and any chemical that degrades to produce PFOA</a>.</p>
<p>New proposed Canadian PFAS regulations will set a threshold level at one microgram per gram in products. This means that PFAS at or below this level would be incidental and <a href="https://gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p1/2022/2022-05-14/html/reg2-eng.html">the prohibition would not apply</a>. Yet we found that some products contained PFAS — including those prohibited from use — at levels a thousand times higher than the incidental level — pointing towards a lack of oversight <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c02660">when it comes to managing PFAS in the personal care product industry</a>.</p>
<h2>Higher PFAS levels</h2>
<p>Epidemiological studies are showing that PFAS levels in the body are related to regular use of cosmetic and personal care products. One study in the United States noted <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110445">higher blood levels of PFAS in women that typically wore foundation</a>. A study from Korea linked <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.04.017">application of cosmetics and personal care products to higher PFAS levels in breast milk</a>.</p>
<p>Another study illustrated this trend more directly. PFOA was purposefully added to a sunscreen to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107549">determine whether blood levels in one person would increase after application</a>. Within three weeks, the PFOA from the sunscreen application equalled about 10 per cent of the total amount of PFOA in his body. This suggests that the daily application of a PFAS-containing sunscreen during summer months — and frequent application of other PFAS-containing cosmetics and personal care products — would result in high blood levels.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523561/original/file-20230501-18-j5x0c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="someone in a striped grey long-sleeved t-shirt applying sunscreen onto their forearm" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523561/original/file-20230501-18-j5x0c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523561/original/file-20230501-18-j5x0c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523561/original/file-20230501-18-j5x0c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523561/original/file-20230501-18-j5x0c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523561/original/file-20230501-18-j5x0c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523561/original/file-20230501-18-j5x0c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523561/original/file-20230501-18-j5x0c8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chemicals in sunscreen can be absorbed through the skin, leading to a build-up of PFAS or PFOA in the body.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unlike other chemicals, certain PFAS like PFOA are persistent. This means that human exposure to even low amounts of PFAS can accumulate over time. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2022.105185">half-life of PFOA in humans is about two years</a>. </p>
<p>Even after this point, half the amount of PFOA remains and it takes even more years for it to be eliminated. However, continuous exposure from multiple sources, including the use of cosmetics and personal care products, guarantee that PFOA and similar PFAS, are never eliminated.</p>
<h2>Health implications</h2>
<p>In Canada, the PFAS frequently measured in the environment with adverse health implications <a href="https://gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p2/2016/2016-10-05/html/sor-dors252-eng.html">are prohibited from use</a>. These include PFOA and PFOS, long-chain PFCAs, and any compound that degrades to produce them. This is a broader regulatory approach compared to other regions, including the U.S., <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pfas/key-epa-actions-address-pfas">which restricts individual PFAS</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-blanket-ban-on-toxic-forever-chemicals-is-good-for-people-and-animals-127879">A blanket ban on toxic 'forever chemicals' is good for people and animals</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But other regions are taking an even broader approach. The European Union’s <a href="https://cen.acs.org/environment/persistent-pollutants/EU-proposal-ban-10000-PFAS/101/i6">proposed ban</a> would eliminate thousands of PFAS. California is planning to <a href="https://cen.acs.org/environment/persistent-pollutants/California-bans-cosmetics-apparel-PFAS/100/web/2022/09">effectively eliminate any PFAS ingredient used in cosmetics and apparel by 2025</a>.</p>
<p>Canada should consider a similar approach, as a solution to protect people from exposure to these chemicals when applying cosmetics and personal care products, and eliminate their transfer to the environment after use.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523555/original/file-20230501-26-zod71e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="the shopfront for a makeup retailer with a sign reading SEPHORA" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523555/original/file-20230501-26-zod71e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/523555/original/file-20230501-26-zod71e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523555/original/file-20230501-26-zod71e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523555/original/file-20230501-26-zod71e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523555/original/file-20230501-26-zod71e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523555/original/file-20230501-26-zod71e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/523555/original/file-20230501-26-zod71e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some cosmetic retailers like Sephora indicate when PFAS chemicals are present in a product.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Regulation and information</h2>
<p>There is a solution: ban PFAS from cosmetics and personal care products. Some cosmetic retailers like <a href="https://toxicfreefuture.org/blog/four-ways-sephora-is-cleaning-up-cosmetics/">Sephora do not include PFAS on their “clean” cosmetic lists</a> so that consumers can avoid their use. But PFAS-containing cosmetics and personal care products are still readily available to Canadians. </p>
<p>PFAS are absent from the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/consumer-product-safety/cosmetics/cosmetic-ingredient-hotlist-prohibited-restricted-ingredients/hotlist.html">Canadian Cosmetic Ingredient Hotlist</a>, the list that contains ingredients prohibited from use in cosmetics and personal care products sold in Canada. </p>
<p>Environmental groups, managers, and industry should work together to stop using PFAS in cosmetics and personal care products, and instead use other ingredients that serve the same purpose. </p>
<p>At the very least, people should be aware of the PFAS in these products through clear labelling so that they can make informed decisions. Since completing this study, I have screened the ingredients in my products, only to find that a couple contained PFAS. I switched to other products.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201137/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Rand receives funding from a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) Discovery Grant (RGPIN-2018-05330) and the Canadian Foundation for Innovation (CFI) John R. Evans Leaders Fund (37944). </span></em></p>PFAS are chemicals used in cosmetics and personal care products that can persist in the environment for a very long time. New regulations seek to ban PFAS, but Canada needs to take further actions.Amy Rand, Assistant professor, Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology, Carleton UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1989942023-03-27T23:01:02Z2023-03-27T23:01:02ZWhat is a paraben and why are so many products advertised as ‘paraben-free’?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510738/original/file-20230216-26-hxjirz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C5%2C3489%2C2205&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>You might have noticed many skin and haircare products are advertised as “paraben-free”, or come across online influencers warning parabens are terrible for your health.</p>
<p>But what is a paraben? And could a minor ingredient in products that many of us use daily really be that bad for us? </p>
<p>Let’s take a closer look.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-does-exposure-to-environmental-chemicals-mean-for-our-health-41876">What does exposure to environmental chemicals mean for our health?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What are parabens?</h2>
<p>Chemically speaking, paraben is the collective name for a group of closely related compounds – the parahydroxybenzoates. The “para” refers to the positions of certain parts of the molecule (it’s also where the “para” in “paracetamol” comes from). </p>
<p>There are several different types of paraben, so you might see methylparaben, ethylparaben propylparaben, or butylparaben, in a product’s ingredient list. They may also be listed as a more formal chemical name. Methylparaben can be listed as 4-hydroxy methyl ester benzoic acid or methyl 4-hydroxybenzoate for example.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="a cartoon style drawing of Methylparaben" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509744/original/file-20230213-18-9qon73.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509744/original/file-20230213-18-9qon73.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509744/original/file-20230213-18-9qon73.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509744/original/file-20230213-18-9qon73.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509744/original/file-20230213-18-9qon73.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509744/original/file-20230213-18-9qon73.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509744/original/file-20230213-18-9qon73.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Methylparaben, commonly used as a preservative in skincare and cosmetics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Oliver Jones via the Molecular-Icons Generator app</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The shorter version is that parabens are a group of related molecules added in small amounts (less than 1%, usually lower) to food, drugs and cosmetics as preservatives.</p>
<p>They work by preventing the growth of harmful bacteria and fungi to improve product shelf life and safety. More than one paraben may be used, and they may be combined with other preservatives to protect against a broad range of microorganisms.</p>
<p>Parabens can be absorbed through the skin or ingested but are generally excreted quickly, usually via <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1764178/">urine</a>. They have been in use for decades and no parabens have been banned in <a href="https://www.choice.com.au/health-and-body/beauty-and-personal-care/skin-care-and-cosmetics/articles/chemicals-in-cosmetics">Australia</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.industrialchemicals.gov.au/sites/default/files/Parabens_Human%20health%20tier%20II%20assessment.pdf">Some studies</a> on cell cultures or animals have suggested parabens can affect the endocrine system (which controls our hormones) but it’s not clear how or even <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16097138/">if this is relevant to humans</a>. </p>
<p>The amounts used in some of those animal studies are much, much higher than you would find in make-up, for example. A lot of these <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/109158180802704s01">studies</a> also involved feeding the chemicals to the animals or injecting them, rather than putting them on the skin (which results in much lower absorption into the body).</p>
<p>You might also have heard parabens are “oestrogenic” (meaning they can mimic or affect oestrogen in the body). In fact, parabens are <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/109158180802704s01">far less oestrogenic</a> than natural oestrogen (that both males and females produce). They are also less oestrogenic than <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4153304/">phytoestrogens</a>, compounds produced naturally by many plants.</p>
<p>So, even though there have been studies raising concern, the overall risk in humans using parabens in normal doses is low. As the Australian Industrial Chemicals Introduction Scheme <a href="https://www.industrialchemicals.gov.au/sites/default/files/Parabens_Human%20health%20tier%20II%20assessment.pdf">puts</a> it:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The available data do not indicate any risks associated with exposure to the chemicals in this group. The chemicals have been shown to have weak oestrogenic activity, but there are no established adverse outcome pathways for this effect.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The US Food and Drug Administration reached a similar conclusion, <a href="https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/resources-consumers-cosmetics/cosmetics-safety-qa-parabens">noting</a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Studies have shown, however, that parabens have significantly less oestrogenic activity than the body’s naturally occurring oestrogen. Parabens have not been shown to be harmful as used in cosmetics, where they are present only in very small amounts.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Isn’t natural better? Aren’t human-made chemicals bad for you?</h2>
<p>Whether something is natural or not tells you nothing about its safety. </p>
<p>Snake venom is natural, as is uranium, lead and mercury. I wouldn’t buy personal care products with these “natural” ingredients in them. </p>
<p>Many things we use every day without a second thought – like aspirin, nylon, and silicone cookware – are synthetic. </p>
<p>The name of a chemical also tells you nothing about risk. If I told you a substance contained ethyl butanoate, pentyl acetate, ethene and capric acid, would you eat it? Well, you probably already have; these are all found in <a href="https://jameskennedymonash.wordpress.com/2013/12/12/ingredients-of-an-all-natural-banana/">bananas</a> and many other fruits.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514585/original/file-20230310-147-oahdj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman looks critically at skincare and shampoo bottles." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514585/original/file-20230310-147-oahdj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/514585/original/file-20230310-147-oahdj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514585/original/file-20230310-147-oahdj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514585/original/file-20230310-147-oahdj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514585/original/file-20230310-147-oahdj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514585/original/file-20230310-147-oahdj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/514585/original/file-20230310-147-oahdj7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Whether or not an ingredient is natural tells you nothing about its safety.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>So why are people worried about parabens, then?</h2>
<p>This goes back to an often misinterpreted 2004 study that found parabens in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14745841/">breast tissue and breast cancers</a>. But this doesn’t mean much by itself and doesn’t justify claims parabens cause cancer. </p>
<p>Correlation is not causation. The presence of parabens in a tumour does not mean parabens <em>caused</em> the tumour. </p>
<p>In fact, the researchers in the 2004 study only looked at breast cancer tissue (and didn’t compare it with healthy tissue). They even found parabens in their blank samples (with no tissue in them at all). So, as others have <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2DVcs9kP97s">noted</a>, it’s hard to draw any real conclusion from it about the role parabens may or may not play in cancer risk. </p>
<p>A lot of the endocrine disruptor stuff you hear on social media about parabens is usually from someone trying to spruik a “natural” or “clean” alternative, so you might not be seeing the full picture.</p>
<p>And remember: the presence of something does not automatically mean it is harmful. Toxicology 101 is “the dose makes the poison”. Everything is toxic in the right amount, even water. We should not ask whether a chemical causes cancer or acts as an endocrine disruptor, but whether it does so at the levels to which we are exposed.</p>
<p>The scientific consensus from the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/resources-consumers-cosmetics/cosmetics-safety-qa-parabens">US Food and Drug Administration</a>, the <a href="https://www.industrialchemicals.gov.au/sites/default/files/Parabens_Human%20health%20tier%20II%20assessment.pdf">Australian Industrial Chemicals Introduction Scheme</a> and the <a href="https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/scientific-guideline/reflection-paper-use-methyl-propylparaben-excipients-human-medicinal-products-oral-use_en.pdf">European Medicines Agency</a> and others is that for parabens at normal dosages, the health risk is very low.</p>
<h2>So why are so many products marketed as ‘paraben-free’?</h2>
<p>Going “paraben-free” has become a very effective marketing tool. If people want paraben-free products and will pay more for them, why not give them paraben-free products? </p>
<p>But paraben-free does not mean preservative-free, nor does it mean the products are safer (even if that’s what is implied). </p>
<p>If you remove parabens from a product, you need to add other preservatives, which may be less effective. This increases the risk of the product going off (some users of “clean” make-up brands have reported finding mould in products) and could even cause harm. </p>
<h2>So what’s the verdict?</h2>
<p>Ultimately, the choice to use products containing parabens is a personal one. </p>
<p>As a chemist I think parabens are well-researched, safe and and necessary, but if you are worried, you can opt for paraben-free products. Just be aware they will probably have a shorter shelf life, contain other (less effective) preservatives, and could well have other problems. I’d take a small amount of a well studied, and <a href="https://www.industrialchemicals.gov.au/cosmetics-and-soap/personal-care-skincare-make-and-other-cosmetic-products">well-regulated</a>, chemical in my skincare products over mould any day.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-is-makeup-bad-for-your-skin-82820">Health Check: is makeup bad for your skin?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198994/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oliver A.H. Jones does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Remember: the presence of something does not automatically mean it is harmful. It is the dose that makes the poison.Oliver A.H. Jones, Professor, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1939472023-01-09T19:09:04Z2023-01-09T19:09:04ZAre polishes, acrylics and powders bad for my fingernails? Do I need a breather between manicures?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496387/original/file-20221121-24-he3p7h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=53%2C44%2C5901%2C3943&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.pexels.com/photos/939836/pexels-photo-939836.jpeg?auto=compress&cs=tinysrgb&w=1260&h=750&dpr=2">Pexels/Valeria Boltneva</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People are increasingly opting for regular manicures – with vibrant layers of polish, gel, acrylic or powder. </p>
<p>Australians spend more than <a href="https://stat.mozo.com.au/images/more-on-mozo/media-releases/twenty-two-billion--the-annual-cost-of-vanity.pdf">$22 billion</a> a year on beauty treatments. And it’s not slowing down – the beauty and personal care market is expected to grow at around <a href="https://www.statista.com/outlook/cmo/beauty-personal-care/australia?currency=AUD">2–5%</a> in the next <a href="https://www.ibisworld.com/au/industry/hairdressing-beauty-services/677/">year</a>.</p>
<p>Manicure popularity (velvet nails are among the <a href="https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2022/11/11181874/winter-nail-art-trends">latest looks</a>) could be down to fashion, social media influencers or our desire for small luxuries. But should we hold off from treatments, and give our nails a break every now and then? </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-know-hand-dryers-can-circulate-germs-through-the-air-why-are-they-still-used-everywhere-157410">We know hand dryers can circulate germs through the air. Why are they still used everywhere?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What are nails?</h2>
<p>Nails are a unique feature in primates, made from <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK513133/">skin cells</a>. A special arrangement of keratin, a structural protein, allows the nails to become strong and compact. Keratin is the same protein present in hair, as well as the horns, claws and hooves of other animals.</p>
<p>Upon maturing, the cells making up the fingernail disintegrate their <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-2494.2007.00372.x">nucleus</a>, giving rise to a translucent and colourless appearance.</p>
<p>Nails strengthen and protect the fingertips. They enable fine motor control, such as turning the pages of a book or picking up a needle from a table. They allow us to scratch ourselves when itchy, hold a better grip on some items, and pry open nuts and foods. They also enhance some sensations due to the underlying nerves.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539733/">curved shape</a> of the nail both strengthens it, as well as allows a nice snug fit to the underlying finger.</p>
<p>Fingernails grow at an average rate of 3 millimetres <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2230.1994.tb02693.x">per month</a>, so it takes about 4–6 months to fully grow from the cuticle to the tip. This is much faster than toenails, which grow around <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-2494.2007.00372.x">three times</a> slower.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495549/original/file-20221116-24-24a82f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495549/original/file-20221116-24-24a82f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495549/original/file-20221116-24-24a82f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495549/original/file-20221116-24-24a82f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495549/original/file-20221116-24-24a82f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=590&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495549/original/file-20221116-24-24a82f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=590&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495549/original/file-20221116-24-24a82f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=590&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Labelled fingernail.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christian Moro, Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Fingernails grow from the skin at the base of the nail, with the new nail slowly pushing the rest forward. This occurs the fastest up to about <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-2494.2007.00372.x">14 years</a> of age, with males exhibiting faster-growing nails than females. The growth rate evens out at <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13285907/">around 50</a> years of age.</p>
<p>Nails can be an insight into our health. An <a href="https://www.statpearls.com/ArticleLibrary/viewarticle/32684">abnormally shaped</a> nail bed (clubbing) may suggest anaemia, low tissue oxygenation, or cardiovascular disease. Discolouration or pitting could indicate <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/multimedia/nails/sls-20076131">autoimmune</a> issues, infections or malnutrition.</p>
<h2>How do nails break?</h2>
<p><a href="http://www.healthycellsmagazine.com/articles/dermatology-more-than-just-skin">Dermatologists</a> see a lot of patients with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6994568/">frail and brittle nails</a>. Such nails can be vulnerable to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1473-2130.2004.00141.x">splitting or breaking</a>.</p>
<p>The external environment does impact our nails. Both low moisture and very high moisture can cause the nails to become <a href="https://www.aocd.org/page/BrittleSplittingNail">brittle</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://synapse.koreamed.org/articles/1095278">Poor nutrition</a> and <a href="https://ijdvl.com/nail-changes-and-disorders-among-the-elderly/">age</a> can also affect the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20620759/">health</a> of the nailbed and the strength and colour of the nails.</p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-causes-dry-lips-and-how-can-you-treat-them-does-lip-balm-actually-help-161264">What causes dry lips, and how can you treat them? Does lip balm actually help?</a>
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</em>
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<h2>Beautiful nails</h2>
<p>Healthy nails are more likely to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1473-2130.2004.00141.x">look good</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7105659/">Good habits</a> to adopt for strong fingernails include trimming the nails straight across and rounding the edges, not messing with the cuticles (which help keep out nasty bugs), and not putting anything sharp under the nails.</p>
