tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/electronic-waste-17331/articles
Electronic waste – The Conversation
2024-02-28T16:18:15Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/222670
2024-02-28T16:18:15Z
2024-02-28T16:18:15Z
‘Urban mines’: how to unlock our electronic junk’s potential
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573118/original/file-20230927-21-ul4bm0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C18%2C2038%2C1410&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Could this heap of junk prevent us from having to open a new mine?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hellebardius</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Instead of developing new mining infrastructures, what if we recovered the metal deposits contained in the electronic objects we no longer use, such as smartphones or computers? There are very good reasons for focusing on the potential of these <a href="https://theconversation.com/recycler-100-des-metaux-un-objectif-atteignable-192573">“urban mines”</a>, also known as secondary mines to distinguish them from the “primary” mines where resources in the ground are exploited directly.</p>
<h2>A strategic challenge for the European Union</h2>
<p>Not only would these alternative resources address a shortage of mining infrastructure, they could also help to slash <a href="https://theconversation.com/le-volume-de-dechets-electroniques-explose-et-leur-taux-de-recyclage-reste-ridicule-143701">electronic waste</a>, otherwise known as “e-waste”. The fastest-growing waste stream in the world, electronic junk wreaks havoc on ecosystems around the globe and poses a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720332654">major threat to health</a> by leaching toxic substances into the land and water, especially in Asia.</p>
<p>Better recycling electronic items could also reduce mining’s high environmental impact. In fact, for some metals, recycling is more energy efficient than mining. Extracting aluminium through recycling, for example, requires <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11837-021-04802-y">10 to 15 times less energy</a> than primary production.</p>
<p>The issue is especially important as several of the recyclable metals are critical resources for the European Union’s twin transitions to a digital and net-zero economy. Deposits such as lithium, cobalt, nickel and rare earths are essential for the production of electronics, electric vehicles and renewable energy components such as solar panels. Yet they are barely exploited in the bloc and exposed to a high risk of supply tensions. To this end, since 2011, the European Union has assessed and released every three years a list of critical raw minerals that should constitute a priority for urban mining.</p>
<p>The fifth list, <a href="https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/raw-materials/areas-specific-interest/critical-raw-materials_en">published in 2023</a>, identified 34 critical metals, including rare earth elements, lithium, copper, and nickel. Unfortunately, the gap between the European Union’s recommendations and urban mining practices is glaringly obvious.</p>
<h2>A life cycle riddled with obstacles to recycling</h2>
<p>An object’s recovery potential is limited at every stage of its life cycle by technical, organisational, regulatory, and economic obstacles. From its very design, certain practices limit its metals’ recyclability, such as the use of metals in particular alloys, since not <a href="https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/39534359/Design_for_Recycling_Evaluation_and_Effi20151029-964-yq8ltw-libre.pdf">all alloys can be recycled</a>, or hybridisation, since <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0255270111002029">composite materials are harder – not impossible – to recycle</a>. For instance, for liquid food packaging, most cartons are made from cardboard and PolyAl, a blend of aluminium and polyethylene (a type of plastic).</p>
<p>For many years, the cardboard from food cartons was recovered and recycled, but not the PolyAl, leading to incomplete recycling. In this specific case, the companies Tetra Pak and Recon Polymers ultimately developed a separation process, opening a <a href="https://www.usinenouvelle.com/article/un-nouveau-debouche-pour-le-polyal.N1217752">recycling plant specifically for PolyAl in 2021</a>. But many other products continue to be difficult to recycle, precisely because this aspect was not taken into account at the design stage.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.cairn-sciences.info/quel-futur-pour-les-metaux--9782759809011-page-287.htm"><em>Dispersive uses</em></a>, which involve using small quantities of metals in products to modify their properties, are another practice that evades recycling. Take silver nanoparticles: their industrial application ranges from the disinfection of medical equipment, water treatment, to odour prevention in textiles. Likewise, a few grams of dysprosium, a rare earth metal, may also be used to boost magnets’ pull. In sum, some metals boast so many applications that it is impossible to ensure their circularity.</p>
<h2>Electronic hibernation – abandoning our devices in the attic</h2>
<p>Once objects have been designed and used, there is a second obstacle, which stems from consumers, who tend to hold on to their electronic objects, whether they work or not, rather than dropping them at a specific recycling facility. This phenomenon is known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X16307607"><em>electronic hibernation</em></a>. As far back as 2009, a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301479709001637">pioneering study</a> estimated that American households stored an average of 6.5 hibernating electronic items in their attics and basements. This figure has increased exponentially over the years.</p>
<p>In 2021, a <a href="https://www.gstatic.com/gumdrop/sustainability/electronics-hibernation.pdf">study conducted by Google</a> identified seven key barriers preventing consumers from recycling their electronic devices:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Low awareness of existing handoff options (recycling)</p></li>
<li><p>Expectations regarding financial or social compensation</p></li>
<li><p>Device nostalgia</p></li>
<li><p>Desire to keep spare products</p></li>
<li><p>Data retrieval factors</p></li>
<li><p>Desire to ensure data removal</p></li>
<li><p>Inconvenience of handoff options.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>A more recent study <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921800922003962">conducted in Switzerland</a> tempers these results slightly: 40% of respondents said they would be willing to part with their old cell phone for less than five dollars. However, it would be interesting to conduct the same survey in countries less wealthy than Switzerland.</p>
<p>Finally, the third stumbling block concerns collection systems and recycling infrastructures. In France, from where I write, most targeted waste channels (electronic waste, packaging, tires, etc.) are run by eco-organisations, private bodies that have either organisational or financial responsibility. These are regularly embroiled in controversy: analyses indicate that the <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-mouvements-2016-3-page-82.htm">material recovery of waste flows managed by eco-organisations is often suboptimal</a>, in particular because of their profitability objectives.</p>
<h2>Engaging engineers, designers, politicians, and consumers</h2>
<p>Despite these obstacles, a number of initiatives aim to support companies in their eco-design efforts, including the <a href="https://upcyclea.com/en/cradle-to-cradle/">cradle to cradle</a>, which encourages companies to maintain “the quality of raw materials throughout the multiple life cycles of the product and its components.”</p>
<p>Beyond such schemes, however, <a href="https://www.cairn.info/revue-flux-2017-2-page-51.htm">every participant</a> in the value chain needs to examine their responsibility in waste:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>For engineers and product designers, this means adopting a more sustainable approach to design, taking into account the entire product life cycle right from the beginning of the design stage: it is the purpose of eco-design and eco-conception.</p></li>
<li><p>Companies, meanwhile, need to take a longer-term approach rather than focusing exclusively on short-term profitability, particularly in a context of volatile metal prices.</p></li>
<li><p>For consumers, this means greater awareness of the need to sort waste for disposal in specific channels, particularly electronic waste.</p></li>
<li><p>And finally, governments and local authorities would do well to put in place regulations tailored to the sector’s complexity, potentially including ambitious targets for specific recycling rates by type of metal, as well as some form of territorial planning to better coordinate flows. Ensuring that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921344916300283">recycling facilities more accessible</a> is also a key factor in promoting good recycling behaviours.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>The difficulty of moving toward a circular economy</h2>
<p>We have not yet ventured to report metal recycling rates. One of them, the end-of-life recycling rate (EOL-RR), refers to the percentage of discarded metal that is recycled. Another indicator, the recycled content (RC), considers the proportion of recycled metal in total metal production.</p>
<p>Not surprisingly, these two indicators give very different recycling rates. For instance, chromium (Cr), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) have a life recycling rate of <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8702/Recycling_Metals.pdf">over 50%</a>, which means that more than half of the quantities put into circulation are recycled. However, their recycled content is <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8702/Recycling_Metals.pdf">between 10 and 25%</a>, as primary extraction of these metals is constantly increasing: the share of recycled metal in the total flows therefore remains low.</p>
<p>Consequently, even if we were able to achieve an optimal exploitation of urban mining deposits and high recycling rates for all metals (measured in EOL-RR), we would still be a long way from a circular economy, as demand for metals continues to rise exponentially. For instance, global production of copper (Cu) has almost doubled since 2000, rising from <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/254917/total-global-copper-production-since-2006/">14 to 25 million metric tons/year</a>.</p>
<p>The effective recycling of metals contained in urban mines is therefore a necessary, but not sufficient condition for a truly circular economy. We will need to see a significant decrease in the volume of mineral resources used in industry before urban mining can partially replace, rather than add to, the exploitation of primary deposits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222670/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fanny Verrax ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>
Mining precious metals is expensive and environmentally destructive. As an alternative, researchers are increasingly eyeing recycling old smartphones, computers and other electronics.
Fanny Verrax, Associate professor in Ecological Transition and Social Entrepreneurship, EM Lyon Business School
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/213946
2023-10-06T16:33:40Z
2023-10-06T16:33:40Z
What you should (and shouldn’t) do with all of your old phone chargers and other e-waste
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552349/original/file-20231005-15-w94j4k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C4938%2C3280&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most of us have accumulated a stash of old devices, chargers and cables that sit forgotten in our homes.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/usb-chargers-wires-tangled-chaos-1559167382">MikhailSk/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The statistics surrounding mobile phones are staggering. There are <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/218984/number-of-global-mobile-users-since-2010/">more than 7 billion</a> mobile phone users worldwide, <a href="https://www.statista.com/forecasts/1143723/smartphone-users-in-the-world#:%7E:text=After%20the%20fifth%20consecutive%20increasing,any%20age%20using%20a%20smartphone.">nearly 5 billion</a> of whom use a smartphone.</p>
<p>These devices are a fundamental part of our lives. But, as electronic devices are constantly improving, older models quickly become outdated. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.nevis.net/en/blog/how-often-do-users-change-their-smartphone">survey</a> conducted by Nevis Security, a Swiss software company, it was found that 62% of respondents replace their smartphones every three to four years. A significant portion of people change their phones even more frequently than this, with nearly 20% of the respondents reporting that they replace their phone every year.</p>
<p>This rapid turnover doesn’t only involve getting a new device; it often means purchasing a brand new set of cables and chargers that are compatible with the latest model of phone.</p>
<p>Fortunately, change is on the horizon. The European Commission has recently <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-58665809">implemented a regulation</a> mandating that, by 2024, all phones and small electronic devices sold within the EU must feature a universal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C">USB-C charging port</a>. As a result, <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20200128IPR71205/parliament-wants-binding-rules-on-common-chargers-to-be-tabled-by-summer">30 different models</a> of charger have been reduced to just three.</p>
<p>Despite this development, most of us have already <a href="https://digital.detritusjournal.com/articles/why-do-weee-hoard-the-effect-of-consumer-behaviour-on-the-release-of-home-entertainment-products-int/357">accumulated a stash</a> of old devices, chargers and cables that sit forgotten in our sheds, drawers and cupboards. Many of these chargers ultimately end up being discarded, contributing to <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-51324847">more than 51,000 tonnes</a> of electronic and electrical equipment waste each year.</p>
<p>So, what should or shouldn’t you be doing with all of the obsolete electronic equipment that is piled up in your home? </p>
<h2>Don’t bin them</h2>
<p>Many people <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/polls/comments/15ztbkm/how_would_you_dispose_of_an_old_phone_charger/?rdt=59166">do not realise</a> that disposing of old phone chargers and cables in standard waste bins has negative environmental consequences. Chargers and cables consist of various plastics, metals and other materials that do not decompose naturally. </p>
<p>Polyvinyl chloride – commonly known as PVC – is a plastic that is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2021.100246">often used</a> in chargers and cables. It breaks down very slowly, typically taking <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b06635">30 years or more</a> to degrade. PVC also fragments into harmful microplastic particles.</p>
<p>The safe handling of e-waste is important, yet the issue of electronic waste is <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-51385344">frequently overlooked</a>. In fact, much of the electronic waste that is generated <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1066948/share-of-electronic-waste-disposed-globally/">goes undocumented</a>. </p>
<p>Developed nations, including the <a href="https://bpr.berkeley.edu/2019/12/05/out-of-sight-out-of-mind-how-the-united-states-discards-e-waste/">United States</a>, certain Europe nations and some in Asia, often <a href="https://ourworld.unu.edu/en/toxic-e-waste-dumped-in-poor-nations-says-united-nations">export their electronic waste</a> to poorer countries. In places where suitable facilities and national electronic waste legislation are lacking, electronic waste is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.10.016">often treated as general waste</a> and either ends up in landfill or is recycled along with other metal or plastic waste.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, any electronic waste that includes a plug, battery or cable can be managed in an environmentally responsible manner. All cables contain copper, a valuable material, making them suitable for recycling. Many standard cable plastics can be recycled too, although some may pose challenges due to the presence of additives.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Electronic waste in a landfill." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552352/original/file-20231005-23-om0hba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/552352/original/file-20231005-23-om0hba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552352/original/file-20231005-23-om0hba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552352/original/file-20231005-23-om0hba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552352/original/file-20231005-23-om0hba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552352/original/file-20231005-23-om0hba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/552352/original/file-20231005-23-om0hba.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Used electronics or e-waste often end up in landfill.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/electronic-waste-garbage-recycling-1675112314">Morten B/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What should you do with them?</h2>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.recycleyourelectricals.org.uk/electrical-recycling/">several recommended methods</a> for managing old chargers and cables responsibly.</p>
<p>Some retailers offer convenient options for disposing of old products. These include paid pick-up services where your old item is collected when delivering a new one, or free drop-off programmes. For instance, Apple provides a <a href="https://www.apple.com/by/recycling/nationalservices/">national trade-in system</a> in the UK where people can trade in their devices or cables in return for credit towards the purchase of a new device or, if not eligible for this scheme, will recycle them at no cost</p>
<p>Most recycling centres also accept common wires and cables, including mobile phone cables, electrical and home appliance wires, Ethernet cables, power cords and chargers. Dropping your old phone cables off at a recycling centre will ensure they are properly recycled.</p>
<p>It’s worth noting that <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/10142763">wireless mobile phone chargers</a> are emerging as a promising future charging option. This technology is helping to reduce the need for cables.</p>
<p>If your chargers are in working condition, you can opt to sell them through online auction sites such as <a href="https://www.ebay.co.uk/b/bn_450849">eBay</a>. Alternatively, you can sell your devices online or at stores such as <a href="https://www.musicmagpie.co.uk/">Music Magpie</a>, which claims to refurbish 95% of the products received from consumers, all of which are resold in the UK.</p>
<p>Rather than selling your functional but unwanted chargers, consider donating them to a <a href="https://www.charityretail.org.uk/">local charity shop</a> for others to use. Some local authorities also offer curbside collection services for small electrical items. Check with your local council to see if this service is available in your area.</p>
<p>There are lots of ways to manage your old cables and chargers sustainably. By prioritising <a href="https://www.circularonline.co.uk/features/time-to-bury-landfill-for-good/">electronic waste prevention, reuse and recycling</a>, you will not only help the environment, but also ensure that today’s products can form tomorrow’s raw materials.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Imagine weekly climate newsletter" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/434988/original/file-20211201-21-13avx6y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Williams receives funding from EU Horizon 2020 and EPSRC. Ian Williams is a member of the International Solid Waste Association, the Chartered Institution of Wastes Management and the Royal Society of Chemistry.</span></em></p>
Electronic waste is one of the fastest growing waste streams in the world – there are things you can do to minimise your role in it.
