tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/hinduism-12310/articlesHinduism – The Conversation2024-03-25T16:35:25Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2265402024-03-25T16:35:25Z2024-03-25T16:35:25ZHoli: what the clouds of colour in the Hindu festival mean<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584050/original/file-20240325-24-zvddmg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/a-group-of-people-covered-in-colored-powder-lcjdiDVv9Bo">Dibakar Roy|Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Holi is one of the most vibrant and fun festivals in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/rihannas-ganesh-pendant-hinduism-is-a-religion-not-a-pretty-aesthetic-155597">Hindu</a> calendar. It’s practised across India (though mainly in the north), Nepal and throughout south Asian diasporic communities. </p>
<p>The date of Holi varies in accordance with the lunar calendar but the festival often takes place in February or March. In 2024, it’s celebrated on March 25.</p>
<p>People gather together to throw and smear <em>gulal</em> or coloured powders over each other in a symbolic celebration of spring, the harvest, new life and the triumph of good over evil. As with many Hindu festivals, there is more than one narrative explaining its symbolism, but it is the visual splendour of this festival that explains its appeal. </p>
<p>My research <a href="https://www.godscollections.org/case-studies/hindu-domestic-shrines">focuses</a>, in part, on the religious and material culture of Hinduism, especially in relation to its practice in contemporary culture. One of the most uplifting aspects of Holi is the way people from all walks of life come together. It is an expression of the dynamism of Hinduism and the power of fellowship.</p>
<h2>An explosion of colour</h2>
<p>Holi conveys the exuberance and multisensory character of many Hindu festivals. The <a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/why-is-holi-a-big-deal-in-india-the-appeal-lies-beyond-colour-play/articleshow/108717138.cms?from=mdr#:%7E:text=The%20colors%20seen%20during%20Holi,ritual%20and%20ceremony%20%2D%20symbolize%20auspiciousness.">coloured powders</a> are typically red, yellow and green, representing the colours of spring but each also carrying more individual significance. </p>
<p>Red, which is popularly used in marriage celebrations, is the colour of fertility. Yellow is regarded as an auspicious colour. Green symbolises new beginnings. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.ijcmas.com/10-2-2021/Puja%20Basumatary,%20et%20al.pdf">Traditionally</a>, the coloured powders used in Holi festivities were <a href="https://artsandculture.google.com/story/science-behind-holi-the-festival-of-colors-national-council-of-science-museums/VQXxht4neVRtLw?hl=en">organically sourced</a> from dried flowers and herbs. Today they are synthetic. Celebrants throw or smear handfuls on each other, or use water-filled balloons or <em>pichkaris</em> (water pistols) to disperse coloured waster, adding to the carnivalesque feel of the event. </p>
<p>It is an immersive experience. Everyone comes together and merges in the magic of the crowd. Traditional hierarchies are suspended. Spontaneity and excitement take over. People talk about “playing” Holi in the powdered clouds of colour. </p>
<p>As an ancient tradition with multiple regional variations, Holi is underpinned by two prevailing narratives. The <a href="https://www.vam.ac.uk/blog/asia-department/festival-holi">first</a> is the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-love-story-of-radha-and-krishna-has-been-told-in-hinduism-for-centuries-198716">eternal divine love</a> between Lord Krishna (the incarnation of the Hindu deity, Vishnu) and the goddess Radha. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A historic Indian painting." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584079/original/file-20240325-30-59owv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584079/original/file-20240325-30-59owv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584079/original/file-20240325-30-59owv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584079/original/file-20240325-30-59owv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584079/original/file-20240325-30-59owv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584079/original/file-20240325-30-59owv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584079/original/file-20240325-30-59owv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A watercolour depicting Krishna and Radha celebrating Holi from 1750.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krishna_and_Radha_Celebrating_the_Holi_Festival_with_Companions_LACMA_M.81.280.2.jpg">LACMA|Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The other tells of the demon king <a href="https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/34653">Hiranyakashipu’s</a> attempt to force his subjects to worship him. When his son, Prahlad, persisted in worshipping Lord Vishnu instead, Hiranyakashipu instructed his sister, Holika, to kill Prahlad. </p>
<p>Holika, who was invulnerable to fire, made the boy sit on her lap, on a pyre. Onlookers were astonished to see, however, that Prahlad’s devotion to Lord Vishnu saved him while Holika <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/festivals/history-of-holi-5-fascinating-legends-behind-holi-and-holika-dahan/articleshow/98439636.cms">burned to death</a>. </p>
<p>The event of playing with colour, now synonymous with Holi, is actually part of a larger series of rituals. The first night of festival, known as <a href="https://www.freepressjournal.in/bhopal/bhopal-city-immerses-in-holika-dahan-celebrations">Holika Dahan</a>, involves lighting bonfires and throwing on food such as grains. As a re-enactment of the death of the mythical demoness Holika, this ritual marks the end of winter and the overthrow of evil. </p>
<p>The next day, Rangwali Holi, sees people venturing out on to the streets to exchange colour. In the final part of this festival, in the evening, after washing off the colours and donning clean clothes, people gather with family and friends to eat traditional dishes including <em>gujiya</em> (a North Indian sweet fried dumpling).</p>
<p>Like <a href="https://theconversation.com/diwali-a-celebration-of-the-goddess-lakshmi-and-her-promise-of-prosperity-and-good-fortune-191992">Diwali</a> (the “festival of lights” as it is often known) and the Hindu new year, Holi is celebrated by the Hindu diaspora in the UK, the US, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07256860701759956">Fiji</a>, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324539407_Hinduism_in_Mauritius">Mauritius</a> and beyond. Temple organisations host Holi in their venues. Unlike <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44713556?mag=gender-and-caste-at-holi">in India</a> where festivities are public and widespread, diasporic celebrations are more regulated to specific spaces and times. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A crowd under a sky of colours." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584055/original/file-20240325-22-au9246.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584055/original/file-20240325-22-au9246.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584055/original/file-20240325-22-au9246.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584055/original/file-20240325-22-au9246.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584055/original/file-20240325-22-au9246.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584055/original/file-20240325-22-au9246.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/584055/original/file-20240325-22-au9246.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Holi festival in Spanish Fork, Utah.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/people-gathering-on-a-concert-LtE6W_JVTGc">John Thomas|Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Parties for Holi are not uncommon. You can routinely find events organised each year on platforms such as <a href="https://www.eventbrite.com/d/united-kingdom--london/holi-festival/">Eventbrite</a> where ticket sales often include the prior purchase of <a href="https://www.ministryofcolours.co.uk/">non-toxic powders</a>. </p>
<p>Some of these events are targeted at south Asian communities. They include renactments of plays, dance performances and further heritage elements. </p>
<p>Others capitalise on the spirit of revelry embodied by commercially driven <a href="https://time.com/5799354/what-is-holi/">colour marathons</a>. These have elicited claims of <a href="https://theconversation.com/diwali-in-the-uk-how-commodifying-minority-religions-can-risk-cultural-appropriation-192974">cultural appropriation</a> for their largely secular tone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226540/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rina Arya does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Holi is a symbolic celebration of spring, the harvest, new life and the triumph of good over evil.Rina Arya, Professor of Critical and Cultural Theory and Head of the School of the Arts, University of HullLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2211762024-03-11T17:18:44Z2024-03-11T17:18:44ZHow urbanisation – and Hinduisation – is stripping India’s indigenous communities of their cultural heritage<p>In the Gadchiroli district of Maharashtra state, in western India, villagers from the Gond Adivasi (or indigenous) tribe have been <a href="https://thewire.in/rights/independence-mining-gadchiroli-adivasi-protest-maharashtra">protesting</a> since September 2023. </p>
<p>Six mines are set to be built on ancestral Gondi lands. These lands are protected under the Forest Rights Act of 2006. And yet, the protesters have faced harsh treatment from the police. If the mines do go ahead, as many as 50,000 people could be forced from their homes.</p>
<p>Over the past decades, across India, rampant urbanisation and industrialisation has seen increasing numbers of Adivasi communities internally <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ghazala-Shahabuddin/publication/279944367_Conservation-induced_Displacement_Recent_Persectives_from_India/links/55a763a908ae410caa752dd3/Conservation-induced-Displacement-Recent-Perspectives-from-India.pdf">displaced</a>. Cities including Mumbai, Goa, Delhi, Jammu and Jaipur now account for over a third of the country’s population. </p>
<p>Since 2011, <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-77971-3">I have investigated</a> how this rural-urban migration is affecting the Gond Adivasis.
The Gondi homelands – also known as Gondwana – traditionally stretch across central India, encompassing parts of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar and west Bengal. </p>
<p>Beyond threats from mining and other heavy industry, the creation of the nature reserves has also led to Gondi communities losing access to their lands. In 1994, the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357331915_The_Inter-Linking_of_Rivers_and_Biodiversity_Conservation_A_Study_of_Panna_Tiger_Reserve_Madhya_Pradesh_India">Panna Tiger Reserve</a> was established in Madhya Pradesh. Adivasis there are increasingly unable to earn a living by traditional means, hunting, fishing and artisanal mining in the forest. </p>
<p>Along with the loss of knowledge and skills associated with these forest-based livelihoods, Gondi urban migrants also experience a process of Hinduisation. In the city, they often feel pressured to adopt Hindu customs and rituals, in order to fit in and find work. </p>
<h2>Urban Hinduisation</h2>
<p>Since embarking on my doctoral research in 2011, I have tracked the movements of up to 50 Gond families originating from Manor village, in Madhya Pradesh. Gonds have told me of feeling forced to migrate because staying in their villages puts them at risk of debt and hunger. </p>
<p>Many young Gonds see city jobs as a way to regain dignity and autonomy. They also prefer work that doesn’t tie them down to one employer and provides immediate cash.</p>
<p>Urban jobs pay significantly more – up to three times more – than <a href="http://www.southasianist.ed.ac.uk/article/view/30">rural government schemes</a>. Where rural programs are often beset by delays and require a lot of effort for people to get paid, city jobs sometimes also offer advances. People are better able to cover basic expenses like medical bills, education and getting married.</p>
<p>Migrant workers mainly find employment in the construction sector. This means they migrate for long periods at a time. They are reliant on urban middle-class employers, who are largely Hindu landed-elites referred to as Thakurs and known as Rajputs. </p>
<p>The Gonds I have interviewed speak about feeling pressured to follow the Rajput customs and traditions to fit in and to find work. They take part in mainstream festivals and rituals. They make offerings and donations to maintain the idols in local <a href="https://www.focaalblog.com/tag/india/">street shrines</a> dedicated to Lord Hanuman, Sai Baba and Ganesha. </p>
<p>As one man I spoke with, Deepak, told me:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I came to the city to work in construction, like many Gonds. Back in our village, we followed our traditional Gondi religion, but here, we participate in Hindu festivals and visit temples to fit in, even incorporating Hindu deities into our rituals. We often visit temples like the Hanuman Mandir and the Lakshmi Narayan Temple, where we offer prayers to Hanuman and Lakshmi. We also incorporate worship of Ganesha and Durga into our religious practices.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>A long history of disadvantage</h2>
<p>As well as religious dominance, Hindu values dominate the Indian urban landscape, culturally, socially and politically. This extends to clothing styles, dietary habits and language nuances.</p>
<p>I have found a broader assimilation into Hindu cultural norms among Gond migrant workers. Women wear the Hindu bindi and scarfing, rather than traditional Gondi attire of just a long cotton drape and nothing much to cover their tops and back. As one young Gond mother, Priya, told me in 2023:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Living in the city, I’ve noticed how Hindu customs influence everything, from our work to our festivals. Embracing these customs has become part of our journey to stability and opportunities in urban areas. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Gonds in urban communities watch TV, use the internet and enjoy Hindi movies, thus adopting Hindu values. Here too, this isn’t just about passive cultural influences. Rather, actively adopting Hindu culture is closely tied to economic survival and the desire for a better social standing among migrant communities. </p>
<p>“Hinduism has become a trend,” an older Gond man, Vishram, told me in 2022, “but also something we need to keep up with so we don’t fall behind”. </p>
<p>Urban Hinduisation is a modern phenomenon. The process, however, has ancient roots. </p>
<p>The Indian constitution recognises over 700 scheduled tribes, of which the Gonds are one. Scheduled tribes refer to Adivasi communities that have been historically marginalised and disadvantaged in Indian society. These tribes often reside in remote or rural areas, with limited access to basic amenities, education, healthcare and employment.</p>
<p>Throughout India’s history, the process of Hinduisation has resulted in discrimination and untouchability within the caste system, a phenomenon commonly referred to as “<a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09713336231157802?icid=int.sj-abstract.citing-articles.1">casteism</a>” by social scientists. </p>
<p>Gonds and other Adivasi communities have particularly from caste-based discrimination, which Hinduism has played a significant role in perpetuating. It has historically legitimised hierarchical social structures and inequalities. As a result, Gonds and other Adivasis are often socially marginalised. They face economic exploitation. They have limited access to resources and opportunities within Indian society.</p>
<p>In adapting, culturally and religiously, to Hinduism, Gond Adivasis are experiencing the loss of their intangible cultural heritage. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ijssh.org/vol6/659-B20003.pdf">Gondi religion</a> is animistic. Gonds who live in the villages around the Panna reserve worship the goddess <a href="https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10107021/7/Runacres_10107021_thesis_sig_removed.pdf">Kher mata</a>, said to take the form of a rock in the forest. Elsewhere, Adivasis worship gods <a href="https://archive.org/details/TheTouristWelcomedTheAdivasiExiled">thought to dwell</a> in mountains, hills and rivers. </p>
<p>These belief systems in turn make the landscape itself sacred. As another interviewee Vikram said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>It’s disheartening to witness the decline of priceless indigenous knowledge systems centred on harmonising with forest animals and resources — a heritage bestowed upon us by our ancestors. This is our legacy. Without such wisdom, our heritage fades, and with it, our identity slips into oblivion.</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221176/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Smytta Yadav does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Urbanisation in India is causing Adivasi communities to lose connections to ancestral lands – and to traditional knowledge and belief systems. Urban Hinduisation plays a big role in this.Smytta Yadav, Research Fellow in Social Anthropology, University of SussexLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2210802024-02-27T12:31:29Z2024-02-27T12:31:29ZWhat the ancient Indian text Bhagavad Gita can teach about not putting too much of our identity and emotions into work<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577449/original/file-20240222-18-wehuiv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C22%2C5024%2C3473&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">This famous scene from the Bhagavad Gita, featuring the god Krishna with his cousin, Prince Arjuna, on a chariot heading into war.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/this-famous-scene-from-hindu-mythology-features-the-god-news-photo/1354436400?adppopup=true">Pictures From History/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A 2023 Gallup poll found that U.S. employees <a href="https://www.wsj.com/lifestyle/careers/workers-morale-pay-benefits-remote-52c4ab10">are generally</a> unhappy at work. The number of those who feel angry and disconnected with their organization’s mission is climbing. </p>
<p>An analysis of data from 60,000 employees by BambooHR, an HR software platform, also found that <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/02/-employee-happiness-has-hit-a-3-year-low-new-research-shows.html">workplace morale was getting worse</a>: “Employees aren’t experiencing highs or lows — instead, they are expressing a sense of resignation or even apathy.” </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.clemson.edu/cah/about/facultybio.html?id=559">scholar of South Asian religions</a>, I argue that a mindfulness technique called “nishkama karma” – acting without desire – described in an ancient but popular Indian text called the “Bhagavad Gita,” may prove useful for navigating the contemporary world of work. </p>
<p>The Gita presents a variety of “yogas,” or disciplined religious paths. One such path suggests adopting an attitude of righteous resignation – a kind of Stoic equanimity or even-mindedness. In the workplace, this might mean performing one’s professional duties to the best of one’s ability – but without being overly concerned about the results for one’s personal advancement. </p>
<h2>The Gita and action</h2>
<p>The “Bhagavad Gita,” or “Song of the Lord,” is an 18-chapter dialogue between Krishna, the Lord of the Universe, and the warrior-hero Arjuna. Found in the sixth book of the world’s longest epic poem, the “Mahabharata,” the Gita was likely composed between the third century B.C.E. and the third century C.E. </p>
<p>The Gita opens on a battlefield where Arjuna, the beleaguered champion of the Pandavas, is set to fight his cousins, the Kauravas, along with his uncles and former teachers, for the rightful control of the ancestral kingdom.</p>
<p>Arjuna is faced with the moral ambiguity of internecine warfare. He is stuck in a dilemma between obligations to his kin and former teachers and obligations to his “dharma” – religious and social duty – as a warrior to fight against them. Arjuna is therefore understandably reluctant to act. </p>
<p>Krishna, who has assumed the humble guise of Arjuna’s charioteer in the story, advises Arjuna that it is impossible for <a href="https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/3">anyone to refrain entirely from all action</a>: “There is no one who can remain without action even for a moment. Indeed, all beings are compelled to act by their qualities born of material nature” (3.5). </p>
<p>Even choosing not to act is itself a kind of action. <a href="https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/2">Krishna instructs Arjuna</a> to perform his duties as a warrior regardless of how he feels about the prospect of fighting against family and friends: “Fight for the sake of duty, treating alike happiness and distress, loss and gain, victory and defeat. Fulfilling your responsibility in this way, you will never incur sin” (2.38). </p>