<p>But of course, playing around with the look of nails using shades and colours can be fun and fashionable. Around <a href="https://www.goldsteinresearch.com/report/nail-care-market-global-industry-analysis">85–90%</a> of women worldwide use nail care products.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496390/original/file-20221121-25-859nwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="nail colour selection in salon" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496390/original/file-20221121-25-859nwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496390/original/file-20221121-25-859nwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496390/original/file-20221121-25-859nwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496390/original/file-20221121-25-859nwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496390/original/file-20221121-25-859nwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496390/original/file-20221121-25-859nwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496390/original/file-20221121-25-859nwp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Choices, choices, so many choices.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.pexels.com/photos/7755653/pexels-photo-7755653.jpeg?auto=compress&cs=tinysrgb&w=1260&h=750&dpr=2">Pexels/Rodnae</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-women-might-feel-the-cold-more-than-men-heres-why-184329">Yes, women might 'feel the cold' more than men. Here's why</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<h2>Can manicures do damage?</h2>
<p>Although nail cosmetics can enhance nail appearance, they can potentially damage the underlying nails. Knowing what changes could occur is the important first step towards avoiding any permanent impact.</p>
<p>If you regularly paint your nails with traditional nail polish, be careful when using darker colours as this can stain the nail plate. Some ingredients in nail care products may also lead to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12358556/">allergic</a> contact <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32355091/">dermatitis</a>.</p>
<p>To cure, harden, and dry each layer, the nail is often exposed to light under a fluorescent bulb. Most commonly, nail salons will use UV lamps, which requires about five minutes of exposure per hand.</p>
<p>This can cause <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29634895/">cell damage</a> and ageing to the skin. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/phpp.12398">Current literature</a> reports low skin cancer risk from UV <a href="https://www.cancer.org.au/iheard/do-the-uv-lights-used-in-nail-salons-for-shellac-and-other-nail-polishes-cause-skin-cancer">lamp exposure</a>. However, the recommendation is to apply a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29634895/">broad spectrum sunscreen</a> with SPF >30 <a href="https://www.jprasurg.com/article/S1748-6815(16)30001-8/fulltext">before exposure</a>.</p>
<p>The most common method of removing gel polish is using acetone. The chemical can lead to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1473-2165.2011.00595.x">brittle, dry and rough nails</a> and cause separation of the nail from the nail bed. </p>
<p>Skin contact with acetone can also cause your skin to become dry, irritated and <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/acetone-properties-and-incident-management/acetone-general-information">cracked</a>. Some damage can also be done by peeling off acrylic or gel nails.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495548/original/file-20221116-13642-mr0aal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495548/original/file-20221116-13642-mr0aal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495548/original/file-20221116-13642-mr0aal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495548/original/file-20221116-13642-mr0aal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=447&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495548/original/file-20221116-13642-mr0aal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495548/original/file-20221116-13642-mr0aal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495548/original/file-20221116-13642-mr0aal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=562&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Everybody’s doing it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christian Moro, Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
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<h2>Maybe don’t try this at home</h2>
<p>Practising beauty techniques at home comes with the danger of serious harm. </p>
<p>The glue or chemical applicants used to adhere fake nails can cause serious <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/12/4283">burns</a>. The chemicals used can also be harmful to <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/12/4283">children</a> if left within reach. As such, going to a qualified and experienced nail technician is likely safer, provided they are taking infection precautions like using sterile tools and equipment.</p>
<p>Although nail cosmetics come with relatively minor risks, <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/a-look-at-the-effects-of-nail-polish-on-nail-health-and-safety-2019112118231">dermatologists</a> often recommend sticking with your natural nails and painting them with regular polish, and allowing intermittent breaks between manicures to give your nails time to breathe.</p>
<p>We use the term “breathe” loosely here. Your nails receive their nourishment from the blood vessels under the skin, and do not need contact with the outside oxygen. But keeping the nails uncovered with product does give your body a chance to repair and regenerate the nail and its surrounding skin, keeping the region nice and healthy.</p>
<p>How long of a break is up to you, depending on your nails. However, given a full nail regrows entirely in four to six months, you won’t need to wait that long.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-position-should-i-sleep-in-and-is-there-a-right-way-to-sleep-189873">What position should I sleep in, and is there a ‘right’ way to sleep?</a>
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<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/reel/CixlJqFpiKZ/?utm_source=ig_embed\u0026ig_rid=6fe3caa1-ed37-4d9b-bdad-ffb758d21b94","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193947/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With a huge array of nail cosmetics to choose from, people are getting manicure makeovers on a regular basis. But do your nails need a holiday?Christian Moro, Associate Professor of Science & Medicine, Bond UniversityCharlotte Phelps, PhD Candidate, Centre for Urology Research, Bond UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1880892022-10-13T08:16:14Z2022-10-13T08:16:14ZJust how safe are cosmetics on the European market?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482014/original/file-20220831-26-pzawkk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C9%2C2048%2C1352&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Regulations in the US and EU are intended to ensure that cosmetics and other personal-care products are safe, but the two continents approach the issue in different ways.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/30478819@N08/50301489872">Marco Verch/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When was the last time you read the ingredient label on a bottle of shampoo? Have you ever sneezed when applying face powder? As you lay on the beach this summer, did you wonder what it was in your sunscreen that blocked the sun’s UV light and protected your skin?</p>
<p>A large number of chemical substances are used in many such products. The HBO documentary series <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cDcs6N44Aok"><em>Not So Pretty</em></a> investigates harmful chemicals used in the beauty industry and centres, in particular, on the experiences of consumers and workers who say that they were exposed to harmful substances in personal-hygiene products. Above all, it is a chilling exposé of the lack of regulation of cosmetics in the United States.</p>
<p>According to the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetics-laws-regulations/prohibited-restricted-ingredients-cosmetics">US Food & Drug Administration</a> (FDA), the United States has only banned 11 harmful substances in cosmetic products. By comparison, the European Union (EU), prohibits more than 1,300 substances, and restricts more than 250 with a concentration threshold.</p>
<p>The United States is one of the world’s largest markets of the cosmetics industry. Studies conducted <a href="https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/26403/Article.pdf">there</a>, in <a href="https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/157068/157068.pdf;PDF#page=22">Europe</a>, and in <a href="https://www-nature-com.proxy.bnl.lu/articles/jes201720">Asia</a> have confirmed that women tend to consume cosmetics and personal-hygiene products much more than men and tend to account for the vast majority of workers (90%) in professional beauty services such as hair and nail salons.</p>
<p>Some interviewed in the series claim to have contracted <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/mesothelioma/symptoms-causes/syc-20375022">mesothelioma</a>, a cancer that affects tissue surrounding bodily organs, due to asbestos detected in talc and make-up. Others explain they have suffered fertility problems and even miscarriages as a result of exposure to “everyday chemicals” upsetting hormones, formally known as endocrine disruptors. These include bisphenol A (BPA), which can be found in eye make-up and nail varnish, or phthalates, which keep nail polish from cracking and help the scent of perfumes linger.</p>
<h2>The differences between the continents</h2>
<p>Despite the parallels, the continents fundamentally differ over how they regulate substances in cosmetics and other personal-hygiene products.</p>
<p>The FDA has <a href="https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetics-laws-regulations/fda-authority-over-cosmetics-how-cosmetics-are-not-fda-approved-are-fda-regulated">little power</a> when it comes to demanding manufacturers disclose their products’ ingredients and safety data. In the absence of such critical information, the agency must nevertheless bear the burden of proof and show that a certain substance is harmful in its intended use in order to withdraw it from circulation.</p>
<p>By contrast, in the EU the <a href="https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/cosmetics/legislation_en">Cosmetic Products Regulation</a> framework sets the rules for placing substances on the market on the basis of their human health impacts. The <a href="https://www.coslaw.eu/what-is-the-scientific-committee-on-consumer-safety-sccs/">Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety</a> (SCCS) also advises the European Commission on the health and safety risks of cosmetic products and their ingredients. Lastly, and contrary to the US, the burden of proof of safety is on the manufacturer, which must add data on cosmetic products to the <a href="https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/cosmetics/cosmetic-product-notification-portal_en">Cosmetic Products Notification Portal</a> (CPNP) available to competent authorities, SCCS, and poison centres.</p>
<h2>Keeping make-up users safe in Europe</h2>
<p>In Europe, the manufacturer is always responsible for the safety of the products it places on the market, and each product must have undergone a safety assessment before it is sold. The rule of thumb is that substances that are classified as carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic for reproduction (CMR) of category 1 or 2 are prohibited from cosmetics. Following a mandatory safety assessment by the SCCS, certain exceptions may be granted. Other EU chemicals regulations complement the safety provisions based on a classification procedure for hazardous substances such as CMR, as well as providing a safety net for environmental risks posed by cosmetics after they’re washed off.</p>
<p>A quick glance over the <a href="https://echa.europa.eu/fr/cosmetics-prohibited-substances">prohibited substances list</a> of the European Cosmetics Products Regulation reveals that asbestos is banned from all cosmetic products. Moreover, the production and marketing of asbestos is completely prohibited, except in the case of its use for the production of <a href="https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/ea9dc42d-7656-8afd-09e4-d8b41fae2c9c">chlorine and sodium hydroxide</a>, two chemicals found in household cleaners, according to the regulator. Asbestos is thus a clear and strict “no go” on the European cosmetics market.</p>
<p>Similarly, BPA and phthalates are also prohibited in cosmetics. BPA is officially classified in the EU as toxic for reproduction, an endocrine disruptor and included in the candidate list of <a href="https://echa.europa.eu/candidate-list-table">substances of very high concern</a> (SVHC). This means the consumer can request that manufacturers inform them of the presence of the chemical in their articles starting from 0.1% by weight in the article, as specified under the EU’s <a href="https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/reach/understanding-reach">REACH regulation</a>.</p>
<p>What about titanium dioxide? A white and opaque powder, the chemical has been used for almost a century as a white pigment and can be found in colour cosmetics such as eye shadow and blush, loose and pressed powders. Its resistance to ultra-violent light also make it a key ingredient in many sunscreens. The EU classifies it as a category 2 carcinogen by inhalation, which means this substance is suspected to cause cancer when inhaled. Certain restrictions on its use in cosmetic products are in place and these are especially prevalent in products that are sprayed. For example, a limit threshold of 1.1% is set in professional hair aerosol spray products and in colourants. Powder applications that “may lead to exposure of the user’s lungs by inhalation” are prohibited.</p>
<h2>How confident can EU consumers be?</h2>
<p>When it comes to the legal frameworks around chemicals and cosmetic products, the European market has extensive safety provisions.</p>
<p>However, regulation may be challenging to enforce within the realm of international trade and online sales. <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/safety-gate-alerts/screen/webReport">EU reports</a> have highlighted the presence of some harmful substances in cosmetics and other personal-care products circulating on the European market. In 2018, one brand of make-up, including some items made in China destined for children, was found to contain asbestos in Czech Republic and the Netherlands.</p>
<p>The European enforcement authorities collaborate to avoid such products on the EU market, and the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/safety-gate-alerts/screen/webReport">Safety Gate platform</a> alerts consumers to non-compliant goods within the EU. Furthermore, the 2020 <a href="https://echa.europa.eu/hot-topics/chemicals-strategy-for-sustainability">European Chemicals Strategy for Sustainability</a> aims at an even higher level of consumer and environmental protection with its various actions such as the consideration of “cocktail effects” of chemicals.</p>
<h2>Reducing your exposure to harmful chemicals: a checklist</h2>
<p>For European consumers seeking to reduce their potential exposure to harmful chemicals, here are some safety guidelines and resources:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>If you are sensitive to common allergens, seek out unscented cosmetics whose labels do not contain the words <em>fragrance</em> or <em>perfume</em>.</p></li>
<li><p>For the sake of the environment and personal health, try to limit the dosage used. Be it a shampoo or a cleaning agent, usually small amounts are enough for the purpose of getting your hair or a surface cleaned.</p></li>
<li><p>Be wary of less-expensive imported cosmetic and hygiene products. The consumer could look at the label and check the country where the product has been manufactured. Manufacturers outside the EU are not necessarily aware of EU regulations and may pay less attention to product safety.</p></li>
<li><p>Tell your medical professional about any unwanted side effects following the use of a product. Keep the product packaging and label for further reference.</p></li>
<li><p>Use the help of European apps detecting chemicals in products, such as <a href="https://incibeauty.com/en">INCI Beauty</a> (for cosmetics), <a href="https://www.bund-naturschutz.de/oekologisch-leben/einkaufen/toxfox">ToxFox</a> (for cosmetics and articles), and <a href="https://www.ineris.fr/fr/risques/dossiers-thematiques/substances-chimiques-consommation-scan4chem-accompagne/scan4chem">Scan4Chem</a> (for everyday articles such as clothing, kitchenware, sports equipment, electronics, etc.)</p></li>
<li><p>Use your right to know about SVHCs in articles by requesting information from suppliers.</p></li>
</ul>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=158&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=158&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=158&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=198&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=198&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/310261/original/file-20200115-134768-1tax26b.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=198&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em>Created in 2007 to help accelerate and share scientific knowledge on key societal issues, the AXA Research Fund has supported nearly 700 projects around the world conducted by researchers in 38 countries. To learn more, visit the site of the AXA Research Fund or follow on Twitter @AXAResearchFund.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/188089/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oona Freudenthal a reçu des financements d'AXA Research Fund. Elle est membre de Committee for Socio-Economic Analysis de l'Agence Europeenne des Produits Chimiques (ECHA).</span></em></p>From miscarriages to cancer, poor regulation of cosmetics in the US have taken a devastating toll on consumers’ lives. Are European consumers any safer?Oona Freudenthal, R&T Associate, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1850742022-06-20T09:37:18Z2022-06-20T09:37:18ZBlue light: what we do and don’t know about the damage it causes our skin<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469485/original/file-20220617-25-ma9rqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C44%2C5946%2C3943&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Is blue light harmful?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/disappointed-sad-woman-holding-mobile-phone-1129353881">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Take a wander down the skincare aisle of any health and beauty retailer and you’ll be met with a bewildering array of creams and sprays, promising to protect you from various threats to your skin.</p>
<p>You might have noticed skincare companies claiming their products can protect you from the effects of blue light. If you hadn’t thought about blue light before, you’d be forgiven for worrying about whether you should be concerned. </p>
<p>First you need to understand what blue light is. </p>
<p>Visible light accounts for 50% of the sunlight spectrum and, as the name suggests, it’s the only part of light that can be detected by the human eye. The blue band of this visible spectrum has a particularly high energy level.</p>
<p>The longer the wavelength, the less energy it transmits. Blue light has very short, high energy waves.</p>
<p>Blue light is all around you. The sun emits blue light. So do fluorescent and incandescent light bulbs, mobile phones, computer screens and flat screen televisions. </p>
<h2>What are the risks?</h2>
<p>There is mounting evidence that blue light can have a harmful effect on the skin and eyes and disrupt the circadian rhythm (your internal clock). Typically, studies investigating the impact of sun radiation on the skin have focused on ultraviolet radiation, particularly UVB, which is responsible for sunburn. The most frequently reported effect of blue light exposure is a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26977040/">significant increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS)</a>, highly reactive chemicals formed from oxygen. Too much ROS can <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15797866/">damage your DNA</a> and <a href="https://aacrjournals.org/mcr/article/14/7/612/89680/Oxidative-Stress-Induced-Protein-Damage-Inhibits">key enzymes such as those responsible for DNA repair</a>, increasing your risk of cancer. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1011134421002517">Our research</a> showed blue light can induce pigmentation (tanning) across skin types. While many people consider a deep tan a desirable trait, it is a marker of skin damage and ROS. Others researchers found skin tans from visible light (which includes blue light) had <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022202X15349307">darker pigmentation that lasted longer</a> compared to ultraviolet radiation exposure. Our studies also showed blue light can <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-30738-6">activate genes associated with inflammation and photoageing</a> (skin damge). Several studies have proved typical sunscreens do not prevent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1011134421002517">blue</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26977040/">visible</a> light damage. </p>
<p>While blue light appears to be less potent than ultraviolet radiation, this may be accounted for by the relatively larger amounts of blue light that reach the Earth. UVR accounts for around 5% of solar radiation in the UK at midday in the summer. Blue light makes up around <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/php.12422">three times more at 15%</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jocd.13837">There are some beneficial effects</a> of blue light. It has been used to treat skin conditions including <a href="https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/448000">eczema</a>, it is widely used in <a href="https://journals.lww.com/jdnaonline/Fulltext/2015/05000/Current_Evidence_and_Applications_of_Photodynamic.4.aspx">photodynamic therapy</a>, which is used to treat a range of skins conditions, from acne to cancer, and it boosts <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22081819/">wound healing</a>. But the harmful effects of blue light are likely to outweigh the positives for healthy people.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man in bed looks at laptop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469486/original/file-20220617-17-pypzma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469486/original/file-20220617-17-pypzma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469486/original/file-20220617-17-pypzma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469486/original/file-20220617-17-pypzma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469486/original/file-20220617-17-pypzma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469486/original/file-20220617-17-pypzma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469486/original/file-20220617-17-pypzma.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We are all exposed to more blue light than ever before.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-home-front-laptop-watching-movies-1662226270">Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Blue light can damage the skin but it’s less clear which sources of blue light are harmful to humans. The blue light from screens is responsible for a fraction of the blue light doses we get. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6280109/pdf/JBPE-8-447.pdf">Research</a> has shown screens from devices can increase ROS production. However, a <a href="https://www.beiersdorf.com/newsroom/press-releases/all-press-releases/2021/05/04-cell-phone-screens-do-not-damage-skin#:%7E:text=Artificial%20blue%20light%20has%20negligible,knowledge%20and%20of%20scientific%20studies.">study</a> by German skincare manufacturer Biersdorf found that an entire week’s worth exposure to blue light from a screen at a distance of 30cm is equivalent to just one minute of midday summer sun in Hamburg, Germany. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190962219333249?via%3Dihub">Another study</a> found blue light from screens were 100 - 1,000 times less intense than blue light from the sun. It also failed to trigger melasma, which causes patches of skin discolouration, in patients who have the condition. It’s true we are spending more time in front of screens than ever before but while screens may cause some damage, it’s insignificant compared with sun exposure. </p>
<h2>Blue light skincare</h2>
<p>The cosmetics industry has started developing a wide range of skincare products that brands claim prevent blue light damage. However, there is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jocd.13854">no regulated or standardised test</a> to assess a product’s ability to prevent blue light damage. Companies do carry out scientific tests on these products. But they can use any number of assessments in their work. This is very different from the regulations around sunscreen that claim to contain <a href="https://www.iso.org/standard/72250.html">Sun protection factor (SPF).</a>. SPF testing is closely regulated by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). All products that claim to contain an SPF undergo an identical testing regime.</p>
<p>The lack of regulation for blue light claims makes it impossible for consumers to make informed choices about the level of protection offered and differences between products. This lack of regulation is unlikely to be dangerous for consumers, but the benefit from the products may be limited. Given the evidence around blue light emitted by screens, it’s worth applying scepticism to any claims that a product is needed to prevent damage from your computer screen or phone.</p>