Ian Williams, Professor of Applied Environmental Science, University of Southampton
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/172107
2021-11-24T17:09:04Z
2021-11-24T17:09:04Z
Solar panels: we need to recycle parts of them to use again and avoid a mountain of waste
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433707/original/file-20211124-23-siuqii.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">panelsshutterstock</span> </figcaption></figure><p>Billions of <a href="https://www.irena.org/publications/2016/Jun/End-of-life-management-Solar-Photovoltaic-Panels">solar panels</a> globally will soon come to the end of their lives, but when they get thrown away essential materials that are needed to make future panels are being wasted. </p>
<p>It is estimated that there will be 78 million tonnes of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211467X19301245?via%3Dihub">total waste by 2050</a>. This is roughly 4 billion panels. But these panels have not been designed so that we can easily extract the elements within them again to use again, so it is likely that the majority of the panels will just be shredded in recycling. This contaminates materials, making them difficult to recover. </p>
<p>Globally, there is a desperate need to design electronics to allow easy extraction of the materials they contain so we can reuse them in new products and avoid waste. If we don’t change the way we use materials, then we are going to limit the much-needed deployment of renewable and <a href="https://www.circularity-gap.world/2021#downloads">climate-friendly technologies</a> for the next phase of society and to mitigate climate change. The materials we will need will be lost in the waste we have created.</p>
<h2>Using the waste</h2>
<p>For the solar waste mentioned above, if the materials could be efficiently recovered, they would have an estimated value of <a href="https://www.irena.org/publications/2016/Jun/End-of-life-management-Solar-Photovoltaic-Panels">US$15 billion</a> (£11.2 billion) and could make 2 billion new solar panels. There are more than just financial benefits – <a href="https://www.circularity-gap.world/2021">70% of greenhouse gas emissions</a> are linked to the extraction, manufacture and use of goods. If the world does not reduce this by digging less materials from the earth, we will not be able to tackle climate change. </p>
<p>It is vitally important to avoid a scenario where technologies will have to compete for materials, limiting deployment and weakening society’s ability to mitigate <a href="https://www.rsc.org/globalassets/03-membership-community/connect-with-others/through-interests/divisions/environment-sustainability-and-energy-division/news/2021/09-september/esed-roundtable/esed-report---decarbonisation-materials-and-circularity-challenges.pdf">the climate crisis</a>. For example, semiconductors – materials widely used in computer chips – are also needed for solar panels and low-energy lighting, the magnets needed for wind turbines are also needed for low-carbon vehicles. Already certain elements, such as indium, are being designed out of emerging solar technologies because of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344916300969?via%3Dihub">worries over supply</a>.</p>
<h2>Reuse will have benefits</h2>
<p>Humankind has developed an insatiable appetite for the consumption of materials. In 2020, it is estimated that 100 billion tonnes of materials were extracted from the earth, with only 8.6% cycled back <a href="https://www.circularity-gap.world/2021">into the economy.</a> As a result of this electronic waste is the fastest-growing waste stream on the planet with <a href="http://ewastemonitor.info">53.6 million tonnes</a> generated in 2019 globally. </p>
<p>A recent report by the sustainability consultancy Giraffe Innovation working with <a href="https://www.recycleyourelectricals.org.uk/report-and-research/contributing-towards-a-circular-economy-utilising-critical-raw-materials-from-waste-electricals/">Swansea University</a> has shown that 1.6 metric tons of electronic waste was generated in the UK in 2019. This contained an estimated 379,000kg of critical materials, with a potential value of £148 million. Due to a lack of recycling infrastructure, poor design for end-of-life and inefficiencies in the recycling processes, the majority of these critical materials contained within the waste will be lost. </p>
<p>These critical elements are not being efficiently recovered and recycled, meaning that this technology is inherently unsustainable at present. The global recycling rate is less than <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652618324673">1% for 30 critical elements</a> that are needed for future technologies.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A sculpture made from electronic waste" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433106/original/file-20211122-17-piapkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433106/original/file-20211122-17-piapkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433106/original/file-20211122-17-piapkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433106/original/file-20211122-17-piapkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433106/original/file-20211122-17-piapkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433106/original/file-20211122-17-piapkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433106/original/file-20211122-17-piapkj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The WEEE man, a figure made from electronic waste.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_WEEE_Man_-_geograph.org.uk_-_374290.jpg">Phil Williams/Wikipedia</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One major design flaw is that we tend to “glue” things together, leaving little option but to smash products into small fragments of mixed materials that are then difficult to separate. Another problem is highlighted in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092134492030241X">recent research</a> on increasing recovery of critical raw materials from waste electronics. The figure below shows a typical circuit board and the location of the critical materials. It shows the difficulty in extracting these critical materials. Firstly, they are scattered in small amounts across the board and secondly, sophisticated equipment is needed to identify the position of these elements. This is before separation and recovery processes can even begin. Better design is key.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433715/original/file-20211124-25-1bi5syp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433715/original/file-20211124-25-1bi5syp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433715/original/file-20211124-25-1bi5syp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433715/original/file-20211124-25-1bi5syp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433715/original/file-20211124-25-1bi5syp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=538&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433715/original/file-20211124-25-1bi5syp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=677&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433715/original/file-20211124-25-1bi5syp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=677&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/433715/original/file-20211124-25-1bi5syp.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=677&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A typical circuit board with the location of critical materials highlighted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">ScienceDirect</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Design for end-of-life</h2>
<p>Better design for end-of-life, greater processing and recycling infrastructure is needed to extract and reuse materials and to adopt of a circular economy approach. This will be beneficial for consumers, with better design of products that last longer and are easily upgradable or repairable.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-a-sustainable-circular-economy-would-look-like-133808">What a sustainable circular economy would look like</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2020.07.025">emerging technologies</a> to be truly sustainable, it is vital that the world plans to extract critical materials when a product reaches the end of its useful life.</p>
<p>There is an opportunity to design emerging technologies with the circular economy in mind from the start. Waste should be thought of as be a resource, delivering maximum benefit to society and truly sustainable technologies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172107/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Davies receives funding from UKRI and the EPSRC.</span></em></p>
Re-using elements from solar panels is essential to mitigate climate change, says an expert
Matthew Davies, Associate Professor, Swansea University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/165517
2021-09-08T12:26:24Z
2021-09-08T12:26:24Z
Packaging generates a lot of waste – now Maine and Oregon want manufacturers to foot the bill for getting rid of it
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418974/original/file-20210901-17-1riez50.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=46%2C0%2C5184%2C3406&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Packaging for consumer products represents a large share of U.S. solid waste, and barely half of it is recycled. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/garbage-bag-with-different-trash-on-wooden-royalty-free-image/1044377978">iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most consumers don’t pay much attention to the packaging that their purchases come in, unless it’s <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XwCKftT4ZhY">hard to open</a> or the item is <a href="https://twitter.com/helepoleo/status/785209312708730880">really over-wrapped</a>. But packaging accounts for <a href="https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/containers-and-packaging-product-specific-data">about 28% of U.S. municipal solid waste</a>. Only some 53% of it ends up in recycling bins, and even less is actually recycled: According to trade associations, at least 25% of materials collected for recycling in the U.S. are <a href="https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/the-era-of-easy-recycling-may-be-coming-to-an-end/">rejected and incinerated or sent to landfills instead</a>. </p>
<p>Local governments across the U.S. handle waste management, funding it through taxes and user fees. Until 2018 the U.S. exported huge quantities of recyclable materials, primarily to China. Then China banned most foreign scrap imports. Other recipient countries like Vietnam followed suit, triggering <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-plastic-waste-crisis-is-an-opportunity-for-the-us-to-get-serious-about-recycling-at-home-93254">waste disposal crises in wealthy nations</a>. </p>
<p>Some U.S. states have laws that make manufacturers responsible for particularly hard-to-manage products, such as <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/research/environment-and-natural-resources/e-waste-recycling-legislation.aspx">electronic waste</a>, <a href="https://batterycouncil.org/page/State_Recycling_Laws">car batteries</a>, <a href="https://mattressrecyclingcouncil.org/programs/">mattresses</a> and <a href="https://archive.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/tires/web/html/live.html">tires</a>, when those goods reach the end of their useful lives.</p>
<p>Now, <a href="http://www.mainelegislature.org/legis/bills/getPDF.asp?paper=HP1146&item=1&snum=130">Maine</a> and <a href="https://olis.oregonlegislature.gov/liz/2021R1/Downloads/MeasureDocument/SB582">Oregon</a> have enacted the first state laws making companies that create consumer packaging, such as cardboard cartons, plastic wrap and food containers, responsible for the recycling and disposal of those products, too. <a href="https://www.maine.gov/dep/waste/recycle/epr.html">Maine’s law</a> takes effect in mid-2024, and <a href="https://www.wastedive.com/news/oregon-epr-packaging-truth-in-labeling-living-wage/602640/">Oregon’s follows</a> in mid-2025.</p>
<p>These measures shift waste management costs from customers and local municipalities to producers. As researchers who study <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YY6NEBQAAAAJ&hl=en">waste</a> and <a href="https://ourenvironment.berkeley.edu/users/1563327">ways to reduce it</a>, we are excited to see states moving to engage stakeholders, shift responsibility, spur innovation and challenge existing extractive practices.</p>
<p><iframe id="0zkCS" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/0zkCS/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Holding producers accountable</h2>
<p>The Maine and Oregon laws are the latest applications of a concept called extended producer responsibility, or EPR. <a href="https://ilsr.org/the-concepts-of-extended-producer-responsibility-and-product-stewardship/">Swedish academic Thomas Lindhqvist</a> framed this idea in 1990 as a strategy to decrease products’ environmental impacts by making manufacturers responsible for the goods’ entire life cycles – especially for takeback, recycling and final disposal. </p>
<p>Producers don’t always literally take back their goods under EPR schemes. Instead, they often make payments to an intermediary organization or agency, which uses the money to help cover the products’ recycling and disposal costs. Making producers cover these costs is intended to give them an incentive to redesign their products to be less wasteful.</p>
<p>The idea of extended producer responsibility has driven regulations governing management of electronic waste, such as old computers, televisions and cellphones, in the European Union, China and <a href="https://www.ecycleclearinghouse.org/contentpage.aspx?pageid=10">25 U.S. states</a>. Similar measures have been adopted or proposed in nations including <a href="https://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/sites/default/files/plastics-policies/8035_N_National_Sustainable_Waste_Management.pdf">Kenya</a>, <a href="https://www.nesrea.gov.ng/extended-producer-responsibility/">Nigeria</a>, <a href="https://leyrep.carey.cl/en/what-is-the-epr-law/">Chile</a>, <a href="http://circulodepoliticasambientales.org/assets/pdf/LEY%20REP.pdf">Argentina</a> and <a href="https://www.environment.gov.za/mediarelease/creecy_extendedproducerresponsibility_g44078gon20">South Africa</a>. </p>
<p>Scrap export bans in China and other countries have given new energy to EPR campaigns. <a href="https://www.breakfreefromplastic.org/about/#meet-the-members">Activist organizations</a> and even some <a href="https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/news/100-leading-businesses-call-for-epr-for-packaging">corporations</a> are now calling for producers to become accountable for more types of waste, including <a href="https://www.productstewardship.us/page/Packaging">consumer packaging</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/XfE9th-Sbow?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Packaging helps sell consumer products, and consumers are starting to demand more sustainable containers.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What the state laws require</h2>
<p>The Maine and Oregon laws define consumer packaging as material likely found in the average resident’s waste bin, such as containers for food and home or personal care products. They exclude packaging intended for long-term storage (over five years), beverage containers, paint cans and packaging for drugs and medical devices. </p>
<p>Maine’s law incorporates some core EPR principles, such as setting a target recycling goal and giving producers an incentive to use more sustainable packaging. Oregon’s law includes more groundbreaking components. It promotes the idea of a <a href="https://www.repair.org/stand-up">right to repair</a>, which gives consumers access to information that they need to fix products they purchase. And it creates a “<a href="https://www.wastedive.com/news/oregon-epr-packaging-truth-in-labeling-living-wage/602640/">Truth in Labeling” task force</a> to assess whether producers are making misleading claims about how recyclable their products are.</p>
<p>The Oregon law also <a href="https://www.biocycle.net/oregon-second-state-to-pass-packaging-epr-law/">requires a study</a> to assess how bio-based plastics can affect compost waste streams, and it establishes a <a href="https://www.oregon.gov/deq/recycling/Documents/RSC-ProposalFactSheet.pdf">statewide collection list</a> to harmonize what types of materials can be recycled across the state. Studies show that contamination from poor sorting is one of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.11.020">main reasons why recyclables often are rejected</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic on paint recycling in California." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=776&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=976&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=976&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/418979/original/file-20210901-25-4a4qmg.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=976&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">California paint recycling data from PaintCare, a nonprofit stewardship organization that runs paint recycling programs across the U.S.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.paintcare.org/california-official-docs/">PaintCare</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some extended producer responsibility systems, such as those for paint and mattresses, are funded by consumers, who pay an added fee at the point of sale that is itemized on their receipt. The fee supports the products’ eventual recycling or disposal. </p>
<p>In contrast, the Maine and Oregon laws require producers to pay fees to the states, based on how much packaging material they sell in those states. Both laws also include rules designed to limit producers’ influence over how the states use these funds. </p>
<h2>Will these laws reduce waste?</h2>
<p>There’s no clear consensus yet on the effectiveness of EPR. In some cases it has produced results: For instance, Connecticut’s <a href="https://www.productstewardship.us/page/Mattresses">mattress recycling rate rose from 8.7% to 63.5%</a> after the state instituted a takeback law funded by fees paid at the point of sale. On a national scale, the Product Stewardship Institute estimates that since 2007 U.S. paint EPR programs have reused and recycled almost 24 million gallons of paint, created 200 jobs and <a href="https://www.productstewardship.us/page/Paint">saved governments and taxpayers over $240 million</a>.</p>
<p>Critics argue that these programs need <a href="http://wiki.ban.org/images/f/f4/Holes_in_the_Circular_Economy-_WEEE_Leakage_from_Europe.pdf">strong regulation and monitoring</a> to ensure that corporations take their responsibilities seriously – and especially to prevent them from passing costs on to consumers, which requires enforceable accountability measures. Observers also argue that producers can have <a href="https://youtu.be/-lIg0hfFBfU">too much influence within stewardship organizations</a>, which they warn may undermine enforcement or the credibility of the law.</p>
<p>Few studies have been done so far to assess the long-term effects of extended producer responsibility programs, and those that exist do not show conclusively whether these initiatives <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling3020016">actually lead to more sustainable products</a>. Maine and Oregon are small progressive states and <a href="https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/top-suppliers/packaging-companies-suppliers/">are not major centers for the packaging industry</a>, so the impact of their new laws remains to be seen.</p>
<p>However, these measures are promising models. As Martin Bourque, executive director of <a href="https://ecologycenter.org/recycling/about/">Berkeley’s Ecology Center</a> and an internationally known expert on plastics and recycling, told us, “Maine’s approach of charging brands and manufacturers to pay cities for recycling services is an improvement over programs that give all of the operational and material control to producers, where the fox is directly in charge of the hen house.”</p>
<p>We believe the Maine and Oregon laws could inspire jurisdictions like California that are <a href="https://www.wastedive.com/news/2021-state-extended-producer-responsibility-recycling/594873/">considering similar measures</a> or <a href="https://insideclimatenews.org/news/06092021/baltimore-zero-waste-incinerator-wheelaborator/">drowning under waste plastic</a> to adopt EPR themselves. Waste reduction efforts across the U.S. took hits from foreign scrap bans <a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-has-resurrected-single-use-plastics-are-they-back-to-stay-140328">and then from the COVID-19 pandemic</a>, which spurred greater use of disposable products and packaging. We see producer-pay schemes like the Maine and Oregon laws as a promising response that could help catalyze broader progress toward a less wasteful economy.</p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165517/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Maine and Oregon have enacted laws that require makers of consumer product packaging to pay for recycling or disposing of it. Will other states follow?