<p>Given the inevitability of action, Krishna advises Arjuna to cultivate an attitude of nonattached equanimity or even-mindedness toward the results of his actions. Unlike feeling detached from the work process itself, cultivating an attitude of detachment from the results of one’s work is presented in the Gita as a method for gaining a clear and stable mind. </p>
<h2>‘Nishkama karma,’ or nonattached action</h2>
<p>The term that the Gita uses, variously rendered as “work” or “action,” is “karma.” Derived from the Sanskrit root “kri” – to do, to act or to make, karma has a range of meanings in Hindu literature. In early Vedic thought, <a href="https://sunypress.edu/Books/T/The-Vedic-Origins-of-Karma">karma referred to the performance of a sacrifice</a> and the results that followed. </p>
<p>By the time of the composition of the Gita, over a 1,000 years later, the concept of karma had expanded considerably. From the sixth century B.C.E. onward, Hindu texts typically describe karma as any thought, word or deed, and its consequences in this or a future lifetime. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Statues of two seated men, with one of them talking to the other who appears despondent." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577457/original/file-20240222-20-20x7fk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577457/original/file-20240222-20-20x7fk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577457/original/file-20240222-20-20x7fk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577457/original/file-20240222-20-20x7fk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577457/original/file-20240222-20-20x7fk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577457/original/file-20240222-20-20x7fk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577457/original/file-20240222-20-20x7fk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Carved statues of Lord Krishna and Arjuna seated on their chariot at the Viswashanti Ashram, Bengaluru, India.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/statue-of-lord-krishna-encouraging-gloomy-arjuna-royalty-free-image/1440763716?phrase=krishna+arjuna&adppopup=true">Wirestock/iStock via Getty Images plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Krishna explains to Arjuna that his actions or karma should follow dharma, the religious and social obligations inherent in his role as a warrior of the Pandavas. And the proper dharmic attitude toward the results of action is nonattachment. </p>
<p>The word that describes this nonattachment is “nishkama,” or without desire – the proper spirit in which karma is to be undertaken. From the perspective of the Gita – a perspective shared widely in traditional Indian thought – <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/267/monograph/chapter/2218610">desire is inherently problematic</a> due to its insistent preoccupation with the self. By reducing desire, however, one can perform one’s work or action without the constant distraction of seeking praise or avoiding blame.</p>
<p>Furthermore, since knowing the outcome of one’s actions is impossible, the Gita advises performing one’s duties without a sense of ego in a spirit of service to the world. “Therefore, without attachment, always do whatever action has to be done; for it is through acting without attachment that one attains the highest state,” <a href="https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/3">as Krishna says to Arjuna</a> (3.19). </p>
<h2>The flow state</h2>
<p>In his modern classic “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224927532_Flow_The_Psychology_of_Optimal_Experience">Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience</a>,” psychologist <a href="https://www.cgu.edu/people/mihaly-csikszentmihalyi/">Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi</a> writes about the optimal mental state that may be experienced while performing an engaging task. Csikszentmihalyi describes “flow” as a mental state where one is fully immersed in the task at hand. In such a state, attention is focused on the work being done without any self-conscious concerns about performance or outcome.</p>
<p>By way of example, Csikszentmihalyi asked readers to consider downhill skiing. He noted that while one is fully engaged in the process itself, there is no place for distraction. For a skier, he said, “There is no room in your awareness for conflicts and contradictions; you know that distracting thought or emotion might get you buried face down in the snow.”</p>
<p>Csikszentmihalyi’s research suggests that problems like distraction, feeling detached from one’s work, and job dissatisfaction can arise when people lose sight of the action of work itself. As Csikszentmihalyi writes, “The problem arises when people are so fixated on what they want to achieve that they cease to derive pleasure from the present. When that happens, they forfeit their chance of contentment.” </p>
<h2>Acting without attachment</h2>
<p>A fragmented mind that approaches work or action with an agenda of gaining power, wealth or fame cannot perform at its best. The Gita suggests that the secret to success at work is cultivating a balanced state of mind that isn’t fixated on ego inflation and self-promotion.</p>
<p>It is impossible to be fully present during the performance of a task if one is speculating about unknowable future contingencies or ruminating about past outcomes. Likewise, for Csikszentmihalyi, cultivating the “flow state” means actively remaining present and engaged while performing a task. </p>
<p>Csikszentmihalyi’s writings about the “flow state” <a href="https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/3">resonate with the advice of Krishna in the Gita</a>: “As ignorant people perform their duties with attachment to the results, O scion of Bharat (an epithet for Arjuna), so should the wise act without attachment, for the sake of leading people on the right path” (3.25). </p>
<p>Nishkama karma and the “flow state” are not identical ideas. However, they share at least one fundamental assumption: Focusing on the task at hand, with no thought of gain or loss, is necessary for achieving our best, most satisfying work.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221080/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert J. Stephens does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A scholar of South Asian religions explains how one lesson from the text, ‘nishkama karma’ – or acting without desire – may be useful for navigating the contemporary workplace.Robert J. Stephens, Principal Lecturer in Religion, Clemson UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2235192024-02-20T15:17:04Z2024-02-20T15:17:04ZReligious diversity is exploding – here’s what a faith-positive Britain might actually look like<p>The future of the UK’s Inter Faith Network (IFN), a long-standing charity that promotes dialogue and cooperation between Britain’s religious groups, is in doubt after the government announced it was <a href="https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/rmc-briefings/devastating-outrageous-impending-closure-of-the-inter-faith-network/">withdrawing funding</a> for the group. Communities secretary Michael Gove has cited concerns that a member of the Muslim Council of Britain (MCB), with which the government has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2009/mar/23/muslim-council-britain-gaza">suspended cooperation</a> since 2009, has been appointed an IFN trustee. </p>
<p>In response to Gove’s letter, the IFN <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/16/inter-faith-network-headed-for-closure-as-gove-minded-to-withdraw-funding">has said</a> it had never been advised “to expel the MCB from membership”. It also said that while the government might choose not to engage with the MCB, doing so “is not a sensible option open to the IFN if it is to achieve the purposes for which the government funds it in the first place”. </p>
<p>Founded in 1987, the IFN represents Baha’i, Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jain, Jewish, Muslim, Sikh and Zoroastrian faith groups. In the charity’s 37-year history, religious pluralism in the UK has grown exponentially – and is still growing despite an overall <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jul/11/uk-secularism-on-rise-as-more-than-half-say-they-have-no-religion">decline in religiosity</a>. </p>
<p>This underlines the importance of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/bringing-people-of-different-faiths-together-to-solve-the-worlds-problems-is-a-noble-goal-but-its-hard-to-know-what-it-achieves-170047">interfaith</a> dialogue the charity exists to promote. Indeed, the government-commissioned <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/64478b4f529eda00123b0397/The_Bloom_Review.pdf">Bloom review</a> of England’s growing religious pluralism, published in 2023, made a similar point when examining how the government might best acknowledge the value different faith groups bring to society.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A crowd of women in colourful saris." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576736/original/file-20240220-20-io09l1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Performers take part in the Sikh festival of Vaisakhi in Gravesend.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/gravesend-apr-6-performers-take-part-1078636838">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The UK’s increasingly diverse faith landscape</h2>
<p>In 2018, the Pew Research Centre published “Being Christian in Western Europe,” a survey of religion in <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2018/05/29/being-christian-in-western-europe/">15 western European countries</a>. The majority of the adults surveyed in 14 of the 15 countries considered themselves “non-practicing Christians”. </p>
<p>The survey found that the UK had roughly three times as many non-practicing Christians (55%) than church-going Christians (18%). It concluded that the notion of Christian identity remains a meaningful religious, political and sociocultural marker. </p>
<p>It also noted that many people have “gradually drifted away from religion, stopped believing in religious teachings, or were alienated by scandals or church positions on social issues.”</p>
<p>The rising number of people who subscribe to no religion belies the fact that the Christian proportion of the population is changing too. In 2023, British journalist Tomiwa Owolade <a href="https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/religion/2023/03/future-christianity-britain-african-christian">reported</a> on how demographic shifts are reshaping churches across the UK. Between 1980 and 2015, churches saw a 19% rise in attendance by non-white worshippers. </p>
<p>“Without immigration,” he wrote, “the decline of Christianity would be even more profound: it is largely white British people who are abandoning their faith.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An interior shot of a modernist church in England." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576589/original/file-20240219-30-38pqkp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=518&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The St Francis of Assisi church on the Mackworth estate in Derby.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/church-altar-4COdbEnGCmA">Rachael Cox|Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Recent migration from <a href="https://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2023/27-october/news/uk/chinese-church-is-fastest-growing-in-the-uk-study-reveals">Hong Kong</a> has seen the Chinese Christian community in the UK grow substantially. As of 2023, there are about 115,000 Chinese Christians worshipping at over 200 churches across the UK. </p>
<p>Newly arrived Chinese Christians bring with them a belief in the importance of Bible reading. They are strengthening Church of England congregations in cities including Manchester, Liverpool and Bristol. </p>
<p>This highlights how migrant populations in the UK and more broadly in western Europe wield <a href="https://theconversation.com/tarry-awhile-how-the-black-spiritual-tradition-of-waiting-expectantly-could-enrich-your-approach-to-lent-222007">increasing influence</a> in terms of spirituality and belief. Between 2011 and 2021, the proportion of the population of England and Wales that identifies as Muslim has grown, from 4.8% (2.71 million people) to 6.5% <a href="https://mcb.org.uk/2021-census-as-uk-population-grows-so-do-british-muslim-communities/">(3.87 million)</a>. </p>
<p>Other fast-growing religious groups in the UK include Shamanism, whose followers have increased from 650 people in 2011 to <a href="https://www.economist.com/britain/2023/02/09/shamanism-is-britains-fastest-growing-religion">at least 8,000 in 2021</a>. Its emphasis on all things in nature – from people to the environment – being treated with dignity and respect distinctively appeals to the growing number of people in the UK who live with <a href="https://theconversation.com/religious-communities-can-make-the-difference-in-winning-the-fight-against-climate-change-172192">climate anxiety</a>. </p>
<h2>How the government engages with faith groups</h2>
<p>Until now, UK politicians have largely only engaged with local faith groups in public when it has been politically expedient to do so. A primary motivation has often been to not be criticised by detractors for excluding communities on the basis of religion. This approach is underpinned by an Enlightenment theory of secularism, which sees engaging with issues of religion as unworthy of the looming headaches such engagement might cause. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People kneel down in a carpeted space with tall windows." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576590/original/file-20240219-22-yr113h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Worshippers in prayer in the Regents Park Central Mosque, London.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/london-england-february-18th-2009-crowd-1704858379">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The 2023 Bloom review, by contrast, calls for government to build constructive relationships with faith groups. “It should be the government’s responsibility,” Bloom writes, “to equip all civil and public servants with the basic factual knowledge to be able to recognise and understand the diverse religious life of the population.” </p>
<p>Appointed in 2019 by Boris Johnson, who was then prime minister, Colin Bloom was commissioned to explore what the government could do to better acknowledge and support the contribution faith groups make to society. He investigated how to better promote shared values and tackle harmful practices and how to promote both freedom of religion and freedom of speech. He also looked at how government officials might improve their faith literacy.</p>
<p>To be <a href="https://bristoluniversitypress.co.uk/religion-and-belief-literacy">faith literate</a> is to understand how belief systems differ and how those distinct from your own shape other people’s attitudes, values and experiences. In a bid to boost equality, Bloom recommends that government workplaces and educational settings adopt the term “faith-sensitive”. </p>
<p>As opposed to the flattening out of difference that a “faith-blind” approach can take, promoting faith-sensitivity encourages people in positions of authority to acknowledge, understand and treat with respect diverse belief systems. </p>
<p>The language the UK government uses on faith-related subjects matters. It models – for everyone living in the UK – how to best engage with <a href="https://theconversation.com/glasgows-museum-of-religion-has-been-saved-from-closure-heres-why-its-important-for-multicultural-britain-180002">diverse manifestations of belief</a>. </p>
<p>I would argue that Bloom’s emphasis on a faith-sensitive government approach does not go far enough. It implies that the government’s priority should be to not cause offense. Even better would be a “faith-positive” approach that actively ascribes value to the contributions faith communities can make to everyday British life.</p>
<p>Back in 2001, the IFN <a href="https://www.interfaith.org.uk/uploads/ar2002.pdf">said</a>, “Greater awareness about the faith of others is crucial as we enter the 21st century in the UK because ignorance is a major contributor to prejudice and even to conflict.” Two decades on, the shocking rises in incidents of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/2024/feb/15/huge-rise-in-antisemitic-abuse-in-uk-since-hamas-attack-says-charity">antisemitism</a> and <a href="https://www.itv.com/news/2023-11-09/i-was-terrified-islamophobic-incidents-up-by-600-in-uk-since-hamas-attack">Islamophobia</a>, in recent months, point to how urgently that remains true. </p>
<p>Early 20th century English writer G.K. Chesterton once affectionately wrote, “Let your religion be less a theory and more a love affair.” He was offering a framework to help British Christians better understand their faith. A similarly faith-positive approach to all of Britain’s belief systems would both recognise and value quite what people of faith can bring to wider British society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223519/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Christopher Wadibia receives funding from a postdoctoral research fellowship specialising in race, theology, and religious studies based at Pembroke College, University of Oxford.</span></em></p>The language the UK government uses on faith-related subjects matters. It models – for everyone living in the UK – how to best engage with diverse manifestations of belief.Christopher Wadibia, Junior Research Fellow in Theology, University of OxfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2213992024-02-13T13:22:45Z2024-02-13T13:22:45ZWhy having human remains land on the Moon poses difficult questions for members of several religions<p>Sending human remains to the Moon on the first commercial lunar lander, Peregrine 1, on Jan. 8, 2024, <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/human-remains-are-headed-to-the-moon-despite-objections/">along with scientific instruments</a>, caused a controversy.</p>
<p>Buu Nygren, president of the Navajo Nation, objected, saying that “<a href="https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/05/world/peregrine-moon-mission-navajo-nation-objection-human-remains-scn/index.html">the moon holds a sacred place</a>” in Navajo and other tribal traditions and should not be defiled in this way. The inside of the lander was to be a kind of “<a href="https://elysiumspace.com/">space burial</a>” for remains of some 70 people. Each of the families had <a href="https://www.celestis.com/experiences-pricing/">paid over US$12,000 for a permanent memorial on the Moon</a>. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.holycross.edu/academics/programs/religious-studies/faculty/joanne-pierce">professors</a> <a href="https://www.holycross.edu/academics/programs/religious-studies/faculty/mathew-schmalz">of religious studies</a> who have taught courses on death rites, we know that death rituals in the world’s religions have been shaped by millennia of tradition and practice. While these ashes didn’t make it to the Moon because of a <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=PEREGRN-1">propellant leak</a>, their presence on the lander raised some important religious issues: Beliefs about the polluting nature of the corpse, the acceptability of cremation and the sacredness of the Moon vary across traditions. </p>
<h2>Jewish death rituals and purification</h2>
<p>In ancient Judaism, certain activities were believed to be polluting, rendering a person unfit to participate in prayers and animal sacrifices offered exclusively at the Temple in Jerusalem. There were many ways in which one could become ritually unclean, and each level of pollution was cleansed by an appropriate purification rite. <a href="https://www.religiousrules.com/Judaismpurity03corpse.htm">Direct contact with a human corpse</a> was believed to cause the most intense form of pollution; even touching a person or object that had been in contact with a corpse would cause a lesser level of defilement.</p>
<p>After the Romans <a href="https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/destruction-second-temple-70-ce">destroyed the Temple in 70 C.E.</a>, Jewish religious practice changed dramatically, including rules about purification. These days, after a burial or visit to a cemetery, many Jewish people wash their hands to wash away negative <a href="https://outorah.org/p/64492/">spirits or energy</a>.</p>
<p>In Judaism, the bodies of the dead are to be buried or entombed in the earth. Cremation of human bodies, <a href="https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/510874/jewish/Why-Does-Judaism-Forbid-Cremation.htm">rejected for centuries</a>, has become more popular but <a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/judaism-on-cremation/">still remains a controversial option</a> due to the older tradition of respect for the body as a creation of God – to be buried intact and without mutilation.</p>
<h2>Christian death rituals over the centuries</h2>
<p>Before Christianity developed in the first century C.E., <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-9497-3_1">Roman civil religion</a> stressed the need to separate the living from the dead. Corpses or cremated remains were interred in burial places outside cities and town – in <a href="https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/city/necropolis">the necropolis</a>, literally a city of the dead. As in Judaism, <a href="https://doi.org/10.4314/actat.v26i2.52569">any visitor needed purification</a> afterward. </p>