<p>Traditional photoprotection products (such as sunscreens) don’t typically protect you from blue light damage. It’s encouraging the skincare industry is trying to address this need. But it is crucial that governments take the next step in the process and develop industry-wide, standardised testing. In the meantime, it is important to remember to limit any exposure to the sun. The use of sunscreens (or any product containing an SPF rating) have been proven to prevent skin cancer and photoageing, and products advertising blue light protection may give an additional benefit.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185074/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karl Lawrence has previously received funding from the sunscreen industry.</span></em></p>What you need to know about blue light protection lotions.Karl Lawrence, Post Doctoral Researcher, Photobiology, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1822002022-05-12T12:58:06Z2022-05-12T12:58:06ZDo these three popular anti-ageing skincare ingredients work? Here’s what the evidence says<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462715/original/file-20220512-23-wke9s1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C23%2C7916%2C5273&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Anti-ageing skincare products are marketed to people of all ages.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/skin-care-woman-putting-face-mask-1557806402">Maridav/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For people looking to press pause on ageing, it hasn’t always been as easy as it is today. Throughout history people have used all sorts of outlandish anti-ageing skincare techniques – such as <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/science-science-everywhere-you-asked/why-did-cleopatra-supposedly-bathe-sour-donkey-milk">bathing in donkey’s milk</a> as Cleopatra supposedly did, or <a href="https://thedermreview.com/elizabethan-beauty-and-skin-care/">applying mercury</a> directly to the skin, as the Elizabethans did.</p>
<hr>
<iframe id="noa-web-audio-player" style="border: none" src="https://embed-player.newsoveraudio.com/v4?key=x84olp&id=https://theconversation.com/do-these-three-popular-anti-ageing-skincare-ingredients-work-heres-what-the-evidence-says-182200&bgColor=F5F5F5&color=D8352A&playColor=D8352A" width="100%" height="110px"></iframe>
<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
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<p>While the modern era has certainly seen its fair share of bizarre anti-ageing skincare methods – such as <a href="https://www.marieclaire.com/beauty/news/a14382/anti-aging-beauty-through-history/">placenta and vampire facials</a> – the latest trend in anti-ageing skincare is using science.</p>
<p>But with ingredients such as peptides, antioxidants and acids now commonplace in ingredients lists, it can be difficult for someone without a background in biology or chemistry to know if what they’re putting in their basket really is backed by science – or if it’s just clever marketing hype. </p>
<p>Here, we take a look at three of the most popular ingredients currently found in many anti-ageing products – and whether there’s any evidence they do what they claim: </p>
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<img alt="Quarter life, a series by The Conversation" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451343/original/file-20220310-13-1bj6csd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><strong><a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/quarter-life-117947?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">This article is part of Quarter Life</a></strong>, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.</em></p>
<p><em>You may be interested in:</em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/seven-myths-and-truths-about-healthy-skin-111706?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Seven myths and truths about healthy skin</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/rihanna-and-radical-pregnancy-fashion-how-the-victorians-made-maternity-wear-boring-182000?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">Rihanna and radical pregnancy fashion – how the Victorians made maternity wear boring</a></em></p>
<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/ivf-add-ons-why-you-should-be-cautious-of-these-expensive-procedures-if-youre-trying-to-conceive-180198?utm_source=TCUK&utm_medium=linkback&utm_campaign=UK+YP2022&utm_content=InArticleTop">IVF add-ons: why you should be cautious of these expensive procedures if you’re trying to conceive</a></em></p>
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<h2>Vitamin C</h2>
<p>Products containing vitamin C often claim that it “brightens” the skin’s appearance and encourages collagen production. The middle layer of our skin (the dermis) produces both collagen and elastin, which work together to give the skin its <a href="https://parjournal.net/article/view/3863">stiffness and elasticity</a>. But as we get older, the skin produces less collagen and elastin – which is why we develop wrinkles.</p>
<p>Vitamin C is a bit tricky to deliver to the skin. This is because the outermost layer of the skin, the epidermis, acts as a barrier to water. Since vitamin C is water soluble, this can make it difficult to develop a product that is able to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5579659/">get vitamin C into the skin</a>. </p>
<p>But some research does suggest that concentrations above 5% of vitamin C may work on the skin. For example, one study found that in ten women aged 50-60, applying a cream containing 5% vitamin C to the forearms daily for six months showed an <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022202X15412564">increase in collagen production</a> in the skin. </p>
<p><a href="https://jcadonline.com/february-2019-vitamin-c/">Other research</a> also suggests that vitamin C applied to the skin daily can noticeably reduce hyperpigmentation (patches of skin that are slightly darker) caused by sun damage. In multiple studies, creams with and without vitamin C were applied to different areas of skin on each person. It was found that people who used vitamin C creams for a total of 47 days saw a noticeable difference in the colour of their skin after 12 days of use. However, there was little further change after the first 12 days.</p>
<p>However, it’s unknown if the results persisted after the study was finished.</p>
<h2>Hyaluronic acid</h2>
<p>Hyaluronic acid is a natural substance that our body makes. It’s usually found in the fluids in the eyes and between the joints and tissues. Many skincare products now include hyaluronic acid, claiming it’s a good skin moisturiser which may help reduce wrinkles. </p>
<p>A 2011 study, which looked at 76 women aged between 30 and 60, found that using creams containing 0.1% of hyaluronic acid twice daily for two months improved <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22052267/">skin hydration and elasticity</a>. But improvements to the appearance of wrinkles and skin roughness was only seen in creams where the hyaluronic acid molecules were smaller in size. This is because hyaluronic acid molecules that are larger can be <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/srt.12228">more difficult for the skin to absorb</a>. </p>
<p>But many high street skin creams containing hyaluronic acid don’t tell you the exact size of the molecules used in the product – making purchasing decisions difficult. It’s worth reading the label and taking note of the type and/ or concentration of hyaluronic acid it contains. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman looks at the selection of skincare products on a store shelf." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462716/original/file-20220512-16-2aujck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462716/original/file-20220512-16-2aujck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462716/original/file-20220512-16-2aujck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462716/original/file-20220512-16-2aujck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462716/original/file-20220512-16-2aujck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462716/original/file-20220512-16-2aujck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462716/original/file-20220512-16-2aujck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It can be difficult to know if the product you buy is really going to work.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-attractive-woman-consultant-lays-out-318315056">GaudiLab/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Reassuringly, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S014181301833770X?via%3Dihub">other studies</a> have shown that many hyaluronic acid products (from creams and serums to injectables) can help increase skin hydration and reduce wrinkles – including a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13555-021-00566-0">2021 study</a>, which showed a significant increase in skin hydration and reduction in fine lines in participants. But it’s worth noting this study used a commercial product that contained a blend of niacinamide, ceramides and hyaluronic acid applied twice a day, alongside daily sunscreen use. This makes it difficult to know if the results were solely because of hyaluronic acid. </p>
<h2>Retinol</h2>
<p>Retinol-based products are popular these days, often promoted for their ability to reduce the effects of long-term sun damage to the skin (photoageing) – including hyperpigmentation and wrinkling. </p>
<p>Retinol is a derivative of vitamin A. It’s converted to retinoic acid once it’s absorbed into the skin. Once absorbed, it helps increase collagen production and increases cell turnover. All of these effects combined help plump out the appearance of wrinkles and decrease hyperpigmentation. </p>
<p>Studies in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8757759/">humans cells</a>, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9517919/">skin samples</a> and humans all suggest products containing retinol can have an effect on the skin’s appearance. For example, one study in humans showed using a product with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17515510/">at least 0.4% retinol</a> three times a week for six months did decrease the appearance of wrinkles. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27332694/">Previous studies</a> have shown even products containing 0.04% retinol can have this effect when used for at least 12 weeks.</p>
<p>While the effects will not be as pronounced when compared to other prescription-grade retinoid products, commercial products containing at least 0.04% retinol should be able to reduce the appearance of fine wrinkles with continued used over a period of months especially when combined with <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/seasonal-health/sunscreen-and-sun-safety/">sun protection</a>. </p>
<h2>What to look for</h2>
<p>If you’re considering buying an anti-ageing skincare product, there are a few things to think about.</p>
<p>First, consider whether you may be allergic to any of the ingredients in the product and whether it’s suitable for your skintype. For example, if you have dry, sensitive skin, retinol may not be suitable for you as it can increase your skin’s sensitivity to sunlight and irritate it further. You should also take note of the concentration of the active ingredient within the product and follow the recommended use advised by the manufacturer. This will be stated on the label.</p>
<p>Of course, you also need to remember the product you have bought is not a cure-all. It’s equally important to maintain a healthy lifestyle, eat a balanced diet and get adequate rest to maintain visibly healthy skin.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182200/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Szu Shen Wong received funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council to work on the 'From natural resources to packaging, an interdisciplinary study of skincare products over time' project between March 2016 to Feb 2018 (<a href="https://gtr.ukri.org/projects?ref=AH%2FN007174%2F1">https://gtr.ukri.org/projects?ref=AH%2FN007174%2F1</a>).
Szu Shen Wong also acted as a paid consultant in the BBC Two documentary 'Make-up: A Glamorous History' which was first broadcast in 2021.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Neil Grazier assisted in the BBC Two documentary 'Make-up: A Glamorous History' which was first broadcast in 2021.</span></em></p>Here’s what to consider when buying anti-ageing skincare products.Szu Shen Wong, Lecturer in Pharmaceutical Science, School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Keele UniversityNeil Grazier, Technician, School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1808182022-04-07T10:19:16Z2022-04-07T10:19:16ZCould lead makeup really kill you? A scientist recreated centuries-old skin whitening recipes to find out – podcast<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456687/original/file-20220406-7054-wa4h2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C440%2C357&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Countess of Coventry, Maria Gunning, was rumoured to have died of lead poisoning from her makeup. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Coventry,_Countess_of_Coventry#/media/File:Mary_Gunning,_Countess_of_Coventry.jpg">Jean-Étienne Liotard via Wikimedia</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Can makeup really kill you? That’s the myth attached to Maria Gunning, the Countess of Coventry, an 18th-century socialite who <a href="https://historyofyesterday.com/deadly-fashion-trends-from-the-georgian-era-58d120dad1c6">reportedly died</a> from her lead-based makeup in 1760, aged just 27. </p>
<p>In this episode of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/the-conversation-weekly-98901">The Conversation Weekly</a> podcast, we speak to a scientist who has recreated some centuries-old recipes for white lead makeup to test how dangerous these cosmetics were. </p>
<iframe src="https://embed.acast.com/60087127b9687759d637bade/624e98976b1d87001240d267" frameborder="0" width="100%" height="190px"></iframe>
<p><iframe id="tc-infographic-561" class="tc-infographic" height="100" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/infographics/561/4fbbd099d631750693d02bac632430b71b37cd5f/site/index.html" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Lead poisoning can cause all types of health problems, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.10096">high blood pressure</a>. It is a particular health hazard for women. It can cause <a href="https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7386">early menopause</a> and increase the risk of <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/lead/health.html">stillbirth and miscarriage</a>. </p>
<p>And yet, lead used to be a common ingredient in skin-whitening makeup. The ancient <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna22546056#.WGrA8bF-IdU">Greeks and Romans put it in their cosmetics</a> and white lead makeup, also known as ceruse, was fashionable between the 16th and 19th centuries in Europe.</p>
<p>Fiona McNeill is an expert in lead poisoning at McMaster University in Canada. But when she heard the story of the Countess of Coventry dying from her makeup, McNeill was sceptical. </p>
<p>“I’ve got this background in lead poisoning and I thought, this just can’t be true,” she tells us. While ingesting lead is toxic, McNeill was unconvinced that the lead in makeup would cross the skin in sufficient quantities to kill somebody. </p>
<p>McNeill and her colleagues decided to investigate. They found various centuries-old recipes for white lead makeup, recreated them in the lab, and then tested them on pig skin to find out. </p>
<p>And along the way, they’ve found what the makeup really looked like. “It’s always depicted in the movies and on TV as this white mask, this ridiculous-looking face. When we started making it in the lab, it doesn’t look like that at all,” she explains. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dying-for-makeup-lead-cosmetics-poisoned-18th-century-european-socialites-in-search-of-whiter-skin-176237">Dying for makeup: Lead cosmetics poisoned 18th-century European socialites in search of whiter skin</a>
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<p>This episode of The Conversation Weekly was produced by Mend Mariwany and Gemma Ware, with sound design by Eloise Stevens. Our theme music is by Neeta Sarl. You can find us on Twitter <a href="https://twitter.com/TC_Audio">@TC_Audio</a>, on Instagram at <a href="https://www.instagram.com/theconversationdotcom/?hl=en">theconversationdotcom</a> or <a href="mailto:podcast@theconversation.com">via email</a>. You can also sign up to The Conversation’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/newsletter?utm_campaign=PodcastTCWeekly&utm_content=newsletter&utm_source=podcast">free daily email here</a>.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fiona E. McNeill receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span> </span></em></p>Listen to The Conversation Weekly podcast.Daniel Merino, Assistant Science Editor & Co-Host of The Conversation Weekly Podcast, The ConversationGemma Ware, Editor and Co-Host, The Conversation Weekly Podcast, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1764612022-03-14T18:57:12Z2022-03-14T18:57:12ZRemaking history: how we are recreating Renaissance beauty recipes in the modern chemistry lab<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444470/original/file-20220204-23-h8dxhl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C0%2C6521%2C5062&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Giovanni Bellini, Young Woman at Her Toilette</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In this new series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/remaking-history-116020">Remaking History</a>, academics explain the ways they are recreating historical practices, and how this impacts their research today.</em> </p>
<hr>
<p>The desire to appear youthful and beautiful has provided impetus for extraordinary chemical experimentation with cosmetics for millennia. Historical cosmetic recipes list an array of plant, animal and mineral ingredients from roses and rosemary to donkey milk and calves’ hooves, gold and sulphur. </p>
<p>The beauty industry developed dramatically in Renaissance Europe from around 1500. Recipes were widely published and recorded in manuscripts. And there was ready availability of a range of ingredients and pre-made formulas, some of them marketed as “secret”.</p>
<p>Recipes claimed to treat a whole arsenal of beauty concerns, including dying hair, removing hair, whitening teeth, clearing blemishes and removing wrinkles. While women were the primary audience for such beautifying recipes, there were also recipes for men to cure baldness and facilitate beard growth.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444469/original/file-20220204-13-1ccrwye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A naked Venus looks in a mirror held up by cherubs" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444469/original/file-20220204-13-1ccrwye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444469/original/file-20220204-13-1ccrwye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=715&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444469/original/file-20220204-13-1ccrwye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=715&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444469/original/file-20220204-13-1ccrwye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=715&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444469/original/file-20220204-13-1ccrwye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444469/original/file-20220204-13-1ccrwye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444469/original/file-20220204-13-1ccrwye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Titian, Venus with a Mirror, c. 1555.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., Andrew W. Mellon Collection</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Renaissance artworks provided templates of ideal beauty – above all associated with women and the classical figure of Venus. Recipes offered the possibility the female user might also appear as beautiful as her.</p>
<p>(It is not a coincidence Gillette makes a Venus razor and shaving products – Venus was typically depicted with soft, smooth skin with no bodily hair.)</p>
<p>It is remarkable just how closely Renaissance beauty ideals – and aggressive marketing strategies promising cures – parallel those of today. The principles for treating such concerns and ingredients used in historical beauty recipes are the same as they were many hundreds of years ago. And yet other ingredients seem to have been forgotten or abandoned over time.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445863/original/file-20220211-21-12fbwfp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445863/original/file-20220211-21-12fbwfp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445863/original/file-20220211-21-12fbwfp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445863/original/file-20220211-21-12fbwfp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445863/original/file-20220211-21-12fbwfp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445863/original/file-20220211-21-12fbwfp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445863/original/file-20220211-21-12fbwfp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445863/original/file-20220211-21-12fbwfp.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vénus à sa toilette, c.1525 - 1550.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Musée du Louvre</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One would expect, then, a flurry of scientific research into historical cosmetics. And yet despite <a href="https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/book/ovid-on-cosmetics-medicamina-faciei-femineae-and-related-texts/introduction">some scholarly interest</a> in historical cosmetics, there has been a dearth of scientific, academically-rigorous, lab-based analysis. </p>
<h2>Make it beautiful</h2>
<p>In the <a href="https://www.beautifulchemistryproject.com">Beautiful Chemistry Project</a>, we recreate and analyse popular beautifying recipes recorded in Renaissance Europe: the ingredients, the working processes and the final products. </p>
<p>The project grew out of a study of cosmetic recipes recorded between 1500-1700 across Europe in a range of sources: medical and surgical texts, herbals, popular “books of secrets”, cosmetic recipe collections and domestic manuscripts of family recipes. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446185/original/file-20220214-97814-1mump5d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446185/original/file-20220214-97814-1mump5d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446185/original/file-20220214-97814-1mump5d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=779&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446185/original/file-20220214-97814-1mump5d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=779&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446185/original/file-20220214-97814-1mump5d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=779&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446185/original/file-20220214-97814-1mump5d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=978&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446185/original/file-20220214-97814-1mump5d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=978&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446185/original/file-20220214-97814-1mump5d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=978&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A book containing cosmetic recipes, published in 1526.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is a colossal amount of material so our study does not aim to be comprehensive. Instead, we have focused on recipes for the skin that promised to “make it beautiful” (a common promise in recipes of the time) as well as those claiming to remove wrinkles and rejuvenate the skin. </p>
<p>While the recipes we study were recorded in European sources in Latin, Italian, French and English, many of the recipes were based on earlier sources. And so ancient Egyptian papyri, Roman, Byzantine and medieval sources have also been consulted to establish patterns and trace changes in the recipes through the ages.</p>
<p>We take an integrated approach that joins history and science, the library and the lab, recipe texts and recipe formulas, and teams up senior researchers and students. First year chemistry students and graduate students work together with postdoctoral researchers with expertise in the analytical, synthetic and physical fields of chemistry. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446184/original/file-20220214-115872-ljplr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446184/original/file-20220214-115872-ljplr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446184/original/file-20220214-115872-ljplr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446184/original/file-20220214-115872-ljplr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446184/original/file-20220214-115872-ljplr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446184/original/file-20220214-115872-ljplr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446184/original/file-20220214-115872-ljplr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446184/original/file-20220214-115872-ljplr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chemist Ruth Cink working on the Beautiful Chemistry project.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The approach involves identifying commonly recorded Renaissance beauty recipes and having the enthusiastic students – alongside and guided by the research scientists – recreate them in the lab and/or at home, carefully documenting every step of their thinking, working process and results. </p>