Jessica Heiges, PhD Candidate in Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley
Kate O'Neill, Professor of Global Environmental Politics, University of California, Berkeley
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/163537
2021-07-04T08:26:23Z
2021-07-04T08:26:23Z
Nigeria’s electronic waste is a public health problem and needs urgent attention
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409112/original/file-20210630-3600-1u89pir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Electronic waste should be properly dismantled and recycled </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/alaba-international-market-a-young-man-is-fixing-and-news-photo/536200408?adppopup=true">In Pictures Ltd./Corbis via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>A new <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/15-06-2021-soaring-e-waste-affects-the-health-of-millions-of-children-who-warns">World Health Organisation report</a> warns that pregnant women’s exposure to electronic waste raises the risk of stillbirth and premature births. Environmental contamination researcher Okunola Alabi spoke to The Conversation Africa’s Wale Fatade about the problem of electronic waste in Nigeria.</em></p>
<h2>How serious is the exposure of women and children to electronic waste in Nigeria?</h2>
<p>Human exposure to electronic waste is on the <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/cjel/3/2/article-p141_2.xml">increase</a> in Nigeria. This is because of the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02772248.2011.561949">indiscriminate disposal</a> and <a href="http://www.basel.int/Portals/4/Basel%20Convention/docs/eWaste/E-waste_Africa_Project_Nigeria.pdf">crude informal recycling methods</a> in the country. To compound the problem, many electronic markets and informal dumpsites are located in residential areas. This <a href="https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/nigeria-has-become-an-e-waste-dumpsite-for-europe-us-and-asia-24197">exposes</a> children and women to the toxic constituents of electronic wastes. These are constantly set ablaze, releasing toxic fumes into the atmosphere and contaminating underground drinking water. </p>
<p>This has damaged the health and welfare of individuals exposed to these hazardous constituents. In 2020, we <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12011-019-01745-z">reported</a> on bioaccumulation of heavy metals in the blood of children exposed to e-waste, accompanied by significant DNA damage. </p>
<p>Women account for about <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12011-019-01745-z">40%</a> of all informal recycling workers and people who extract value from electronic waste in Nigeria. </p>
<p>Studies of the effect of electronic waste on women and children are limited in Nigeria. But we have done some research in the area. In one study we asked workers and residents in Lagos about their perceptions of this risk. Our <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/tzool/article/view/142147">research</a> showed that spontaneous abortion and cancer were reported by women working in and living close to the two largest electronic markets in Lagos. Spontaneous abortion and cancer accounted for 5.3% and 6%, respectively, of the health problems reported in this study. </p>
<p>Many of the chemicals in electronic waste have been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214109X13701013">shown</a> to have the potential to cause DNA damage in both mothers and foetuses. Indiscriminate disposal and informal recycling is a serious public health risk to pregnant women and women of reproductive age. </p>
<h2>How does Nigeria dispose of its electronic waste and what are the inherent dangers?</h2>
<p>The country lacks official recycling activity and effective management policies. Electronic waste materials are disposed of with municipal solid waste, dumped informally or left in homes, offices and warehouses. Large volumes are burnt outdoors and crudely recycled. This <a href="https://www.ban.org/">pollutes</a> the environment and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40201-021-00654-5">endangers</a> the health of workers on the sites and nearby residents. Burning electronic waste <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40201-021-00654-5">increases</a> the rate at which underground water is contaminated with toxic chemicals. Underground water is the reservoir of drinking water. Drinking contaminated water has been <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/tzool/article/view/142147">linked</a> with various infections and diseases.</p>
<p>Electronic waste components are toxic and are not biodegradable. When e-wastes are improperly dismantled and recycled, toxic metals and pollutants are released into the environment. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/15-06-2021-soaring-e-waste-affects-the-health-of-millions-of-children-who-warns">WHO</a> estimates that Nigeria generated N64.2 billion worth of electronic waste in 2019 and ranks second in Africa after Egypt.</p>
<p>This should be of serious concern in Nigeria, with a population of <a href="https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/nigeria-population/">above 200 million people</a>. The waste generated in Nigeria coupled with what’s imported is <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333547382_Hazardous_Waste_Management_and_Challenges_in_Nigeria">contaminating</a> the environment with hazardous chemicals. There is an urgent need for governments at all levels to take the disposal and treatment of electronic waste seriously, to safeguard the environment and public health. </p>
<p>Our government can also take advantage of the potential for income generation if many of the components in electronic waste can be safely recovered and recycled. Examples include steel, aluminium, gold, copper, and printed circuit boards. If they were recovered using <a href="https://www.epa.gov/recycle/recycling-basics">standard acceptable recycling practices</a>, Nigeria could be generating income. </p>
<h2>What should citizens and the government do?</h2>
<p>The burden of contaminants on human health has not been well studied in Nigeria. This should be given priority considering the high level of contaminants <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22414496/">previously seen</a> in soil, well water and edible plants.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://trade.gov.ng/nesrea/">National Environmental Standards Regulations Enforcement Agency</a> should check the indiscriminate disposal of waste. This would reduce open dumping and burning.</p>
<p>The government should remediate the contaminated soil and water at dumpsites.</p>
<p>The federal government needs to separate residential areas from electronic markets to prevent exposure of residents to contaminants.</p>
<p>People need to be informed about the hazards of electronic waste and how to dispose of it. </p>
<p>Workers in the electronic markets need to wear protective gear. Legislation is needed to protect these workers.</p>
<p>There is an urgent need for legislation dealing specifically with electronic wastes in Nigeria. Established rules such as <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/the-eu-declares-war-on-e-waste/a-51108790">European Union directives</a> and draft legislation of China’s <a href="https://en.ndrc.gov.cn/">National Development and Reform Commission</a> should be guidelines.</p>
<p>Other steps include adequate funding for waste management; support for recycling and disposal enterprises; and development of management technology. The European Union has <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/environment/topics/waste-and-recycling/rohs-directive_en">guidelines</a> for the use of safe substances and recyclable materials in manufacturing. Producers, importers and retailers should be made responsible for collection, recycling and disposal of electrical and electronic equipment. The country also needs a standards and certification system for second-hand appliances.</p>
<p>Citizens should choose responsibly when buying electronic equipment. They should check whether it contains toxic substances and whether it can be recycled.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163537/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Okunola Alabi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
There is an urgent need for legislation dealing specifically with electronic waste in Nigeria.
Okunola Alabi, Lecturer, Federal University of Technology, Akure
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/147972
2021-01-11T13:14:46Z
2021-01-11T13:14:46Z
Consumer electronics have changed a lot in 20 years – systems for managing e-waste aren’t keeping up
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376831/original/file-20201231-49872-1uzkolc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C11%2C3864%2C2572&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most of the world's electronics are not recycled, posing health and environmental risks. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/abandoned-and-rusted-laptop-lying-on-riverbed-royalty-free-image/108162816">catscandotcom/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s hard to imagine navigating modern life without a <a href="https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/are-cell-phones-becoming-more-popular-toilets">mobile phone</a> in hand. Computers, tablets and smartphones have transformed how we communicate, work, learn, share news and entertain ourselves. They became even more essential when the COVID-19 pandemic moved classes, meetings and social connections online. </p>
<p>But few people realize that our reliance on electronics comes with steep environmental costs, from mining minerals to disposing of used devices. Consumers can’t resist faster products with more storage and better cameras, but constant upgrades have created a <a href="https://time.com/5594380/world-electronic-waste-problem/">growing global waste challenge</a>. In 2019 alone, people discarded <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Environment/Documents/Toolbox/GEM_2020_def.pdf">53 million metric tons of electronic waste</a>.</p>
<p>In our work as <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=oZyg9b4AAAAJ&hl=en">sustainability researchers</a>, we study how consumer behavior and technological innovations influence the products that people buy, how long they keep them and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=z6q5FZMAAAAJ&hl=en">how these items are reused or recycled</a>. </p>
<p>Our research shows that while e-waste is rising globally, it’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13074">declining in the U.S.</a> But some innovations that are slimming down the e-waste stream are also making products harder to repair and recycle.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sending electronics to junkyards or landfills wastes an opportunity to recycle valuable materials inside them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/junkyard-with-old-computer-and-electronic-parts-ca-news-photo/144074229">Joe Sohm/Visions of America /Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Recycling used electronics</h2>
<p>Thirty years of data show why the volume of e-waste in the U.S. is decreasing. New products are <a href="https://apnews.com/article/bb5ff45b98f64123b3d408dd4a336b59">lighter and more compact than past offerings</a>. Smartphones and laptops have edged out desktop computers. Televisions with thin, flat screens have displaced bulkier <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube">cathode-ray tubes</a>, and streaming services are doing the job that once required standalone MP3, DVD and Blu-ray players. U.S. households now produce about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13074">10% less electronic waste by weight</a> than they did at their peak in 2015.</p>
<p>The bad news is that <a href="https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling">only about 35% of U.S. e-waste is recycled</a>. Consumers often don’t know where to recycle discarded products. If electronic devices decompose in landfills, hazardous compounds can leach into groundwater, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2019.1640807">lead</a> used in older circuit boards, mercury found in early LCD screens and <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/9/30/toxins-in-plastics-blamed-for-health-environment-hazards">flame retardants</a> in plastics. This process poses health risks to people and wildlife. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"809910797182914560"}"></div></p>
<p>There’s a clear need to recycle e-waste, both to protect public health and to recover valuable metals. Electronics contain rare minerals and precious metals mined in socially and ecologically <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/business/batteries/congo-cobalt-mining-for-lithium-ion-battery/">vulnerable parts of the world</a>. Reuse and recycling can reduce demand for “<a href="https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2020/09/companies-struggle-comply-conflict-mineral-reporting-rules/">conflict minerals</a>” and <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/how-a-circular-approach-can-turn-e-waste-into-a-golden-opportunity/">create new jobs and revenue streams</a>. </p>
<p>But it’s not a simple process. Disassembling electronics for repair or material recovery is expensive and labor-intensive. </p>
<p>Some recycling companies have illegally <a href="https://resource-recycling.com/e-scrap/2020/12/03/former-president-of-crt-processor-sentenced-to-prison/">stockpiled</a> or <a href="https://resource-recycling.com/e-scrap/2013/08/23/abandoned-warehouses-full-crts-found-several-states/">abandoned</a> e-waste. One Denver warehouse was called “<a href="https://resource-recycling.com/e-scrap/2013/08/23/abandoned-warehouses-full-crts-found-several-states/">an environmental disaster</a>” when 8,000 tons of lead-filled tubes from old TVs were discovered there in 2013. </p>
<p>The U.S. <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/america-e-waste-gps-tracker-tells-all-earthfix">exports up to 40% of its e-waste</a>. Some goes to regions such as Southeast Asia that have <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/08/world/asia/e-waste-thailand-southeast-asia.html">little environmental oversight and few measures to protect workers</a> who repair or recycle electronics. </p>
<h2>Disassembling products and assembling data</h2>
<p>Health and environmental risks have prompted 25 U.S. states and the District of Columbia to <a href="https://www.ecycleclearinghouse.org/maps.aspx">enact e-waste recycling laws</a>. Some of these measures ban landfilling electronics, while others require manufacturers to support recycling efforts. All of them target large products, like old cathode-ray tube TVs, which contain up to 4 pounds of lead.</p>
<p>We wanted to know whether these laws, adopted from 2003 to 2011, can keep up with the current generation of electronic products. To find out, we needed a better estimate of how much e-waste the U.S. now produces.</p>
<p>We mapped sales of electronic products from the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/04/a-terminal-condition/361313/">1950s</a> to the present, using data from industry reports, government sources and consumer surveys. Then we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-020-0573-9">disassembled almost 100 devices</a>, from obsolete VCRs to today’s smartphones and fitness trackers, to weigh and measure the materials they contained.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A researcher takes apart a smartphone to find out what materials are inside.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shahana Althaf</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This dissected tablet shows the components inside, each of which were logged, weighed and measured by researchers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Callie Babbitt</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We created a <a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3986969">computer model to analyze the data</a>, producing one of the most detailed accounts of U.S. electronic product consumption and discards currently available.</p>
<h2>E-waste is leaner, but not necessarily greener</h2>
<p>The big surprise from our research was that U.S. households are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13074">producing less e-waste</a>, thanks to compact product designs and digital innovation. For example, a smartphone serves as an all-in-one phone, camera, MP3 player and portable navigation system. Flat-panel TVs are about 50% lighter than <a href="https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/gwire/2009/06/15/15greenwire-some-see-e-waste-crisis-trailing-switch-to-dig-81110.html">large-tube TVs</a> and don’t contain any lead. </p>
<p>But not all innovations have been beneficial. To make lightweight products, manufacturers miniaturized components and glued parts together, making it harder to repair devices and more expensive to recycle them. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-020-01890-3">Lithium-ion batteries</a> pose another problem: They are hard to detect and remove, and they can spark <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/28/21156477/recycling-plants-fire-batteries-rechargeable-smartphone-lithium-ion">disastrous fires</a> during transportation or recycling.</p>
<p>Popular features that consumers love – speed, sharp images, responsive touch screens and long battery life – rely on metals like cobalt, indium and <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-rare-earths-crucial-elements-in-modern-technology-4-questions-answered-101364">rare-earth elements</a> that require immense energy and expense to mine. Commercial recycling technology cannot yet recover them profitably, although innovations are starting to emerge. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Apple’s new robot, Daisy, can disassemble nine different iPhone models to recover valuable materials that traditional recyclers cannot.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2018/04/apple-adds-earth-day-donations-to-trade-in-and-recycling-program/">Apple</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reenvisioning waste as a resource</h2>
<p>We believe solving these challenges requires a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.05.038">proactive approach</a> that treats digital discards as resources, not waste. Gold, silver, palladium and other valuable materials are now more concentrated in e-waste than in natural ores in the ground. </p>
<p>“<a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200407-urban-mining-how-your-home-may-be-a-gold-mine">Urban mining</a>,” in the form of recycling e-waste, could replace the need to dig up scarce metals, reducing environmental damage. It would also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105248">reduce U.S. dependence</a> on <a href="https://www.cato.org/blog/chinas-critical-minerals-national-security-meaning-supply-chain-interdependence">minerals imported from other countries</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Concentration of hazardous (left) and valuable (right) materials within the U.S. e-waste stream.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Althaf et al. 2020</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Government, industry and consumers all have roles to play. Progress will require designing products that are <a href="https://www.ifixit.com/">easier to repair</a> and reuse, and persuading consumers to <a href="https://earth911.com/eco-tech/ways-to-reuse-old-laptop/">keep their devices longer</a>. </p>
<p>We also see a need for responsive e-waste laws in place of today’s dated patchwork of state regulations. Establishing <a href="https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/how-u-s-laws-do-and-dont-support-e-recycling-and-reuse/">convenient</a>, <a href="https://sustainableelectronics.org/recyclers">certified</a> <a href="https://e-stewards.org/">recycling locations</a> can keep more electronics out of landfills. With retooled operations, recyclers can recover more valuable materials from the e-waste stream. Steps like these can help balance our reliance on electronic devices with systems that better protect human health and the environment. </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147972/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Callie Babbitt receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the Consumer Technology Association, and the Staples Sustainable Innovation Lab.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shahana Althaf received funding from the National Science Foundation, the Consumer Technology Association, and the Staples Sustainable Innovation Lab.</span></em></p>
Technical advances are reducing the volume of e-waste generated in the US as lighter, more compact products enter the market. But those goods can be harder to reuse and recycle.