<p>As monotheists, Christians rejected belief in the Greek and Roman gods and goddesses, including the <a href="https://www.theoi.com/Titan/Selene.html#:%7E:text=SELE%E2%80%B2NE%20(Sel%C3%AAn%C3%AA)%2C,371%2C%20%">Moon goddess called Selene or Luna</a>. They also refused to participate in Roman state religious rituals or activities based on pagan polytheism. Decades later, after Christianity became the official imperial religion, Christians moved the <a href="http://csla.history.ox.ac.uk/record.php?recid=E01019">remains of people they considered holy into towns and cities</a> to be re-entombed for easier veneration inside churches.</p>
<p>During the medieval period, ordinary Christians desired to be buried close to these saints in anticipation of the resurrection of the body at the second coming of Christ. Graveyards around the church were <a href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9781501753855/standing-on-holy-ground-in-the-middle-ages/">consecrated as “holy ground</a>.” In this way, Christians believed that the departed might continue to <a href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-medieval-pilgrimage/burial-ad-sanctos-SIM_00143#:%7E:text=Burial%20">benefit from the holiness of the saints</a>. Their bodies were considered sources of spiritual blessing rather than causes of spiritual pollution.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A relief showing a corpse being placed in a coffin as people stand around, one holding a tall crucifix." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574710/original/file-20240209-26-yavs36.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fourth-century Christian burial depicted in relief at the Shrine of San Vittore in Ciel d'Oro, Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio, Milan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/9691_-_Milano_-_S._Ambrogio_-_San_Vittore_in_Ciel_d%27oro_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_25-Apr-2007.jpg">G.dallorto, Attribution/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Increasingly today, cremation is considered acceptable, although the Catholic Church requires that cremated remains <a href="https://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/sacraments-and-sacramentals/bereavement-and-funerals/cremation-and-funerals">must not be scattered or partitioned</a> but buried or placed elsewhere in cemeteries. </p>
<p>Unlike some other religions, neither Judaism nor Christianity considers the Moon divine or sacred. As part of God’s creation, it <a href="https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/when-easter#:%7E:text=The%20">plays a role</a> in setting the religious calendars. In both Jewish and Christian spiritual writing, the <a href="https://blog.nli.org.il/en/jewish_moon">Moon is used as a spiritual analogy</a>: in Judaism, of the majesty of God, and in Christianity, of Christ and the church.</p>
<h2>Islamic beliefs on burial</h2>
<p><a href="https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2018/11/01/respect-for-the-dead-under-islamic-law-considerations-for-humanitarian-forensics/">Cremation is strictly prohibited in Islam</a>. After death, the deceased is <a href="https://www.islamicity.org/5586/preparation-of-te-deceased-and-janazah-prayers/">ritually washed, wrapped in shrouds</a> and brought for burial in a cemetery as soon as possible.</p>
<p>After a <a href="https://yaqeeninstitute.org/watch/series/ep-1-the-janazah-prayer-for-those-left-behind">funeral prayer</a>, led by an imam or senior member of the community, the deceased is buried – usually without a coffin – with their head oriented toward the holy city of Mecca. The soul of the deceased is <a href="https://zamzam.com/blog/life-after-death-in-islam/">said to visit their loved ones</a> on the seventh and 40th days after death. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://quran.com/en/fussilat/37">Quran warns against worshiping the Moon</a>, as was done in pre-Islamic culture, because worship is due to God alone.</p>
<p>In September 2007, when the first Muslim astronaut from Malaysia got ready to go into space, the Malaysian National Space Agency <a href="https://mg.co.za/article/2007-09-20-islamic-body-rules-on-how-to-pray-wash-die-in-space/">published religious directives</a> on burial rituals for Muslims in space. These directives said if bringing the body back wasn’t possible, then he would be “interred” in space after a brief ceremony. And if no water was available in space for the ceremonial rituals, then “holy dust” should be swept onto the face and hands “even if there is no dust” in the space station. </p>
<h2>Hindu and Buddhist funerary practices</h2>
<p>Hinduism is a diverse religion, and so funeral practices often vary according to culture and context. Most commonly, death and the period following a person’s death are associated with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/006996689023001007">ritual pollution</a>. Because of this, the deceased should be cremated within 24 hours after death.</p>
<p>The cremation of the corpse cuts the ties of the soul, or the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/atman">atman</a>, to the body, allowing it to move on to the next level of existence and eventually be reincarnated. The ashes are collected and placed into an urn on the third day after cremation and immersed in a body of water, ideally a sacred river such as the Ganges.</p>
<p>Within Hinduism, the Moon has played an important role in conceptualizing what happens to the dead. For example, the ancient Hindu texts describe the spirits of the virtuous dead as entering Chandraloka, or the realm of the Moon, where they experience happiness for a time before being reincarnated.</p>
<p>In the many forms of Buddhism, death provides an opportunity for mourners to reflect <a href="https://tricycle.org/magazine/buddhist-death-rites/">on the impermanence of all things</a>. While in Tibetan Buddhism there is the tradition of “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757283">sky burial</a>,” in which the deceased is dismembered and left to the elements, in most forms of Buddhism the dead are usually cremated and, as in Hinduism, the corpse is considered polluting beforehand. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person lighting a candle at an altar, painted in red color, with white flowers in two vases and incense sticks in a small pot." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574713/original/file-20240209-16-vrekcw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A ritual being performed at a Thai funeral ceremony.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/funeral-watering-ceremony-thai-cultural-ritual-royalty-free-image/1831759719?phrase=buddhist+cremation&adppopup=true">Surasak Suwanmake/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>In older forms of Buddhism in Nepal and Tibet, the Moon was understood to be <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38344#:%7E:text=Worship%20of%20the%20moon%20god">identified with the god Chandra</a>, who rides on a chariot. The Moon is also one of the nine astrological deities whose movement provides insight for reckoning individual and collective futures.</p>
<h2>Difficult questions</h2>
<p>In response to the Navajo objection that landing ashes on the Moon was a defilement, the CEO of Celestis, the company that paid for capsules containing the ashes, <a href="https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/biden-administration-to-consult-with-navajo-about-human-remains-on-the-moon/">issued a statement</a> stressing that launching containers of human ashes to the Moon is “the antithesis of desecration … it’s celebration.” </p>
<p>In the end, the question was moot. Peregrine 1 <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/15/world/peregrine-moon-lander-failure-nasa-scn/index.html">never made its soft landing on the Moon</a> because of an engine malfunction, and its <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-67962397">payload was destroyed</a> after entering the atmosphere. </p>
<p>As more people decide to send their ashes into space, however, religious conflicts are bound to arise. The key concern, and not just for the Navajo Nation, will be how to respect all religious traditions as humans explore and commercialize the Moon. It still remains a problem today here on Earth.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221399/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Two scholars who study death rituals explain that the corpse is considered spiritually polluting in many religious traditions, while the Moon holds a sacred place.Joanne M. Pierce, Professor Emerita of Religious Studies, College of the Holy CrossMathew Schmalz, Professor of Religious Studies, College of the Holy CrossLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2216352024-01-22T16:09:39Z2024-01-22T16:09:39ZIn opening a Hindu temple on the site of a former mosque, Narendra Modi is following an old Hindu nationalist ploy<p>Pronouncing the fulfilment of “the dream that many have cherished for years”, Indian prime minister Narendra Modi <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/jan/22/modi-inaugurates-hindu-temple-on-site-of-razed-mosque-in-india">has inaugurated</a> a new Hindu temple at Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh in the north of the country. It is built on the site of a mosque that was destroyed by Hindu nationalists more than 30 years ago. </p>
<p>When the Hindu nationalists demolished the 16th-century Babri Masjid mosque, they did so in the belief that it had been built by the Muslim Mughal emperor Babur on the site of an ancient Hindu temple that marked the birthplace of the god Ram. But the historical and archaeological evidence for the existence of this is <a href="https://thewire.in/history/babri-masjid-asi-excavation-ayodhya-ram-temple">hotly debated by experts</a>.</p>
<p>Modi has turned the consecration of the Ayodhya temple into a massive national event, inviting 8,000 VIPs including Bollywood stars, Hindu religious leaders, politicians and diplomats. Hundreds of thousands of pilgrims also made their way to the town, which has received a US$3 billion (£2.35 billion) government-funded makeover. </p>
<p>Critics have condemned what they describe as a <a href="https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/ram-mandir-ayodhya-mamata-banerjee-bjp-politics-opposition-consecration-2486465-2024-01-09">politicisation of a religious event</a>, pointing to elections in April or May this year at which Modi will bid for a third term. Over his decade as prime minister, Modi has deliberately harnessed and encouraged Hindu nationalist aspirations for his own ends.</p>
<p>This event is undoubtedly aimed at energising Modi’s political base among Hindu nationalists. But there is more to this story than cynical electioneering.</p>
<p>The Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), of which Modi is now the leader, has been advocating for decades for the construction of a Hindu temple on the site at Ayodhya. </p>
<p>In 1992, the party was a relatively minor player in a country dominated by the secular Indian National Congress. But in 2019, with Modi as prime minister, the Indian Supreme Court ruled that the temple could be built on the site. Plans for a new mosque were relocated nearby to a symbolically smaller patch of land.</p>
<h2>History of hatred</h2>
<p>Immediately after the mosque’s destruction in 1992, riots between Hindus and Muslims erupted across India. One Hindu nationalist vigilante later <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/feb/06/travel.features">defended his violence</a> in curious political terms: “Muslims … had no compunction about killing people, while a Hindu would pause before killing and ask himself why he was doing it.”</p>
<p>The moral relativism of this remarkable statement reflects an attitude that has been at the heart of Hindu nationalist politics from its inception. It is centred on the twin paranoias of Hindu disunity because of the ancient caste system and the illusion of Islamic unity (Indian Muslims are actually <a href="https://contendingmodernities.nd.edu/theorizing-modernities/modern-islam-story-south-asia/">doctrinally and politically divided</a>.</p>
<p>In 1923, these paranoias were systematically laid out by Hindu political philosopher Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentials_of_Hindutva#">Essentials of Hindutva</a>. This book is widely seen as a foundational text of Hindu nationalism. Imprisoned from 1911 to 1937 for sedition by the British, Savarkar rapidly shifted his revolutionary zeal from opposing the European colonisers to repudiating India’s Muslims. </p>
<p>At odds with his attempts to make Muslims out to be a polluting foreign influence is the fact that the majority were not external invaders but <a href="https://thewire.in/caste/caste-among-indian-muslims-real-why-deny-reservation">Hindu converts</a> attempting to escape the caste system. The caste system perpetuated ideas of purity and pollution within the hierarchy. High castes enforced a range of occupational, hygiene, religious, and dietary practices on the lower castes through shame, sanctions and violence. </p>
<p>Accordingly, Savarkar believed that Muslim unity came from an immunity to shame. Observing Muslim inmates in his jail, he glibly attributed the violence of Muslim prison gangs to an impulse inherent in Islam. </p>
<p>With the same breath, he implored his Hindu inmates to jettison shame, mimic these traits and contemplate a violent politics of “cruelty” towards Muslims. In doing so, they would distract from caste divisions.</p>
<p>Savarkar exhorted Hindu society to discard Gandhi’s philosophy of passive resistance. Instead they should pursue a violent and “shameless” <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/historical-journal/article/glory-and-humiliation-in-the-making-of-v-d-savarkars-hindu-nationalism/B196AD5F952FF78DF066CC25E0D058E8#fn1">quest for Hindu fraternity</a> in which caste distinctions would disappear. Meanwhile, the once united Muslims would live as a humiliated and cowed community that no longer had the self-belief to challenge Hindu political power.</p>
<p>The destruction of mosques and construction of temples became key strategies for uniting Hindus by banishing caste differences in <a href="https://theprint.in/pageturner/excerpt/as-a-teenager-savarkar-tried-to-destroy-a-mosque-was-sad-hindus-werent-united/281796/">Savarkar’s ideology</a>. Some of the planned mega-temples would accommodate <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/historical-journal/article/glory-and-humiliation-in-the-making-of-v-d-savarkars-hindu-nationalism/B196AD5F952FF78DF066CC25E0D058E8">5,000 worshippers</a> from every caste. At the same time, tearing down Muslim heritage across India aimed to politically humiliate the seemingly unified Muslims and return political Hinduism “to its original glory”.</p>
<h2>Cynical politics</h2>
<p>Modi’s government and its Hindu nationalist surrogate organisations have put this ideology into practice. The inauguration of the Ayodhya temple has little to do with Hindu religious doctrine. Indeed, the government was criticised for trying to arrange the event before the temple’s “sanctum sanctorum” (holy of holies) was completed. </p>
<p>The BJP also failed to invite several key Hindu monastic organisations. Indeed, being overshadowed by high-caste Brahmin priests would distract from Modi’s populist brand built around him as a <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/modi-is-a-teli-ghanchi-obc-bjp/articleshow/34084111.cms">humble middle-caste tea salesman</a>. </p>
<p>Allied to this project are other strategies for forging Hindu unity while publicly humiliating Muslims. For instance, the arbitrary demolition of Muslim homes and businesses by mobs aided and abetted by local police. </p>
<p>These attacks occur when Muslims are deemed to have shown insufficient deference to Hindu sentiments – for example by eating beef or participating in anti-government protests. The bulldozer has since become a Hindu nationalist symbol and even internationalised by BJP troll-farms <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2023/9/4/modis-lesson-from-israel-demolish-muslim-homes-erase-their-history">supporting Israeli actions in Gaza</a>.</p>
<p>At first glance, the Ayodhya inauguration innocuously celebrates a new self-confident “Vatican for Hindus”. But we cannot forget its political motivations. If the violent destruction of a minority’s place of worship is given legal and political legitimacy in the name of Hindu nationalism, then democracy has given way to mob rule.</p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/bharat-why-the-recent-push-to-change-indias-name-has-a-hidden-agenda-213105">Bharat: why the recent push to change India's name has a hidden agenda</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vikram Visana received funding from the British Academy in the form of a Small Grant of £5300 from 2019-2023. </span></em></p>Modi is running for his third consecutive term of office, but many believe he plans to remain in power indefinitely.Vikram Visana, Lecturer in Political Theory, University of LeicesterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2198112024-01-18T18:59:01Z2024-01-18T18:59:01ZWhy a controversial Hindu temple in India could prove pivotal to Narendra Modi’s party in upcoming elections<p>Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first prime minister, famously opposed government interference in the rebuilding of the Somnath temple, a popular religious site for the Hindus in Gujarat, because he saw the project as a <a href="https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2020/08/04/ram-mandir-precursor-how-a-nehru-govt-minister-helped-rebuild-somnath-temple.html">form of “Hindu revivalism”</a>. </p>
<p>In line with his idea of a secular India, Nehru wanted <a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/research/hindu-revivalism-why-jawaharlal-nehru-disapproved-rajendra-prasads-presence-at-somnath-temple-inauguration-6539918/">complete separation of state and religion</a>. </p>
<p>There are no such qualms for the current prime minister, Narendra Modi, head of the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Images of him <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/05/world/asia/modi-temple-ayodhya.html">were beamed live across the country in 2020</a> performing Hindu rituals during the foundation stone-laying ceremony of a grand temple dedicated to Lord Ram, a revered Hindu deity. </p>
<p>The half-completed temple, which will be the largest in India and will be <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/preparing-for-the-ram-temple-consecration-a-package/article67737059.ece">inaugurated</a> on Monday, has been built on the site of the 16th century Babri mosque, that was reduced to rubble by a Hindu mob in 1992. Violent riots followed, <a href="https://carnegieendowment.org/2020/08/18/mounting-majoritarianism-and-political-polarization-in-india-pub-82434">killing more than 2,000 people</a>, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/india/indias-top-court-halts-plans-survey-centuries-old-mosque-2024-01-16/">most of them minority Muslims</a>. </p>
<p>After a prolonged legal battle, the Indian Supreme Court in 2019 <a href="https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/ayodhya-verdict-understanding-the-supreme-court-judgment/story-G7mzXfBFEDJ88PmuLj8CpL.html">awarded the land</a> where the mosque once stood to Hindus for the building of a temple. </p>
<p>The inauguration of the temple comes at a pivotal time for the country, with elections due in a few months. It is likely to play a significant role in the upcoming polls, for three main reasons.</p>
<h2>Drawing Hindus together across castes</h2>
<p>First, the Ram Temple movement has allowed the BJP to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00856401.2015.1089460">unite</a> large sections of the Hindu population behind a singular political and religious goal, irrespective of caste considerations. Prior to this, mainly upper castes identified with its ideology. </p>
<p>To expand its voter base, the party resorted to a strategy of “<a href="https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/modi-spells-out-social-engineering-mantra-for-bjp-s-success-beyond-2024-123012200266_1.html">social engineering</a>”. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2658585">It went on a drive to recruit large numbers of leaders from lower castes</a> (or as they are known in India, “scheduled castes” and “other backward classes”) in order to project an image as a party representing all Hindus that wants to better living conditions for all. </p>
<p>The strategy was successful. Having won just two seats out of 543 in India’s parliament in 1984, the BJP became the single largest party in parliament in 1996, the first national election after the mosque demolition.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-hindu-nationalists-are-cheering-moves-to-build-a-temple-challenging-a-secular-tradition-126901">Why Hindu nationalists are cheering moves to build a temple, challenging a secular tradition</a>