<p>The recreated formulas are then chemically analysed using laboratory analytical techniques in the School of Chemical Sciences, and the effect of these products on skin quality is tested in the Photon Factory at the university.</p>
<h2>Making a recipe</h2>
<p>Renaissance cosmetic recipes are often frustratingly short and vague. The nature of the ingredients, the measurements and even the processes are rarely self-evident. </p>
<p>Take, for example, a very popular recipe we have worked on, which sounds straightforward: rosemary flowers boiled in white wine. This version of the recipe is recorded in the runaway bestselling book of secrets by the pseudonymous “Alessio Piemontese”, published around the same time Titian painted his dazzling Venus at Her Mirror. </p>
<p>The recipe is entitled, <em>A far bella faccia</em>, or, to make a beautiful face.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444473/original/file-20220204-19-a877m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444473/original/file-20220204-19-a877m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444473/original/file-20220204-19-a877m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=119&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444473/original/file-20220204-19-a877m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=119&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444473/original/file-20220204-19-a877m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=119&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444473/original/file-20220204-19-a877m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=150&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444473/original/file-20220204-19-a877m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=150&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444473/original/file-20220204-19-a877m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=150&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The recipe ‘to make a beautiful face’</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">De’ Secreti del reverendo donno Alessio Piemontese, Venice, 1555</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<blockquote>
<p>Take rosemary flowers and boil them with white wine and with this wash the face very well, and also drink it, it will make your face very beautiful, and the breath good.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>For a cultural historian, the recipe leads to questions about the textual tradition of the recipe, the perceived properties of the ingredients, the role of smell, the power of beauty. </p>
<p>For a scientist, there are so many variables: quantities, boiling procedure and length of time, type of white wine and equipment used. Note, too, its beautifying powers are not solely accomplished through application on the skin but through drinking it and making your breath sweet.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447665/original/file-20220221-21-1kuh6ac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447665/original/file-20220221-21-1kuh6ac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447665/original/file-20220221-21-1kuh6ac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=707&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447665/original/file-20220221-21-1kuh6ac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=707&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447665/original/file-20220221-21-1kuh6ac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=707&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447665/original/file-20220221-21-1kuh6ac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=889&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447665/original/file-20220221-21-1kuh6ac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=889&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447665/original/file-20220221-21-1kuh6ac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=889&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Boiling the rosemary flowers with white wine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Variations of the Renaissance formula included steeping and boiling rosemary flowers and/or leaves in white wine. When we recreated these steps and analysed the resulting mixtures, we found both methods extracted a wide variety of essential oils, amino acids and sugars. </p>
<p>These included many chemicals, such as camphor, eucalyptol and linalool you could find in modern skincare products. </p>
<p>Today, we know these substances can have antibacterial, moisture-binding, collagen-growth stimulating, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, brightening and soothing effects.</p>
<p>Renaissance experimenters mixed concoctions of potent, often seemingly unusual ingredients together in their pursuit of beauty. By recreating their experiments, we can see how much modern beauty standards and practices can be traced back many hundreds of years.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/remaking-history-in-hand-making-400-year-old-corset-designs-i-was-able-to-really-understand-how-they-impacted-women-175055">Remaking history: in hand-making 400-year-old corset designs, I was able to really understand how they impacted women</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176461/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michel Nieuwoudt received funding from the Ministry of Business, Industry and Enterprise (MBIE) and the Health Research Council (HRC) NZ. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cather Simpson, Ruth Cink, and Erin Griffey do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>To ‘make a beautiful face’, according to one 16th century recipe, you should take rosemary flowers and boil them with white wine.Erin Griffey, Associate Professor, Art History, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauCather Simpson, Professor of Physics & Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauMichel Nieuwoudt, Senior Research Fellow, Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauRuth Cink, Professional Teaching Fellow, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata RauLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1639112021-07-15T13:43:34Z2021-07-15T13:43:34ZSouth Africa is rich in plants used for skincare: rural women helped us document some<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/410561/original/file-20210709-19-1uk5wjo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Castor oil plant is popular in rural South Africa for its medicinal qualities.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/red-castor-bean-pods-on-a-castor-oil-plant-in-easter-island-news-photo/1232679652?adppopup=true">Creative Touch Imaging Ltd./NurPhoto via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People have been using plants in skincare for thousands of years, for cleansing, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/9027603_Plants_Used_in_Cosmetics">perfuming</a>, <a href="https://www.mindbodygreen.com/0-20697/8-homegrown-plants-for-naturally-glowing-skin.html">beautifying</a> and healing. Today, plants <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327132274_The_Use_of_Plants_in_Skin-Care_Products_Cosmetics_and_Fragrances_Past_and_Present">contribute</a> significantly to the <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/585522/global-value-cosmetics-market/">cosmetic</a> (beauty) and cosmeceutical (medicinal) industry, which is worth billions of dollars.</p>
<p>Though orthodox medicine can treat many skin disorders, traditional herbal medicines and cosmetics remain popular especially in rural areas where they are part of people’s culture. </p>
<p>In South Africa, it is <a href="https://www.hst.org.za/publications/South%20African%20Health%20Reviews/18_SAHR_2006-2007_Section%2013.pdf">estimated</a> that about 27 million people still rely partly on traditional medicine. And more than 3,000 indigenous plants have been <a href="https://iks.ukzn.ac.za/sites/default/files/Medicinal%20plant%20harvesting%20sustainability%20and%20cultivation%202018.pdf">reported</a> as having traditional medicinal uses. More than 90 indigenous South African plants have been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0254629911001190">evaluated</a> for their commercialisation potential. Of these traditionally used plants, 32% are traded in “muthi” (traditional medicine) markets and contribute an estimated <a href="https://www.hst.org.za/publications/South%20African%20Health%20Reviews/18_SAHR_2006-2007_Section%2013.pdf">R2.9 billion</a> to the South African economy annually.</p>
<p>Herbal cosmetics remain part of tradition and a modern <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/21/5/559">trend</a> in beauty and fashion. Many people prefer natural products for their personal care because they have <a href="https://www.longdom.org/open-access/herbal-cosmetics-and-cosmeceuticals-an-overview-2329-6836-1000170.pdf">few side-effects</a>. </p>
<p>However, there is limited information available about indigenous knowledge and practices in natural cosmetics and cosmeceuticals in South Africa. Documenting the plants used for these purposes could raise public awareness and encourage innovation to drive the potential market. It may also encourage more research on the potentials for new plant-based products.</p>
<p>We therefore conducted a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0254629918321252?via%3Dihub">study</a> in the Vhembe district of Limpopo province in South Africa. This is an area that is rich in biodiversity and plants with traditional uses. We interviewed 79 women from 16 communities to document the medicinal uses of plants. We also wanted to know how the plants contributed to the socioeconomic lives of the rural women. Our research team comprised botanists, agricultural economists and indigenous knowledge systems experts.</p>
<h2>Commonly used plants</h2>
<p>The ethnobotanical information was collected from February to June 2018. It was based on face-to-face interviews using questionnaires. We asked about the names of local plants used and recorded how they were prepared. We spoke to women who had knowledge of medicinal plants and photographed the plants they mentioned. We later deposited specimens in the herbarium of the South African National Biodiversity Institute and identified the botanical names of the collected plants.</p>
<p>We discovered that the use of plant-based preparations was popular in the Vhembe district. A total of 49 plants belonging to 32 families formed part of the existing recipes for cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. </p>
<p>More than 50% of the plants were recorded for the first time as having these uses. For instance, the leaves of <em>Dicerocaryum zanguebaricum</em> are applied <a href="https://www.ripublication.com/ijac17/ijacv13n3_23.pdf">topically</a> as a substitute for soap, while in other studies they have been noted as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0254629907002141">antibacterial, anti-inflammatory</a> and used for <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Use%20of%20ethnovertinary%20medicinal%20plants%20in%20cattle%20by%20setswana-speaking%20people%20in%20the%20Madikwe%20area%20of%20the%20North%20West%20Province%20in%20South%20Africa&publication_year=2001&author=V.D.%20Merwe&author=D.G.%20Swan&author=C.J.%20Botha">ethno-veterinary medicines</a>.</p>
<p><a href="http://pza.sanbi.org/dicerocaryum-senecioides">Devil’s thorn</a>, <a href="http://redlist.sanbi.org/species.php?species=4063-1">soap bush</a> and <a href="https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/weeds/key/weeds/Media/Html/Ricinus_communis_(Castor_Oil_Plant).htm">castor oil plant</a> were the most commonly cited plants. Castor oil plant, soap bush and devil’s thorn are sought after for their ability to stop bleeding and speed up wound healing. They are also used to treat burns and alleviate other skin conditions. Several <a href="https://medcraveonline.com/PPIJ/perspective-of-natural-products-in-skincare.html">findings</a> are available for these plants, an indication of their potential as natural-based cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. </p>
<p>The Vhembe women use a variety of equipment and implements. The main tools included the panga and the mortar and pestle – an ancient technology which is still effective for maceration and preparing poultices. No machines were used to produce the herbal extracts. Most of the tools used were homemade; others were purchased from hardware stores.</p>
<h2>Commercial prospects</h2>
<p>Another <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/8/3/51">analysis</a> showed that for every R1.00 that rural women invested in making these products, they could realise an additional R0.28 return. </p>
<p>These findings suggest that the enterprise could improve people’s economic welfare in rural communities. Its economic potential is worth studying in more detail. </p>
<p>Based on our <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/8/3/51">study</a>, plant-based cosmetics and cosmeceuticals are a potentially lucrative business if there is investment in local infrastructure and industrial development in local communities.</p>
<p>Low-cost and value-added products could be part of the development of the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/sti/emerging-tech/34823102.pdf">bio-economy</a>. However, there is a need for more research and innovation to drive product development for local markets. </p>
<p>Government and the private sector should share responsibility in developing local communities by assisting rural women to access credit or loan facilities for manufacturing. </p>
<p>South Africa has several laws and <a href="https://www.gov.za/documents/protection-promotion-development-and-management-indigenous-knowledge-act-6-2019-19-aug">regulations</a> on bio-prospecting. These are aimed at <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-south-africa-is-doing-to-protect-and-share-traditional-medicine-resources-145135">protecting traditional knowledge</a>, biological and genetic resources such as medicinal plants. These regulations are aligned to those of the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf">Convention of Biodiversity</a> and <a href="https://www.cbd.int/abs/doc/protocol/nagoya-protocol-en.pdf">Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing</a>. Both are aimed at sustainable use of natural resources and protecting biological diversity, traditional knowledge and intellectual property rights. These frameworks should be fully implemented at local level for equitable benefit sharing, sustainable use of biological resources and reinforcement of investments in the rural economy in South Africa.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163911/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adeyemi Oladapo Aremu receives funding from the National Research Foundation, Pretoria, South Africa. He is a member of the South African Young Academy of Science (SAYAS) and Young Affiliate of the African Academy of Sciences (AAS).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Tshepiso Ndhlovu received funding from the National Research Foundation Pretoria, South Africa (grant number: UID 105161). He is a member of the Indigenous Plant Use forum (IPUF) and South African Association of Botany (SAAB).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wilfred Otang-Mbeng receives funding from the National Research Foundation (NRF), Pretoria, South Africa (Grant number: UID 105161). He is a member of the Indigenous Plant Use forum (IPUF) and Society for Medicinal Plants and Economic Development (SOMPED)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Abiodun Olusola Omotayo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Traditional herbal medicines and cosmetics remain popular in South Africa especially in rural areas where they are part of people’s culture.Abiodun Olusola Omotayo, Extraordinary Senior Lecturer, Food Security and Safety Niche Area, North-West UniversityAdeyemi Oladapo Aremu, Associate professor, North-West UniversityTshepiso Ndhlovu, Ph.D. candidate in Indigenous Knowledge Systems and lecturer at School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, University of MpumalangaWilfred Otang-Mbeng, Associate Professor in Botany, University of MpumalangaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1611652021-06-24T12:10:04Z2021-06-24T12:10:04ZHow palm oil became the world’s most hated, most used fat source<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407563/original/file-20210622-15-jq0ku3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C8%2C2991%2C1985&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Oil palm fruit in North Aceh, Indonesia.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/workers-drops-the-palm-fruit-from-their-pandanus-before-news-photo/867112046">Fachrul Reza / Barcroft Media via Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Palm oil is everywhere today: in food, soap, lipstick, even newspaper ink. It’s been called the world’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/543306a">most hated crop</a> because of its association with <a href="https://phys.org/news/2019-09-palm-oil-indonesia-raging-forest.html">deforestation in Southeast Asia</a>. But despite <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2015/mar/10/people-businesses-boycotting-palm-oil-sustainability">boycott campaigns</a>, the world uses more palm oil than any other vegetable oil – <a href="https://ipad.fas.usda.gov/cropexplorer/cropview/commodityView.aspx?cropid=4243000&sel_year=2020&rankby=Production">over 73 million tons in 2020</a>.</p>
<p>That’s because palm oil is cheap. The plant that makes it, the <a href="https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/20295">African oil palm</a>, can produce up to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2008.09.009">10 times more oil per hectare than soybeans</a>.</p>
<p>But as my <a href="https://www.uncpress.org/book/9781469662893/oil-palm/">book on palm oil’s history</a> shows, this controversial commodity hasn’t always been cheap. It became that way thanks to legacies of colonialism and exploitation that still shape today’s industry and that make it challenging to shift palm oil onto a more sustainable path.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/vvKgnRPThKI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Palm oil and its derivatives are ubiquitous in consumer products but can appear under hundreds of names, such as glyceryl and sodium lauryl sulfate.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From slavery to skin care</h2>
<p>Palm oil has long been a staple food in a region stretching from Senegal to Angola along Africa’s western coast. It entered the global economy in the 1500s aboard ships engaged in the <a href="https://slavevoyages.org/voyage/about#methodology/introduction/0/en/">transatlantic slave trade</a>. </p>
<p>During the deadly “middle passage” across the Atlantic, palm oil was a valued food that kept captives alive. As the author of a 1711 book noted, traders also smeared captives’ skin with palm oil to make them “<a href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/109229#page/142/mode/1up">look smooth, sleek, and young</a>” before sending them to the auction block.</p>
<p>By the mid-1600s, Europeans were rubbing palm oil on their own skin, too. European writers, learning from African medicinal practices, claimed that palm oil “<a href="https://archive.org/details/trueexacthistory00ligo_0/page/50/mode/2up?q=does+the+greateft+cures+upon+fuch">does the greatest cures upon such, as have bruises or strains on their bodies</a>.” By the 1790s, British entrepreneurs were <a href="https://hcommons.org/deposits/objects/hc:24958/datastreams/CONTENT/content">adding palm oil to soap</a> for its reddish-orange color and violetlike scent. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407566/original/file-20210622-23-1ghnxrc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Cakes of Sunlight Soap with vintage wrapper." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407566/original/file-20210622-23-1ghnxrc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407566/original/file-20210622-23-1ghnxrc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407566/original/file-20210622-23-1ghnxrc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407566/original/file-20210622-23-1ghnxrc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407566/original/file-20210622-23-1ghnxrc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407566/original/file-20210622-23-1ghnxrc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407566/original/file-20210622-23-1ghnxrc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=582&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lever’s Sunlight Soap, introduced in the 1880s, got its tint from palm oil.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/cake-of-sunlight-soap-with-packet-sunlight-soap-was-news-photo/90743248">SSPL vis Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>After Britain abolished the slave trade in 1807, traders sought out legal products. In the following decades Britain slashed tariffs on palm oil and encouraged African states to focus on producing it. By 1840, palm oil was cheap enough to completely replace tallow or whale oil in such products as soap and candles.</p>
<p>As palm oil became increasingly common, it lost its reputation as a luxurious good. Exporters made it even cheaper with labor-saving methods that allowed palm fruit to ferment and soften, though the results were rancid. European buyers, in turn, applied new chemical processes to strip away foul odors and colors. The result was a bland substance that could be freely substituted for more expensive fats and oils.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407768/original/file-20210622-14-s8cbv3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Sketch of men pounding oil palm fruit with sticks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407768/original/file-20210622-14-s8cbv3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/407768/original/file-20210622-14-s8cbv3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407768/original/file-20210622-14-s8cbv3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407768/original/file-20210622-14-s8cbv3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=439&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407768/original/file-20210622-14-s8cbv3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407768/original/file-20210622-14-s8cbv3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/407768/original/file-20210622-14-s8cbv3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=552&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘The Production of Palm Oil,’ by Édouard Auguste Nousveaux, 1844.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.metmuseum.org/CRDImages/dp/original/DP809147.jpg">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Palm oil colonialism</h2>
<p>By 1900, a new industry was gobbling up all kinds of oils: <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/margarine#ref206629">Margarine</a> was invented in 1869 by the French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès as a cheap alternative to butter. It soon became a mainstay of working-class diets in Europe and North America. </p>
<p>Palm oil was first used to <a href="https://niche-canada.org/2021/03/24/hard-butter-times-in-canada-what-buttergate-reveals-about-environmental-and-food-history/#_ftnref4">dye margarine yellow</a>, but it turned out to be a perfect main ingredient because it stayed firm at room temperature and melted in the mouth, just like butter.</p>
<p>Margarine and soap magnates like Britain’s <a href="https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/lady-lever-art-gallery/story-of-lever">William Lever</a> looked to Europe’s colonies in Africa for larger quantities of fresher, edible palm oil. However, African communities often refused to provide land for foreign companies because making oil by hand was still profitable for them. Colonial oil producers resorted to <a href="https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/object/boreal:179705">government coercion and outright violence</a> to find labor.</p>
<p>They had more success in Southeast Asia, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022463420000697">where they created a new oil palm plantation industry</a>. Colonial rulers there gave plantation companies nearly unlimited access to land. The companies hired “<a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=UTQTEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=women+coolie+history&ots=o-dqj6wmSN&sig=qcIq6QlBVx-M82xGv1kdq4eISIc#v=onepage&q=women%20coolie%20history&f=false">coolies</a>” – a derogatory European term for migrant workers from southern India, Indonesia and China, based on the Hindi word Kuli, an aboriginal tribal name, or the Tamil word kuli, for “wages.” These laborers toiled under coercive, low-paying contracts and discriminatory laws. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404095/original/file-20210602-25-18s00qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two men with a large bunch of palm fruit suspended from a pole." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404095/original/file-20210602-25-18s00qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404095/original/file-20210602-25-18s00qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=836&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404095/original/file-20210602-25-18s00qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=836&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404095/original/file-20210602-25-18s00qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=836&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404095/original/file-20210602-25-18s00qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1051&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404095/original/file-20210602-25-18s00qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1051&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/404095/original/file-20210602-25-18s00qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1051&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Two workers carry a large bunch of oil palm fruit on a Sumatran plantation around 1922.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://digitalcollections.universiteitleiden.nl/view/item/923366">J.W. Meijster, Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The oil palm itself also adapted to its new locale. While scattered palms grew to towering heights on African farms, in Asia they remained short in tight, orderly plantations that were easier to harvest efficiently. By 1940, plantations in Indonesia and Malaysia were exporting more palm oil than all of Africa.</p>