Callie Babbitt, Associate Professor of Sustainability, Rochester Institute of Technology
Shahana Althaf, Postdoctoral associate, Yale University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/148542
2020-12-02T14:51:04Z
2020-12-02T14:51:04Z
Toxic waste dumping in the Gulf of Guinea amounts to environmental racism
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/367908/original/file-20201106-21-1cpxjpc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">On the outskirts of Accra there are huge electronic waste disposal sites, known locally as Sodoma and Gomorra. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by Maniglia Romano/Pacific Press/LightRocket via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Toxic waste and electronic waste (e-waste) is generated from a wide range of industries – such as health, hydrocarbon or manufacturing – and can come in many forms, such as sludges or gas. <a href="https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/cleaning-electronic-waste-e-waste">E-waste</a> is used electronic items that are nearing the end of their useful life, and are discarded or given to be recycled. If these types of waste aren’t properly discarded they <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/toxic-waste/">can cause</a> serious harm to human health and the environment.</p>
<p>This makes the proper disposal of toxic and e-waste <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/dec/14/toxic-ewaste-illegal-dumping-developing-countries">expensive</a>. Because of this a market has been created and some companies and independent waste brokers circumvent laws. They disguise toxic waste as <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/newsnight/8259765.stm">unharmful</a> and e-waste as <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/26e1aa74-2261-11ea-92da-f0c92e957a96">reusable electronics</a>. It is then exported to countries in West and Central Africa where it is often disposed of unethically at <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-nigeria-needs-to-manage-electronic-waste-better-135844">dump-sites</a>. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00020184.2020.1827947?scroll=top&needAccess=true">our recent paper</a>, we show how Western companies and businesses (primarily those in Europe and the US) target countries in the Gulf of Guinea – we covered Nigeria, Ghana, and Côte d’Ivoire – as a dump for their toxic waste. This, despite the knowledge of the physiological and environmental effects of this waste. </p>
<p>These African countries <a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2474629">do not</a> have the facilities to enable the safe disposal of hazardous and toxic waste. And the true contents of the waste are <a href="https://timeline.com/koko-nigeria-italy-toxic-waste-159a6487b5aa">almost</a> <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-10735255">always</a> unknown to them. Exporters label <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/feb/07/uk-worst-offender-in-europe-for-electronic-waste-exports-report">unsalvageable electronic goods as reusable</a>. This allows them to circumvent international laws which <a href="http://www.basel.int/implementation/ewaste/overview/tabid/4063/default.aspx#:%7E:text=E%2Dwaste%20is%20categorized%20as,according%20to%20the%20Basel%20Convention.&text=These%20precious%20and%20heavy%20metals,source%20of%20secondary%20raw%20materials.">prohibit the transboundary transport of this</a> waste.</p>
<p>Drawing on examples from Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria and Ghana, our paper argues that toxic waste dumping in the Gulf of Guinea amounts to <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/07/what-is-environmental-racism-pollution-covid-systemic/">environmental racism</a>. This is a term that’s used to describe a form of systemic racism – manifested <a href="https://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpAuxPages)/543B2B250E64745280256B6D005788F7/$file/bullard.pdf">through</a> policies or practices – whereby communities of colour are disproportionately burdened with health hazards through policies and practices that force them to live in proximity to sources of toxic waste. </p>
<p>Other victims of environmental racism are Native Americans. In 2002 the US Commission for Racial Justice <a href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-sociology/chapter/reading-environmental-racism/">found that</a> about half of this population live in areas with uncontrolled hazardous waste sites. </p>
<p>The dumping of toxic waste into Africa, while deliberately concealing its true content, shows that companies know it is ethically wrong. To protect communities within these countries, governments must implement the provisions of the <a href="http://www.basel.int/implementation/ewaste/overview/tabid/4063/default.aspx#:%7E:text=E%2Dwaste%20is%20categorized%20as,according%20to%20the%20Basel%20Convention.&text=These%20precious%20and%20heavy%20metals,source%20of%20secondary%20raw%20materials.">Basel</a> and <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/environmental-rights-and-governance/what-we-do/meeting-international-environmental">Bamako Conventions</a>. These conventions classify the transboundary movement of hazardous waste without the consent of the receiving state as illegal. </p>
<p>We also argue that the dumping of hazardous waste must be recognised by the United Nations and its member states as a violation of human rights.</p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>We focused on three recent case studies of toxic waste dumping in Cote d’Ivoire, and e-waste dumping in Nigeria and Ghana to illustrate how specific acts of environmental racism happen. </p>
<p><strong>Nigeria and Ghana</strong> </p>
<p>We looked at waste dumping in Nigeria and Ghana because they are both identified by the United Nations Environmental Programme as among the <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/dark-skies-bright-future-overcoming-nigerias-e-waste-epidemic">world’s top destinations for e-waste</a>. This includes discarded computers, television sets, mobile phones and microwave ovens. </p>
<p>In Nigeria, each month an estimated 500 container loads, each carrying about 500 000 pieces of used electronic devices (many of which can’t be used again), enter Nigeria’s port from <a href="https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/nigeria-has-become-an-e-waste-dumpsite-for-europe-us-and-asia-24197">Europe, the US and Asia</a>. <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-05-29/the-rich-world-s-electronic-waste-dumped-in-ghana">Similarly in Ghana, hundreds of thousands of tons of used electronics</a>, mainly <a href="https://resource.co/article/nigerias-e-waste-mountain">from Europe and the United States</a>, are delivered in huge containers.</p>
<p>Because the electronics aren’t properly recycled, this waste <a href="https://resource.co/article/nigerias-e-waste-mountain">has caused</a> huge amounts of pollution to enter the environment. Communities in both countries are also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6555250/">exposed</a> to toxic chemicals such as mercury and lead. Burning e-waste can increase <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/full/10.1289/ehp.1509699">the risk of respiratory and skin diseases, eye infections and cancer</a> for those that work on and live close by.</p>
<p>This is in stark contrast to what happens in the origin countries of the waste. For example, in the United Kingdom electronic waste is required to be appropriately <a href="https://www.hse.gov.uk/waste/waste-electrical.htm">recycled </a> and is barred from incineration and landfills.</p>
<p>Misguidedly, the importation of e-waste to countries like Nigeria and Ghana continues because it generates much-needed revenue. For instance, Ghana is set to generate up to <a href="https://enviro360.com/govt-targets-100m-from-imported-e-waste/">US$100 million each year from levies</a> collected from importers of e-wastes. The informal sector is also a source of employment for many poor and vulnerable people. In Nigeria for example, <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/nigeria-turns-tide-electronic-waste">up to 100,000 people work</a> in the informal e-waste sector, processing half a million tonnes of discarded appliances each year.</p>
<p><strong>Côte d’Ivoire</strong> </p>
<p>Côte d'Ivoire serves as a good example to show the secrecy that is inherent in the toxic waste industry and the human and environmental cost of toxic waste dumping. </p>
<p>In 2006 Trafigura, a Netherlands-based multinational oil trading company, <a href="https://dro.dur.ac.uk/16631/2/16631.pdf">didn’t want</a> to pay the EUR500,000 (about US$620,000) to treat and dispose of its toxic waste in the Netherlands. And so it approached an Ivorian contractor to dispose of <a href="https://dro.dur.ac.uk/16631/2/16631.pdf">over 500,000 litres of toxic waste</a>. They paid the Ivorian subcontractor in Abidjan EUR18,500 (about US$22,000). The waste was disposed of at over <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/un-environment-releases-independent-audit-sites-affected-toxic-waste#:%7E:text=The%20audit%20finds%20that%20none,from%20the%202006%20dumping%20event.">12 different locations around Abidjan</a>. They claimed the material was non-toxic, hence no need for treatment. </p>
<p>The environmental racism is reflected in the fact that Trafigura knew that the waste was toxic and lied to discharge it in Côte d'Ivoire. Its decision is one of convenience and it is racist because it shows a disregard for African lives. </p>
<p>In the aftermath of the incident, <a href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2009/09/312652-toxic-wastes-caused-deaths-illnesses-cote-divoire-un-expert">over 100,000 people became sick and 15 people died</a>. According to a <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/un-environment-releases-independent-audit-sites-affected-toxic-waste#:%7E:text=The%20audit%20finds%20that%20none,from%20the%202006%20dumping%20event.">2018 assessment</a> some of the sites are still contaminated. </p>
<p>The Ivorian government entered into a settlement agreement with the Trafigura Group, receiving <a href="https://www.amnesty.org.uk/files/webfm/Documents/issues/afr310082012en.pdf?yw4zwEWa4WPJdM72s3xrNYvG6oyJOZGx">CFA95 billion (approximately US$200 million)</a>. This was intended to compensate the state and the victims and to pay for clean-up of the waste. However, some victims <a href="https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20384">haven’t received</a> compensation. Subsequent bids by victims for compensation have been <a href="https://www.enca.com/africa/ivory-coast-toxic-spill-victims-launch-new-dutch-court-bid">rejected</a> by a court in Amsterdam.</p>
<h2>Moving forward</h2>
<p>We recommend that countries in the region implement the provisions of the Basel and Bamako conventions in their entirety. Doing this would ensure that the countries of origin would be active players, monitoring the brokers on their end and ensuring waste is stopped before it’s exported. </p>
<p>Currently, Nigeria and Ghana haven’t ratified the Bamako Convention; they must do so. Recipient countries must take the necessary steps to ensure that they’re not used as a dumping ground. </p>
<p>There’s also a need for an international tribunal on toxic waste dumping and related crimes – just <a href="https://www.icty.org/">like the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia</a> – to pass appropriate retributive justice. And though the Basel convention stipulates that the state can develop laws regarding liability and compensation for the victims, this has not yet resulted in fair compensation for victims.</p>
<p>Finally, it is imperative that Gulf of Guinea countries equip their seaports with technology and trained personnel that can detect hazardous waste.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148542/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Despite knowing how harmful it can be, companies and businesses (primarily those in Europe and the US) target countries in the Gulf of Guinea as a dump for their toxic waste.