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<p>Last October, an opposition-ruled state (Bihar) released a caste census, despite much push-back from the BJP. The census revealed that <a href="https://frontline.thehindu.com/politics/bihar-caste-survey-report-game-changer-in-indian-politics-results-challenge-bjp-hindutva-unity-narrative/article67402996.ece">63% of the state’s population belong to the “other backward classes”</a>. </p>
<p>This could be seen as damaging to the BJP as it shows the party hasn’t done enough to lift people out of poverty. There was always a demand for such surveys so that jobs could be reserved for the lower castes according to their actual share in population. The BJP has resisted them, however, fearing this would anger their upper caste supporters.</p>
<p>The opposition has promised similar nationwide surveys if it manages to defeat the BJP in the 2024 election. And it has <a href="https://www.deccanherald.com/india/bihar/caste-survey-in-bihar-reveals-hiked-quotas-for-deprived-castes-in-2023-2818607">committed to distributing resources</a> in a more equitable way, if elected.</p>
<p>These developments have put the BJP’s mantra of Hindu unity on rather shaky ground. To ensure this doesn’t become a major election issue, BJP leaders will have to amplify the noise around the temple, demonstrating the unity of all Hindus irrespective of caste.</p>
<h2>Sectarian tensions bring out voters</h2>
<p>Second, sectarian tension has always <a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/bjp-gains-in-polls-after-every-riot-says-yale-study/articleshow/45378840.cms">helped the BJP electorally</a>. Studies show that whenever there’s a riot in the year before an election, the party <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1561/100.00015051">gains an increase of 0.8% in the share of the vote</a>. </p>
<p>This is a substantial gain because in India’s first-past-the-post voting system, winning just 37% of the total votes in the 2019 parliamentary elections <a href="https://www.economist.com/leaders/2020/01/23/narendra-modi-stokes-divisions-in-the-worlds-biggest-democracy">ensured an overwhelming majority of seats</a> for Modi’s party. </p>
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<p>Of course, not all Hindus support the Ram Temple. But the BJP is well aware that the number of Hindu temple supporters is large enough to help the party win elections comfortably. </p>
<p>In a survey held after the 2022 election in the state of Uttar Pradesh, <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/elections/uttar-pradesh-assembly/religious-polarisation-and-electoral-choices/article65215835.ece">over two-thirds of the Hindu respondents</a> who thought the temple was a “very important” election issue voted for the BJP. </p>
<p>This is arguably the single-most polarising issue in the country and some Hindu nationalists want to keep the pot boiling. They have already petitioned the courts with claims to <a href="https://scroll.in/article/1024769/behind-gyanvapis-women-petitioners-a-network-of-men-who-have-long-fought-for-hindutva-causes">two other historical mosques in Varanasi and Mathura</a>. The Supreme Court also seems to be taking a <a href="https://thewire.in/law/supreme-court-greenlights-asi-gyanvapi-survey">favourable view of these claims</a>.</p>
<h2>Distraction from other big issues</h2>
<p>And last but not least, a grand inauguration ceremony – and its continuous month-long coverage on pro-government mainstream TV channels – will distract voters from real issues and help the BJP control the electoral narrative. </p>
<p>There are plenty of other issues to be concerned with. India’s economic growth hasn’t necessarily led to more jobs, with about 42% of graduates under 25 <a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/business/42-3-of-graduates-under-25-unemployed-finds-latest-state-of-working-india-report-8949124/">unemployed</a>. </p>
<p>Despite the fact that Modi promised to <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/pm-promises-farmers-income-doubling-by-2022/article24212508.ece">double the incomes of farmers by 2022</a>, they are still struggling to keep up with ever-rising debts. More than 100,000 farmers <a href="https://thewire.in/agriculture/average-30-farmer-suicides-per-day-in-modi-govt-years-points-to-a-systemic-apathy">committed suicide</a> from 2014–22, a rate of more than 30 per day. </p>
<p>Human rights activists, journalists and student protesters are <a href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/10/13/india-arrests-raids-target-critics-government#:%7E:text=The%20Indian%20government%20also%20used,Dalit%20meeting%20in%20January%202018.">regularly charged with stringent anti-terrorism laws</a> and thrown in prison. Amnesty International was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/29/amnesty-to-halt-work-in-india-due-to-government-witch-hunt">forced to shut down</a> after the government froze its accounts following the publication of critical reports of its human rights record.</p>
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<p>Ethnic violence has <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2024/1/9/ethnic-conflict-in-indias-manipur-has-completely-ruined-businesses">wracked</a> the northeastern state of Manipur since last May. An influential member of parliament who asked tough questions about industrialist Gautam Adani’s relationship with Modi was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/dec/22/mahua-moitra-indian-parliament-expulsion">expelled from parliament</a> in December. The government <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-67656686">claimed</a> she had accepted bribes to ask the questions; she denies this.</p>
<p>And institutions meant to safeguard India’s democracy are being <a href="https://thewire.in/rights/decaying-institutions-and-diminishing-democracy-of-the-indian-republic">systematically dismantled</a>. </p>
<p>The government has also been accused by UN special rapporteurs of “<a href="https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2023/country-chapters/india#:%7E:text=In%20June%2C%20three%20United%20Nations,participation%20in%20inter%2Dcommunal%20violence.">collective punishment</a>” of Muslims suspected of taking part in inter-communal violence or protests through the bulldozing of their properties, <a href="https://doij.org/10.10000/IJLMH.113298">often disregarding standard procedures</a>. One demolition was even telecast live with <a href="https://scroll.in/article/1026083/indians-are-expressing-shock-at-news-channel-glee-over-demolition-of-muslim-activists-house">news anchors cheering from the sidelines</a>. </p>
<p>In two states that have seen the worst of such bulldozer actions (Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh), the BJP was returned to power in state elections.</p>
<p>Modi’s government doesn’t want to lose any support from its Hindu base, so the temple inauguration will presumably bring much BJP chest-thumping, especially as the election draws closer.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219811/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aviroop Gupta does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Ram temple, built on the site of a destroyed mosque, could be used by Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s party to mobilise his Hindu nationalist supporters ahead of the elections.Aviroop Gupta, PhD Candidate, Curtin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2105392023-12-05T13:17:24Z2023-12-05T13:17:24ZHow sacred images in many Asian cultures incorporate divine presence and make them come ‘alive’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559865/original/file-20231116-23-care6q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C19%2C3264%2C2423&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A gilded statue of the Buddha at Wat Phanan Choeng Temple in Thailand.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/wat-phanan-choeng-temple-this-highly-respected-royalty-free-image/1217280251?phrase=eye-opening+Buddhist+ritual&searchscope=image%2Cfilm&adppopup=true">Kittipong Chararoj/ iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Walking into a favorite restaurant here in Knoxville, Tennessee, I was immediately greeted by a golden statue of Buddha, its sparkling gemstone eyes meeting my own as I made my way through the door. The aromas of Thai curries beckoned, but as I was led to a table, I kept thinking about those glinting eyes.</p>
<p>Sacred objects are everywhere: Statues and paintings of gods fill museum galleries and catalog pages alike. You might also see them gracing a neighbor’s yard or upon an altar in your friend’s home.</p>
<p>Some dazzle in bejeweled splendor. Others may appear more humble, their luster softened through generations of hands passing them down. Oftentimes, it can feel as though sacred images are looking back.</p>
<p>I <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michael-naparstek-1457307">research the ways in which objects express the power of divine presence</a> in Asian religious contexts. Studying different perspectives on sacred objects helps us think beyond religious contexts and allows us to rethink how objects and images play an active role in our lives.</p>
<h2>Sacred visual culture</h2>
<p>Hindu practice is defined by “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/darshan">darśan” – a ritual act of interacting with the divine</a> through the visual experience. Scholar <a href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/dianaeck/home">Diana Eck</a> describes this interaction in her seminal study of Indian visual culture, “<a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/darsan/9780231112659">Darśan</a>,” in the following way: “to stand in the presence of the deity and to behold the image with one’s own eyes, to see and be seen by the deity.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A couple, with a young child in the woman's lap, sitting before the Hindu God Ganesha, with folded hands." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559867/original/file-20231116-17-nxv3h6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A family prays to the Hindu god Ganesha.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/family-praying-royalty-free-image/548295807?phrase=hindu+worship&adppopup=true">IndiaPix/IndiaPicture via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-theravada-buddhism-a-scholar-of-asian-religions-explains-205737">Theravada Buddhist</a> rituals in Southeast Asia include all-night chanting sessions to recharge statues’ power. As scholar of Theravada Buddhism <a href="https://www.swarthmore.edu/Humanities/dsweare1/">Donald Swearer</a> notes in “<a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691114354/becoming-the-buddha">Becoming the Buddha</a>,” monastics and laypeople in northern Thailand will gather to recite Buddhist sutras while holding cords attached to an image of the Buddha, forming an intricate web of connection between the image and the Buddhist community. </p>
<p>The benefits gained from these chants is understood to enter the statue, recharging its karmic power and reanimating it to once again interact with the community.</p>
<p><a href="https://asiasociety.org/education/buddhism-japan">Japanese Buddhist</a> statues <a href="https://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/fellows-book/behold-the-buddha-religious-meanings-of-japanese-buddhist-icons/">contain multiple items ritually placed</a> within their wooden cavities: bones of saints, robes from eminent monastics and even silk-fashioned replicas of visceral organs like lungs and kidneys. As art historian <a href="https://oberlin.academia.edu/JamesDobbins">James Dobbins</a> notes, certain Buddhist rituals are performed in order to transform the body of a statue into a living body. </p>
<p>In cases like this, inanimate objects are believed to transform into not only sacred things, but also active, living beings who can see, hear, taste and respond to the concerns of those who worship them.</p>
<h2>‘Eye-opening’ ritual</h2>
<p>There are many different ways to enliven an image, and each ritual tradition carries its own unique process. However, the most well-known across Asia is commonly referred to as the “<a href="https://pluralism.org/news/eye-opening-ceremony-buddhist-statues-draws-hundreds-connecticut">eye-opening” ceremony</a>. The term “eye-opening” gets its name from the culmination of an intense ritual process wherein the monk paints in the pupils of the image, thus opening its eye to see. </p>
<p>In Sri Lanka, Buddhist monks perform a version known as the netra-pinkama, which loosely translates to “meritorious action of the eyes.” </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gt5jY93AD2w?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The netra-pinkama ritual.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/research/research-in-conversation/how-live-happy-life/professor-richard-gombrich#:%7E:text=Richard%20Gombrich%20is%20the%20Emeritus,of%20the%20Clay%20Sanskrit%20Library.">Richard Gombrich</a>, a scholar of Buddhism and Sanskrit, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/2051829">noted in his study of Buddhism in Sri Lanka</a> that “Before consecration, a statue is treated with no more respect than one would give the materials of which it is composed. … The very act of consecration indicates that a statue is being brought to life.” </p>
<p>Enlivening an image is not a task undertaken lightly, as it is believed in some cases that any demonic spirits loitering around could interrupt the process, thereby resulting in an ineffective ritual or even a malevolent icon. Both the temple grounds and the ritual specialists must undergo purification rites before beginning. The whole process is filled with strict procedures and avoidance of taboos – a common theme among consecration rituals across Asian religious traditions. </p>
<p>Perhaps most importantly, the monk must refrain from looking directly into the icon’s eyes, and thus uses a mirror to look over their shoulder in order to paint in the icon’s pupils.</p>
<p>In Taiwan, statues and paintings of Buddhist, Daoist and local gods will undergo a similar kind of practice known as “kaiguang,” meaning “<a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674504363">opening the radiance</a>.” Monks, Daoist masters and even the artists who carve the statues may perform the rite on behalf of the individuals or temple communities that commission the image.</p>
<p>Once completed, shops will wrap a piece of red paper around to cover the statue’s eyes to ensure that the first thing that the image sees is the face of the one who requested it. The power of sacred vision is such that it must literally be kept under wraps.</p>
<h2>Living images</h2>
<p>Once its eyes have been opened, the image becomes a living thing capable of performing powerful deeds. As such, people may behave much differently – making offerings of incense and taking pains to follow social etiquette lest they offend. The care with which these objects are treated once they have been “activated” suggests that there is a lot more here than meets the eye. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/darsan/9780231112659">Eck’s observation attests</a>, being seen is critical to understanding what images do. By seemingly looking back at us, sacred images remind us that we are not alone in this world. In so doing, they also send a message that the world is not there for our eyes only, but that other viewpoints are just as powerful as our own.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210539/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Naparstek does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Through the power of rituals, inanimate objects can be understood to transform into agents who can see, hear, taste and respond to the concerns of those who worship them.Michael Naparstek, Lecturer in Religious Studies, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2132062023-10-31T12:33:18Z2023-10-31T12:33:18ZFrom India and Taiwan to Tibet, the living assist the dead in their passage<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556195/original/file-20231026-27-b64ql7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1024%2C679&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Hindu devotees prepare to scatter ashes of the deceased into the sea as part of Ngaben, a mass cremation ceremony, in Surabaya, Indonesia.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/hindu-devotees-prepare-to-scatter-ashes-of-the-deceased-news-photo/1243611860?adppopup=true">Juni Kriswanto/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Many people see death as a rite of a passage: a journey to some new place, or a threshold between two kinds of being. Zoroastrians believe that there is <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803133541542">a bridge of judgment</a> that each person who dies must cross; depending on deeds done during life, the bridge takes the deceased to different places. Ancient Greek sources depict the deceased <a href="https://www.hellenic.org.au/post/the-final-journey-crossing-the-styx">crossing the river Styx</a>, overcoming obstacles with the help of coins and food.</p>
<p>But the dead cannot make this transition alone – surviving family or friends play key roles. Ritual actions the living perform on behalf of the dead are said to help the deceased with their journey. At the same time, these actions give the living a chance to grieve and say goodbye. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://miamioh.edu/profiles/cas/liz-wilson.html">a scholar of South Asian religions</a> specializing in death and dying, I have seen how much surviving family depend on these rituals for peace of mind. Traditions vary widely by region and religious tradition, but all of them help mourners feel that they have given one last gift to their loved one.</p>
<h2>Fire, water and food</h2>
<p><a href="https://openfolklore.org/content/make-sesame-rice-please-appetites-dead-hinduism-1">Some Hindu death rituals</a> have roots in ancient Vedic rites as old as 1,500 B.C.E. The survivors’ goal is to ensure that a dead person separates from the realm of the living and makes a safe transition to a blessed afterlife or rebirth.</p>
<p>Death rites <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/28709299">typically use fire, water and food</a> in a sequence of three stages.</p>
<p>Stage one is cremation, the fiery incineration of a corpse on a stack of wood infused with flammable oils. Cremation is considered the dead person’s willing, final gift to the god of fire, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-57894855">traditionally officiated by the oldest son</a> of the deceased.</p>
<p>Stage two is the immersion of cremated remains in a flowing body of water, such as the Ganges River. There are many sacred rivers in India where the ashes of a loved one can be immersed, and Hindus <a href="https://www.clevelandart.org/art/1966.119">regard them as goddesses</a> who carry off impurities and sins, assisting the soul on its journey.</p>
<p>Many Hindus believe the ideal place to immerse a loved one’s ashes is in the sacred city of Varanasi, in northern India, where the Ganges flows in a broad stream. Families carry corpses in festive processions to the cremation site, hopeful that their rituals will help loved ones move to another state of existence.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/TEOBW1PvMqo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Though the Ganges is considered the holiest river, many rivers are viewed as sacred.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Stage three is entrance into the realm of the ancestors. Ancient Hindu belief depicts relatives who have died living in a realm where they are maintained by offerings given by their living descendants, whom they assist with fertility and wealth.</p>
<p>Hindu beliefs and practices are extremely diverse. In many communities, however, descendants perform rites that offer nourishment to the dead person, <a href="https://scroll.in/article/1032342/devdutt-pattanaik-on-the-3000-year-old-hindu-ritual-of-feeding-the-dead">represented in the form of a ball of rice</a>. Through these offerings, which can be performed after the death or during certain holidays and anniversaries, the deceased spirit is said to gradually become an embodied ancestor, reborn thanks to the ritual labor of their offspring. </p>
<h2>Colorful processions</h2>
<p>Buddhist death rituals differ considerably from culture to culture, yet one commonality is the amount of human effort that goes into sending off the dead. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Nine men in black outfits with brightly colored patterns on them hold a huge puppet of a dragon outside a building with Chinese characters on it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556237/original/file-20231026-22-sh2stu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=482&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dragon dancers perform during a funeral for Taiwanese TV star Chu Ke-liang in New Taipei City on June 20, 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/dragon-dancers-perform-outside-a-funeral-hall-during-a-news-photo/698172402?adppopup=true">Sam Yeh/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>In Chinese and Taiwanese culture, it is thought best to send off the deceased with a well-attended funeral procession, full of pageantry for deities and mortals alike. Many people rent “Electric Flower Cars,” trucks that serve as moving stages for performers – even pole dancers are not uncommon. Fifty jeeps with pole-dancing women graced <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-38528122">the funeral procession of a Taiwanese politician</a> who died in 2017. </p>