<h2>A golden gift?</h2>
<p>When Indonesia and Malaysia gained independence after World War II, plantation companies retained their access to cheap land. Indonesian authorities dubbed palm oil from their fast-growing plantation industry a “<a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Palm_Oil_a_Golden_Gift_from_Indonesia_to.html?id=uRe5MwEACAAJ">golden gift to the world</a>.” </p>
<p>Palm oil consumption grew as competitors dropped away: first whale oil in the 1960s, then <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-crisco-toppled-lard-and-made-americans-believers-in-industrial-food-127158">fats like tallow and lard</a>. In the 1970s and 1980s, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408399209527562">health concerns about tropical oils</a> such as coconut and palm undercut demand in Europe and North America. But developing countries snapped up palm oil for <a href="https://stacks.stanford.edu/file/druid:zc839jm3057/Gaskell_Dissertation-augmented.pdf">frying and baking</a>.</p>
<p>Plantations expanded to meet the demand. They kept costs down by recruiting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2012.01496.x">poorly paid and often undocumented migrant workers</a> from Indonesia, the Philippines, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Nepal, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68944-5_9">reproducing some of the abusive practices of the colonial era</a>.</p>
<p>In the 1990s, U.S. and EU regulators moved to <a href="https://nplusonemag.com/online-only/online-only/fear-frying/">ban unhealthy trans fat</a>, a type of fat found in partially hydrogenated oils, from foods. Manufacturers turned to palm oil as a cheap and effective substitute. From 2000 through 2020, EU palm oil imports more than doubled, while U.S. imports shot up almost tenfold. Many consumers <a href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/food-drink/bs-fo-berger-cookies-trans-fat-20171120-story.html">didn’t even notice the switch</a>. </p>
<p>Because palm oil was so inexpensive, manufacturers found new uses for it, such as replacing petroleum-based chemicals in soaps and cosmetics. It also became a <a href="https://chinadialogue.net/en/energy/11957-as-palm-oil-for-biofuel-rises-in-southeast-asia-tropical-ecosystems-shrink/">biodiesel feedstock in Asia</a>, although research suggests that making biodiesel from palms grown on newly cleared land <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-14852-6">increases greenhouse gas emissions</a> instead of reducing them. </p>
<p>The EU is <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/malaysia-palmoil-wto-idUSL2N2NI071">phasing out palm oil biofuels</a> because of concerns over deforestation. Undeterred, Indonesia is working to <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-climate-biodiesel/analysis-indonesias-palm-oil-powered-green-diesel-fuels-threat-to-forests-idUSKBN2A4030">increase the palm component</a> in its biodiesel, which it markets as “<a href="https://pertamina.com/en/news-room/news-release/success-with-d-100-pertamina-is-ready-to-produce-green-energy">Green Diesel</a>,” and to develop other palm-based biofuels.</p>
<p><iframe id="aCG5A" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/aCG5A/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Boycott or reform?</h2>
<p>Today there are enough oil palm plantations worldwide to cover an area <a href="https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/13/1211/2021/">larger than the state of Kansas</a>, and the industry is still growing. It is concentrated in Asia, but plantations are spreading in Africa and Latin America. A 2019 investigation of one company in the Democratic Republic of Congo found <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/11/25/dr-congo-development-banks-linked-palm-oil-abuses">dangerous conditions and abusive labor practices</a> that echoed colonial-era palm oil projects. </p>
<p>Endangered animals have received more press. According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, tropical forest clearing for oil palm plantations <a href="https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/palm-oil-and-biodiversity">threatens nearly 200 at-risk species</a>, including orangutans, tigers and African forest elephants.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1398226039952875522"}"></div></p>
<p>However, the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/palm-oil-and-biodiversity">IUCN</a> and many <a href="https://international.nwf.org/deforestation/palm-oil/">other advocates</a> argue that shifting away from palm oil <a href="https://theconversation.com/palm-oil-boycott-could-actually-increase-deforestation-sustainable-products-are-the-solution-106733">is not the answer</a>. Since oil palm is so productive, they contend, switching to other oil crops could cause even more harm because it would require more land to cultivate substitutes.</p>
<p>There are more just and sustainable ways to make palm oil. Studies show that small-scale agroforestry techniques, like those historically practiced in <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23209182">Africa and among Afro-descendant communities in South America</a>, offer cost-effective ways to produce palm oil while <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2019.00122">protecting the environment</a>. </p>
<p>The question is whether enough consumers care. Over 20% of palm oil produced in 2020 received certification from the Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil, a nonprofit that includes oil palm producers and processors, consumer goods manufacturers, retailers, banks and advocacy groups. But barely half of it found buyers <a href="https://rspo.org/impact">willing to pay a premium for sustainability</a>. Until this changes, vulnerable communities and ecosystems will continue to bear the costs of cheap palm oil.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161165/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jonathan E. Robins received funding for this research from a joint American Philosophical Society-British Academy grant, the Hagley Museum and Library, the University of Connecticut Humanities Institute, and the Michigan Technological University Research Excellence Fund.</span></em></p>Palm oil is responsible for widespread deforestation and labor abuses, but it’s also cheap and incredibly useful. That’s why many advocates call for reforming the industry, not replacing it.Jonathan E. Robins, Associate Professor of Global History, Michigan Technological UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1612642021-05-31T06:04:08Z2021-05-31T06:04:08ZWhat causes dry lips, and how can you treat them? Does lip balm actually help?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/403491/original/file-20210531-27-1pcrc50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As we head into the colder weather, many of us might be afflicted with the irritating ailment of dry and chapped lips.</p>
<p>People have been trying to figure out how to fix dry lips for centuries. Using beeswax, olive oil and other natural ingredients have been reported as early as Cleopatra’s <a href="https://nationalpost.com/entertainment/movies/secret-gloss-a-brief-history-of-lip-balm-from-earwax-to-clorox">time</a>, around 40 B.C.</p>
<p>In 1833, there were even reports of human earwax being <a href="https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/The_American_Frugal_Housewife/-YYSAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=the+American+Frugal+Housewife,+Dedicated+to+Those+who+are+Not+Ashamed+of+Economy&printsec=frontcover">recommended</a> as a successful remedy for dry, cracked lips. Not long after, the first commercial lip balms hit the market.</p>
<p>So what causes dry lips, and which lip balms actually help? The key is to avoid lip balms that contain certain additives which might worsen the problem.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CPhuZbctAHL","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>They need to be soft but resilient</h2>
<p>Our lips are constantly exposed to the elements, such as sunlight, wind, dry air, and cold weather. They have to withstand our daily lifestyle, including contact with food, cosmetics, biting, picking, rubbing against clothes, kissing and more.</p>
<p>So, although they look soft and fleshy, our lips need to be resilient and tough.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-our-toes-and-fingers-get-wrinkly-in-the-bath-120229">Curious Kids: why do our toes and fingers get wrinkly in the bath?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Lips sit at the junction where our outside facial skin transitions into the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XsrlJn2cDh0&t=58s">tissue</a> layers lining the mouth. As such, the lips are structured similar to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507900/">mucous membranes</a>, but with the addition of a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s004030050453">protective</a> outside layer of skin. Lips don’t have hair follicles, or sweat, saliva and oil glands.</p>
<p>This unique structure means they’re particularly prone to dryness as they have a much lower ability to hold <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/15030342">water</a> than the rest of the face’s skin.</p>
<h2>What causes dry lips?</h2>
<p>Many of us get dry lips at certain times of the year. This can occur naturally, or be brought on by many different factors, including:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>inflamed lips, known as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6531998/">cheilitis</a>. This can be due to a skin condition, or an infection such as herpes or cold sores</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://journals.lww.com/dermatitis/Abstract/2007/12000/Allergic_Contact_Cheilitis_from_Benzophenone_3_in.8.aspx">allergies</a></p></li>
<li><p>medications which impact the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12974516/">salivary glands</a>, the mouth’s surrounding <a href="https://youtu.be/UNyKlwO23w4">muscles</a>, or sensations throughout the lip area</p></li>
<li><p>tongue injuries, teeth that rub against the lips, or other dental issues</p></li>
<li><p>poor oral health. This can be brought on by general neglect, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22750232/">eating disorders</a>, or bad oral hygiene habits</p></li>
<li><p>burns, such as eating food that’s too hot, or sunburn. Burns can result in the lips swelling, <a href="https://youtu.be/T-FnAH9y1N4">scarring</a> and blistering, and it may take a long time for the pain to alleviate</p></li>
<li><p>some diseases or disorders, such as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19445445/">Sjögren’s syndrome</a></p></li>
<li><p>dehydration, heat stroke, <a href="https://youtu.be/BxgEoLmOACo">fever</a>, or excessive heat</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352647520300988?via%3Dihub">nasal</a> congestion, which leads to chronic mouth-breathing. This can sometimes be a result of illness, such as when you have a common cold</p></li>
<li><p>cold weather or cold wind that runs along the lips and removes moisture</p></li>
<li><p>persistent licking, which can create a wet-dry cycle that excessively <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352647520300988">dries</a> out your lips.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The dryness can also lead to pain, itching or stinging.</p>
<p>If dry lips start causing serious issues, it may be helpful to discuss this with a medical professional.</p>
<h2>How can you treat dry lips?</h2>
<p>It is important to identify what’s causing dry lips. If it’s due to lip licking, then you need to make habitual changes to stop the practice. If it’s due to cold, windy or dry weather, then certain balms and ointments can help protect the lips. </p>
<p>Drinking adequate amounts of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352647520300988">water</a> can assist, because this helps prevent dry skin in general.</p>
<p>If this isn’t enough, bland, non-irritating, unflavoured lip balms can help, as they act as a film covering the lip surface, keeping moisture in.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man with beard applying lip balm" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/403497/original/file-20210531-15-u2nxjk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/403497/original/file-20210531-15-u2nxjk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/403497/original/file-20210531-15-u2nxjk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/403497/original/file-20210531-15-u2nxjk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/403497/original/file-20210531-15-u2nxjk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/403497/original/file-20210531-15-u2nxjk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/403497/original/file-20210531-15-u2nxjk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s best to choose a bland lip balm that doesn’t contain fragrances, flavours and colours.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In many cases these use petroleum jelly as a base (although it’s not <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ics.12533">required</a>), along with refined mineral oils to remove any <a href="https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jchem/2019/1680269/">hazardous</a> compounds, and other ingredients that can assist in retaining and maintaining a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ics.12583">barrier function</a>. </p>
<p>In the race to appeal to consumers, cosmetic manufacturers have trialled a number of new ingredients in their lip balms. Popular lip balms often contain additives which can make the balm smell or taste nice, or soften the feel when it rubs against the lips.</p>
<p>Some of these extra ingredients can help. For example, if you’re out in the sun a lot, lip balm with included sunscreen is a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1227745/">great</a> addition.</p>
<h2>Products to avoid</h2>
<p>In many cases, these compounds provide the feeling of immediate relief on the lips but don’t actually help with the barrier function. And in some cases, they can become irritants and even worsen the dryness.</p>
<p>When choosing a lip balm, try to avoid products containing these ingredients:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6477564/">fragrances</a></p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://enveurope.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s12302-016-0076-7">flavours</a>, such as mint, citrus, vanilla, and cinnamon</p></li>
<li><p>shiny <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/not-just-lip-service-gloss-can-invite-skin-cancer-flna1c9459959">glosses</a>, which can intensify damage from the sun’s rays</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetic-ingredient-names/color-additives-permitted-use-cosmetics">colours</a>, which can cause irritation and do nothing to assist the barrier function</p></li>
<li><p>menthol, phenol or salicylic acid, which can actually make your lips <a href="https://health.clevelandclinic.org/7-signs-your-lip-balm-use-is-just-a-bad-habit/">drier</a></p></li>
<li><p>additional, unnecessary <a href="https://www.aad.org/public/everyday-care/skin-care-basics/dry/heal-dry-chapped-lips">ingredients</a> such as camphor, lanolin, octinoxate, oxybenzone or propyl gallate.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>And be sure to stop biting, picking or excessively licking your lips.</p>
<p>Staying hydrated and applying a bland lip balm should be a routine incorporated into your every day lifestyle for healthy, protected, and moisturised lips.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CPhDQOdjh5a","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161264/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The key is to avoid lip balms that contain certain additives which might worsen the problem. Instead, try balms that are bland and don’t contain flavours, fragrances and colours.Christian Moro, Associate Professor of Science & Medicine, Bond UniversityCharlotte Phelps, PhD Student, Bond UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1522402021-03-05T01:51:32Z2021-03-05T01:51:32ZThinking about trying collagen supplements for your skin? A healthy diet is better value for money<p>Celebrity <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gW653Tgrrwg&feature=emb_logo">testimonials</a> abound for pills, potions and creams that purport to make you look younger.</p>
<p>This time collagen supplements are in the spotlight, after Jennifer Aniston became the face of one wellness brand’s <a href="https://www.instyle.com/beauty/health-fitness/jennifer-aniston-vital-proteins-collagen">collagen campaign in late 2020</a>.</p>
<p>While some research has found benefits of collagen supplementation for some aspects of skin health, it’s a case of buyer beware. The evidence is generally weak, with many of the studies claiming to find positive effects from collagen supplementation funded mostly by industries that manufacture these products. Therefore, the results need to be interpreted with caution.</p>
<p>When you’re reading articles promoting these products, be especially wary of phrases such as “<a href="https://www.usmagazine.com/shop-with-us/news/jennifer-aniston-vital-proteins-collagen-supplements-beauty-routine/">we may receive compensation for some links to products and services</a>”. These statements often mean the publication has negotiated some kind of payment for featuring products in its editorial coverage. Therefore, what you’re reading isn’t necessarily an independent evaluation of the product’s effectiveness. </p>
<p>Rather than spending a lot of money on collagen supplements that promise to defy signs of ageing, smooth wrinkles and renew your skin, spend it on healthy food. You will get better value in terms of your health and well-being in the long-term.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-balanced-diet-anyway-72432">What is a balanced diet anyway?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What does the science say?</h2>
<p>Normal ageing is associated with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31036793/">loss of connective tissues within the skin, leading to a reduction in elasticity</a> and development of wrinkles and creases.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31411379/">2019 review of collagen supplements</a>, conducted by US university researchers, found four of the five studies included had reported some degree of improvement in some skin variables.</p>
<p>This included improvements in: <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26362110/">skin moisture and collagen density</a>; <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29949889/">skin hydration, wrinkling and elasticity</a>; <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23949208/">skin elasticity but not moisture content</a>; and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26840887/">skin moisture, elasticity, wrinkles and roughness</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/wrinkles-liver-spots-crows-feet-what-happens-to-our-skin-as-we-age-91516">Wrinkles, liver spots, crows' feet: what happens to our skin as we age?</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Across the studies, closer scrutiny of the methods by the reviewers found many were rated as being of low methodological quality. The reviewers flagged a number of limitations of the studies. These included that the supplements differed across the trials, as did the types of people included in the studies, meaning you can’t compare results between trials.</p>
<p>It also wasn’t clear how the results translated to actual changes in skin appearance and whether this was noticeable to other people.</p>
<p>Amino acids needed to make collagen can be found in other foods containing protein. There’s <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/nbu.12304">no reliable evidence</a> amino acids in collagen supplements speed up the process by which the body makes collagen. </p>
<p>What’s more, most of the studies were either fully or partly funded by cosmetic or supplement companies. This means the results of the research should be interpreted with caution, especially when the affiliation statement shows the study authors were also employed by the supplement manufacturer. Further high quality, independent research studies are needed.</p>
<h2>What is collagen and where does it come from?</h2>
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collagen">Collagen</a> is the major structural protein in skin and other connective tissues such as cartilage, bone, tendons and ligaments.</p>
<p>It has a triple helix structure. Imagine three <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slinky">slinkies</a> coiled around each other, and that’s roughly what collagen looks like.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Artistic depiction of collagen triple helix structure" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386319/original/file-20210225-19-euu64m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/386319/original/file-20210225-19-euu64m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386319/original/file-20210225-19-euu64m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386319/original/file-20210225-19-euu64m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386319/original/file-20210225-19-euu64m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386319/original/file-20210225-19-euu64m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/386319/original/file-20210225-19-euu64m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An artistic depiction of the collagen triple helix structure. Collagen is the human body’s main structural protein.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The triple helix shape makes it very strong and flexible.</p>
<p>Vitamin C is essential for the chemical pathway that makes collagen in the body. Without adequate vitamin C, the collagen would be unstable, meaning the coils would unfurl, and you would develop <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scurvy">scurvy</a>. </p>
<p>Before you grab a bottle of collagen supplements, you may want to consider where it came from. Rich sources of collagen include pig skin, cattle hide, pork and cattle bones, tendons and cartilage, chicken cartilage and fish scales.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-skin-is-a-very-important-and-our-largest-organ-what-does-it-do-91515">The skin is a very important (and our largest) organ: what does it do?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A complete diet is better value for money</h2>
<p>A 2019 survey reported <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/985724/australia-average-monthly-spend-cosmetics-personal-care/">37% of Australians spent up to A$20 a month on cosmetics</a> and personal care, with 26% spending between $21-50 and 15% spending $51-200 a month.</p>
<p>A bottle of collagen supplements costs anywhere between roughly A$15-20 to over $100. Each capsule, or per serve, contains roughly between half a gram up to five grams of collagen.</p>
<p>By comparison, you can get better value for money by eating foods rich in protein like meat, chicken, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, nuts, tofu, dried beans and legumes. This will provide the amino acids your body needs to make collagen.</p>
<p>Because collagen would be unstable without vitamin C, it’s also important to regularly eat foods rich in it. Good sources include broccoli, Brussels sprouts, capsicum, tomatoes, spinach, kiwifruit, lemons and oranges.</p>
<p>Also aim to regularly eat foods rich in other nutrients needed to help keep skin healthy. This includes:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>zinc, which is found in seafood, meat, chicken, dried beans and nuts. Inadequate zinc intake can lead to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_deficiency">skin conditions including acne and some types of dermatitis</a>. </p></li>
<li><p>vitamin A, from oily fish, egg yolks, cheese, tofu, nuts, seeds, whole grains and legumes. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_A#Dermatology">Vitamin A helps immature skin cells develop</a> into a mature skin layer which forms the body’s first layer of protection. “<a href="https://nomoneynotime.com.au/hacks-myths-faqs/what-are-carotenoids">Beta-carotene</a>” found in vegetables can be converted into vitamin A in the body. Good sources include pumpkin, carrots and leafy green vegetables. </p></li>