Ifesinachi Okafor-Yarwood, Lecturer, University of St Andrews
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/148189
2020-10-16T06:32:25Z
2020-10-16T06:32:25Z
Apple’s iPhone 12 comes without a charger: a smart waste-reduction move, or clever cash grab?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363875/original/file-20201016-15-xi755k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C25%2C995%2C624&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Apple has released its new smartphone, the iPhone 12, without an accompanying <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2020/10/14/21516121/apple-iphone-earpods-wired-headphones-wall-charger-prices-cut-10-dollars">charger or earbuds</a>. Users have <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-8840611/Apple-customers-outraged-learning-799-iPhone-12-NOT-include-charger-EarPods.html">harshly criticised</a> the company for this move and will have to purchase these accessories separately, if needed.</p>
<p>While some see it as cost-cutting, or a way for Apple to profit further by forcing customers to buy the products separately, the technology giant said the goal was to <a href="https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2020/10/apple-introduces-iphone-12-pro-and-iphone-12-pro-max-with-5g/">reduce its carbon footprint</a>.</p>
<p>This is the first time a major smartphone manufacturer has released a mobile without a charger. Earlier this year, reports emerged of <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2020/7/8/21317304/samsung-smartphone-chargers-2021-cost-environment">Samsung</a> considering a similar move, but it has yet to follow through.</p>
<p>But even if abandoning chargers is a way for Apple to save money, the action could have a significant, positive impact on the environment. </p>
<p>Australians, on average, buy a new mobile phone every <a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-chuck-that-old-mobile-phone-theres-gold-in-there-52074">18-24 months</a>. In Australia, there are about 23 million phones <a href="https://recyclingnearyou.com.au/phones/">sitting unused</a> — and therefore likely a similar number of accompanying chargers.</p>
<p>Just as single-use shopping bags contribute to plastic waste, unused and discarded electronic appliances contribute to electronic waste (e-waste).</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/dont-chuck-that-old-mobile-phone-theres-gold-in-there-52074">Don't chuck that old mobile phone, there's gold in there</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>You can reuse a shopping bag, so why not your phone charger?</h2>
<p>Just over a decade ago, Australia started to ban single-use plastic bags, starting with South Australia. Today, <a href="https://www.environmentlawinsights.com/2020/04/30/moves-towards-banning-single-use-plastics-in-australia/">every</a> state and territory in Australia has enforced the ban except New South Wales — which intends to do so by the <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/nsw/nsw-to-join-all-other-states-in-banning-single-use-plastic-bags-20200308-p5480b.html">end of 2021</a>. </p>
<p>Since South Australia implemented its ban in 2008, state government estimates <a href="https://www.greenindustries.sa.gov.au/_literature_165559/Life_cycle_analysis_of_plastic_bag_alternatives_(2009)">suggest</a> it has avoided 8,000kg of marine litter each year — and abated more than 4,000 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions.</p>
<p>The benefits for the environment have been clear. So, why are we so hesitant to do the same for e-waste? </p>
<h2>E-waste is a real, but fixable, environmental issue</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195925505000466">E-waste</a> includes different forms of discarded electric and electronic appliances that are no longer of value to their owners. This can include mobile phones, televisions, computers, chargers, keyboards, printers and earphones.</p>
<p>Currently there are about 4.78 billion mobile phone users globally (61.2% of the world’s <a href="https://www.bankmycell.com/blog/how-many-phones-are-in-the-world">population</a>). And mobile phone chargers alone generate more than <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20140307IPR38122/meps-push-for-common-charger-for-all-mobile-phones">51,000 tonnes</a> of e-waste per year. </p>
<p>On this basis, the environment would greatly benefit if more users reused phone chargers and if tech companies encouraged a shift to standardised charging that works across different mobile phone brands. </p>
<p>This would eventually lead to a reduction in the manufacturing of chargers and, potentially, less exploitation of natural resources.</p>
<h2>Who needs a charger with an Apple logo anyway?</h2>
<p>Citing an increase in e-waste and consumer frustration with multiple chargers, the <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2020-0070_EN.html">European Parliament</a> has been pushing for standardised chargers for mobile phones, tablets, e-book readers, smart cameras, wearable electronics and other small or medium-sized electronic devices. </p>
<p>This would negate the need for users to buy different chargers for various devices. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363893/original/file-20201016-21-1jg67wf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Electronics 'sprout' from the ground." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363893/original/file-20201016-21-1jg67wf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363893/original/file-20201016-21-1jg67wf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363893/original/file-20201016-21-1jg67wf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363893/original/file-20201016-21-1jg67wf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363893/original/file-20201016-21-1jg67wf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363893/original/file-20201016-21-1jg67wf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363893/original/file-20201016-21-1jg67wf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Digital consumption is on the rise and unlikely to slow down any time soon. Recycling is one option, but how else can tech companies innovate to reduce environmental harm?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of course, there’s no doubt phone companies want people to regularly buy new phones. Apple themselves have <a href="https://www.vox.com/2017/12/22/16807056/apple-slow-iphone-batteries">been</a> <a href="https://techcrunch.com/2020/03/02/apple-agrees-to-settlement-of-up-to-500-million-from-lawsuit-alleging-it-throttled-older-phones/">accused</a> of building a feature into phones that slows them down as they get older. Apple responded by saying this was simply to keep devices running as their batteries became worn down. </p>
<p>But even if this is the case, Apple’s decision to ship phones without chargers would still reduce the use of precious materials. A smaller product box would let Apple fit up to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KR0g-1hnQPA">70%</a> more products onto shipping pallets — reducing carbon emissions from shipping. </p>
<p>However, it remains to be seen exactly how much this would assist in Apple’s environmental goals, especially if many consumers end up buying a charger separately anyway. </p>
<p>Apple equates its recent “climate conscious” changes to the iPhone 12 with removing <a href="https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2020/10/apple-introduces-iphone-12-pro-and-iphone-12-pro-max-with-5g/">450,000 cars</a> from the road annually. The company has a target of becoming <a href="https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2020/07/apple-commits-to-be-100-percent-carbon-neutral-for-its-supply-chain-and-products-by-2030/">carbon-neutral</a> by 2030. </p>
<h2>Are wireless chargers the answer?</h2>
<p>It’s worth considering whether Apple’s main incentive is simply to cut costs, or perhaps push people towards its own wireless charging devices.</p>
<p>These concerns are not without merit. Apple is one of the <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2020/08/19/apple-reaches-2-trillion-market-cap.html">richest companies in the world</a>, with most of its market capital made with <a href="https://sixcolors.com/post/2020/07/apple-q3-2020-results-everything-up/">hardware sales</a>. </p>
<p>Without a shift to a standardised plug-in charger, a wireless charging boom could be an environmental disaster (even though it’s perhaps <a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2020/05/15/2034383/0/en/The-Global-Wireless-Charging-Market-size-is-expected-to-reach-25-6-billion-by-2026-rising-at-a-market-growth-of-28-4-CAGR-during-the-forecast-period.html">inevitable</a> due to its convenience). Wireless charging consumes around <a href="https://debugger.medium.com/wireless-charging-is-a-disaster-waiting-to-happen-48afdde70ed9">47%</a> more power than a regular cable. </p>
<p>This may be a concern, as the sustainability advantages of not including a charger could come alongside increased energy consumption. Currently, the Information, Communication and Technology (ICT) sector is responsible for about <a href="https://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/467/20130107/ict-sector-account-2-percent-global-carbon.htm">2% of the world’s energy consumption</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363889/original/file-20201016-21-9a8omy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Unused electronic devices in a pile." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363889/original/file-20201016-21-9a8omy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/363889/original/file-20201016-21-9a8omy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363889/original/file-20201016-21-9a8omy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363889/original/file-20201016-21-9a8omy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363889/original/file-20201016-21-9a8omy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363889/original/file-20201016-21-9a8omy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/363889/original/file-20201016-21-9a8omy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How many unused devices do you have lying around the house?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>The case for a universal plug-in charger</h2>
<p>Perhaps one solution to the dilemma is device trade-in services, which many companies already offer, including Apple and <a href="https://www.samsung.com/au/tradeup/">Samsung</a>.</p>
<p>Apple gives customers a discount on a new device if they <a href="https://www.apple.com/au/trade-in/">trade in their older model</a>, instead of throwing it out. Similar services are offered by third parties such as <a href="https://www.optus.com.au/shop/mobile/deals/trade-in">Optus</a>, <a href="https://www.telstra.com.au/plans-devices/trade-in">Telstra</a>, <a href="https://mobilemonster.com.au/">MobileMonster</a> and <a href="https://www.boomerangbuyback.com.au/">Boomerang Buy Back</a>.</p>
<p>Ultimately, however, the best solution would be for tech giants to agree on a universal plug-in charger for all small or medium-sized electronic devices, including mobile phones. </p>
<p>And hopefully, just as we all now take reusable bags to the grocer with us, in a few years we’ll be able to use a common charger for all our devices — and we’ll wonder what all the fuss was about.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/apple-releases-fast-5g-iphones-but-not-for-australia-and-were-lagging-behind-in-getting-there-148102">Apple releases fast 5G iPhones, but not for Australia. And we're lagging behind in getting there</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/148189/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Apple’s newest release comes without a wall charger and earpods. While the shift could reduce the company’s carbon footprint, users shifting to wireless charging will use more energy.
Michael Cowling, Associate Professor - Information & Communication Technology (ICT), CQUniversity Australia
Ritesh Chugh, Senior Lecturer/Discipline Lead – Information Systems and Analysis, CQUniversity Australia
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/143654
2020-08-19T11:35:06Z
2020-08-19T11:35:06Z
We’re using microbes to clean up toxic electronic waste – here’s how
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352251/original/file-20200811-15-8m9k7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4288%2C2848&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/electronic-waste-ready-recycling-139234613">Ltummy/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you were to stack up all the electronic waste produced annually around the world it would weigh as much as all the commercial aircrafts ever produced, or 5,000 Eiffel towers. This is a growing “tsunami” <a href="https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/waste/-tsunami-of-e-waste-to-hit-the-world-soon-warns-new-un-report-62958">according to the UN</a>, and it’s fed by all the phones, tablets and other electronic devices that are thrown away each day. </p>
<p>Of the 44.7 million metric tonnes of electronic waste (often shortened to “e-waste”) produced around the world in 2017, 90% was sent to landfill, incinerated, or illegally traded. Europe and the US accounted for almost half of this – the EU is predicted to produce 12 million tonnes in 2020 alone. If nothing is done to combat the problem, the world is expected to produce more than 120 million tonnes annually by 2050.</p>
<p>Rich countries in Europe and North America export much of their e-waste to developing countries in Africa and Asia. A lot of this ends up accumulating in landfills, where toxic metals leach out and enter groundwater and food chains, threatening human health and the environment.</p>
<p>As daunting as this problem seems, we’re working on a solution. Using a process called bioleaching, we’re extracting and recycling these metals from e-waste using non-toxic bacteria.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/global-electronic-waste-up-21-in-five-years-and-recycling-isnt-keeping-up-141997">Global electronic waste up 21% in five years, and recycling isn't keeping up</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Treasure from waste</h2>
<p>It might surprise you to learn that those toxic metals are actually very valuable. It’s a bitter irony that the e-waste mountains collecting in the world’s poorest places actually contain a fortune. Precious metals are found in your phone and computer, and each year <a href="https://unu.edu/news/news/only-15-of-gold-and-silver-used-in-high-tech-goods-is-recovered.html">US$21 billion worth of gold and silver</a> are used to manufacture new electronic devices. E-waste is thought to contain <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/un-report-time-seize-opportunity-tackle-challenge-e-waste">7% of the world’s gold</a>, and could be used to manufacture new products if it could be recycled safely.</p>
<p>With an estimated worth of <a href="https://unu.edu/media-relations/releases/un-world-economic-forum-and-partners-come-together-to-address-e-waste-challenges.html#info">US$62.5 billion a year</a>, the economic benefits of recycling e-waste are clear. And it would help meet the shortfall for new natural resources that are needed to manufacture new products. Some of the elements on a printed circuit board – essentially the brain of a computer – are raw materials <a href="http://www.ovam.be/sites/default/files/atoms/files/Study%20on%20Critical%20Raw%20Materials%20at%20EU%20Level.pdf">whose supply is at risk</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A row of computer circuit boards." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352250/original/file-20200811-18-1p0plts.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Precious metals used in electronics are worth a fortune, but most languish in landfills after the product is discarded.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/printed-circuit-boards-on-shell-fabric-496332808">DMSU/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other elements found in electronics are considered some of the periodic table’s <a href="https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/greenchemistry/research-innovation/endangered-elements.html">most endangered</a>. There is a serious threat that they will be depleted within the next century. With today’s <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20140314-the-worlds-scarcest-material">trends of natural resource use</a>, natural sources of platinum will be depleted in about 15 years and silver in 20 years.</p>
<p>But recovering these materials is more difficult than you might imagine.</p>
<p>Pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy are the current technologies used for extracting and recycling e-waste metals. They involve high temperatures and toxic chemicals, and so are extremely harmful to the environment. They require lots of energy and produce large volumes of toxic gas too, creating more pollution and leaving a large carbon footprint.</p>
<p>But bioleaching has existed as a solution to these problems as far back as the era of the Roman Empire. The modern mining industry has relied on it for decades, using microbes – mainly bacteria, but also some fungi – to extract metals from ores.</p>
<p>Microorganisms chemically modify the metal, setting it free from the surrounding rock and allowing it to dissolve in a microbial soup, from which the metal can be isolated and purified. Bioleaching requires very little energy and so has a small carbon footprint. No toxic chemicals are used either, making it environmentally friendly and safe.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Blue bacillus bacteria cells floating in a microbial soup." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352248/original/file-20200811-20-3xsqvs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Certain bacteria have been used for centuries to recover valuable metals from ores.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/close-3d-microscopic-blue-bacteria-524613634">Paulista/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite how useful it is, applying bioleaching to e-waste has mostly been an academic pursuit. But our <a href="https://www.coventry.ac.uk/business/our-services/projects/current-projects/bioleaching/">research group</a> is leading the first industrial effort. In a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12649-020-01128-9">recent study</a>, we reported how we managed to extract copper from discarded computer circuit boards using this method and recycle it into high-quality foil.</p>
<p>Different metals have different properties, so new methods must be constantly developed. Extracting metals by bioleaching, though pollution-free, is also slower than the traditional methods. Thankfully though, genetic engineering has already shown <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3367458/">that we can improve</a> how efficiently these microbes can be used in green recycling. </p>
<p>After our success recycling metals from discarded computers, scientists are trying other types of e-waste, including electric batteries. But developing better recycling techniques is only one piece of the puzzle. For a completely circular economy, recycling should start with manufacturers and producers. Designing devices that are more easily recycled and tackling the throw-away culture that treats the growing problem with indifference are both equally vital in slowing the oncoming tsunami.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143654/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sebastien Farnaud receives funding from Innovate UK for a KTP (Knowledge Tranfer Partnership) with Network 2 Supplies Limited </span></em></p>
Within the growing mountains of electronic waste, precious metals lie waiting to be recovered.