<p>Though pole dancers are a newer phenomenon, Taiwanese funerals and religious processions have long showcased women and young people, including female mourners hired to wail. Scholars such as <a href="https://www.harvard-yenching.org/person/chang-hsun/">anthropologist Chang Hsun</a> suggest that a combination of such traditions <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZCRmmSdYwDc">led to the inclusion</a> of women dancing and singing in some modern funeral processions. </p>
<p>By the 1980s, scantily clad women were a fixture of rural Taiwanese funeral culture. In 2011, <a href="https://sc.edu/study/colleges_schools/artsandsciences/anthropology/our_people/directory/moskowitz_marc.php">anthropologist Marc L. Moskowitz</a> produced a short documentary called “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZCRmmSdYwDc">Dancing for the Dead: Funeral Strippers in Taiwan</a>” about the phenomenon. </p>
<p>Funeral performances show tremendous freedom and innovation; one sees drummers, marching bands and Taiwanese opera singers. Paper objects in the shape of things the deceased is believed to use in the afterlife are burned, from microwaves to cars. Likewise, specially printed money called “ghost money” is burned to provide the deceased with funds.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a yellow monk's robe and someone wearing black stand behind what looks like a dollhouse, as the monk rings a bell." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556448/original/file-20231029-27-6pbk83.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A paper model of a villa, used as an offering for the dead during a ceremony in New Taipei City, Taiwan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/this-picture-taken-on-march-16-2019-shows-a-relative-news-photo/1134772913?adppopup=true">Sam Yeh/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Guiding the dead</h2>
<p>In Tibet, Buddhists believe that the vital energy of a person who has died stays with the body <a href="https://theasiadialogue.com/2016/05/04/tibetan-death-rituals/">for 49 days</a>. During this time, the dead person receives instruction from priests to help them navigate the journey ahead.</p>
<p>This journey toward the next stage of being involves a series of choices that will determine the realm of their rebirth – including rebirth as an animal, a hungry ghost, a deity, a being in hell, another human being or immediate enlightenment. </p>
<p>Priests whisper instructions into the ear of the dead person, who is believed to be capable of hearing so long as they retain their vital energy. Being told what to expect after death allows a person to face death with equanimity.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black and white photo shows a man seated in prayer on top of a mountain, as other people work in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=728&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=728&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=728&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=915&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=915&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556238/original/file-20231026-25-lx55xi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=915&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Tibetan Buddhist priest chants prayers and repeats passages from religious scrolls while his helpers make a funeral pyre.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/lamaist-priest-chants-prayers-and-repeats-passages-from-news-photo/646273502?adppopup=true">Hulton Deutsch/Corbis via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>The instructions given to the dead are described in a sacred text called the “Bardo Thodol,” often translated in English as “<a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-tibetan-book-of-the-dead-172962">The Tibetan Book of the Dead</a>.” “Bardo” is the Tibetan term for an intermediate or in-between state; one might think of the bardo of death as a train that stops at various destinations, opening doors and giving the passenger opportunities to depart. </p>
<p>Tibetan Buddhists believe that these instructions allow the deceased to make good choices in the 49-day interim between their death and the next life. Different rebirth realms will appear to the person, taking the form of colored lights. Based on the karma of the deceased, some realms will seem more alluring than others. The person is told to be fearless: to let themselves be drawn toward higher realms, even if they appear frightening.</p>
<p>For several days before burial, the deceased is visited by friends, family and well-wishers – all able to work out their grief while assisting the dead in a postmortem journey.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213206/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Liz Wilson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Across cultures, death rituals give mourners a chance to grieve. But they also offer one last opportunity to help the deceased as they transition to the next stage of existence.Liz Wilson, Professor of Comparative Religion, Miami UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2135242023-09-27T12:27:58Z2023-09-27T12:27:58ZWhy some Indians want to change the country’s name to ‘Bharat’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550340/original/file-20230926-15-ivocio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C23%2C7774%2C5171&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi welcomes delegates to the G20 leaders summit in front of a placard reading 'Bharat,' the Hindi word for 'India.'</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/british-prime-minister-rishi-sunak-and-us-president-joe-news-photo/1669134258?adppopup=true">Dan Kitwood/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When India invited delegates attending the G20 summit in September 2023 to dinner with “<a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-66716541">the President of Bharat</a>,” rather than “the President of India,” it may have looked to the world like a simple case of postcolonial course correction. </p>
<p>The word “India” is, after all, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-turkey-want-other-countries-to-start-spelling-its-name-turkiye-199390">an exonym</a> – a placename given by outsiders. In this case, the name came from the British, who ruled the subcontinent from 1858 to 1947, <a href="https://theconversation.com/colonialism-in-india-was-traumatic-including-for-some-of-the-british-officials-who-ruled-the-raj-77068">a violent period of colonialism</a> that later came to be called “the British Raj.” </p>
<p>“Bharat,” on the other hand, is the word for “India” in Hindi, by far <a href="https://www.forbesindia.com/article/news-by-numbers/hindi-day-2020-indias-mostspoken-languages-are/62577/1">the most spoken language in the nation</a>. Alongside English, Hindi is one of two languages used in <a href="https://qz.com/india/1712711/indias-constitution-is-over-30-times-as-long-as-the-us">the Indian Constitution</a>, with versions written in each language.</p>
<p>“Bharat” may, therefore, look like a well-reasoned and uncontroversial replacement for a term anointed long ago by outsiders – something akin to how <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-43821512">Eswatini</a>, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1980/08/26/archives/zimbabwe-is-welcomed-into-un-independence-achieved-in-april.html">Zimbabwe</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13072774">Burkina Faso</a> updated their countries’ names from the colonial designations “Swaziland,” “Rhodesia” and “Upper Volta,” respectively. </p>
<p>But the use of “Bharat” has <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/6/india-or-bharat-whats-behind-the-dispute-over-the-countrys-name">elicited outcry</a> from the political opposition, some Muslims, and Hindu conservatives in the south, reflecting ongoing tensions in India between language, religion and politics. </p>
<h2>Two different language families</h2>
<p>My book with fellow linguist <a href="https://julietetelandresen.com/">Julie Tetel Andresen</a>, “<a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Languages+In+The+World%3A+How+History%2C+Culture%2C+and+Politics+Shape+Language+-p-9781118531280">Languages in the World: How History, Culture, and Politics Shape Language</a>,” covers the language history and politics of India.</p>
<p>Hindi is the most-spoken language in India, but its use is largely relegated to a part of the country that linguists refer to as “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hindi-language">the Hindi belt</a>,” a massive region in northern, central and eastern India where Hindi is the official or primary language.</p>
<p>Around 1500 B.C.E., a group of outsiders from Central Asia – known now as the <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/theres-no-confusion-the-new-reports-clearly-confirm-arya-migration-into-india/article61986135.ece">Indo-Aryans</a> – began migrating and settling in what is now northern India. They spoke a language that would eventually become <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanskrit-language">Sanskrit</a>. As groups of these speakers separated from one another and spread out over northern India, their spoken Sanskrit changed over time, becoming distinctive.</p>
<p>Most of the languages spoken in northern India today – Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali and Gujarati, among many others – derive from this history. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550428/original/file-20230926-21-ur64w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map of India highlighting predominant languages spoken in various regions." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550428/original/file-20230926-21-ur64w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550428/original/file-20230926-21-ur64w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550428/original/file-20230926-21-ur64w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550428/original/file-20230926-21-ur64w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550428/original/file-20230926-21-ur64w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=748&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550428/original/file-20230926-21-ur64w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=748&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550428/original/file-20230926-21-ur64w0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=748&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Different languages are predominantly spoken in different parts of India.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/indian-map-with-official-languages-of-indian-royalty-free-illustration/1490281073?phrase=map+of+indian+languages&adppopup=true">Venkatesh Selvarajan/iStock via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But the Aryans were not the first group to inhabit the Indian subcontinent. Another group, the Dravidians, was already living in the region at the time of the Aryan migrations. They may have been <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-021-00868-w">the original inhabitants of the Indus-Valley Civilization in northern India</a>. Over the millennia, the Dravidians migrated to the southern part of the subcontinent, while the Aryans fanned out across the north. </p>
<p>Today, Dravidians number <a href="https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Dravidian_peoples">about 250 million people</a>. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dravidian-languages">Dravidian languages</a>, such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tamil-language">Tamil</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Telugu-language">Telugu</a> and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Malayalam-language">Malayalam</a>, have no historical relationship and virtually no linguistic similarities to the Indo-Aryan languages of the north. </p>
<h2>Dravidians spurn Hindi</h2>
<p>By the time the Raj ended in 1947, English had been established as the language of the elites and was used in education and government. As the new nation of India took shape, Mahatma Gandhi advocated for a single Indian language to unite the diverse regions and for many years championed Hindi, <a href="https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/fact-check-did-gandhi-want-hindi-as-national-language/cid/1705408">which was already widely spoken in the north</a>.</p>
<p>But after independence, opposition to Hindi grew in the Dravidian-speaking south, where English was the favored lingua franca. For Tamils and other Dravidian groups, Hindi was associated with the Brahmin caste, whom many felt <a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/why-periyar-is-still-an-influencer-in-the-political-landscape-of-tamil-nadu/periyars-movements/slideshow/63215382.cms">marginalized Dravidian languages and culture</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Portrait of a woman smiling, wearing a blue and white shawl." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550332/original/file-20230926-21-sf77gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550332/original/file-20230926-21-sf77gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550332/original/file-20230926-21-sf77gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550332/original/file-20230926-21-sf77gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=826&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550332/original/file-20230926-21-sf77gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1039&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550332/original/file-20230926-21-sf77gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1039&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/550332/original/file-20230926-21-sf77gr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1039&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Indira Gandhi pushed to codify English, alongside Hindi, as an official language in the constitution.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/indian-politician-indira-gandhi-news-photo/639614209?adppopup=true">Henri Bureau/Sygma/Corbis/VCG via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For many people in the south, Hindi came to be seen as a language as foreign as English. To keep tensions from spilling over, the first prime minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, supported verbiage in the constitution adopted in 1950 <a href="https://www.uottawa.ca/clmc/language-provisions-constitution-indian-union#:%7E:text=The%20Constitution%20adopted%20in%201950,official%20language%20of%20the%20Union.">allowing for the continued use of English in government</a> for a limited period.</p>
<p>Violence nevertheless continued in the south for years around what was seen as the <a href="https://www.thenewsminute.com/tamil-nadu/history-anti-hindi-imposition-movements-tamil-nadu-102983">unfair promotion of Hindi</a>. It abated only when Indira Gandhi – Nehru’s daughter and the third prime minister of India – <a href="https://www.impriindia.com/insights/linguistic-diversity-language-policy/">pushed to codify English</a>, alongside Hindi, as an official language in the constitution.</p>
<p>Today, the Indian Constitution <a href="https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/EighthSchedule_19052017.pdf">recognizes 22 official languages</a>.</p>
<h2>Nationalists push for one official language</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/75-years-ago-britains-plan-for-pakistani-and-indian-independence-left-unresolved-conflicts-on-both-sides-especially-when-it-comes-to-kashmir-185932">The Partition of India in 1947</a> – corresponding to the dissolution of the Raj – led to the creation of Pakistan, which was set up to aggregate the majority Muslim regions from the colonial state. An independent India was set up to include the majority non-Muslim regions. </p>
<p>Today, roughly <a href="https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2023-05/Pakistan.pdf">97% of Pakistan’s population is Muslim</a>. In India, Hindus make up about 80% of the population, while <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-58595040">Muslims make up about 14%</a> – more than 200 million people.</p>
<p>This is where modern domestic politics come into play. </p>
<p>“<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/20/what-is-hindu-nationalism-and-who-are-the-rss">Hindutva</a>” is a brand of far-right Hindu nationalism that emerged in the 20th century in response to colonial rule but gained its biggest following under the leadership of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Narendra-Modi">Prime Minister Narendra Modi</a> and his <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bharatiya-Janata-Party">Bharatiya Janta Party</a>, or the BJP. </p>
<p>As a political ideology, Hindu nationalism should be distinguished from Hinduism, a religion. It advances policies that seek to promote Hindu supremacy and <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2023/05/11/modi-india-muslims-hatred-incitement/">are widely considered anti-Muslim</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/dec/25/threat-unity-anger-over-push-make-hindi-national-language-of-india">One such policy</a> is the promotion of Hindi as the sole official language of India. Speaking in 2022 at a Parliamentary Official Language Committee meeting, <a href="https://frontline.thehindu.com/cover-story/linguistic-imperialism-bjp-pronouncements-on-promoting-hindi-spark-outrage/article38492154.ece">BJP Home Minister Amit Shah said</a>, “When citizens of states speak other languages, communicate with each other, it should be in the language of India.”</p>
<p>To Shah, the “language of India” and Hindi were one and the same.</p>
<h2>Suppressing Urdu</h2>
<p>Muslims in India speak the languages of their communities – Hindi among them – as do Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Christians. </p>
<p>However, making Hindi the national language could be viewed as one part of a broader political project that can be characterized as anti-Muslim. That’s why the political opposition is against using “<a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/6/india-or-bharat-whats-behind-the-dispute-over-the-countrys-name">Bharat</a>,” even though many Muslims are themselves Hindi speakers. </p>
<p>These politics become even clearer in the context of the BJP’s attempts <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Urdu-language">to limit the use of Urdu</a> – a language with a high degree of <a href="https://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/%7Eharoldfs/540/langdial/node2.html">mutual intelligibility</a> to Hindi – <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-61199753">in Indian public life</a>. </p>
<p>Although Urdu and Hindi are remarkably similar, their differences take on outsized religious and national significance. </p>
<p>Whereas Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, which has strong cultural associations with Hinduism, Urdu is written in the Perso-Arabic script, which has strong associations with Islam. Whereas Hindi draws on Sanskrit for new words, Urdu draws on Persian and Arabic, again emphasizing associations to Islam. And whereas Hindi predominates in India, <a href="https://www.sprachcaffe.com/english/magazine-article/what-language-is-spoken-in-pakistan.htm">Urdu is the official language of Pakistan</a>, along with English. </p>
<p>Thus the appearance of “Bharat” in official government correspondence may reopen old wounds for Muslims – and even for conservative Hindus in the Dravidian-speaking south who might otherwise support Modi and the BJP. </p>
<p>Although an official name change is unlikely in the immediate future, “Bharat” will likely continue to serve as a rallying cry for right-wing nationalists. </p>
<p>To them, the conciliatory language politics of Nehru and Indira Gandhi <a href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/07/15/india-nehru-history-myths-modi-bjp-politics-review/">are a thing of the past</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213524/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Phillip M. Carter does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The government’s use of the Hindi word for ‘India’ revives debates over whether Hindi should be the national language – and reopens some old wounds.Phillip M. Carter, Professor of Linguistics and English, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2115872023-08-23T12:26:21Z2023-08-23T12:26:21ZNavigating the intersection between AI, automation and religion – 3 essential reads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542839/original/file-20230815-23-3fs34t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">AI is slowly becoming part of the religious sphere. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/rosary-prayer-online-holy-mass-conducted-online-royalty-free-image/1221601837?phrase=religion+and+technology&adppopup=true">robertprzybysz/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In a era marked by rapid technological advancement, we are seeing everything from artificial intelligence to robots slowly seep into our everyday lives. But now, this technology is increasingly making inroads into a realm that has long been uniquely human: religion. </p>