<li><p>and foods rich in <a href="https://theconversation.com/phytonutrients-can-boost-your-health-here-are-4-and-where-to-find-them-including-in-your-next-cup-of-coffee-132100">polyphenols</a>. These are small chemicals found in vegetables, fruit, herbs and spices that help plants grow well or protect them from pathogens. Studies suggest higher intakes are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22254062/">associated with slowing some of the skin damage caused by exposure to the sun</a>. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>If you’re interested in recipes that are fast, inexpensive and <a href="https://nomoneynotime.com.au/healthy-easy-recipes/filter/motivations--better-skin">designed to help promote healthier skin</a>, check our <a href="https://nomoneynotime.com.au/healthy-easy-recipes/filter/motivations--better-skin">No Money No Time website</a>, which we developed at The University of Newcastle. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mondays-medical-myth-chocolate-causes-acne-6934">Monday's medical myth: chocolate causes acne</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152240/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clare Collins is affiliated with the Priority Research Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition, the University of Newcastle, NSW. She has received research grants from NHMRC, ARC, MRFF, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Diabetes Australia, Heart Foundation, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, nib foundation, Rijk Zwaan Australia, WA Dept. Health, Meat and Livestock Australia, and Greater Charitable Foundation. She has consulted to SHINE Australia, Novo Nordisk, Quality Bakers, the Sax Institute and the ABC. She was a team member conducting systematic reviews to inform the Australian Dietary Guidelines update and the Heart Foundation evidence reviews on meat and dietary patterns.</span></em></p>Some studies reported skin improvements from collagen supplements. But many of these studies were sponsored, fully or in part, by cosmetic or supplement companies.Clare Collins, Laureate Professor in Nutrition and Dietetics, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1335692020-05-14T12:34:31Z2020-05-14T12:34:31ZHow 20th-century ‘rejuvenation’ techniques gave rise to the modern anti-ageing industry<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335006/original/file-20200514-77247-1oacwbs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C4%2C3016%2C2013&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Our obsession with looking and feeling younger has only grown since the 20th century.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/rome-italy-circa-november-2017-clarins-765559636">Sorbis/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our obsession with looking and feeling younger isn’t unique to the 21st century. In fact, we’ve been searching for ways to turn back the clock for centuries. </p>
<p>Cleopatra reportedly <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/science-science-everywhere-you-asked/why-did-cleopatra-supposedly-bathe-sour-donkey-milk">bathed in milk</a> to preserve her youth, women in the Elizabethan era wore thin slices of meat on their faces to <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mNLZkzxmiEIC&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false">get rid of wrinkles</a>, and Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Léon was rumoured to have been searching for the <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/ponce-de-leon-never-searched-for-the-fountain-of-youth-72629888/">mythical fountain of youth</a> when he discovered Florida.</p>
<p>Although humans had long been trying to cheat ageing, the period immediately after the First World War saw new strategies to rejuvenate the body and mind gain popularity, as I write in my <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/subjects/history/history-medicine/cult-youth-anti-ageing-modern-britain?format=HB">recent book</a>. These included everything from surgical procedures that aimed to <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/4x3p73/early-body-hacking-when-men-got-goat-testicle-grafts-to-boost-their-sex-drive">manipulate sex hormones</a>, to everyday beauty products, like <a href="https://cosmeticsandskin.com/bcb/skin-foods.php">skin “foods” and moisturising creams</a>.</p>
<p>All of these methods promised wildly different results. In the case of male hormone treatments, a patient might expect to regain lost fertility as well as energy. Everyday cosmetic products, marketed almost exclusively to women, promised a restored youthful appearance.</p>
<p>Different types of rejuvenation were considered appropriate for men and women. In men, renewed sexual function and economic productivity was the goal. For women, a return to youthful beauty was deemed to be of greatest value. Prolonging life was a goal for eugenicists and medicine, but it was not a universal concern for would-be rejuvenators. Most instead concentrated on extending their youth.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335030/original/file-20200514-77267-1dz9wt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335030/original/file-20200514-77267-1dz9wt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335030/original/file-20200514-77267-1dz9wt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335030/original/file-20200514-77267-1dz9wt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=723&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335030/original/file-20200514-77267-1dz9wt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=908&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335030/original/file-20200514-77267-1dz9wt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=908&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335030/original/file-20200514-77267-1dz9wt8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=908&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This Australian song from 1925 features lyrics about using rejuvenation remedies to feel young again.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/2516325">Barwick, W. R/ National Library of Australia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Electrical “therapies”, which anyone could use in their home, were also popular. One of the most widely used electrotherapy devices during the late 1920s through to the 1940s was the <a href="https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co143450/overbeck-rejuvenator-grimsby-england-1930-electrotherapy-machine">Overbeck Rejuvenator</a>, which was claimed to be able to restore lost vitality by restocking the body’s supply of electrical energy. Depending on which ailment the user wanted to treat, electrodes were applied to the body on a daily basis, and a small electric current was administered. </p>
<p>The inventor of the Rejuvenator was Otto Overbeck, an enterprising chemist who worked in the brewing industry. He wrote <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/344/bmj.e2032">two books on the subject</a>, the first of which was published in 1925, and used these to claim that his machine would have positive results in all conditions – apart from infectious diseases and “deformities”.</p>
<p>Despite a study concluding that the device’s current was <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4176268/">not strong enough</a> to have any effect, electrotherapy continued to be popular. </p>
<p>In 1912, Austrian physiologist <a href="http://cdn.elsevier.com/promis_misc/Endreview.pdf">Eugen Steinach</a> devised a series of experiments designed to manipulate the levels of “sex hormone” (testosterone) in guinea pigs. He concluded that the secretions of the testes governed sexuality and sexual activity and behaviour. </p>
<p>Based on these findings, Steinach then began performing partial vasectomies on men in an effort to increase the production of testosterone and “rejuvenate” his patients. But an article published in 1923 was <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673601154036">sceptical about his work</a>, which had “an apparently irresistible appeal to elderly persons whose waning virility renders them disconsolate and fretful.” </p>
<p>Steinach generated great public interest in his work and inspired a loyal group of supporters within the medical profession. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology on several separate occasions between 1921 and 1938 for his pioneering work in the fields of endocrinology, urology, and sexual health. He was also a key figure in the development of endocrinology. But he was also subject to fierce accusations of quackery and deception. </p>
<h2>“Rejuvenations”</h2>
<p>Public audiences were fascinated by press reports of successful rejuvenations using his procedure. The so-called <a href="http://cdn.elsevier.com/promis_misc/Endreview.pdf">Steinach operation</a> was a fairly expensive treatment, and it became fashionable among the higher levels of society, as well as many artists. These included the Irish poet W. B. Yeats, who claimed that the procedure inspired him to <a href="https://www.irishtimes.com/news/health/rejuvenation-hope-proved-to-be-sterile-1.656694">new artistic heights</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335011/original/file-20200514-77239-ymiedl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/335011/original/file-20200514-77239-ymiedl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335011/original/file-20200514-77239-ymiedl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335011/original/file-20200514-77239-ymiedl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335011/original/file-20200514-77239-ymiedl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335011/original/file-20200514-77239-ymiedl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/335011/original/file-20200514-77239-ymiedl.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An advertisement from 1917 for cosmetic treatments to ‘rejuvenate’ women and make them look younger.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mrs_Gunn%27s_Rejuvenating_Solutions_(1917)_(ADVERT_120).jpeg">University of Washington: Special Collections/ Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For those unable to afford a personal treatment by Steinach, a huge range of rejuvenating options gradually became available. New diets, exercise regimes, and cosmetic products found receptive audiences who were anxious about ageing. Many of these were advertised as essential parts of a healthy life, which also promoted youthfulness.</p>
<p>For example, in his 1923 book <a href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/002702613">Rejuvenation</a>, the French self-styled anti-ageing specialist Jean Frumusan identified a series of domestic habits designed for staying healthier for longer.</p>
<p>These included instructions like drinking a large glass of water after waking up, and jumping out of bed immediately. Frumusman also advised people to “eat slowly and moderately” and to be “carnivorous at one meal, vegetarian at the next.” Frumusan also <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sFjPDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76&lpg=PA76&dq=frumusan+rejuvenation&source=bl&ots=vx0ahHq0Xk&sig=ACfU3U3ZktDbFRd_WI96YDDIMDpZPKTmVw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj8_-Di86vpAhUKCsAKHSO3CdMQ6AEwBHoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=frumusan%20rejuvenation&f=false">advocated periodic fasting</a> for 24 or 48 hours at a time to restore the vitality of the body.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fitness-gurus-and-muscular-christianity-how-victorian-britain-anticipated-todays-keep-fit-craze-129522">Fitness gurus and 'muscular Christianity': how Victorian Britain anticipated today's keep fit craze</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Anti-ageing cosmetic products were also popular, marketed primarily to women. Cosmetic magnates like <a href="https://www.biography.com/business-figure/helena-rubinstein">Helena Rubinstein</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Elizabeth-Arden-American-businesswoman">Elizabeth Arden</a> sold youthfulness to women of all ages. They and their contemporaries created a mass market for new anti-ageing products and services that has become embedded within 21st-century culture.</p>
<p>Rubinstein launched her “Hormone Twin Youthifiers” in the United States in 1931. These were two creams - day and night - which included oestrogen to replace <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sFjPDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180&lpg=PA180&dq=%22an+amazing+discovery+-+a+triumph+of+beauty+science%22&source=bl&ots=vx0aiOu2Ye&sig=ACfU3U2KKV9am9FMoBf2ZwA_Jn0Rmcz2nQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjj-dDd_LDpAhXEUMAKHUR9CPYQ6AEwAHoECAEQAQ#v=onepage&q=%22an%20amazing%20discovery%20-%20a%20triumph%20of%20beauty%20science%22&f=false">“the vital glandular secretions of youth”</a>. </p>
<p>Arden shunned the use of hormones in her products but did introduce her famed “Vienna Youth Mask” in 1927. This device used diathery (small electrical currents) to <a href="https://www.cosmeticsandskin.com/efe/vienna-youth.php">warm a person’s facial tissues</a> and with the goal of preserving preserve a youthful complexion.</p>
<p>Popular rejuvenation methods in the early 20th century were remarkably different from one another – showing the rich range of ideas and theories about ageing. Rejuvenation was one of the most prominent and fascinating topics of public interest in the 1920s and 1930s, and gave rise to society’s enduring obsession with looking and feeling young.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/133569/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>James Stark does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>At-home electrical ‘therapies’, hormone treatments, and skin ‘foods’ were just some of the popular treatments people used to look and feel younger.James Stark, Associate Professor of Medical Humanities, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1323752020-03-05T14:20:42Z2020-03-05T14:20:42ZThere’s a complex history of skin lighteners in Africa and beyond<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317538/original/file-20200227-24680-l3fa2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Detail of book cover</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wits University Press</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Somali-American activists recently scored a victory against Amazon and against <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/oct/09/colourism-is-finally-being-taken-seriously-thanks-to-celebrities-like-lupita-nyongo">colourism</a>, which is prejudice based on preference for people with lighter skin tones. Members of the non-profit <a href="http://thebeautywell.org/">The Beautywell Project</a> teamed up with the <a href="https://www.sierraclub.org/">Sierra Club</a> to convince the online retail giant to stop selling skin lightening products that contain <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/mercury-element-facts-608433">mercury</a>.</p>
<p>After more than a year of protests, this coalition of antiracist, health, and environmental activists <a href="https://www.mprnews.org/story/2019/11/22/amazon-pulls-skinlightening-creams-from-site-after-demands-from-minnesota-activists">persuaded Amazon</a> to remove some 15 products containing <a href="https://www.zeromercury.org/">toxic levels of mercury</a>. This puts a small but noteworthy dent in the global trade in skin lighteners, estimated to reach US$31.2 billion by 2024.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318031/original/file-20200302-18283-k3bdh0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318031/original/file-20200302-18283-k3bdh0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318031/original/file-20200302-18283-k3bdh0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318031/original/file-20200302-18283-k3bdh0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318031/original/file-20200302-18283-k3bdh0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318031/original/file-20200302-18283-k3bdh0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318031/original/file-20200302-18283-k3bdh0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1340&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Amira Adawe, an activist with The Beautywell Project pickets outside Amazon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Amira Adawe</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What are the roots of this sizeable trade? And how might its most toxic elements be curtailed?</p>
<p>The online sale of skin lighteners is relatively new, but the in-person traffic is very old. My new <a href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/beneath-the-surface">book</a> explores this layered history from the vantage point of South Africa.</p>
<p>As in other parts of the world colonised by European powers, the politics of skin colour in South Africa have been importantly shaped by the <a href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/history-apartheid-south-africa">history</a> of white supremacy and institutions of racial slavery, colonialism, and segregation. My book examines that history.</p>
<p>Yet, racism alone cannot explain skin lightening practices. My book also attends to intersecting dynamics of class and gender, changing beauty ideals and the expansion of consumer capitalism.</p>
<h2>A deep history of skin whitening and lightening</h2>
<p>For centuries and even millennia, elites used paints and powders to create smoother, paler appearances, unblemished by illness and the sun’s darkening and roughening effects.</p>
<p>Cosmetic users in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome created dramatic appearances by pairing skin whiteners containing lead or chalk with black eye makeup and red lip colourants. In China and Japan too, elite women and some men used white lead preparations and rice powder to achieve complexions resembling white jade or fresh lychee.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318048/original/file-20200302-18308-t3ibht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318048/original/file-20200302-18308-t3ibht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1079&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318048/original/file-20200302-18308-t3ibht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1079&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318048/original/file-20200302-18308-t3ibht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1079&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318048/original/file-20200302-18308-t3ibht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1356&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318048/original/file-20200302-18308-t3ibht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1356&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318048/original/file-20200302-18308-t3ibht.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1356&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In this 1623 portrait by Anthony van Dyck, Elena Grimaldi’s regal whiteness is underscored by a dark-toned servant.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Skin lighteners generate a less painted look than skin whiteners by removing rather than concealing blemished or melanin-rich skin. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/melanin">Melanin</a> is the biochemical compound that makes skin colourful.</p>
<p>Active ingredients in skin lighteners have ranged from acidic compounds like lemon juice and milk to harsher chemicals like sulfur, arsenic, and mercury. In parts of precolonial Southern Africa, some people used mineral and botanical preparations to brighten – rather than whiten or lighten – their skin and hair.</p>
<p>During the era of the <a href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/slave-route/transatlantic-slave-trade/">trans-Atlantic slave trade</a>, skin colour and associated physical difference were used to distinguish enslaved people from free, and to justify the former’s oppression. Colonisers cast melanin-rich hues as the embodiment of ugliness and inferiority. Within this racist political order, some sought to whiten and lighten their complexions.</p>
<p>By the twentieth century, mass-produced skin lightening creams ranked among the world’s most popular cosmetics. Consumers included white, black, and brown women.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317436/original/file-20200226-24690-8e4tu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317436/original/file-20200226-24690-8e4tu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=756&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317436/original/file-20200226-24690-8e4tu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=756&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317436/original/file-20200226-24690-8e4tu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=756&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317436/original/file-20200226-24690-8e4tu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=950&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317436/original/file-20200226-24690-8e4tu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=950&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317436/original/file-20200226-24690-8e4tu1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=950&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This ad appeared in an issue of the Central and East African edition of Drum magazine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Duke University Press</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the 1920s and 1930s, many white consumers swapped skin lighteners for tanning lotions as time spent sunbathing and playing outdoors became a sign of a healthy and leisured lifestyle. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/feb/19/history-of-tanning">Seasonal tanning</a> embodied new forms of white privilege.</p>
<p>Skin lighteners became primarily associated with people of colour. For black and brown consumers, living in places like the United States and South Africa where racism and colourism have flourished, even slight differences in skin colour could carry political and social consequences.</p>
<h2>The mercury effect</h2>
<p>Skin lighteners can be physically harmful. Mercury, one of their most common active ingredients, lightens skin in two ways. It inhibits the formation of melanin by rendering the enzyme <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8496620">tyrosinase</a> inactive; and it exfoliates the tanned, outer layers of the skin through the production of <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Hydrochloric-acid">hydrochloric acid</a>.</p>
<p>By the early twentieth century, pharmaceutical and medical textbooks recommended mercury – usually in the form of ammoniated mercury – for treating skin infections and dark spots while often warning of its harmful effects. Cosmetic manufacturers marketed creams containing ammoniated mercury as “freckle removers” or “skin bleaches”.</p>
<p>When the US Congress passed the <a href="https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/histories-product-regulation/1938-food-drug-and-cosmetic-act">Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act in 1938</a>, such creams were among the first to be regulated.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317446/original/file-20200226-24659-1ii165p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317446/original/file-20200226-24659-1ii165p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317446/original/file-20200226-24659-1ii165p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317446/original/file-20200226-24659-1ii165p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317446/original/file-20200226-24659-1ii165p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317446/original/file-20200226-24659-1ii165p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317446/original/file-20200226-24659-1ii165p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Part of Twins’s success lay in their recruitment of hawkers to sell their products in townships. Bona, May 1959.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Duke University Press</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>After World War II, the negative environmental and health impact of mercury became more apparent. The devastating case of <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/02/200213135755.htm">mercury poisoning</a> caused by industrial wastewater in Minamata, Japan, prompted the Food and Drug Administration to take a closer look at mercury’s toxicity, including in cosmetics. Here was a visceral instance of what environmentalist <a href="https://www.rachelcarson.org/">Rachel Carson</a> meant about small, domestic choices making the world uninhabitable.</p>
<p>In 1973, the administration banned all but trace amounts of mercury from cosmetics. Other countries followed suit. South Africa banned mercurial cosmetics in 1975, the European Economic Union in 1976, and Nigeria in 1982. The trade in skin lighteners, nonetheless, continued as other active ingredients – most notably <a href="https://www.rxlist.com/consumer_hydroquinone_melquin_3/drugs-condition.htm">hydroquinone</a> – replaced ammoniated mercury.</p>
<h2>Meanwhile in South Africa</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317447/original/file-20200226-24664-1uevavc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317447/original/file-20200226-24664-1uevavc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=767&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317447/original/file-20200226-24664-1uevavc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=767&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317447/original/file-20200226-24664-1uevavc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=767&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317447/original/file-20200226-24664-1uevavc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=964&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317447/original/file-20200226-24664-1uevavc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=964&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317447/original/file-20200226-24664-1uevavc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=964&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A full-color.