Sebastien Farnaud, Professor of Bio-innovation and Enterprise, Coventry University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/141997
2020-07-10T14:38:21Z
2020-07-10T14:38:21Z
Global electronic waste up 21% in five years, and recycling isn’t keeping up
<p>Each year, the total amount of electric and electronic equipment the world uses <a href="https://globalewaste.org/news/surge-global-waste/">grows by 2.5 million tonnes</a>. Phones, radios, toys, laptops – if it has a power or battery supply it’s likely to join a growing mountain of “e-waste” after use.</p>
<p>In 2019 alone, the world generated 53.6 million tonnes of e-waste. That’s about 7.3 kilograms per person and equivalent in weight to 350 cruise ships. Asia produced the lion’s share – 24.9 million tonnes – followed by the Americas (13.1 million tonnes) and Europe (12 million tonnes), while Africa and Oceania generated 2.9 and 0.7 million tonnes respectively.</p>
<p>By 2030, the global total is likely to swell to 74.7 million tonnes, almost a doubling of the annual amount of new e-waste in just 16 years. This makes it the world’s fastest growing domestic waste stream, fuelled mainly by more people buying electronic products with shorter life cycles and fewer options for repair.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346615/original/file-20200709-87086-1pb82yb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Discarded electric and electronic products are forming the fastest growing domestic waste stream worldwide.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">UNU/UNITAR SCYCLE©/Yassyn Sidki</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These products can help improve living standards, and it’s good that more and more people can afford them. But growing global demand is outpacing our capacity to recycle or dispose of electronic products safely. Once they’re obsolete and discarded, these products can end up accumulating in the environment, polluting habitats and harming people and wildlife.</p>
<h2>E-waste recycling</h2>
<p>Only 17.4% of 2019’s e-waste was formally collected and recycled. Since 2014, the amount of recycled e-waste has only grown by 1.8 million tonnes each year. The total amount of e-waste generated increased by 9.2 million tonnes over the same period. At the same time, the amount of undocumented e-waste is increasing. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://globalewaste.org/">new research</a>, we found that Europe has the highest collection and recycling rate, covering about 42.5% of the total e-waste generated in 2019. Asia ranked second at 11.7%, the Americas and Oceania were similar at 9.4% and 8.8%, and Africa had the lowest rate at 0.9%. What happened with the rest (82.6%) of the world’s e-waste generated in 2019 isn’t clear. </p>
<p>In high income countries, around 8% of e-waste is thought to be discarded in waste bins, while 7%-20% is exported. In lower income countries, the picture is less clear, as e-waste is mostly managed informally.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=444&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346690/original/file-20200709-26-1en9wzl.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=558&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How the world managed e-waste in 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">UNU/UNITAR SCYCLE©/Nienke Haccoû</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Without a reliable system of waste management, toxic substances contained in e-waste, such as mercury, brominated flame retardants, chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons, are more likely to be released into the environment and harm the people who live, work and play in e-waste scrapyards. </p>
<p>Mercury is used in computer monitors and fluorescent lighting, but exposure to it can cause brain damage. We estimated that about 50 tonnes of mercury is contained in these undocumented flows of e-waste that end up in the environment each year.</p>
<p>E-waste doesn’t just pose a health risk though. It also contributes directly to global warming. Dumped temperature-exchange equipment, found in fridges and air conditioners, can slowly release greenhouse gases. About 98 million tonnes are thought to leak from scrapyards each year, equivalent to 0.3% of global emissions from the energy sector.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346609/original/file-20200709-87080-10upcy7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Discarded e-waste isn’t just an environmental problem, it’s also an economic opportunity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">UNU/UNITAR SCYCLE©/Yassyn Sidki</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Aside from toxins, e-waste also contains precious metals and useful raw materials, such as gold, silver, copper and platinum. The total value of all this discarded as e-waste in 2019 has been conservatively valued at US$57 billion (£45 billion) – a sum greater than the GDP of most countries.</p>
<p>But since only 17.4% of 2019’s e-waste was collected and recycled, just US$10 billion of this was recovered in an environmentally responsible way. Only 4 million tonnes of raw materials was made available for recycling.</p>
<p>Thankfully, the world is slowly waking up to the scale of this problem. As of the end of 2019, 78 countries, covering 71% of the world’s population, either had a policy for managing e-waste or were putting regulation in place – an increase of 5% from 2017. But in many of these countries, policies still aren’t legally binding and regulation isn’t enforced. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=268&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=268&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=268&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/346613/original/file-20200709-38-idlyo7.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=336&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Governments worldwide are enacting new laws to better manage e-waste.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Credits© Illustrations UNU/UNITAR SCYCLE -Nienke Haccoû</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As researchers, we’ll continue to monitor the world’s e-waste to support the creation of a circular economy and sustainable societies. We hope that our efforts to track this growing problem can spur governments to act with an urgency that reflects the scale of the challenge, with laws and enforcement that can drastically increase the proportion of e-waste that’s recycled safely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/141997/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vanessa Forti is affiliated with United Nations University (UNU) / United Nations International Training and Research (UNITAR) - SCYCLE</span></em></p>
Demand for electric and electronic products is fuelling the meteoric rise in e-waste.
Vanessa Forti, Programme Associate at Sustainable Cycles (UNU-ViE-SCYCLE), United Nations University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/135844
2020-05-04T14:25:37Z
2020-05-04T14:25:37Z
Why Nigeria needs to manage electronic waste better
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/331114/original/file-20200428-110785-1x8pqpm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Electronic waste heap from used discarded computer parts and cases </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/electronic-waste-heap-from-used-discarded-computer-royalty-free-image/1175564260?adppopup=true">Ladislav Kubes/Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In most of Nigeria’s cities, there are visible piles of refuse that have built up on roads, river banks and swampy land. These waste dumps smell bad and are breeding grounds for germs that cause diseases. </p>
<p>Perhaps less well-known is the electronic waste that’s becoming a serious problem in parts of the country. This is obsolete electrical and electronic equipment that has been discarded. Because Nigeria does not have a formal recycling sector for safe management of e-waste, every month <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02772248.2011.561949">about 500,000 tons</a> of electronic and electrical equipment is dumped in workshops, open spaces, water sources and landfills. More than half of this is near end of life or <a href="https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/nigeria-has-become-an-e-waste-dumpsite-for-europe-us-and-asia-24197">completely damaged</a> .</p>
<p>When rain falls on informal waste dumps, polluted liquids leach out. These liquids contain toxic chemicals and metals, bacteria and viruses. They find their way into the ground and surface water, and can be taken up by plants and end up in animals and people. </p>
<p>Electronic waste is one of the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02772248.2011.561949">fastest-growing types of waste</a> in some parts of the world. Globally, the eco-friendly recycling of e-waste is optimally low. So more than half of almost <a href="http://www.saicm.org/Portals/12/Documents/EPI/ewastesafework.pdf">50 million metric tonnes of e-waste</a> generated worldwide ends up in landfills or is illegally transported.</p>
<p>Some of Nigeria’s e-waste is equipment that was imported when new and is discarded after its useful life. Some is imported second-hand. Out of an <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/nigeria-turns-tide-electronic-waste">average of 500,000 tonnes</a> of used electrical and electronics equipment imported into Nigeria, more than 25% is dead on arrival.</p>
<p>I have carried out several <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969712001374?via%3Dihub">studies</a> over the years into the environmental and health impacts of this electronic waste. My <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15376516.2017.1349228?journalCode=itxm20">findings</a> show that metals from waste have contaminated land and water and that these substances are <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/31104299">harmful</a> to living organisms. </p>
<p>My studies <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0147651313001759?via%3Dihub">standard and advanced techniques</a> to explore the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02772248.2011.561949">genotoxic and mutagenic effects</a> and <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/tzool/article/view/142147">potential environmental and health impacts</a> of this electronic waste. Specifically, I have shown how e-waste from Alaba international market and Computer Village in Lagos State induced genetic damage in the cells of microorganisms, plants, animals and people.</p>
<h2>What we found</h2>
<p>Even though these e-waste dump sites are a health hazard, many people make their living on them. According to the International Labour Organisation, up to <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/press-release/nigeria-turns-tide-electronic-waste">100,000 people </a> work in the informal e-waste recycling sector in Nigeria. They <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/tzool/article/view/142147">collect and dismantle electronics by hand</a> to reclaim components that can then be sold. </p>
<p>These people are at risk of infection and physical injury from handling waste. They are in danger of direct chemical poisoning leading to organ dysfunction, or disorders that are an indirect result of exposure to hazardous chemicals. E-waste can also induce <a href="https://europepmc.org/article/med/31104299">genetic damage</a> that could affect future generations. </p>
<p>In one <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12011-019-01745-z">study</a>, we collected blood samples and cheek cell samples from teenagers who were sorting through waste at the Alaba international electronic market. We found their blood contained much higher levels of heavy metals than a control group. </p>
<p>Within this group, higher levels also corresponded with longer periods spent in contact with e-waste, genetic predisposition (that is an individual’s genetic susceptibility), previous or concurrent exposures to other substances (such as cigarette smoke and alcohol), and the concentrations and types of toxic substances the person had been exposed to. </p>
<p>Genetic damage is usually due to exposure to chronic concentration or doses of xenobiotics. The most worrisome aspect is when the effect is not expressed in an individual but transferred onto another generation before it is expressed. </p>
<p>Genetic damage has been implicated as a cause of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5979367/">cancer</a> and certain other disorders such as <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305954666_Mercury_toxicity_and_DNA_damage_in_patients_with_Down_syndrome">Down syndrome</a> and <a href="https://www.cell.com/ajhg/fulltext/S0002-9297(16)30282-8">nerve disorders</a> although our studies did not provide evidence of such linkages in Nigeria. We hope to provide evidence of such linkage in future studies.</p>
<h2>What needs to be done</h2>
<p>There is an urgent need for greater awareness of the dangerous substances found in the environment. The attitude of Nigerians towards waste disposal should change: waste should be managed sustainably by reducing, reusing, recovering and recycling materials safely. </p>
<p>The government should build properly engineered landfills to contain waste. Residential areas should be separated from electronic markets. Contaminated soil and water should be treated to protect workers and residents.</p>
<p>Nigeria also needs legislation that deals specifically with electronic waste. The country could be guided by examples provided by the <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=REPORT&reference=A7-2011-0334&language=EN&mode=XML">European Union</a>and <a href="https://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:1624/ewaste-in-china.pdf">China’s National Development and Reform Commission</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/135844/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adekunle Bakare receives funding from McArthur Foundation/University of Ibadan Grant and Academy of Science for the Third World- TWAS. </span></em></p>
There is an urgent need for greater awareness of the dangerous substances found in the environment.