<p>From the creation of <a href="https://apnews.com/article/germany-church-protestants-chatgpt-ai-sermon-651f21c24cfb47e3122e987a7263d348">ChatGPT sermons</a> to <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/robots-are-performing-hindu-rituals-some-worshippers-fear-theyll-be-replaced">robots performing sacred Hindu rituals</a>, the once-clearer boundaries between faith and technology are blurring. </p>
<p>Over the last few months, The Conversation U.S. has published a number of stories exploring how AI and automation are weaving themselves into religious contexts. These three articles from our archives shed light on the impacts of such technology on human spirituality, faith and worship across cultures. </p>
<h2>1. Prophets come to life</h2>
<p>As one of the most prominent religious figures in the world, Jesus has been continually reinterpreted to fit the norms and needs of each new historical context, from <a href="https://theconversation.com/panama-celebrates-its-black-christ-part-of-protest-against-colonialism-and-slavery-122171">Cristo Negro</a> or “Black Christ” to being depicted as a Hindu mystic. </p>
<p>But now the prophet is on Twitch, a video live-streaming platform. And it’s all thanks to an AI chatbot. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A bearded white man wearing a brown hooded jacket has a halo around him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/543072/original/file-20230816-17-mzi6vx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">AI Jesus provides insight on both spiritual and personal questions users ask on his channel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.twitch.tv/ask_jesus">Twitch user ask_jesus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Presented as a bearded white man wearing a brown hood, “AI Jesus” is available 24/7 on his Twitch channel “<a href="https://www.twitch.tv/ask_jesus">ask_Jesus</a>” and is able to interact with users who can ask him anything from deep religious-in-nature questions to lighthearted inquiries. </p>
<p>AI Jesus represents one of the newest examples in the growing field of AI spirituality, noted Boston College theology faculty member <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joseph-l-kimmel-1441171">Joseph L. Kimmel</a>, and may help scholars better understand how human spirituality is being actively shaped by the influence of AI.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-chatbot-willing-to-take-on-questions-of-all-kinds-from-the-serious-to-the-comical-is-the-latest-representation-of-jesus-for-the-ai-age-208644">A chatbot willing to take on questions of all kinds – from the serious to the comical – is the latest representation of Jesus for the AI age</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Robotic rituals</h2>
<p>A unique intersection of religion and robotic technology has emerged with the introduction of robots performing Hindu rituals in South Asia. While some have welcomed the technological inclusion, others express worries about the future that ritual automation could lead to. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/LH5yqpCWKqs?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">A robotic arm performs “aarti” — a Hindu practice in which light is ritually waved for the veneration of deities.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Many believe that the growth of robots within Hindu practices could lead to an increase in people leaving the religion, and question the use of robots to embody religious and divine figures.</p>
<p>But there is another concern: whether robots could eventually replace Hindu worshippers. Automated robots would be able to perform rituals without a single error. This is significant because religions like Hinduism and Buddhism emphasize the correct execution of rituals and ceremonies as a means to connect with the divine rather than emphasizing correct belief. </p>
<p>It’s a concept referred to as orthopraxy, according to Wellesley College anthropology lecturer <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/holly-walters-1406163">Holly Walters</a>. “In short, the robot can do your religion better than you can because robots, unlike people, are spiritually incorruptible,” she explained. “Modern robotics might then feel like a particular kind of cultural paradox, where the best kind of religion is the one that eventually involves no humans at all.”</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/robots-are-performing-hindu-rituals-some-devotees-fear-theyll-replace-worshippers-197504">Robots are performing Hindu rituals -- some devotees fear they'll replace worshippers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>3. AI preachers</h2>
<p>According to College of the Holy Cross religious studies scholar <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/joanne-m-pierce-156953">Joanne M. Pierce</a>, preaching has always been considered a human activity grounded in faith. But what happens when that practice is taken over by an AI chatbot? </p>
<p>In June 2023, hundreds of Lutherans gathered in Bavaria, Germany, for a service designed and delivered by ChatGPT. But many are cautious about using AI to conduct these religious practices. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/xmXghWi2lf8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">St. Paul’s Church in Fürth, Bavaria was packed with over 300 Lutherans who attended a church service generated almost entirely by artificial intelligence.</span></figcaption>
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<p>In their sermons, preachers not only offer advice, but “speak out of personal reflection in a way that will inspire the members of the congregation, not just please them,” Pierce said. “It must also be shaped by an awareness of the needs and lived experience of the worshiping community in the pews.”</p>
<p>For the time being, it seems as though the inability to understand the human experience is AI’s biggest flaw within the preaching sphere. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/can-chatbots-write-inspirational-and-wise-sermons-208825">Can chatbots write inspirational and wise sermons?</a>
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<p><em>Editor’s note: This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211587/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
The merging of technology and faith is sparking a transformative shift in redefining spirituality and religious practices.Meher Bhatia, Editorial Intern, The ConversationLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2112532023-08-16T12:28:34Z2023-08-16T12:28:34ZOppenheimer often used Sanskrit verses, and the Bhagavad Gita was special for him − but not in the way Christopher Nolan’s film depicts it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542213/original/file-20230810-21-j2fxu7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C13%2C4452%2C2984&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The words Robert Oppenheimer quoted from the Gita, seen written in dust on part of a deactivated nuclear missile at the Pima Air & Space Museum. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-words-of-robert-oppenheimer-an-inventor-of-the-atomic-news-photo/473277288?adppopup=true">Brendan Smialowski/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A scene in the film “Oppenheimer,” in which the physicist is quoting a Bhagavad Gita verse while making love, has upset some Hindus. The information commissioner of the Indian government, <a href="https://twitter.com/UdayMahurkar/status/1682824374238466048">Uday Mahurkar, said in an open letter</a> the scene was a “direct assault on religious beliefs of a billion tolerant Hindus” and alleged that it amounted to “waging a war on the Hindu community.” He also said that it almost appeared to be “part of a larger conspiracy by anti-Hindu forces.” </p>
<p>It is hard to say how many Hindus were offended by the Gita quote in a sexually charged scene, but there were those who disagreed with the views expressed in the tweet. <a href="https://www.firstpost.com/opinion/why-oppenheimer-controversy-is-a-misplaced-outrage-over-bhagavad-gita-12925572.html">Pavan K. Varma, a former diplomat, wrote</a> that the controversy was a “misplaced outrage.” </p>
<p>Some others were <a href="https://twitter.com/HinduAmerican/status/1684209365249671168">not offended, just disappointed</a> that the context of the lines quoted from the Bhagavad Gita was not brought out well. I should also add that Hindu texts composed over 1,000 years, starting around the sixth century B.C.E., have Sanskrit mantras for every occasion, including reciting some ritually before having sex. But they are context-specific, and certainly the Bhagavad Gita would not be used. </p>
<p>Overall, the controversy brought attention to the words quoted by J. Robert Oppenheimer while looking at the erupting fireball from the atomic bomb explosion in Los Alamos, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945: “<a href="https://www.wired.com/story/manhattan-project-robert-oppenheimer/">Now, I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds</a>.” These words are a a paraphrase of <a href="https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/11/verse/32">Bhagavad Gita 11:32</a> where Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu – whom many Hindus think of as the supreme being – says that he is kala, or time. </p>
<p>Kala also means “death.” Oppenheimer’s teacher, <a href="http://texts.cdlib.org/view?docId=hb0g50035s&doc.view=frames&chunk.id=div00011&toc.depth=1&toc.id=">Arthur Ryder, a professor of Sanskrit at the University of California, Berkeley</a>, had translated the verse as “Death am I, and my present task Destruction.” </p>
<p>Beyond the sex squabble, the biopic can be a good starting point to understand how Oppenheimer’s deep knowledge of the Bhagavad Gita and other Sanskrit texts helped him with his assignment in New Mexico. It can also be a catalyst for the public to have some hard conversations about weapons of mass destruction. </p>
<h2>Wisdom of the Gita and the Panchatantra</h2>
<p>As an undergraduate at Harvard University, Oppenheimer read Hindu texts in translation, but at Berkeley, he learned Sanskrit from Ryder, meeting in his teacher’s home on <a href="https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,853367-6,00.html">long winter evenings</a>. On Oct. 7, 1933, he wrote to his brother Frank that he had been reading the Gita with two other Sanskritists.</p>
<p>This text was special to Oppenheimer, more than other books. He <a href="https://www.academia.edu/42699096/The_Gita_of_J_Robert_Oppenheimer_by_James_A_Hijiya">called it</a> “the most beautiful philosophical song existing in any known tongue,” <a href="https://archive.org/details/storyofjrobertop0000roya">and he gave copies to friends</a>. When talking at a memorial service for President Franklin D. Roosevelt, he <a href="https://archive.org/details/robertoppenheime00oppe">quoted his own translation of Bhagavad Gita 17:3</a>, “Man is a creature whose substance is faith. What his faith is, he is.”</p>
<p>Oppenheimer’s reaction, when he looked at the mighty explosion, seems to be close to what the German theologian Rudolf Otto called “<a href="https://oxfordre.com/religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-88;jsessionid=144E00E3B5FE35D9B0C12F98B86E6FB6?rskey=THv4iA&result=7">numinous</a>” – a combination of awe and fascination at this majesty. His reaction was to think of the Bhagavad Gita’s verse 11:12: “If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one.”</p>
<p>Oppenheimer also read many other Sanskrit texts, including the fifth-century Sanskrit poet Kalidasa’s “Cloud Messenger,” or “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Meghaduta">Meghaduta</a>,” and his letters show familiarity with “The Three Hundred Poems of Moral Values,” or the “Satakatrayam,” a work from the sixth century C.E. From his quoting the text in many contexts, he seems to have been fond of the <a href="https://sites.pitt.edu/%7Edash/panchatantra.html">Panchatantra</a>,“ a text of animal fables with pragmatic morals. Ryder, Oppenheimer’s Sanskrit mentor, had also translated this book of <a href="https://archive.org/details/Panchatantra_Arthur_W_Ryder">charming stories with sometimes cynical messages</a>.</p>
<p>Oppenheimer’s familiarity with the Panchatantra is also evident in the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-66288900">naming of his new car Garuda</a>, after the eagle-vehicle of Lord Vishnu. He explained the name to his brother, not with the bird’s well-known connection with Vishnu, but by alluding to a <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=du3LAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA307&">lesser-known story</a> from the Panchatantra, in which a carpenter makes a wooden flying vehicle shaped like the mythical Garuda for his friend.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542873/original/file-20230815-17-lmss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man wearing a black jacket and tie, with his hands on a paper folder, speaking to an audience." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542873/original/file-20230815-17-lmss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542873/original/file-20230815-17-lmss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542873/original/file-20230815-17-lmss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542873/original/file-20230815-17-lmss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=485&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542873/original/file-20230815-17-lmss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=609&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542873/original/file-20230815-17-lmss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=609&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542873/original/file-20230815-17-lmss2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=609&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">J. Robert Oppenheimer testifying before the U.S. Senate’s Special Committee on Atomic Energy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Keystone/Hulton Archives via Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,853367-6,00.html">Oppenheimer loved a Sanskrit epigram</a> from the Panchatantra: "Scholarship is less than sense, therefore seek intelligence.” The line is a <a href="http://panchatantra.org/imprudence/the-lion-that-sprang-to-life-1.html">rueful reflection at the end of a story</a> in which four men go to seek their fortune. </p>
<p>Three of them were learned scholars who held the fourth in low esteem. On their path, they came across some bones. On seeing those, the first, believing the bones to be of a lion, said that he could put the skeleton together. The second said he would the graft skin and flesh on it, and the third said he would make it come to life. The fourth – believed to be the less learned person – warned them against it. However, when they insisted on going ahead, he asked them to wait until he could climb a tree for safety. The lion came to life and devoured the three scholars. </p>
<p><a href="https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,853367-6,00.html">Oppenheimer used the Sanskrit verse that followed</a> this story often. From the Gita, he learned and rationalized that it was his duty to build the bomb, and it was the leaders’ duty to use it wisely. In other words, <a href="https://www.academia.edu/42699096/The_Gita_of_J_Robert_Oppenheimer_by_James_A_Hijiya">Oppenheimer went along with government decisions</a> not because they were government decisions but because he thought political decision-making was the duty of government leaders, not scientists. </p>
<h2>A missing discussion</h2>
<p>It is hard to know director Christopher Nolan’s motivation for juxtaposing the Gita verse with an intimate scene – it could be creative license or simply <a href="https://theconversation.com/orientalism-edward-saids-groundbreaking-book-explained-197429">Orientalism</a>, or the West’s stereotypical description of the East. Given Oppenheimer’s deep love for the Bhagavad Gita, he would not have, I believe, quoted the text with disrespect. </p>
<p>As for the Hindus who are offended, there could be multiple reasons: It could be the centuries of <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-26873149">a colonial gaze</a> that was fascinated with and horrified by the erotic in Indian spirituality.</p>
<p>For example, the 10th-century temples of Khajuraho – <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/khajuraho-temples-are-more-than-just-erotic-here-are-some-interesting-facts/articleshow/70192795.cms">where only about 10% of the sculptures are erotic</a> – and texts like the Kamasutra informed early missionary views on Hinduism. It could also be that some Hindus valorize <a href="https://vivekavani.com/swami-vivekananda-quotes-renunciation-sannyasa/">the spirit of renunciation</a> and the ascetic impulse of some Hindu texts. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542214/original/file-20230810-25-fuh1e4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An aerial photo showing a large dark center with disbursing particles in the distance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542214/original/file-20230810-25-fuh1e4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/542214/original/file-20230810-25-fuh1e4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542214/original/file-20230810-25-fuh1e4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542214/original/file-20230810-25-fuh1e4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=315&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542214/original/file-20230810-25-fuh1e4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542214/original/file-20230810-25-fuh1e4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/542214/original/file-20230810-25-fuh1e4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An aerial view after the first atomic explosion at the Trinity test site in New Mexico on July 16, 1945.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/OppenheimerNewMexicoLegacy/3a45ce040c8b4f10af4e38d456dd3f81/photo?Query=atomic%20bomb%20oppenheimer&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=53&currentItemNo=22">AP Photo, File</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>But beyond this controversy, this film offers an opportunity to reflect on more profound issues. The detonation of atomic bombs led to <a href="https://thebulletin.org/2020/08/counting-the-dead-at-hiroshima-and-nagasaki/">the death of possibly 200,000 people in Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a> and <a href="https://www.icanw.org/hiroshima_and_nagasaki_bombings">horrific effects on survivors</a>. Kai Bird, coauthor of the book on which the biopic Oppenheimer is based, said that he hopes the film “will <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/17/opinion/kai-bird-oppenheimer-christopher-nolan.html?action=click&module=RelatedLinks&pgtype=Article">initiate a national conversation</a> not only about our existential relationship to weapons of mass destruction but also the need in our society for scientists as public intellectuals.” </p>
<p>While that would be valuable, an important discussion, left out from the narrative, is about the ethics of American leaders who <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/30/opinion/international-world/oppenheimer-nuclear-bomb-cancer.html">knowingly caused harm</a> at the time. The atomic test explosion led to devastating health consequences for about 13,000 New Mexicans who lived within a 50-mile radius and were not warned beforehand or afterward. This exposure to radioactive material took a toll over several generations. </p>
<p>In the end, the lesson is that the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita have to be balanced with the pragmatic lessons of the Panchatantra. Despite Oppenheimer’s quoting the Panchatantra about common sense being more important than intellectual scholarship, his own interpretation of duty gave undue credit and power to political leaders. </p>
<p>With the atomic explosion in New Mexico, the lion from the Panchatantra story that Oppenheimer cautioned about did come to life, and some may say it lives in a straw cage.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211253/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vasudha Narayanan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Oppenheimer’s knowledge of Sanskrit literature was more than cursory. He used quotes and parables from Sanskrit texts as a guide to right actions in his life.Vasudha Narayanan, Distinguished Professor of Religion, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2086412023-07-11T12:31:14Z2023-07-11T12:31:14ZModi’s gift of ‘10 danas’ – the 10 donations – to Biden reflects ancient Hindu wisdom and carries a deep symbolism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536641/original/file-20230710-12423-ykj999.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=12%2C5%2C1183%2C668&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An image of one of the gifts that Prime Minister Modi gave to President Biden – the '10 danas,' or 10 donations – each with a specific symbolism.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroompost.com/india/pm-modis-gift-to-president-joe-biden/5261962.html">Newsroom Post Press Release</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>During his state visit to the United States in late June 2023, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi presented several gifts to U.S. President Joe Biden and first lady Jill Biden. Among those were the “10 danas,” items with symbolic importance in Indian traditions. I study these traditions in my work as a <a href="https://www.etown.edu/depts/religious-studies/faculty.aspx">scholar of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism</a>. Each of the danas is believed to have an auspicious meaning.</p>