In the early 1960s, colour photography and printing saw skin lightener ads feature a range of light brown and reddish skintones. Drum, September 1961.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Duke University Press</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In apartheid South Africa, the trade was especially robust. Skin lighteners ranked among the most commonly used personal products in black urban households. During the 1980s, activists inspired by <a href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/defining-black-consciousness">Black Consciousness</a> and the sentiment “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2019/mar/26/kwame-brathwaite-photographer-black-is-beautiful">Black is Beautiful</a>” teamed up with concerned medical professionals to make opposition to skin lighteners part of the <a href="https://www.aluka.org/struggles/collection/AAM">anti-apartheid movement</a>.</p>
<p>In the early 1990s, activists convinced the government <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-its-time-all-african-countries-took-a-stand-on-skin-lightening-creams-49780">to ban</a> all cosmetic skin lighteners containing known depigmenting agents – and to prohibit cosmetic advertisements from making any claims to “bleach”, “lighten” or “whiten” skin. This prohibition was the first of its kind and the regulations immediately shuttered the in-country manufacture of skin lighteners.</p>
<p>South Africa’s regulations testify to the broader antiracist political movement from which they emerged. Thirty years on, however, South Africa again possesses a <a href="https://www.lawforall.co.za/2019/10/skin-lightening-south-africa-law/">robust</a> – if now illicit – trade in skin lighteners. An especially disturbing element is the resurgence of mercurial products.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317449/original/file-20200226-24664-9ddcjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/317449/original/file-20200226-24664-9ddcjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317449/original/file-20200226-24664-9ddcjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317449/original/file-20200226-24664-9ddcjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=905&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317449/original/file-20200226-24664-9ddcjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1137&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317449/original/file-20200226-24664-9ddcjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1137&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/317449/original/file-20200226-24664-9ddcjv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1137&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wits University Press</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>South African researchers have found that over 40% of skin lighteners sold in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-4632.2012.05566.x">Durban</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ced.12720">Cape Town</a> contain mercury.</p>
<p>The activists’ recent victory against Amazon suggests one way forward. They took out a full-page ad in a local newspaper denouncing Amazon’s sale of mercurial skin lighteners as “dangerous, racist, and illegal.” A petition with 23,000 signatures was hand-delivered to the company’s Minnesota office.</p>
<p>By combining antiracist, health, and environmentalist arguments, activists held one of the world’s most powerful companies accountable. They also brought the toxic presence of mercurial skin lighteners to public awareness and made them more difficult to purchase.</p>
<p><em>Lynn M. Thomas’s latest book Beneath the Surface: A Transnational History of Skin Lighteners is available from <a href="https://witspress.co.za/catalogue/beneath-the-surface/">Wits University Press</a> and from <a href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/beneath-the-surface">Duke University Press</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/132375/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lynn M. Thomas does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The long history of racist beauty standards alone cannot explain the ongoing global use of harmful skin lighteners.Lynn M. Thomas, History Professor, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1181522019-11-21T13:58:23Z2019-11-21T13:58:23ZNail salon workers suffer chemical exposures that can be like working at a garage or a refinery<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294623/original/file-20190927-185403-1nhy7sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The chemicals in nail products put nail salon workers at risk for cancer and other illnesses. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Angie Chung/Flickr</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Anyone who has walked past a nail salon is familiar with the noxious odors that emanate from acrylic nails, polishes and removers. Customers getting manicures and pedicures endure the smell temporarily, but manicurists who inhale these evaporating chemicals for hours expose themselves to health risks. </p>
<p>The smells come from volatile organic compounds, or VOCs – compounds that <a href="https://toxtown.nlm.nih.gov/chemicals-and-contaminants/volatile-organic-compounds-vocs">easily become vapors or gases</a>. These substances have been <a href="https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/volatile-organic-compounds-impact-indoor-air-quality#Health_Effects">linked to health problems</a> ranging from headaches and respiratory irritation to reproductive complications and cancer. In a normal room-temperature environment, VOCs evaporate and humans breathe them in. </p>
<p>Our research team, along with colleagues at Colorado State University, recently investigated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.086">chemical exposures in six Colorado nail salons</a> and found that employees spent their days exposed to high levels of VOCs. Participating technicians, who had worked in salons for up to 19 years, reported suffering headaches and skin and eye irritation. </p>
<p>We measured levels of benzene and formaldehyde in the salons, and determined that exposure to these known human carcinogens was increasing the workers’ lifetime cancer risks above one in one million – the level that <a href="https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/iwachap10.pdf">many U.S. agencies consider acceptable</a> in regulating exposure to harmful substances.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/R20A0iQYc4o?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Nail salon workers in New York City rally for safer working conditions.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Identifying health hazards</h2>
<p>A 2015 <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/10/nyregion/at-nail-salons-in-nyc-manicurists-are-underpaid-and-unprotected.html">New York Times exposé</a> highlighted underpayment and poor working conditions in New York nail salons. However, it failed to address chemical exposures that salon workers experience daily.</p>
<p>Several research groups have sought to <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2010.300099">characterize</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2012.755152">quantify</a> VOC exposures <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-018-1353-0">in the nail salon environment</a>, using standard measurement techniques and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-007-9084-4">self-reported health surveys</a>. Their research shows that nail salon workers are exposed to higher levels of VOCs than they would typically be expected to encounter in most homes, occupations or urban environments. As a result, these workers frequently experience work-related health symptoms.</p>
<p>Our study measured 10 VOCs, including the carcinogens <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.086">benzene and formaldehyde</a>. We found that VOC levels in the six salons where we monitored regularly exceeded common threshold levels for <a href="https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris_drafts/atoz.cfm?list_type=alpha">odor and inhalation risk</a>. In some cases this posed a significant risk of cancer over a 20-year exposure period.</p>
<p>Twenty workers answered questionnaires about their personal health. Among them, 70% reported some form of short-term health symptom related to their employment, while 40% reported multiple related symptoms.</p>
<p>We worked closely with salon owners to enlist volunteer nail technicians to participate. Having owners’ support was instrumental, since it allowed salon workers to accurately report on their health and working conditions without fear of reprisal. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"311522432605372416"}"></div></p>
<h2>Like working at an oil refinery</h2>
<p>Many people view cosmetology as a relatively safe profession, but it isn’t. We found that exposures to aromatic hydrocarbons like benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes – collectively referred to as BTEX – resembled those previously reported in studies of <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Ambient-Air-Quality-Monitoring-in-Terms-of-Volatile-Singh-Ramteke/7089e7068ccb85bca9d05f36598e2b5fb92ae910">oil refinery workers</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10807031003670071">auto garage technicians</a>. </p>
<p>Our results aren’t unique. A 2018 Iranian study found similar concentrations of benzene, ethylbenzene, and xylene in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12995-018-0213-x">Tehran beauty salons</a>. Another study conducted that year in Michigan found concentrations of toluene at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-018-1353-0">over 100 parts per billion</a>, which is roughly 30 times higher than <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-09/documents/toluene.pdf">reported urban outdoor levels</a>.</p>
<p>Regulation of this kind of workplace exposure has not kept pace with science. Many U.S. occupational safety and health exposure limits have not been updated <a href="https://ohsonline.com/Articles/2014/12/01/Can-OSHA-Update-the-PELs.aspx">for nearly 50 years</a>. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, or OSHA, readily acknowledges that many of its permissible exposure limits are “<a href="https://www.osha.gov/dsg/annotated-pels/">outdated and inadequate</a> for ensuring protection of worker health.” </p>
<p>OSHA offers only guidance and recommendations for businesses, effectively shifting the burden of worker protection onto private industry. This is especially problematic in the nail salon industry, where over 90% of salons are small businesses that <a href="https://www.labor.ucla.edu/publication/nail-files/">employ fewer than 5 people</a> and do not have safety personnel on staff. </p>
<p>Inadequate cosmetic product regulations and labeling requirements make it hard to know which products are actually safe. A 2012 study by the California Environmental Protection Agency found that 10 out of 12 nail products labeled “toluene free” still contained <a href="https://dtsc.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/31/2018/04/DTSC-Summary-of-Data-Findings-from-Testing-a-Limited-Number-of-Nail-Products-April-2012.pdf">up to 17% toluene</a>. Products labeled free of the so-called “toxic three” ingredients – dibutyl phthalate or DBP, toluene and formaldehyde – actually contained <a href="https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/nailsalons/chemicalhazards.html#resources">greater concentrations of DBP</a>, an endocrine-disrupting compound, than products that made no claims at all.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301604/original/file-20191113-77326-6pwnbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301604/original/file-20191113-77326-6pwnbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301604/original/file-20191113-77326-6pwnbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301604/original/file-20191113-77326-6pwnbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301604/original/file-20191113-77326-6pwnbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301604/original/file-20191113-77326-6pwnbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301604/original/file-20191113-77326-6pwnbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301604/original/file-20191113-77326-6pwnbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Options for managing toxic exposures in the workplace.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/hazardoustoxicsubstances/control.html">OSHA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Solving the problem</h2>
<p>Owners often work in nail salons, so they generally support efforts to improve air quality inside their businesses. Those who we interviewed typically had some understanding of the problem and wanted to fix it, but didn’t always know how. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-05/documents/nailsalonguide.pdf">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a>, the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/99-112/pdfs/99-112.pdf?id=10.26616/NIOSHPUB99112">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> and <a href="https://www.osha.gov/Publications/3542nail-salon-workers-guide.pdf">OSHA</a> all publish healthy nail salon guides. Yet owners in our study had never heard of them – perhaps because the guides are only published in English, while many nail salon workers are Asian and Latino immigrants with limited English language skills.</p>
<p>Several grassroots community organizations have published guides to improving salons’ air quality in both <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5783e9b9be6594e480435ffe/t/58f447f903596ebd7ca8f6f3/1492404219566/Nail-Salon-Booklet-FINAL-Vietnamese-March-26-2014-adjusted-for-color-copier-and-single-pages.pdf">Vietnamese</a> and <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5783e9b9be6594e480435ffe/t/58f447e386e6c023e6aff51c/1492404197241/Chinese-FINAL-Version-2-2012.pdf">Chinese</a>. These references discuss ventilation and use of personal protective equipment, which are paramount for mitigating chemical exposures in the workplace. </p>
<p>Small changes, such as running ventilation continuously, wearing <a href="http://safety-zone.com/products/nitrile-gloves/">nitrile gloves</a> and utilizing proper <a href="https://www.firstaidglobal.com/product-page/carbon-filter-masks-n95-with-exhalation-valve">charcoal face masks</a>, can significantly reduce worker exposure. Results from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106499">our most recent study</a> also suggest that placing large activated carbon sinks in salons could effectively remove VOCs from the air. We are currently experimenting with embedding these chemical-absorbing materials into <a href="https://cen.acs.org/environment/pollution/Environmental-engineer-Lupita-Montoya-scrutinizes/97/i32">pieces of art</a> that can hang on salon walls.</p>
<p>Another priority is conveying information to larger audiences and advocating for more safety training in cosmetology certification programs. Education and training are particularly important for ethnic minority groups.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299354/original/file-20191029-183151-1ouw8w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/299354/original/file-20191029-183151-1ouw8w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299354/original/file-20191029-183151-1ouw8w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299354/original/file-20191029-183151-1ouw8w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299354/original/file-20191029-183151-1ouw8w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299354/original/file-20191029-183151-1ouw8w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/299354/original/file-20191029-183151-1ouw8w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lan-Anh Truong, right, who owns a nail salon in Alameda County, California was honored in 2016 for her efforts in a grassroots campaign to improve conditions for workers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Eric Risberg/AP</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many workplace standards enforced by OSHA, such as those regulating exposure to toxic and hazardous substances, <a href="https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/nailsalons/standards.html">apply to nail salons</a>. However, cosmetic manufacturers are <a href="https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/cosmetics-laws-regulations/fda-authority-over-cosmetics-how-cosmetics-are-not-fda-approved-are-fda-regulated#Who_is_responsible">not required</a> to obtain federal approval for products or ingredients before they go on the market, or to file product information with the agency. </p>
<p>In contrast, California passed a bill in 2018 that will require manufacturers to <a href="https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180AB2775">provide ingredient labels</a> on any professional cosmetic products manufactured after July 1, 2020 and sold in the state. The campaign for this common-sense reform was largely led by advocacy groups like the <a href="https://cahealthynailsalons.org/">California Healthy Nail Salon Collaborative</a>. Practical steps like this can improve conditions for workers who receive little attention but are exposed to serious health risks on the job every day.</p>
<p>[ <em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118152/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lupita Montoya received funding from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and from the University of Colorado.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aaron Lamplugh receives funding from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</span></em></p>The technician who gave you that shiny manicure may be inhaling dangerous levels of toxic chemicals on the job.Lupita D. Montoya, Research Associate, Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering Department, University of Colorado BoulderAaron Lamplugh, Research Scientist, Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1251562019-11-14T12:02:34Z2019-11-14T12:02:34ZSnail slime: the science behind molluscs as medicine<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301510/original/file-20191113-77331-bdof4y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/helix-pomatia-roman-snail-burgundy-edible-1026233269?src=2f042cc6-d094-4696-86a6-33a4e03b72c1-1-12">Shutterstock/Andrey Armyagov</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Snails are well known for their lack of speed and their ability to upset gardeners. But there is growing scientific interest in the familiar sticky trail of slime they leave behind – and the medicinal value it may contain. </p>
<p>For centuries <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1062150/">it has been thought</a> that eating snails is good for you – and not just because they are a good source of protein and considered by some to be a delicacy. </p>
<p>Both the ancient Greeks and Romans advocated eating snails to cure a wide variety of ailments. These included fainting, stomach pains and coughing up blood, as well as general pain relief. The snails could either be eaten whole after boiling or crushed (shells included) into a crunchy pulp. </p>
<p>The idea of munching on these molluscs for their medicinal properties <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1062150/">continued</a>. In the 18th century it was recommended as a treatment for anthrax, and in the 19th century for tuberculosis. “Snail broth” made from the mucus was said to encourage the regeneration of wounded skin, reduce redness and make skin smoother. </p>
<p>Since publishing <a href="https://research.brighton.ac.uk/en/publications/identification-and-characterisation-of-anti-pseudomonas-aeruginos">my own work</a> on the chemical properties of snail mucus, I have been contacted by people who reported how this natural product has been used to treat skin inflammation and wounds well into the 20th century.</p>
<p>These treatments would have mostly involved the Burgundy or edible snail, <em>Helix pomatia</em>, and its close relative the brown garden snail, <em>Helix aspera</em>, which are both found across Europe. </p>
<p>And in recent years, creams, gels and face masks containing slime collected from Helix snails have become <a href="http://nymag.com/strategist/article/best-snail-mucin-skincare-products.html">popular beauty treatments</a>. But can any of the claims be substantiated by scientific evidence? </p>
<p>Interest in snail slime as a skin treatment was <a href="https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/revolutionary-elicina-snail-cream-scores-cnn-money-feature-300558597.html">rekindled recently</a> from observations made by workers farming edible snails in Chile. After their skin came into contact with the slime during handling, they reported that cuts and scars tended to heal easily and rapidly. This led to the development of the creams and gels which can now be found on chemist and health food shop shelves. </p>
<p>Mucus is a very sticky and biologically complicated substance. The snail uses it to aid locomotion, stick to hard surfaces (when resting or hibernating) and to defend itself against predators by creating a viscous environment around themselves and blocking the entrance to the shell.</p>
<h2>Snail secrets</h2>
<p>It is over 90% water, but it contains a lot of other compounds. The manufacturers of snail slime creams and gels claim that the key ingredients are allantoin (which is incorporated into a range of cosmetic products as well as toothpaste and shampoo) and glycolic acid (again commonly found in skincare products). </p>
<p>A research team in Italy <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6281574/">recently investigated this</a>. They found that a preparation made from the mucus produced by the snail did indeed show significant effects in laboratory tests which would explain the observed skin healing properties. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301559/original/file-20191113-77315-18e3cfx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301559/original/file-20191113-77315-18e3cfx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301559/original/file-20191113-77315-18e3cfx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301559/original/file-20191113-77315-18e3cfx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301559/original/file-20191113-77315-18e3cfx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301559/original/file-20191113-77315-18e3cfx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301559/original/file-20191113-77315-18e3cfx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Beauty snail.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-up-snail-streaking-towards-jar-1139881079?src=f6bc48c5-fdc0-4830-bbd7-5501cbb88f07-1-2">Shutterstock/Andy Shell</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So there appears to be something in this. Yet the allantoin and glycolic acid were present in very low concentrations. This suggests that either they are not as important as previously thought in skin healing or that they are only effective when working with other components within the mucus. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09674845.2015.11665749">our work</a>,
we have found that mucus from brown garden snails kills one particular species of bacteria in laboratory experiments. This is an organism called <em>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</em>, which can cause bloodstream infections, pneumonia, chronic wound infections and respiratory infections in people with cystic fibrosis. </p>
<p>We have tried 20 different strains of this bacteria and the mucus has stopped all of them from growing. But we have not seen the mucus work convincingly against any other type of bacteria. </p>
<p>We are also trying to find the key active ingredient. The viscosity of mucus makes it hard to work with, but so far we have identified three new proteins that we want to investigate, and we hope this could lead to the creation of a new antibiotic. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301557/original/file-20191113-77320-17z2lb6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301557/original/file-20191113-77320-17z2lb6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301557/original/file-20191113-77320-17z2lb6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301557/original/file-20191113-77320-17z2lb6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301557/original/file-20191113-77320-17z2lb6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301557/original/file-20191113-77320-17z2lb6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301557/original/file-20191113-77320-17z2lb6.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The author with her lab companions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">University of Brighton</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the moment, though, we do not know whether extracting them from the snail’s mucus and making them artificially will work. It is (perhaps appropriately for a snail product) a slow process – but given time, we might be able to explain why the Romans and Greeks gave snails the credit they may well be due.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125156/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah Pitt has received funding from Institute of Biomedical Science Research Fund. </span></em></p>A historical trail through its medicinal properties.Sarah Pitt, Principal Lecturer, Microbiology and Biomedical Science Practice, Fellow of the Institute of Biomedical Science, University of BrightonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1203532019-09-03T19:01:03Z2019-09-03T19:01:03ZFeminism washing: are multinationals really empowering women?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284501/original/file-20190717-147318-16cyzcl.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1%2C745%2C610&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'#Unapologetic' the new campaign by Matell wants to portray Barbie as a doll telling women and girls they can be anything they want with a focus on entrepreneurship.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.taketheleadwomen.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Barbie.png">Takethelead</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Empower women”, “Girl power”, “#Unapologetic”. <a href="https://www.mic.com/articles/91961/10-worst-ways-companies-have-used-feminism-to-sell-women-products">Feminist marketing campaigns</a> are flying through the air, fresh out of multinationals’ corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategies, claiming to be the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14747731.2015.1064678">new champions of gender equality</a>.</p>
<p>Buy a pair of Nikes and discover how its <a href="https://www.girleffect.org/">“Girl Effect” campaign</a> will “unlock the potential of girls” while ending poverty and war. Drink Coca-Cola and find out about its <a href="https://www.coca-colacompany.com/5by20">“5by20” campaign</a>, which will claims that it will help 5 million women by 2020. In all modesty, multinationals suggest that such campaigns can help meet the <a href="https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf">UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development goals</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Y_iCIISngdI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The 2017 Nike campaign ‘What are girls made of?’ already focused on women.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Corporate charity has a long history, but there is something qualitatively new to the way in which corporations portray themselves today as contributing to solving public problems.</p>
<p>Whereas traditionally charity targeted areas outside the corporations’ core business – for example, cultural institutions – today’s CSR programmes are seen as being good for the public and good for corporate profits. They’re often integrated into a <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a5ce/08f5639582ea6a03bc70b0d2a99b35adf8b9.pdf">business’ core operations</a>. Not surprisingly, contradictions abound.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/M0KHZ1SktRg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Author and scholar Elisabeth Pruegl on the new development of CSR and neoliberalism feminism.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Promoting entrepreneurship</h2>
<p>There are two ways in which companies are involved in advancing gender equality and women’s empowerment. First are efforts that seek to empower women globally through entrepreneurship, such as Coca-Cola’s “5by20” project or Goldman Sachs’ <a href="https://www.goldmansachs.com/citizenship/10000women/about-the-program/about-the-program-main-page.html">“10,000 Women” initiative</a>, which aims to provide business and management education to women entrepreneurs in 56 countries.</p>
<p>However, in a <a href="https://www.icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/The-Business-Case-for-Womens-Economic-Empowerment.pdf">2016 study</a> of 31 of the largest corporate-funded women’s economic empowerment programmes, most participating companies reported that they sought “general impact” of this sort rather than changing their internal business practices.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LPeoPQ9ytS0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">‘Coca-Cola’s 5by20 Initiative: Water and women creating change together’.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This takes the form of creating and implementing their own initiatives in collaboration with public agencies or providing funding and know-how to existing development initiatives and organisations. This is the case with Procter & Gamble’s support for UN Women’s programme initiative on <a href="http://www.unwomen.org/en/partnerships/businesses-and-foundations/major-partners">stimulating equal opportunities for women entrepreneurs</a>.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.awid.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/New%20Actors%20FInal%20Designed.pdf">2013 study</a> of 170 such joint initiatives found “a total of $14.6 billion US in commitments pledged between 2005-2020 to support women and girls”. A full 35% of these initiatives had <a href="http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/economic-empowerment">women’s economic empowerment</a> and entrepreneurship as their focus, making this the most common theme.</p>
<h2>Benefiting the companies while doing good</h2>
<p>The second way in which corporations are active on gender equality and women’s empowerment is by integrating the issue into their core business practices, targeting their own employees, supply chains or marketing practices.</p>
<p>The focus on suppliers and employees often involves brand-conscious consumer product companies such as Unilever and Kraft, or garment-industry giants like the Gap. An example is the <a href="https://herproject.org/">“HerProject”</a>, which is run by the consultancy company BSR (Business for Social Responsibility) and includes companies such as Levi-Strauss, Primark, Li & Fung, HP, and Twinings.</p>
<p>The project connects multinationals with NGOs in countries where they have suppliers to deliver health-care services and increase health awareness among women workers. Styled as a win-win effort, the project benefits workers while also reducing absenteeism and turnover.</p>
<p>In India, Unilever’s <a href="https://www.hul.co.in/sustainable-living/case-studies/enhancing-livelihoods-through-project-shakti.html">Shakti Project</a> claims to help women generate income while also advancing public hygiene and helping the company conquer difficult-to-access markets. It has established a network of close to 100,000 <a href="https://www.businesstoday.in/magazine/special/project-shakti-helped-thousands-of-women-and-also-men/story/195911.html">“Shakti Amma”</a>, women who sell Unilever products to rural consumers in India’s villages.</p>
<p>It is again described as a win-win situation: rural women gain income while they help the company enter a growing market, and they help promote public health and hygiene as they introduce Unilever soaps to rural populations.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jq59Y_M285Q?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Promotion for the Shakti Project in rural India.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Contradictions</h2>
<p>While these efforts at corporate social responsibility toward women bring resources and visibility to gender issues, there are contradictions.</p>
<p>First, companies focusing on women’s empowerment tend to approach the issue narrowly as entrepreneurship development and approach women individually. It is significant that only 27% of the public-private 170 initiatives in the <a href="https://www.awid.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/New%20Actors%20FInal%20Designed.pdf">survey cited above</a> included women’s organisations, and only 9% of these organisations received direct financial support.</p>
<p>It is my view that businesses seek to steer clear of the oppositional politics of these organisations, which might include organising women and encouraging them to formulate their own demands about wages and working conditions.</p>
<h2>Indecent working conditions</h2>
<p>Ironically, voluntary codes of conduct and supply-chain initiatives such as the <a href="https://herproject.org/">HerProject</a> are far from being able to assure decent working conditions that meet international standards.</p>
<p>Many companies, and in particular those in sectors requiring labour-intensive assembly (such as garments and electronics), set up complex supply-chains in the 1980s and 1990s in pursuit of cost savings through cheap and flexible labour in the Global South.</p>
<p>Today, <a href="https://unctad.org/en/pages/PressRelease.aspx?OriginalVersionID=113">an estimated 80% of global trade</a> is linked to international production networks of multinational corporations, that distribute work to small- and medium-sized enterprises, most of which operate in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/five-myths-about-the-informal-economy-that-need-debunking-117612">informal economy</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284508/original/file-20190717-147312-17bk3jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284508/original/file-20190717-147312-17bk3jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284508/original/file-20190717-147312-17bk3jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284508/original/file-20190717-147312-17bk3jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284508/original/file-20190717-147312-17bk3jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284508/original/file-20190717-147312-17bk3jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284508/original/file-20190717-147312-17bk3jd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A clothing textile garment factory/assembly line in Bangladesh (2011).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Garment_factory_in_Bangladesh_Women_working.jpg/2048px-Garment_factory_in_Bangladesh_Women_working.jpg">Tareq Salahuddin/Wikimedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Women in global supply chains are typically positioned at the <a href="https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---relconf/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_468097.pdf">bottom of employment hierarchies</a> and segregated into low-pay jobs such as garment or electronics assembly or packaging of horticulture products.</p>
<p>The impacts of businesses expanding their markets are finally not all beneficial. The “Shakti Amma” may gain income, but as they market Unilever’s products, they also <a href="http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Wp336.pdf">displace traditional soap makers and introduce competition</a> into women’s solidarity groups.</p>
<p>Moreover, businesses redefine the problem to be solved to fit their interests, in this case as a lack of soap rather than for example access to clean water, as a community in Kerala pointed out when <a href="http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Wp336.pdf">rejecting Unilever’s advances</a>.</p>
<h2>Sexist and racist values</h2>
<p>Finally, some companies may, voluntarily or not, carry certain sexist or racist values through the products or services they sell. For example, what should one make of the Unilever skin-whitening products that “Shakti Amma” sell?</p>
<p>Skin-whitening products have been popular with some consumers in India and other countries, but is also under scrutiny today for implicitly demeaning the dark natural complexions of <a href="https://theconversation.com/bleached-girls-india-and-its-love-for-light-skin-80655">many men and women</a>. But as, scholars pointed out in a <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781351286367">2017 publication</a>, “such CSR projects are blind to the racist and misogynist messages conveyed in problematic products”. </p>
<p>What should one make of companies styling themselves as advocates for women’s rights, while benefiting from the objectification of women workers and on <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/feb/18/walmart-gender-discrimination-supreme">unequal pay</a>? And what should one make of the beauty industry embracing the cause of women’s empowerment while <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/beauty-industry-women_n_5127078">thriving</a> on the suggestion that women are always in need of enhancement?</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284509/original/file-20190717-147299-fesz20.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/284509/original/file-20190717-147299-fesz20.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284509/original/file-20190717-147299-fesz20.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284509/original/file-20190717-147299-fesz20.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284509/original/file-20190717-147299-fesz20.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284509/original/file-20190717-147299-fesz20.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/284509/original/file-20190717-147299-fesz20.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Unilever profits from products such as Fair & Lovely, a skin-whitening creme.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.ecosia.org/images?q=fair+and+lovely#id=A9AFFDBBB89EA83B40486944AF4B5AD01E8A2F38">Unilever</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/120353/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elisabeth Pruegl receives funding from Swiss National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Contradictions abound as companies seek to style themselves as advancing gender equality while at the same time marketing sexist products or thriving on sexist employment practices.Elisabeth Pruegl, Professor, International Relations/Political Science Director, Gender Centre, Graduate Institute – Institut de hautes études internationales et du développement (IHEID)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1131122019-03-21T01:39:07Z2019-03-21T01:39:07ZAustralia’s animal testing laws are a good start, but don’t go far enough<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/263532/original/file-20190313-86717-1irvhdv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C0%2C3534%2C2370&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Janson George/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Your lipstick and foundation will be less likely to come at the expense of animal welfare, thanks to Commonwealth <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Bills_Legislation/Bills_Search_Results/Result?bId=r5885">legislation</a> that passed in recent weeks.</p>
<p>The legislation, which will come into play on July 1, 2020, follows a <a href="http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/ban-cosmetic-testing-animals">commitment</a> the Coalition government made during the 2016 election campaign to introduce a ban on cosmetic testing on animals, backed by strong <a href="https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22chamber%2Fhansardr%2F3664ab2c-ce16-46fe-9470-d2cd459dfdc9%2F0044%22">public support</a>. The RSPCA asserts <a href="https://www.rspca.org.au/campaigns/animal-testing-cosmetics">85% of Australians</a> oppose testing cosmetics on animals. </p>
<p>The legislation was a long time coming – it was first introduced in June 2017 – and is a step in the right direction, but it doesn’t go far enough.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-will-finally-ban-cosmetic-testing-on-animals-78768">Australia will finally ban cosmetic testing on animals</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Animals are sentient creatures – they feel pain and distress just as humans do.