Adekunle Bakare, Professor of Genetics, Cellular and Molecular Toxicology , University of Ibadan
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/121953
2019-09-03T13:05:22Z
2019-09-03T13:05:22Z
How potential of massive e-waste dump in Ghana can be harnessed
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/289832/original/file-20190828-184202-13injzf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C44%2C960%2C580&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Separated display screens (TVs) at the site.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alison Stowell</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Agbogbloshie in Ghana is a vast urban area that houses a massive e-waste recycling dump. Situated on the banks of the Korle Lagoon alongside the Old Fadama slum, it is home to <a href="https://www.ban.org/news/2019/4/24/rotten-eggs-e-waste-from-europe-poisons-ghanas-food-chain">around 80 000 people</a>. Back in the <a href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/agbogbloshie">1960s as Ghana industrialised</a>, migrants flocked to Accra and settled in Old Fadama. Then, around the year 2000, ships started to come in with e-waste.</p>
<p>Today, many work at the “digital dumping ground”, sorting through technological products like washing machines, cookers, vehicles, cell phones and computers. These products have historically been sourced from higher income countries such as the US or those in Europe. But there has been a <a href="https://rgs-ibg.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/geoj.12077">shift in where e-waste is sourced</a>: domestically Ghana now produces its own e-waste, with imports being mainly made up of reusable electronics. </p>
<p>Agbogbloshie often receives bad press – it’s even been nicknamed “<a href="http://www.welcome-to-sodom.com/">Sodom</a>” after the Biblical city destroyed by God for its residents’ sins. Workers burn cables covered in plastic so they can get at the valuable copper contained in many digital devices faster. This contributes to air, soil and water pollution. There are also <a href="https://www.who.int/ceh/risks/ewaste/en/">health risks</a> involved – workers can inhale toxic fumes, and nearby contaminate <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/apr/24/rotten-chicken-eggs-e-waste-from-europe-poisons-ghana-food-chain-agbogbloshie-accra">food sources</a>.</p>
<p>But I saw a different side of Agbogbloshie when I visited it in 2018. As an academic who <a href="http://www.research.lancs.ac.uk/portal/en/people/alison-stowell(2878fcb4-b9d6-4201-9f2f-42e318815872).html">researches e-waste</a>, <a href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/pentland/research-areas/waste-and-the-circular-economy/">waste and the circular economy</a>, I was struck by the site’s thriving hierarchical ecosystem of entrepreneurial activity. Everything had its place. There were dedicated spaces for dismantling and handling different waste streams, repair and refurbishment activities and weighing scales. </p>
<p>There were also food shacks selling deep fried plantains, makeshift protective clothing (T-shirt masks), and forms of sanitation with toilets scattered around the place.</p>
<p>Agbogbloshie, and sites like it elsewhere in the developing world, provide a valuable service. They offer opportunities for job creation, profit and cleaning up environments littered with waste. These activities also give discarded goods a new lease of life, encouraging second-hand markets in electronic and electrical goods while recognising the skills associated with repair. </p>
<p>Worldwide we discard <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Climate-Change/Documents/GEM%202017/Global-E-waste%20Monitor%202017%20.pdf">44.7 million metric tonnes</a> worth of electronics and electrical equipment. These devices contain materials that have a collective higher value than <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/how-a-circular-approach-can-turn-e-waste-into-a-golden-opportunity/">120 countries’ Gross Domestic Product</a> – in the region of Ghanaian cedis 333 billion or €55 billion. And, for every 1000 tonnes discarded, there is an opportunity to <a href="https://www.epa.ie/pubs/reports/research/waste/strive110-re-evaluate-re-useofelectricalandelectronicequipment.html">create 15 recycling jobs and 200 repair jobs</a>. </p>
<p>Three steps could be taken to harness the potential of Agbogbloshie and sites like it. </p>
<p>First, formal recognition by investors, the government and the private sector. This would help to ensure a boost in funding; improved, safer infrastructure and healthier worker conditions. Second, there must be a focus on how to manage the flow of materials to and from e-waste sites. This is in line with the requirements outlined by the <a href="http://www.basel.int/">Basel Convention</a>, which aims to control the movement of hazardous waste to protect human health and the environment. And third, the people working at similar sites could co-create new and relearn old practices. Knowledge sharing is key.</p>
<h2>Recognition</h2>
<p>Some of the workers at Agbogbloshie told me that they didn’t tell people outside the immediate area what they did for a living. This was because their work was considered dirty. A local expert, Karim Saagbul, from <a href="http://www.wiego.org/category/regions/sub-saharan-africa/ghana">Ghana WIEGO</a> – which works to empower informal workers, particularly women – confirmed the stigma attached to this work. The organisation supports informal waste workers at Agbogbloshie. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290073/original/file-20190829-106486-5r05pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/290073/original/file-20190829-106486-5r05pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290073/original/file-20190829-106486-5r05pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290073/original/file-20190829-106486-5r05pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290073/original/file-20190829-106486-5r05pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290073/original/file-20190829-106486-5r05pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/290073/original/file-20190829-106486-5r05pb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A jumble of wires in a wheelbarrow. Plastic is burned off the wires to get at the valuable copper inside.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Alison Stowell</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There have been <a href="http://citifmonline.com/2018/03/waste-pickers-association-appeals-health-post/">some calls</a> for the work at Agbogbloshie to be recognised as legitimate and important for national development. This is crucial. Waste picking and repair work allows people to make a reasonable living, though they earn <a href="https://wageindicator.org/salary/living-wage/ghana-living-wage-series-january-2018">below the country’s average</a>: monthly <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/14/2/135/htm">salaries range from $70 to $140</a> for a scrap collector to $1050 for middlemen who act as the intermediaries between the dealers and recyclers, which in turn supports the country’s economy. </p>
<p>There are also economic benefits to expanding the life span of products that might otherwise stay on the junk heaps. This appears to make sense to the <a href="http://www.ghanaiantimes.com.gh/fisrt-part-of-agbogbloshie-e-waste-project-inaugurated/">German government</a>: it has funded new e-waste facilities at Agbogbloshie in an ongoing effort to offer training in safer recycling practices; a hospital; and a football pitch for entertainment. This initiative aims to support the development of a more sustainable and inclusive e-waste management system that brings together informal and formal groups operating within this space. </p>
<p>Securing a reliable source of e-waste and second-hand electricals is a <a href="https://www.rivisteweb.it/doi/10.3240/89695">challenge</a> both for developed and developing countries. </p>
<p>If you want to operate a refurbishment or recycling business, you need a supply of materials. If organisations engaged directly with the informal sector, they could be responsible suppliers of second-hand goods and secure valuable resources for their production processes. It is lucrative business as <a href="https://www.apnews.com/f9a0d071d1d646edb2b53fd22fd8548c">Ghana imports approximately 150 000 tonnes</a> of second-hand electrical and electronic goods a year. </p>
<p>Due to the hazardous chemicals contained within e-waste products such as lead, cadmium, mercury, amongst others, the flows are governed by <a href="http://www.basel.int/Implementation/Controllingtransboundarymovements/Overview/tabid/4325/Default.aspx">voluntary agreements</a> and <a href="https://news.weeelogic.com/africa-news-ghanas-e-waste-legal-framework">legislation</a>. These policies would need to be revisited to ensuring the transportation and handling of goods was done in an appropriate manner but did not inhibit the flow. </p>
<p>Confidence in <a href="https://www.iso.org/isoiec-27001-information-security.html">data security or destruction</a> would also need to be considered, especially for data baring technologies like mobile phones, tablets and laptops; nobody wants to be at risk of identify or data theft. Engagement on this level could encourage goods for reuse to actually be goods for reuse, rather than those <a href="https://allafrica.com/stories/201709300031.html">illegally traded or dumped</a>. </p>
<h2>Knowledge transfer</h2>
<p>Finally, knowledge transfer is vital to develop inclusive, creative and safer practices. </p>
<p>Even with mature infrastructures, globally <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2015/05/un-environment-chief-warns-of-tsunami-of-e-waste-at-conference-on-chemical-treaties/">1 million people die of occupational poisoning</a> caused by chemicals in their bodies. That number is just the registered employees, the figure may be higher if the waste pickers and informal workers were to be included. So, working with established organisations, there is an opportunity to share safer practices. </p>
<p>Collaboration presents an opportunity to co-create new practices, or share and re-learn those that already exist. The youth-driven <a href="https://qamp.net/">Agbobloshie Makerspace Place Project</a> presents exciting opportunities for exactly this. It offers community makerspaces to educate, produce tools, design products and a digital platform to encourage the repair, recycling and new trades. The kiosks are put together by hand and welcome all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/121953/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison Stowell does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Sites like Agbogbloshie provides a valuable service. They offer opportunities for job creation, profit and cleaning up environments littered with waste.
Alison Stowell, Lecturer at Lancaster University Management School, and Associate Director of the Pentland Centre for Sustainability in Business Research Centre., Lancaster University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/105096
2018-10-23T10:45:06Z
2018-10-23T10:45:06Z
E-cigarettes and a new threat: How to dispose of them
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241648/original/file-20181022-105748-i9ta7f.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A discarded Juul on the floor of a San Francisco streetcar March 20, 2018.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julia McQuoid</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The two largest global brands of capsule coffee, <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-08-24/former-nespresso-boss-warns-coffee-pods-are-killing-environment/7781810">Nespresso</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/17/business/energy-environment/keurigs-new-k-cup-coffee-is-recyclable-but-hardly-green.html">Keurig</a>, are regarded by many as <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/01/28/379395819/coffee-horror-parody-pokes-at-environmental-absurdity-of-k-cups">environmental nightmares</a>. Billions of the throwaway nonrecyclable plastic products currently clutter waste dumps, waterways and city streets. Both inventor of the “K-cups” <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/03/the-abominable-k-cup-coffee-pod-environment-problem/386501/">John Sylvan</a> and former Nespresso CEO <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-08-24/former-nespresso-boss-warns-coffee-pods-are-killing-environment/7781810">Jean-Paul Gaillard</a> have publicly bemoaned the environmental consequences of the products they once championed. <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/03/the-abominable-k-cup-coffee-pod-environment-problem/386501/">Sylvan</a> has stated that the disposable (but not biodegradable) coffee capsule is “like a cigarette for coffee, a single-serve delivery mechanism for an addictive substance.”</p>
<p>The comparison between cigarette butts and capsule coffee is surprisingly fitting. Both butts and capsules are intentionally designed to be convenient, single-use products. Both are also nonbiodegradable and unrecyclable. As pervasive and polluting as cigarette butts are, however, the e-waste from e-cigarettes presents an even more apt comparison.</p>
<p>As a postdoctoral researcher at the Center for Tobacco Control Research and Education at the University of California, San Francisco with a background in environmental philosophy and public health, I became curious how the waste stream of e-cigarettes has passed <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304699">completely outside the regulatory radar</a>. </p>
<h2>A smoking gun?</h2>
<p>San Francisco’s Pax Labs, maker of the market-leading electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) <a href="https://www.wired.com/2015/04/pax-juul-ecig/">Juul</a>, thinks of its product as a “Nespresso machine, if Nespresso still made great coffee.” It also describes its e-cigarette as a <a href="https://www.wired.com/2015/04/pax-juul-ecig/">“gun.”</a> </p>
<p>The product has soared in popularity, particularly among teenagers, leading Dr. Scott Gottlieb, commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration, in September 2018 to call Juul smoking among teens an <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2018/09/13/fda-chief-targets-juul-for-epidemic-of-teens-using-e-cigarettes.html">epidemic</a>.</p>
<p>While the health outcomes for e-cigarette vapor versus an inveterate capsule coffee drinker vary greatly, both “disruptive” products present lingering harms to the environment greater than the products they replace. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241286/original/file-20181018-67176-1bt1dr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241286/original/file-20181018-67176-1bt1dr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241286/original/file-20181018-67176-1bt1dr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241286/original/file-20181018-67176-1bt1dr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241286/original/file-20181018-67176-1bt1dr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241286/original/file-20181018-67176-1bt1dr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241286/original/file-20181018-67176-1bt1dr9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Volunteers pick up cigarette butts at Point Pleasant Beach, New Jersey, on Oct. 12, 2012.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Beach-Sweeps/f7415c90f11d42018c07b2735092807b/62/0">Michael Parry/AP Photo</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The legacy of cigarette butts imparts a dark story. An estimated <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40572-014-0016-x">two-thirds of cigarette butts are littered</a>, clogging sewer drains, blighting city parks and contributing to estimated cleanup costs of <a href="http://infohouse.p2ric.org/ref/50/49409.pdf">US$11 billion</a> yearly for U.S. litter alone. Cigarettes are environmentally irresponsible by design, and yet <a href="http://www.who.int/tobacco/publications/environmental-impact-overview/en/">e-cigarettes pose an environmental threat</a> of considerable proportions. Instead of merely being thrown away, these complex devices present simultaneously a <a href="http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0956053X15000884">biohazard risk</a> with potential high quantities of leftover or residual nicotine and an environmental health threat as littered electronic waste.</p>
<p>Their <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29526076">endocrine-disrupting plastics</a>, lithium ion batteries and electronic circuit boards require disassembly, sorting and proper further recycling and disposal. Their instructions do not say anything about disposal. Electronic waste (e-waste) already presents <a href="http://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(13)70101-3/abstract">a daunting environmental quandary</a> and is notoriously difficult to recycle. When littered, broken devices can leach metals, battery acid and nicotine into the local environment and urban landscape.</p>
<h2>A preventable environmental health disaster</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241283/original/file-20181018-67164-18xcdyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/241283/original/file-20181018-67164-18xcdyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241283/original/file-20181018-67164-18xcdyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241283/original/file-20181018-67164-18xcdyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241283/original/file-20181018-67164-18xcdyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241283/original/file-20181018-67164-18xcdyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/241283/original/file-20181018-67164-18xcdyw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">E-cigarettes remain controversial because of the inability to know whether they are a gateway to cigarette smoking. One thing is clear: They are an environmental threat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-woman-inhaling-electronic-cigarette-140876200?src=nKklxIak-EQeSpManB5h2g-1-2">RedPixel.pl/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A main question public health regulators must face is: How are these new devices being disposed of? Are e-cigarettes being thrown away carelessly, like cigarette butts? Or disposed of in special electronic waste facilities, like smartphones? Preliminary results from litter pickups give mixed results. Juul pods are found routinely littered, especially where young people congregate. But because of the double-bind of e-cigarette waste being both electronic waste due to the components and hazardous waste due to the nicotine liquid residue, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.02.005">currently there is no legal way to recycle them in the U.S.</a> The Office on Smoking and Health and the EPA need to coordinate their regulations to allow for the safe recycling and waste minimization of these products. </p>
<p>More than <a href="https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/10.2105/AJPH.2017.303660">58 million e-cigarette products were sold in the U.S.</a> (not including those sold in vape shops or online) in 2015, 19.2 million of which were disposable e-cigarettes. A <a href="https://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/content/23/suppl_2/ii54">2014 study</a> found that none of the surveyed e-cigarette packages contained disposal instructions.</p>
<p>The major transnational tobacco companies so far primarily sell throwaway, one-use <a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/trsg/trs/2017/00000003/00000003/art00008;jsessionid=lfubscfo1k9r.x-ic-live-01">“closed” system products</a>. Vuse and MarkTen, owned by Reynolds American and Altria, respectively, are <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/285116/us-e-cigarettes-companies-trend-in-market-share/">two leading U.S. e-cigarettes</a>, and both are closed systems. While these products may prevent nicotine poisoning in small children, their environmental health harms may be significantly larger due to their expendable design. </p>
<p>Most independent vaporizer manufacturers sell open, or reusable, systems, which are more popular with longer-term users and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4992632/">possibly more effective to quit than traditional cigarettes</a>. In other markets, however, like the U.K. and Japan, transnational tobacco companies British American Tobacco (BAT) and Japan Tobacco International have begun to heavily market open systems. </p>
<p>BAT’s <a href="https://www.govype.com/uk/disposal">website</a> on the disposal of their Vype e-cigarette warns “electrical waste and electronic equipment can contain hazardous substances which, if not treated properly, could lead to damage to the environment and human health.” So <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5888/pcd13.150502">neither open</a> nor closed systems are environmentally sustainable.</p>
<p>The World Health Organization, in its report <a href="http://www.who.int/tobacco/publications/environmental-impact-overview/en/">Tobacco and Its Environmental Impact: An Overview</a>, recently noted the “quieter but shockingly widespread impacts of tobacco from an environmental perspective.” <a href="http://www.who.int/tobacco/framework/WHO_FCTC_english.pdf">Article 18</a> of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control states that all signatory parties “agree to have due regard to the protection of the environment and the health of persons in relation to the environment in respect of tobacco cultivation and manufacture within their respective territories.” It is time to close the loop and pay increased attention to tobacco product disposal as well.</p>
<p>As regulatory agencies continue deciding how to regulate e-cigarettes, not only should the immediate health effects and secondhand effects of the products be taken into account, but I believe the <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304699">environmental effects</a> of these products should be too.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/01/28/379395819/coffee-horror-parody-pokes-at-environmental-absurdity-of-k-cups">mounting environmental impact</a> of the single-use nonrecyclable coffee fad has left coffee capsule Keurig inventor John Sylvan regretting his invention. Will apocryphal e-cigarette inventor Hon Lik ever have a similar reckoning regarding the mountains of e-cigarette e-waste? Let’s hope it never gets to that point.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/105096/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yogi H. Hendlin does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
E-cigarettes are hotly debated because of the uncertainty of whether they are a gateway to cigarette smoking for teens, or an aid to smoking cessation. One thing is clear: They are not biodegradable.