<h2>What are the 10 danas?</h2>
<p>The 10 danas are (1) til, or sesame seeds; (2) a gold coin; (3) a cow, though Biden received a silver image of a coconut as a substitute; (4) a piece of land, in place of which Biden received a piece of fragrant sandalwood; (5) ghee (clarified butter); (6) cloth - for which Biden received a piece of silk; (7) long-grained rice; (8) a piece of jaggery, a very sweet brown sugar made in India from palm tree sap; (9) a silver coin; and (10) some salt.</p>
<p>What does <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44146016">each substance represent</a>?</p>
<p>Sesame seeds are a symbol of immortality. According to a story in the Puranas, or books of ancient lore about the Hindu deities, during the churning of the ocean, the sweat of Hindu Lord Vishnu dropped to the Earth in the form of sesame seeds. The <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23002226">churning of the ocean</a> was an event, famous in Hindu literature, in which the devas, or deities, and the asuras, or demonic beings, joined forces to acquire a life-giving substance called amrita that had sunk to the ocean floor. This required great exertion, especially on the part of Lord Vishnu, who transformed himself into a giant tortoise to play his role in the process.</p>
<p>Gold is considered purifying and also is symbolic of wealth and prosperity. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1178915">cow is a symbol of life and of nurturing</a>. The substitution of the silver image of a coconut for an actual cow reflects a common Hindu ritual in which an actual coconut is used in a ceremony to substitute for some other object that is unavailable or that would be impractical to include.</p>
<p>The gift of a piece of land also represents wealth. Traditionally, the gift of an actual piece of land is something one could draw upon in times of financial difficulty. It could be cultivated, rented out, and so on.</p>
<p>Ghee, or clarified butter, is an element in Hindu rituals <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24663482">going back to at least the second millennium B.C.</a> It represents both nourishment and healing.</p>
<p>Cloth represents financial security: one’s ability to obtain the necessities of life, such as decent clothing.</p>
<p>Rice, in India, has long been a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Subhash-Ahuja/publication/321334487_Rice_in_Religion_and_Tradition/links/5bf4de87a6fdcc3a8de62413/Rice-in-Religion-and-Tradition.pdf">symbol of fertility</a>. The ability to grow rice has been vital to life in most of India since before recorded history.</p>
<p>The sweetness of the jaggery represents good news. Giving it represents a hope that one will receive good news and hear <a href="https://journalppw.com/index.php/jpsp/article/view/11683/7568">auspicious things in the years ahead</a>.</p>
<p>Silver is connected with the Moon in Hindu symbolism – as gold is connected with the Sun. The gift of silver is a wish that one will <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/0972639X.2004.11886506">have good dreams and undisturbed sleep</a>. </p>
<p>Finally, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44146016">salt is a symbol of Lakshmi</a>, the goddess of prosperity. Like salt, she is said to have emerged from the ocean. Salt thus represents lifelong prosperity.</p>
<h2>A thousand full moons</h2>
<p>The 10 danas are given to someone who has seen 1,000 full moons, or “sahasra chandra.” This is an ancient practice first <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00856401.2014.858659">described in a set of texts called the “Grihya Sutras</a>,” which date from roughly 500 B.C. These sutras, or authoritative texts, describe household rituals and regulations. The practices they enjoin are rooted in the culture of the Vedas, the <a href="https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe29/index.htm">oldest sacred literature of Hinduism</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536638/original/file-20230710-11159-5ln9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi greeting first lady Jill Biden and President Joe Biden" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536638/original/file-20230710-11159-5ln9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/536638/original/file-20230710-11159-5ln9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536638/original/file-20230710-11159-5ln9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536638/original/file-20230710-11159-5ln9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536638/original/file-20230710-11159-5ln9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536638/original/file-20230710-11159-5ln9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/536638/original/file-20230710-11159-5ln9qo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi presents several gifts to President Joe Biden on his recent state visit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/5447d3c095c04974a667435d389c14f3?ext=true">AP Photo/Evan Vucci</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>The full moon is an auspicious symbol in many Indian traditions. The full moon day, or Purnima, of each month is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/soutjanth.20.1.3629413">time when many people engage in religious observances</a>. The full moon day is the culmination of the “bright half,” or the shukla paksha, of each month in the Indian lunar calendar. The bright half is the roughly two-week period during which the Moon is waxing, and is seen as a better time to undertake any important activity. Seeing the full moon is an auspicious act, so having seen a thousand full moons is a particularly auspicious and noteworthy event in one’s life.</p>
<p>The ceremony is typically <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00856401.2014.858659">performed for someone who is between the ages of 81 and 84</a>, though Modi gave the 10 gifts to Biden on the occasion of his reaching the age of 80. Giving these gifts amounts to congratulating the recipient for having lived a long life – itself a sign of virtue and wisdom – and wishing continued good luck, health and prosperity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/208641/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffery D. Long does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>One of the gifts that Prime Minister Modi gave to President Biden symbolizes the recipient’s having seen 1,000 full moons, implying a long and auspicious life.Jeffery D. Long, Professor of Religion and Asian Studies, Elizabethtown CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1978692023-06-14T12:35:08Z2023-06-14T12:35:08ZWhy this year’s summer solstice matters so much for a new religious movement mired in controversy<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527130/original/file-20230518-27-mo3hkl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C4%2C1000%2C661&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A woman teaches a dance form, known as bhangra, during a 3HO gathering. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mrsikhnet/2624619371">Gurumustuk Singh/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Throngs of people, most wearing white clothing and many adorned in <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/426737">traditional Sikh attire</a>, gathered in the Jemez mountains of New Mexico in June 2019. The occasion was the summer solstice. Those who came to celebrate were part of a community started in the U.S. in 1969 by an Indian Sikh man named Harbhajan Singh Puri, who later became known as Yogi Bhajan or Siri Singh Sahib. Puri was a Punjabi Sikh who had worked as a customs agent in India before moving to Canada and then to the U.S. He <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2008.00068.x">gained a following</a> while teaching yoga in the U.S. </p>
<p>Puri’s followers formed a community that has spawned a number of organizations since its founding, and although it doesn’t have a single comprehensive moniker, the community is often referred to by two key organizations connected to it: <a href="https://www.3ho.org/">3HO</a>, which gets its name from the “three H’s” that stand for happy, healthy and holy, and <a href="https://www.sikhdharma.org/">Sikh Dharma International, or SDI</a>. Although the community has acquired <a href="https://www.3ho.org/events/level-1-bali-immersion-2023/">members across the world</a>, it remains largely U.S.-based. </p>
<p>Since 2019, the community has not gathered to mark the summer solstice. After a hiatus of three years, 3HO and SDI will once again hold a large-scale summer solstice event in June 2023. This gathering serves as an important opportunity for members scattered across the U.S. and across the globe to meet. As a <a href="https://www.memphis.edu/sociology/people/faculty_and_staff/simranjit-khalsa.php">sociologist of religion</a>, I have spent years researching this community, and I was also raised within it. This gives me a strong sense of the stakes of reopening the annual solstice celebration. </p>
<h2>3HO, SDI and the Sikh Panth</h2>
<p>Founded in 1969, 3HO is focused on the practice of kundalini yoga. Kundalini yoga uses various postures, chanting and breathing exercises to raise one’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17448727.2012.745303">kundalini, a form of sacred energy</a> that some schools of Hindu thought believe rests at the base of the spine.</p>
<p>SDI, formed in 1973, is focused on sharing the Sikh religion as taught by Puri. <a href="https://theconversation.com/who-are-the-sikhs-and-what-are-their-beliefs-97237">The Sikh religion is a tradition that originated in India</a> and is often closely tied to an ethnic identity. Within the 3HO and SDI communities as a whole, practitioners often see kundalini yoga and the Sikh religion as bound together, with one being a pathway to the other. Although each organization has a different focus, for members at the core of the community, the practices taught by each aren’t separable in their regular religious and spiritual practice. </p>
<p>The community is made up of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2008.00068.x">mostly converts to the Sikh faith</a>, and practitioners within it have <a href="https://india.oup.com/product/sikhs-at-large-9780195685985?">not always been accepted by Punjabi Sikhs</a>. Tensions between them and Punjabi Sikhs <a href="https://academic.oup.com/socrel/article-abstract/78/3/340/3940212">stem from a number of differences</a>, which include the practice of kundalini yoga, all-white attire and the reverence often shown for Puri. </p>
<p>In the wider Sikh community, yoga is not typically thought of as a Sikh practice, there is no religious imperative for wearing white clothing, and giving religious reverence to a living figure is largely frowned upon. The summer solstice celebration itself, which is not typically marked by Punjabi Sikhs, is another substantial difference. </p>
<h2>Summer solstice and current challenges</h2>
<p>The structure of the summer solstice event has varied over the decades, but <a href="https://www.3ho.org/summer-solstice/">major elements included</a> a daylong prayer for world peace, yoga classes, meditation and Sikh gurdwara, or temple, services.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A group of people sitting together and clapping." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530641/original/file-20230607-30-nbkt16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530641/original/file-20230607-30-nbkt16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530641/original/file-20230607-30-nbkt16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530641/original/file-20230607-30-nbkt16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530641/original/file-20230607-30-nbkt16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530641/original/file-20230607-30-nbkt16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530641/original/file-20230607-30-nbkt16.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Summer solstice has been a time for community members to gather and engage with one another.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/3HO_Summer_Solstice_1970.jpg">Kundalini Research Institute and Teachings of Yogi Bhajan, via Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, until this year, the community had not gathered to mark the summer solstice since 2019. This was partly due to the pandemic but also likely because it has been mired in crises. Since the death of Puri in 2004, a <a href="https://www.sfreporter.com/news/coverstories/2010/07/07/khalsa-vs-khalsa/">struggle for control of power and community resources</a> followed, though the community largely held itself together. </p>
<p>In 2020, however, <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/869564/pdf">allegations of sexual assault and abuse</a> leveled against Puri led many within the community to share additional allegations against other community members and community organizations. In remote meetings open to people connected to the community, some of which I attended, the <a href="https://religionnews.com/2020/08/18/yogi-bhajan-yoga-guru-and-founder-of-3ho-more-likely-than-not-sexually-abused-followers-says-report/">children of community members also voiced concerns</a> about physical and sexual abuse and neglect they had experienced in schools and camps initially created for children of the community. One example is the school <a href="https://miripiriacademy.org/">Miri Piri Academy</a> in Amritsar, a city in northern India.</p>
<p>An <a href="https://kundaliniresearchinstitute.org/en/timeline/report-by-an-olive-branch-issued/">independent organization set up to investigate the allegations</a> concluded in the fall of 2020 that “<a href="https://epsweb.org/an-olive-branch-report/">it is more likely than not</a>” that Puri engaged in several types of sexual misconduct.</p>
<p>Now, four years since the last large-scale gathering on the summer solstice, the community will once again <a href="https://www.3ho.org/summer-solstice/">open Ram Das Puri</a>, a plot of land in the mountains of New Mexico owned by the <a href="https://ssscorp.org/">Siri Singh Sahib Corp.</a>, another arm of the community that manages its assets and resources, to mark the summer solstice.</p>
<p>As the community gathers, it will be a time of reckoning with the past. In light of recent crises, attendance at the event may well indicate whether the community still retains a wide enough base to support it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197869/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simranjit Steel does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>3HO was founded in 1969, and SDI followed five years later. What are they, and what is the significance of the 2023 summer solstice for their followers?Simranjit Steel, Assistant Professor of Sociology, University of MemphisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2048692023-05-10T20:29:33Z2023-05-10T20:29:33ZFrom Kali to Mary to Neopagan goddesses, religions revere motherhood in sometimes unexpected ways<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524986/original/file-20230508-266123-ubmkq8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1024%2C683&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People admire a massive statue of the Hindu goddess Kali.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-admire-a-massive-statue-of-the-hindu-goddess-kali-in-news-photo/167435402?adppopup=true">Jerry Redfern/LightRocket via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As we approach Mother’s Day, many groups will hold special events or services to celebrate the holiday. In the United States, Mother’s Day was originally founded in 1908 at <a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/2015631666/">Andrews Methodist Episcopal Church in West Virginia</a> and <a href="https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/may-09/">became a nationally recognized holiday</a> in 1914. The mid-May date spread around the world, though many countries still maintain their own <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/holidays/mothers-day">dates and traditions</a>.</p>
<p>Religions around the world use these days to honor the importance of many kinds of nurturing, from traditional celebrations to events that honor modern parenting, infertility struggles <a href="https://www.resourceumc.org/en/content/honor-moms-on-mothers-day-without-hurting-others">or the pain of losing a child</a></p>
<p>Motherhood and nurturing are not celebrated only on particular days, however. Many religions include goddess-centered traditions that embrace many forms of the divine feminine as central to their belief systems. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://religiousstudies.wvu.edu/faculty-and-staff/faculty/alyssa-beall">religious studies professor</a> who travels with students around the world to explore different cultures and practices, I have often noticed the interest students have in the variety of goddess traditions we encounter. </p>
<h2>Asian traditions</h2>
<p><a href="https://pluralism.org/devotion-to-guanyin">Guan Yin</a>, who goes by many variations of her name, is revered as the goddess of compassion and mercy in several different Eastern traditions. Beginning – interestingly enough – as a male bodhisattva called <a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/beginners-guide-asian-culture/buddhist-art-culture/a/bodhisattva-avalokiteshvara">Avalokiteshvara</a>, the goddess figure was adapted in many different cultures around the world. Called Kannon in Japan and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44632366">Quan Am in Vietnam</a>, she is frequently a <a href="https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e3001.html">focal point of temple worship</a> and is also considered the guardian of sailors and a goddess of fertility.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People walk through a rice field that has been designed to look like a picture of a goddess with many arms." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524987/original/file-20230508-170642-hemmmm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An aerial view of a 3D rice field painting of Guan Yin at an agriculture industrial park in 2021 in Shenyang, China.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/aerial-view-of-a-3d-rice-field-painting-of-thousand-hand-news-photo/1329044233?adppopup=true">Zhang Wenkui/VCG via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of the most well-known goddesses in Hinduism, meanwhile, is perhaps the least understood from an outside perspective. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kali">Kali is often seen as a terrifying figure</a>, depicted using multiple weapons and dressed in clothing of severed heads and arms. Yet Kali is also an important mother figure <a href="https://kashgar.com.au/blogs/gods-goddesses/kali-a-most-misunderstood-goddess">who channels her ferocity into the care and defense of all creation</a>. As a manifestation of the primal force of <a href="https://pluralism.org/many-ma%E2%80%99s-goddess-in-america">Shakti</a>, Kali is essentially all aspects of motherhood wrapped up into one, often simultaneously caring, loving and fierce.</p>
<h2>The triple goddess</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Neo-Paganism">Neopaganism</a>, an umbrella term for a diverse group of <a href="https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/factsheets/factsheet-new-religious-movements/">new religious movements</a> most popular in <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/paganism-witchcraft-are-making-comeback-rcna54444">the United States, Australia and Europe</a>, goddess figures also often play a primary role. Neopaganism’s various branches <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-wicca-an-expert-on-modern-witchcraft-explains-165939">include Wicca</a> and <a href="https://www.paganfed.org/hellenism/">Hellenic reconstructionism</a>, a religion that focuses on the gods and goddesses of Ancient Greece. </p>
<p>Of primary importance for many Neopagans is the triple goddess, a figure who encompasses the <a href="https://www.learnreligions.com/maiden-mother-and-crone-2562881">three aspects of maiden, mother and crone</a>. Sometimes these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15665399.2008.10819974">goddess figures</a> are based on specific ancient deities, such as Persephone, Demeter and Hekate, and sometimes they are worshipped more generally as representations of <a href="https://www.eviemagazine.com/post/the-maiden-mother-and-crone-the-three-stages-of-womanhood">various phases of life</a>.</p>