Given the increasing recognition of the extent of animal sentience, reflected by various international laws, it is well and truly time to rethink our approach to testing on animals for any reason.</p>
<p>Cosmetics are often tested on rabbits, guinea pigs, hamsters, rats and mice. It <a href="http://www.hsi.org/issues/becrueltyfree/facts/about_cosmetics_animal_testing.html">commonly involves</a> applying chemicals to the shaved skin or eyes of rabbits, force feeding, and testing to determine what dose of chemical will cause death. </p>
<p>Such testing causes significant pain and distress for the animals involved and <a href="http://www.hsi.org/campaigns/end_animal_testing/qa/about.html">most animals are killed</a> following an experiment. According to Humane Society International, <a href="http://www.hsi.org/issues/becrueltyfree/facts/about_cosmetics_animal_testing.html">around 100,000 to 200,000</a> animals suffer and die for cosmetics around the world each year.</p>
<p>The federal ban will impact a wide range of products. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/legislation/bills/r5885_aspassed/toc_pdf/17103b01.pdf;fileType=application/pdf">legislation</a> defines “cosmetic” as “a substance or preparation intended for placement in contact with any external part of the human body” with the aim of altering odour, changing appearance, cleansing, maintaining, perfuming or protecting it. Make-up, facial cleansers, soap, deodorant, perfume and moisturisers are all included under this definition. </p>
<p>But only chemicals intended for use in cosmetics will be affected. Chemicals in household cleaning products, for instance, are found in many cosmetics, and will not be impacted by the new legislation.</p>
<p>This is a <a href="https://www.rspca.org.au/campaigns/animal-testing-cosmetics">significant loophole</a>, as most chemicals using animal test data are used for a variety of purposes.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/of-mice-and-men-why-animal-trial-results-dont-always-translate-to-humans-73354">Of mice and men: why animal trial results don’t always translate to humans</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The international trend</h2>
<p>Australia is not alone in banning the testing of cosmetics on animals, and the recent legislation shows our effort to join the international trend. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/cosmetics/animal-testing_en">European Union</a> banned cosmetics testing on animals in 2009 and extended the ban to imports in 2013. The European Union also <a href="https://chemicalwatch.com/65539/global-ban-on-animal-testing-hard-to-achieve-industry-says">called for a global ban</a> on animal testing for cosmetics and proposed drafting an international convention.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.humanesociety.org/sites/default/files/docs/cosmetic-testing-animals-timeline.pdf">Bans have been introduced in</a> Israel, India, New Zealand, Norway, South Korea, Turkey, Taiwan, parts of Brazil, <a href="https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22chamber%2Fhansardr%2Fd07cb8b7-ae53-4f41-9cdf-34197a2b5bf2%2F0016%22">Switzerland and Guatemala</a>. Last year, <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/entry/california-just-officially-banned-the-sale-of-animal-tested-cosmetics_us_5b913ac6e4b0cf7b003d5c09">California</a> became the first state in America to ban the sale of animal tested cosmetics. </p>
<h2>Non-cosmetic animal testing</h2>
<p>When discussing the new legislation in parliament, then Assistant Minister for Health, David Gillespie, <a href="https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22chamber%2Fhansardr%2F3664ab2c-ce16-46fe-9470-d2cd459dfdc9%2F0044%22">said</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Australia is moving away from the use of animal test data for other purposes, so that animal test data, like in the EU, would be used as a last resort where science has not yet developed valid alternatives that can assure continued protections for human health, worker safety and the environment.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The RSPCA estimates between <a href="https://www.rspca.org.au/campaigns/makeover-world/animal-testing-other-areas">4 and 5 million</a> animals are used to help develop medicines, test the harmfulness of chemicals and drugs, and for education and training each year. </p>
<p>Animals are also <a href="https://animalsaustralia.org/issues/animal_experimentation.php">commonly used</a> in ways that aren’t directed at saving lives. Agricultural research, for instance, might be aimed at increasing the productivity of animals used for the production of human food.</p>
<p>Animals are also often used in high school and university science classes. The dissection of frogs, for instance, helps students understand anatomy. But most of the time, these classes aren’t associated with training students for veterinary or medical practice, according to <a href="https://animalsaustralia.org/issues/animal_experimentation.php">Animals Australia</a>.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-next-pharmaceutical-revolution-could-be-3d-bioprinted-79676">The next pharmaceutical revolution could be 3D bioprinted</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For non-cosmetic animal testing, the internationally accepted approach to better animal welfare follows “The <a href="https://nhmrc.gov.au/3rs">3Rs</a>”.</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Replacement:</strong> using alternative means to animal testing</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Reduction:</strong> using fewer animals in testing </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Refinement:</strong> using methods that reduce potential pain and suffering of animals subject to testing</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The 3Rs are incorporated in the <a href="https://nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/publications/australian-code-care-and-use-animals-scientific-purposes">Australian Code for the Care and Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes</a>. Other jurisdictions incorporating these principles include a European Union <a href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32010L0063">directive</a> on the protection of animals, the UK’s <a href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1986/14/contents">Animal (Scientific) Procedures Act</a> and in Japan via <a href="http://asas.or.jp/jsaae/jsaae/zasshi/WC6_PC/paper317.pdf">The Law for the Human Treatment and Management of Animals 2005</a>.</p>
<p>To progress further down the path of banning all animal testing, it is critical to develop and authorise alternatives to animals in testing, such as the use of computer models, cell cultures and human tissues. </p>
<p>As the <a href="https://www.rspca.org.au/campaigns/makeover-world/animal-testing-other-areas">RSPCA advocates</a>, Australia should ensure there is dedicated government funding for developing these alternatives, implement a national strategy to reduce animal use and establish a national centre to implement the 3Rs.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/113112/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jane Kotzmann does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The new laws are an improvement, but still allow for continued cruelty to animals in the name of testing, and need to be more stringent.Jane Kotzmann, Lecturer in Law, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/935232018-03-20T10:42:01Z2018-03-20T10:42:01ZEager to dye your hair with ‘nontoxic’ graphene nanoparticles? Not so fast!<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211082/original/file-20180319-31624-18d3y07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Subbing new risks for the current dyes’ dangers?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hairdresser-salon-woman-during-hair-wash-1044886945">Evgeny Savchenko/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Graphene is something of a celebrity in the world of nanoscale materials. Isolated in 2004 by Nobel Prize winners <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2010/">Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov</a>, these ultrathin sheets of carbon atoms are already finding novel uses in areas like <a href="https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/graphene-electronics">electronics</a>, <a href="https://spectrum.ieee.org/nanoclast/green-tech/conservation/graphene-heating-system-dramatically-reduces-home-energy-costs">high-efficiency heating systems</a>, <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/d768030e-d8ec-11e7-9504-59efdb70e12f">water purification technologies</a> and <a href="http://cmp.callawaygolf.com/2018/01/23/chrome-soft-golf-balls-need-know/">even golf balls</a>. According to recent research published in the journal Chem, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chempr.2018.02.021">hair dyes can now be added to this list</a>. </p>
<p>But how safe and responsible is this new use of the carbon-based wonder-material?</p>
<p>Northwestern University’s <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-03/nu-gfn031218.php">press release</a> proudly announced, “Graphene finds new application as nontoxic, anti-static hair dye.” The announcement spawned headlines like “<a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/03/enough-toxic-hair-dyes-we-could-use-graphene-instead">Enough with the toxic hair dyes. We could use graphene instead</a>,” and “<a href="http://en.brinkwire.com/215369/miracle-material-graphene-used-to-create-the-ultimate-hair-dye/">’Miracle material’ graphene used to create the ultimate hair dye</a>.” </p>
<p>From these headlines, you might be forgiven for getting the idea that the safety of graphene-based hair dyes is a done deal. Yet <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=b8NhWc4AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">having studied the potential health and environmental impacts</a> of engineered nanomaterials for <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2016.270">more years than I care to remember</a>, I find such overly optimistic pronouncements worrying – especially when they’re not backed up by clear evidence.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211008/original/file-20180319-31602-zpomir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211008/original/file-20180319-31602-zpomir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211008/original/file-20180319-31602-zpomir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211008/original/file-20180319-31602-zpomir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211008/original/file-20180319-31602-zpomir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211008/original/file-20180319-31602-zpomir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211008/original/file-20180319-31602-zpomir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211008/original/file-20180319-31602-zpomir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">As the dye wears off, where do the nanoparticles go?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jiaxing Huang, Northwestern University</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Tiny materials, potentially bigger problems</h2>
<p>Engineered nanomaterials like graphene and graphene oxide (the particular form used in the dye experiments) aren’t necessarily harmful. But nanomaterials can behave in unusual ways that depend on particle size, shape, chemistry and application. Because of this, researchers have long been cautious about giving them a clean bill of health without first testing them extensively. And while a <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.7b04120">large body of research to date</a> doesn’t indicate graphene is particularly dangerous, neither does it suggest it’s completely safe.</p>
<p>A quick search of scientific papers over the past few years shows that, since 2004, over 2,000 studies have been published that mention graphene toxicity; nearly 500 were published in 2017 alone.</p>
<p>This growing body of research suggests that if graphene gets into your body or the environment in sufficient quantities, it could cause harm. A 2016 review, for instance, indicated that graphene oxide particles could <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2016.04.028">result in lung damage at high doses</a> (equivalent to around 0.7 grams of inhaled material). Another review published in 2017 suggested that these <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/2053-1583/aa5476">materials could affect the biology</a> of some plants and algae, as well as invertebrates and vertebrates toward the lower end of the ecological pyramid. The authors of the 2017 study concluded that research “unequivocally confirms that graphene in any of its numerous forms and derivatives must be approached as a potentially hazardous material.” </p>
<p>These studies need to be approached with care, as the precise risks of graphene exposure will depend on how the material is used, how exposure occurs and how much of it is encountered. Yet there’s sufficient evidence to suggest that this substance should be used with caution – especially where there’s a high chance of exposure or that it could be released into the environment.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, graphene-based hair dyes tick both of these boxes. Used in this way, the substance is potentially inhalable (especially with spray-on products) and ingestible through careless use. It’s also almost guaranteed that excess graphene-containing dye will wash down the drain and into the environment. </p>
<p>Here, due diligence is needed to ensure that the material is acceptably safe. This is something that goes beyond the seeming authority of a press release headline. In fact, such misleading headlines could end up being counterproductive, as they undermine efforts to demonstrate trustworthiness with consumers and investors.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211020/original/file-20180319-31627-1nv890z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211020/original/file-20180319-31627-1nv890z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/211020/original/file-20180319-31627-1nv890z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211020/original/file-20180319-31627-1nv890z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211020/original/file-20180319-31627-1nv890z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=317&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211020/original/file-20180319-31627-1nv890z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211020/original/file-20180319-31627-1nv890z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/211020/original/file-20180319-31627-1nv890z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Simulation of a graphene oxide framework, pictured in black, to remove contaminants from water.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/oakridgelab/14006201292">Adrien Nicolaï/RPI</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Undermining other efforts?</h2>
<p>I was alerted to just how counterproductive such headlines can be by my colleague Tim Harper, founder of <a href="http://g2o.co/">G2O Water Technologies</a> – a company that uses graphene oxide-coated membranes to treat wastewater. Like many companies in this area, G2O has been working to use graphene responsibly by minimizing the amount of graphene that ends up released to the environment.</p>
<p>Yet as Tim pointed out to me, if people are led to believe “that bunging a few grams of graphene down the drain every time you dye your hair is OK, this invalidates all the work we are doing making sure the few nanograms of graphene on our membranes stay put.” Many companies that use nanomaterials are trying to do the right thing, but it’s hard to justify the time and expense of being responsible when someone else’s more cavalier actions undercut your efforts.</p>
<p>Here, naïve claims of safety and gung-ho approaches to promoting graphene-containing products could very easily threaten the responsible development and use of this material. And if companies pull back from acting responsibly, there’s a danger that consumers, investors and even regulators, will lose trust in their ability to ensure the safety of products of all kinds. </p>
<p>If this happens, consumers will be the ultimate losers. Used responsibly, graphene could lead to more sustainable and environmentally benign products. Yet having watched the public backlash against technologies like genetic engineering over the past couple of decades, I’m acutely aware that failing to earn the trust of stakeholders and consumers can stymie technologies, regardless of how safe and beneficial they are.</p>
<h2>Overpromising results and overlooking risk</h2>
<p>This is where researchers and their institutions need to move beyond an “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2008.14">economy of promises</a>” that spurs on hyperbole and discourages caution, and think more critically about how their statements may ultimately undermine responsible and beneficial development of a technology. They may even want to consider using guidelines, such as the <a href="http://societyinside.com/sites/default/files/Principles%20for%20Responsible%20Innovation%20Short%20February%202018_0.pdf">Principles for Responsible Innovation</a> developed by the organization <a href="http://societyinside.com/">Society Inside</a>, for instance, to guide what they do and say.</p>
<p>To their credit, the authors of the dye study did give a passing mention to research on graphene safety, mostly focusing on an assumed level of safety compared to current dye products. Yet even this perfunctory level of caution failed to make it into the <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-03/nu-gfn031218.php">press release</a>, which touted a “new hair dye that is nontoxic, nondamaging and lasts through many washes without fading.”</p>
<p>It may turn out that graphene-based hair dyes can be developed safely. To be fair, the reported application isn’t even close to commercial R&D yet, never mind the salon shelf. And certainly, there’s a case to be made for substituting some of the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/16/science/hair-dye-graphene.html">harsh chemicals currently used in some products</a> with more benign ones. But this won’t happen while researchers and their institutions gloss over legitimate concerns and cautions with blind optimism. </p>
<p>Rather, by taking more care in how nanomaterial research is framed and promoted, researchers and their academic institutions could do a lot to ensure future nano-enabled consumer products are safe, beneficial and, above all, responsible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/93523/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Maynard receives support from the National Science Foundation as part of the Nanotechnology-Enabled Water Treatment (NEWT) Engineering Research Center. </span></em></p>Less-toxic hair dye would be a great invention. But discounting the risks that come with nanoparticles could undermine other efforts to protect human health and environmental from their effects.Andrew Maynard, Director, Risk Innovation Lab, Arizona State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.