Yogi H. Hendlin, Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Public Health Policy, University of California, San Francisco
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/102759
2018-09-21T10:42:35Z
2018-09-21T10:42:35Z
Paper-based electronics could fold, biodegrade and be the basis for the next generation of devices
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235661/original/file-20180910-123119-wxtsn3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A foldable, biodegradable battery based on paper and bacteria opens a new opportunity in electronics.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Seokheun Choi/Binghamton University</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It seems like every few months there’s a new cellphone, laptop or tablet that is so exciting people line up around the block to get their hands on it. While the perpetual introduction of new, <a href="https://slate.com/technology/2018/09/new-iphone-rumors-how-apple-could-improve-battery-life.html">slightly more advanced electronics</a> has made businesses like Apple hugely successful, the short shelf life of these electronics is bad for the environment.</p>
<p>Modern electronics are filled with circuit boards on which <a href="http://www.appropedia.org/Metal_reclamation_and_recycling_of_electronic_waste">various metals and plastics are soldered</a> together. Some of these <a href="http://www.appropedia.org/Metal_reclamation_and_recycling_of_electronic_waste">materials are toxic</a> – or <a href="https://symbiosisonlinepublishing.com/biotechnology/biotechnology03.pdf">break down into toxic substances</a>. There are efforts underway to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2014.10.001">boost recycling of e-waste</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2015.02.010">recovering materials that can be reused</a> and properly disposing of the rest. But <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2016/6/22/11991440/eri-e-waste-electronics-recycling-nyc-gadget-trash">most devices</a> end up added to the <a href="https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/z4gv73/americas-television-graveyards">growing piles</a> of <a href="https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/cleaning-electronic-waste-e-waste">e-waste in landfills</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235416/original/file-20180907-90549-50j1jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235416/original/file-20180907-90549-50j1jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235416/original/file-20180907-90549-50j1jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235416/original/file-20180907-90549-50j1jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235416/original/file-20180907-90549-50j1jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235416/original/file-20180907-90549-50j1jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235416/original/file-20180907-90549-50j1jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235416/original/file-20180907-90549-50j1jk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Circuit boards and other electronics can really pile up.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Electronic-Waste-Recycling/7e979f106b7748a6a607b7f645265388/30/0">AP Photo/Michael Conroy</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Instead of adding more trash to these ever-growing piles, there is an opportunity to create electronics that are biodegradable. That’s why <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=2H01tqsAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">other researchers and I</a> are looking to the emerging field of paper-based electronics – known as “<a href="http://nsf-papertronics.rutgers.edu/">papertronics</a>.” They’re flexible – even foldable – sustainable, friendly to the environment and low-cost. </p>
<p>But to be truly eco-friendly, papertronics can’t use traditional batteries, which are made of metals and caustic acids, to store and discharge electricity. Recently, my chemist colleague <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/chemistry/people/sadik/sadik.html">Omowunmi Sadik</a> and I developed a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.201800041">paper battery that’s recyclable and biodegradable</a>, as well as reliable enough to actually use. The key is bacteria.</p>
<h2>Flexible bio-batteries</h2>
<p>I’ve developed flexible batteries, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.201700127">batteries powered by saliva</a> and more. I figured that when seeking to power paper-based electronics, it made sense to try to make a battery out of paper. Fortunately, paper is a good potential battery material: It’s flexible, a good insulator – which makes it a good platform for mounting electronic components on – and absorbs and releases fluids easily. We added polymers – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.201800041">poly (amic) acid and poly(pyromellitic dianhydride-p-phenylenediamine)</a> – to improve those electrical characteristics.</p>
<p>Then, to store energy in the battery, in place of the metals and acids that react chemically to generate electrons, we added bacteria. When these batteries are eventually commercialized, they’ll use bacteria that are safe for humans and the environment and well-contained to reduce any other contamination.</p>
<p>Because the paper is rough and porous, the bacteria stick to it, and generate their own energy by breaking down almost any available organic material, including plant material or wastewater. At the moment, we’re prepackaging source material, but it could also come from the environment. This chemical reaction produces electrons. Normally in a bacterial reaction, those electrons would bond with oxygen, but we’ve built our battery to limit oxygen and substitute an electrode, meaning we can capture the electron flow and use it to power devices. </p>
<p>We were concerned that oxygen could get into the paper and interrupt the electron flow between the bacteria, decreasing the battery’s efficiency. We found that while that does happen, it has minimal effects. That’s because so many bacterial cells are so tightly attached to the paper fibers; they form a multi-layer biofilm that shields the chemical reaction from most oxygen.</p>
<p>We also wanted a battery that could biodegrade. The bacteria in the battery itself, once they’re done releasing energy, can break down the paper and polymers into harmless components. In water, our battery easily biodegraded, without any special equipment or other microorganisms to aid in the breakdown.</p>
<p>The polymer-paper structures are lightweight, low-cost and flexible. That flexibility also allows for the batteries to fold like a normal piece of paper, or be stacked on top of each other. That lets more battery power fit into smaller spaces.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235453/original/file-20180907-90581-1tk49v5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235453/original/file-20180907-90581-1tk49v5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/235453/original/file-20180907-90581-1tk49v5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235453/original/file-20180907-90581-1tk49v5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235453/original/file-20180907-90581-1tk49v5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=537&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235453/original/file-20180907-90581-1tk49v5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=674&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235453/original/file-20180907-90581-1tk49v5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=674&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/235453/original/file-20180907-90581-1tk49v5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=674&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A group of folded batteries can power a paper-based electronic device.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Seokheun Choi/Binghamton University</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Promises and opportunities</h2>
<p>Papertronics can be particularly useful in remote areas with limited resources because they’re powered by bacteria that can inhabit even the most extreme of conditions and break down nearly any material to produce electrons. They don’t need a well-established power grid, either. In addition, though paper batteries are designed to be disposable after they’re used, their materials are recyclable – and new batteries can be created from recycled paper.</p>
<p>As revolutionary as paper-based bio-batteries are for future electronic devices, they’re fairly straightforward to make. The polymers and bacteria can be blended with paper in traditional manufacturing processes, including roll-to-roll printing and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1039/C4RA04946B">screen printing</a> – or even be painted or poured right onto paper.</p>
<p>Other materials can also be added to the paper batteries – like metals, semiconductors, insulators and nanoparticles. These and other substances can add more properties and capabilities to paper-based devices, opening new doors for the next generation of electronics.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102759/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Seokheun Choi receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the Office of Naval Research. </span></em></p>
Paper-based devices with foldable, biodegradable batteries provide a new way to reduce electronic waste. But how would these new gadgets work?
Seokheun Choi, Associate Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Binghamton University, State University of New York
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/41719
2015-05-28T10:07:11Z
2015-05-28T10:07:11Z
Beyond recycling: solving e-waste problems must include designers and consumers
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83097/original/image-20150527-4828-1c2y9rn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Agbogbloshie, an area in the city of Accra Ghana, is usually portrayed as an e-waste dump. A more accurate picture would include the repair and refurbishment economy.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/qampnet/14834243291/">Agbogbloshie Makerspace Platform</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Agbogbloshie, Ghana is in the news again. International media such as <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/gallery/2014/feb/27/agbogbloshie-worlds-largest-e-waste-dump-in-pictures">The Guardian</a>, <a href="http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/inpictures/2014/01/pictures-ghana-e-waste-mecca-2014130104740975223.html">Al Jazeera</a> and the <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/in-sight/wp/2015/04/15/the-children-who-make-a-living-in-the-toxic-world-of-discarded-electronics/">Washington Post</a> have helped turn this place into an infamous example of electronic waste (e-waste) dumping. </p>
<p>I study <a href="http://scalar.usc.edu/works/reassembling-rubbish/visualizing-transboundary-shipments-of-e-waste?path=the-rubbish-bin">global flows of discarded electronics</a>, and that research leads me to think that such images badly misrepresent Agbogbloshie, which has been <a href="http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/inpictures/2014/01/pictures-ghana-e-waste-mecca-2014130104740975223.html">called</a> “the world’s biggest e-waste dumpsite.”</p>
<p>Among other problems, these portrayals ignore <a href="http://www.basel.int/Implementation/Ewaste/EwasteinAfrica/Overview/PublicationsReports/tabid/2553/Default.aspx">several UN reports</a> that show the story to be much more complex. More than half of the discarded electronics in Ghana are generated by domestic <a href="http://www.ewasteguide.info/Amoyaw-Osei_2011_GreenAd-Empa">consumers</a>, driven by the growth of Ghana’s middle class and its demand for electronics. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82597/original/image-20150521-1001-d52yls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82597/original/image-20150521-1001-d52yls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82597/original/image-20150521-1001-d52yls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82597/original/image-20150521-1001-d52yls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82597/original/image-20150521-1001-d52yls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82597/original/image-20150521-1001-d52yls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82597/original/image-20150521-1001-d52yls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82597/original/image-20150521-1001-d52yls.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Wikimedia Ghana User Group meeting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mac-Jordon | Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>High-quality used electronics sourced from countries outside Africa satisfy much of this growing demand in Ghana and other areas of the world. That means that neither stopping imports of used electronics to Ghana nor recycling them will solve the e-waste problem. </p>
<p>Instead, solutions need to be found “upstream” in the way electronics are manufactured and consumed in the first place. There is also a need for infrastructure to appropriately manage materials from electronics discarded by domestic consumers in Ghana and other places like it.</p>
<h2>Narrow focus on recycling</h2>
<p>E-waste is usually narrowly defined as a byproduct of consumption. This is odd because doing so leaves out of the equation key issues in <a href="http://www.ict4dc.org/green-it">the life of electronics</a> such as resource extraction, <a href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es035152j">manufacturing</a> and occupational <a href="http://www.icrt.co/">health and safety</a> for workers. Though it is typical to associate digital technology with notions of a dematerialized “information economy,” such an association is a <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421510002041">false god</a>.</p>
<p>Serious proposals to reduce e-waste must address how electronics are manufactured in the first place. Some ways to do that include designing electronics that are more <a href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es702255z">durable, repairable and recyclable</a>. Doing so would increase the likelihood that the embodied energy and materials in electronics would be conserved through longer use and for more efficient recovery of components and materials once discarded. Another big part of the equation includes consumer behavior. How many of our digital upgrades result from genuine obsolescence versus fashion?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82380/original/image-20150520-11443-46qa2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82380/original/image-20150520-11443-46qa2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/82380/original/image-20150520-11443-46qa2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82380/original/image-20150520-11443-46qa2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82380/original/image-20150520-11443-46qa2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82380/original/image-20150520-11443-46qa2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82380/original/image-20150520-11443-46qa2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/82380/original/image-20150520-11443-46qa2c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mobile cellular subscriptions per capita in select countries, 1984-2013.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">World Bank data.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To date, efforts to reduce e-waste focus on recycling. In the US, a growing number of <a href="http://www.electronicstakeback.com/promote-good-laws/state-legislation/">states</a> have enacted electronics take-back legislation. These laws have shifted the cost of recycling electronics to consumers without ensuring that manufacturers internalize those costs. </p>
<p>This is perhaps not a bad thing – arguably, people who consume a particular class of commodities should share some responsibility for its end-of-life management. Yet, until electronics manufacturers feel the sting or are able to differentiate themselves in the marketplace on more than just their recycling credentials, they have <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016718512000668">little or no incentive</a> to modify how their products are designed and made. </p>
<p>An even more concerning development is that electronics manufacturers are <a href="https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2008/06/supreme-court-victory-patent-first-sale-doctrine">challenging</a> established US legal doctrine to make it illegal for consumers to open, modify or repair their own electronic equipment. For example, the printer manufacturer Lexmark <a href="https://scholar.google.ca/scholar_case?q=Arizona+Cartridge+Remanufac.+v.+Lexmark+Intern.,+2003.+District+Court,+Northern+District+of+California.&hl=en&as_sdt=2006&case=11958285805234437297&scilh=0">won a key case</a> in 2003 that made it illegal for other firms to refill and sell used toner and ink cartridges from Lexmark’s printers. These moves by manufacturers have sparked a <a href="http://ifixit.org/right">growing consumer movement</a> to enshrine the right to repair in law. </p>
<h2>Fair trade for electronics?</h2>
<p>The automobile industry offers a good illustration of the consequences of this shifting legal landscape. For decades, the right to repair and upgrade your own car or to access a wide array of <a href="http://www.righttorepair.org/main/default.aspx">independent aftermarket and repair services</a> of your choice was the norm. As electronics have seeped into automobiles, the industry is <a href="http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-05-04/automakers-turn-mechanics-into-criminals">taking cues from electronics manufacturers and pointing</a> to provisions in the US Digital Millennium Copyright Act that stymie car owners’ abilities to repair their own vehicles or to choose where to have them serviced. </p>
<p>Yet if repair, reuse and resale was the norm in one multi-billion-dollar industry (automobiles), that tells us it is possible in another (electronics). If we buy it, we should maintain <a href="http://www.digitalrighttorepair.org/copyright/">the right to repair, reuse and resell it</a>.</p>
<p>The nearly exclusive focus on post-consumer recycling to solve the e-waste problem is itself part of the problem. Mechanized, high-tech recycling destroys the embodied energy built into electronics. It does nothing to reduce the waste that arises during manufacturing. The recycling process also has its own energy demands that add to the overall energy footprint of electronics (though recycling can provide savings compared with <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11367-013-0653-6">raw material extraction</a>). Better than bans on exporting discarded electronics or improving collect-destroy-recycle systems would be to enhance systems of repair and reuse. </p>
<p>The global patterns of trade in discarded electronics are rapidly <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/geoj.12077/full">changing</a>. A growing majority of that trade is occurring within and between areas of the highly diverse global south.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83101/original/image-20150527-4835-xw44w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83101/original/image-20150527-4835-xw44w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/83101/original/image-20150527-4835-xw44w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83101/original/image-20150527-4835-xw44w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83101/original/image-20150527-4835-xw44w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83101/original/image-20150527-4835-xw44w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83101/original/image-20150527-4835-xw44w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/83101/original/image-20150527-4835-xw44w9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Highly skilled repair and refurbishment are an important part of the story at places like Agbogbloshie.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Agbogbloshie Makerspace Platform</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sites such as Agbogloshie, Ghana, are where a flourishing technical sector for electronics repair, reuse and resale meets another thriving, if not always pretty (to some), materials-recovery sector. In removing metals and other valuable materials, processes at sites like these do lead to the release of toxins into the environment and workers. </p>
<p>But people doing this work don’t need prohibitions from the global north <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/03/the-white-savior-industrial-complex/254843/">to save them</a>. There are <a href="http://wr3a.org/">viable possibilities</a> for bringing versions of <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/yu-zhou/apple-china-factory_b_1240580.html">fair trade</a> – now used with coffee and other goods to improve workers’ conditions – to the exchange and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22560019">processing</a> of discarded electronics. When it comes to reducing waste from electronics, it is time to experiment with change in how these technologies are produced, consumed and discarded.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/41719/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Josh Lepawsky receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council.</span></em></p>
Design-for-recycling and take-back laws – not just more recycling – are needed to address the sprawling e-waste problem.
Josh Lepawsky, Associate Professor of Geography, Memorial University of Newfoundland
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.