<p>More recently, many of these traditions are intentionally expanding to <a href="https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1056&context=socanth_honproj">reject ideas of gender essentialism</a> and embrace a range of identities. For some Neopagans, exploring what femininity and masculinity signify in today’s society is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8171.2012.00367.x">an important extension of religious belief</a> and a way to include people who have felt rejected from other religious communities. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman wearing dark clothing smudges a substance on the forehead of another woman with her eyes closed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524989/original/file-20230508-242259-va4d45.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Wiccan high priestess blesses another priestess during a seasonal sabbat in honor of Brigid, a Celtic goddess, in 2020 in Rio de Janeiro.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/jussara-gabriel-a-wiccan-high-priestess-blesses-the-first-news-photo/1228124551?adppopup=true">Andre Coelho/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Beyond the goddess</h2>
<p>Many other religions revere mother figures, even if they are not worshipped or considered goddesses. <a href="https://al-furqan.com/the-mother-of-the-faithful-khadijah-bint-khuwaylid/">Khadija</a>, the wife of the Prophet Muhammad and the first convert to Islam, is given the title “the Mother of Believers,” signifying her importance for the development of the religion. Devotion to <a href="https://theconversation.com/5-things-to-know-about-mary-the-mother-of-jesus-172483">Mary, mother of Jesus</a>, has been <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300157529/the-madonna-of-115th-street/">common throughout the history of Christianity</a> and remains popular today. In Judaism, the idea of “<a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/the-divine-feminine-in-kabbalah-an-example-of-jewish-renewal/">Shekinah</a>” has been influential in some <a href="https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/history/articles/feminism-changes-study-jewish-thought">feminist thought</a>. Rather than representing a single woman or female figure, Shekinah is seen as the feminine aspect of the divine, <a href="https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/2438527/jewish/The-Shechina.htm">a manifestation of God’s wisdom</a> on Earth.</p>
<p>Nurturing and compassion are key concepts in a variety of religions, whether they are represented as specific goddess figures, archetypes of the feminine or new religious developments that embrace shifting ideas about gender.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204869/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alyssa Beall does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Mother figures from faith traditions around the world reflect many different ways of thinking about the divine.Alyssa Beall, Teaching Assistant Professor of Religious Studies, Humanities, and Philosophy, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1975042023-03-08T13:40:23Z2023-03-08T13:40:23ZRobots are performing Hindu rituals – some devotees fear they’ll replace worshippers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513699/original/file-20230306-18-wqvorn.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=5%2C0%2C831%2C422&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A robotic arm (below on right) is used to worship by maneuvering a candle in front of the Hindu god Ganesha.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r1pwR5yABnY&t=4s">Monarch Innovation</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It isn’t just artists and teachers who are losing sleep over advances in automation and artificial intelligence. Robots are being brought into Hinduism’s holiest rituals – and not all worshippers are happy about it.</p>
<p>In 2017, a <a href="https://patilautomation.com/">technology firm in India</a> introduced a robotic arm to perform “aarti,” a ritual in which a devotee offers an oil lamp to the deity to symbolize the removal of darkness. This particular robot was unveiled at the Ganpati festival, a yearly gathering of millions of people in which an icon of Ganesha, the elephant-headed god, is taken out in a procession and immersed in the Mula-Mutha river in Pune in central India.</p>
<p>Ever since, that robotic aarti arm has inspired several prototypes, a <a href="https://www.monarch-innovation.com/ganesh-aarti-with-robotic-arm-technology/">few of which</a> continue to regularly perform the ritual <a href="https://www.deccanchronicle.com/technology/in-other-news/140918/techno-artistic-ganesha-watch-lord-ganesha-levitate-robot-conduct-aa.html">across India today</a>, along with a variety of other religious robots <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/rrcs/7/1/article-p120_120.xml?language=en">throughout East Asia</a> and <a href="https://www.dukeupress.edu/the-cow-in-the-elevator">South Asia</a>. Robotic rituals even now include <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/india/kerala-temple-elephant-robot-peta-b2291054.html">an animatronic temple elephant</a> in Kerala on India’s southern coast.</p>
<p>Yet this kind of religious robotic usage has led to <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/all-that-matters/hindu-epics-are-full-of-ai-robots-legend-has-it-that-they-guarded-buddhas-relics/articleshow/68648962.cms">increasing debates</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/meenakandasamy/status/1577242445913370624">about the use of AI</a> and robotic technology in devotion and worship. Some devotees and priests feel that this represents a new horizon in human innovation that will lead to the betterment of society, while others worry that <a href="https://doi.org/10.4000/assr.27792">using robots to replace practitioners</a> is a bad omen for the future. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jUOo9sXdU2g?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Ganesha aarti being done by a robotic arm.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=d_8EGoUAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">anthropologist who specializes in religion,</a> however, I focus less on the theology of robotics and more on what people actually say and do when it comes to their spiritual practices. My current work on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxfYcSC-MRY">religious robots</a> primarily centers on the notion of “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/717110">divine object-persons</a>,” where otherwise inanimate things are viewed as having a living, conscious essence. </p>
<p>My work also looks at the uneasiness Hindus and Buddhists express about ritual-performing automatons replacing people and whether those automatons actually might make <a href="https://www.globalbuddhism.org/article/view/1285">better devotees</a>. </p>
<h2>Ritual automation is not new</h2>
<p>Ritual automation, or at least the idea of robotic spiritual practice, isn’t new in South Asian religions. </p>
<p>Historically, this has included anything from special <a href="https://www.hindu-blog.com/2012/09/symbolism-in-water-pot-above-shivling.html">pots that drip water continuously</a> for bathing rituals that Hindus routinely perform for their deity icons, called abhisheka, to <a href="https://rubinmuseum.org/collection/artwork/wind-powered-prayer-wheel-20.406">wind-powered Buddhist prayer wheels</a> – the kinds often seen in yoga studios and supply stores. </p>
<p>While the contemporary version of automated ritual might look like downloading a <a href="https://appadvice.com/apps/hindu-prayer-apps">phone app that chants mantras</a> without the need for any prayer object at all, such as a mala or rosary, these new versions of ritual-performing robots have prompted complicated conversations.</p>
<p>Thaneswar Sarmah, a Sanskrit scholar and literary critic, <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/69030981">argues that the first Hindu robot</a> appeared in the stories of King Manu, the first king of the human race in Hindu belief. Manu’s mother, Saranyu – herself the daughter of a great architect – built an animate statue to perfectly perform all of her household chores and ritual obligations. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A male figure wearing a crown and holding a red bag in one hand." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=745&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=745&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=745&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=936&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=936&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/513705/original/file-20230306-22-u4zgsi.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=936&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Visvakarman, considered to be the architect of the universe in Hindu belief.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1880-0-2021">British Museum</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Folklorist <a href="https://web.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/Mayor.html">Adrienne Mayor</a> <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691183510/gods-and-robots">remarks similarly</a> that religious stories about mechanized icons from Hindu epics, such as the mechanical war chariots of the Hindu engineer god Visvakarman, are often viewed as the progenitors of religious robots today.</p>
<p>Furthermore, these stories are sometimes interpreted by modern-day nationalists as evidence that ancient India has previously invented <a href="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/all-that-matters/hindu-epics-are-full-of-ai-robots-legend-has-it-that-they-guarded-buddhas-relics/articleshow/68648962.cms">everything from spacecraft to missiles</a>.</p>
<h2>Modern traditions or traditionally modern?</h2>
<p>However, the recent use of AI and robotics in religious practice is leading to concerns among Hindus and Buddhists about the kind of future to which automation could lead. In some instances, the debate among Hindus is about whether automated religion promises the arrival of humanity into a <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Digital-Hinduism/Zeiler/p/book/9781032086484">bright, new, technological future</a> or if it is simply <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768616652332">evidence of the coming apocalypse</a>. </p>
<p>In other cases, there are concerns that the proliferation of robots might lead to greater numbers of people leaving religious practice as temples begin to rely more on automation than on practitioners to care for their deities. Some of these concerns stem from the fact that many religions, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2018/06/13/young-adults-around-the-world-are-less-religious-by-several-measures/">both in South Asia</a> and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/33489?login=false">globally</a>, have seen significant decreases in the number of young people willing to dedicate their lives to spiritual education and practice over the past few decades. Furthermore, with many families living in a diaspora scattered across the world, priests or “pandits” are often serving smaller and smaller communities.</p>
<p>But if the answer to the problem of <a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/why-not-rituals-with-robotic-precision-/articleshow/60214893.cms">fewer ritual specialists is more robots</a>, people still question whether ritual automation will benefit them. They also question the concurrent use of robotic deities to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12369-019-00553-8">embody and personify the divine</a>, since these icons are programmed by people and therefore reflect the religious views of their engineers.</p>
<h2>Doing right by religion</h2>
<p>Scholars often note that these concerns all tend to reflect one pervasive theme – an underlying anxiety that, somehow, the robots are better at worshipping gods than humans are. They can also raise inner conflicts about the meaning of <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.ca/books/122339/the-religion-of-technology-by-david-f-noble/9780307828538">life and one’s place in the universe</a>. </p>
<p>For Hindus and Buddhists, the rise of ritual automation is especially concerning because their traditions emphasize what religion scholars <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-3881.2011.00188.x">refer to as orthopraxy</a>, where greater importance is placed on correct ethical and liturgical behavior than on specific beliefs in religious doctrines. In other words, perfecting what you do in terms of your religious practice is viewed as more necessary to spiritual advancement than whatever it is you personally believe.</p>
<p>This also means that automated rituals appear on a spectrum that progresses from human ritual fallibility to robotic ritual perfection. In short, the robot can do your religion better than you can because robots, unlike people, are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768616683326">spiritually incorruptible</a>. </p>
<p>This not only makes robots attractive replacements for dwindling priesthoods but also explains their increasing use in everyday contexts: People use them because no one worries about the robot getting it wrong, and they are often better than nothing when the options for ritual performance are limited.</p>
<h2>Saved by a robot</h2>
<p>In the end, turning to a robot for religious restoration in modern Hinduism or Buddhism might seem futuristic, but it belongs very much to the present moment. It tells us that Hinduism, Buddhism and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11841-019-00753-9">other religions in South Asia</a> are increasingly being <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4623070">imagined as post- or transhuman</a>: deploying technological ingenuity to transcend human weaknesses because robots don’t get tired, forget what they’re supposed to say, fall asleep or leave. </p>
<p>More specifically, this means that robotic automation is being used to perfect ritual practices in East Asia and South Asia – especially in India and Japan – beyond what would be possible for a human devotee, by linking impossibly consistent and flawless ritual accomplishment with an idea of better religion. </p>
<p>Modern robotics might then feel like a particular kind of cultural paradox, where the best kind of religion is the one that eventually involves no humans at all. But in this circularity of humans creating robots, robots becoming gods, and gods becoming human, we’ve only managed to, once again, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197549803.013.3">re-imagine ourselves</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197504/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Holly Walters does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The use of AI and robotic technology in worship is raising profound questions about its long-term consequences. Will it lead to the betterment of society or replace practitioners?Holly Walters, Visiting Lecturer in Anthropology, Wellesley CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2008862023-03-07T13:44:36Z2023-03-07T13:44:36ZDiscrimination based on caste is pervasive in South Asian communities around the world – now Seattle has banned it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/513238/original/file-20230302-344-1unfus.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C5635%2C3759&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Speakers discussing the proposed ordinance to add caste to Seattle’s anti-discrimination laws at Seattle City Hall, on Feb. 21, 2023.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SeattleCasteDebate/adce28b7f87c4f5896b9650d20b89d43/photo?Query=seattle%20caste&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=33&currentItemNo=18">AP Photo/John Froschauer</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Seattle became the first city in the U.S. to <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/02/22/1158687243/seattle-becomes-the-first-u-s-city-to-ban-caste-discrimination">outlaw caste-based discrimination</a> against immigrants from stigmatized groups in South Asia’s traditional social hierarchy.</p>
<p>The ordinance, adding caste to Seattle’s existing anti-discrimination policies, was proposed by Kshama Sawant, the only Indian American councilwoman in the city, which is home to an estimated 75,000 Indian Americans. Sawant, herself from a privileged caste background, has been a vocal critic of the discriminatory caste system. Sawant said the ordinance – which was approved on Feb. 21, 2023 – would help put an end to an “<a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/2/17/seattle-council-to-vote-on-law-banning-caste-discrimination">invisible and unaddressed</a>” form of discrimination in Seattle.</p>
<p>A year ago, in January 2022, the California State University, America’s largest public higher education system, also added caste to its <a href="https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2022-01-20/csu-adds-caste-to-its-anti-discrimination-policy">anti-discrimination policy</a>, allowing students, staff and faculty across its 23 campuses to report caste bias and discrimination. </p>
<p>Influential interest groups advocating for the Hindu community in the U.S. have opposed the Seattle decision. The Coalition of Hindus in North America, a Hindu advocacy group, <a href="https://cohna.org/org-letter-opposing-seattle-caste-ordinance/">has called it</a> “nothing but bigotry against the South Asian community by using racist, colonial tropes of caste.”</p>
<p>While the caste system is often conflated in <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616">Western media</a> with the Hindu religion and India alone, that is far from the truth. As <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2016.1152173">social</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12309">scientists</a> specializing in South Asian studies, we assert that the caste system neither is exclusive to the Hindu religion nor is it restricted to India and Indians.</p>
<h2>Caste in South Asia</h2>
<p>While the caste system originated in Hindu scriptures, <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691088952/castes-of-mind">it crystallized in its current form during British colonial rule</a> and has stratified society in every South Asian religious community. In addition to India, it is present in <a href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1875415">Pakistan</a>, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25764189">Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka</a>, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24365026?seq=1">Maldives</a> and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3295446">Bhutan</a>.</p>
<p>Social, economic and political status in this pernicious system is tied to traditional occupations fixed by birth. Brahmins, for example, who were traditionally assigned priestly work, are at the top, and Dalits, relegated to the bottom, are forced into occupations that are considered abject in South Asia. These include janitorial work, maintaining sewage systems, skinning dead animals, and leather tanning. Strict rules of caste-based marriages maintain these boundaries firmly.</p>
<p>Caste organizes social life not only among Hindus but also in Muslim, Christian, Sikh and Buddhist communities in the region. It is an intergenerational system based on birth into a caste group. Caste identities stay even generations after someone converts out of Hinduism and into any of these faiths.</p>
<p>Among <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christian-caste">South Asian Christians</a>, Anglo-Indians – of mixed descent from Indian and British parents – are parallel to Brahmins, who remain at the top of the hierarchy. Middle-level Hindu castes come next, followed by those from Indigenous backgrounds. <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/07/12/8-key-findings-about-christians-in-india/">Those who converted to Christianity from Dalit groups</a> are placed at the bottom. In other words, the system remains unchanged.</p>
<p><a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Caste_and_Social_Stratification_Among_Mu.html?id=8dGFAAAAIAAJ">Muslims across the region</a> are organized with the minority Ashraf communities at the top. The Ashraf community claims noble status as the “original” Muslims in South Asia because of their descent from Central Asian, Iranian and Arab ethnic groups. The middle in this social hierarchy is composed of Ajlaf, considered to be “low-born” communities that converted from Hindu artisanal castes. The group at the bottom includes converts from Dalit communities who are identified with the demeaning term Arzal, which means vile or vulgar. </p>
<p>In the Sikh community, the powerful landowning caste, Jat-Sikhs, <a href="https://www.epw.in/journal/2003/26/special-articles/scheduled-castes-sikh-community.html">are at the top</a>, followed by converts from Hindu trading communities in the middle and converts from lower-caste Hindu communities, Mazhabi Sikhs, at the bottom. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Sikh men wearing colorful turbans and women with their heads covered gather together." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dalit Sikhs gather for a protest in New Delhi.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/IndiaDalitProtest/87814b9fc16e412aa1933d416f10d360/photo?Query=hindus%20caste&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=191&currentItemNo=12">AP Photo/ R S Iyer</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While Buddhism in India is close to being casteless, its dominant versions in Sri Lanka and Nepal have <a href="https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/view/8676">caste-based hierarchies</a>.</p>
<h2>Caste carries over after conversion</h2>
<p>While many of the so-called lower-caste groups converted to escape their persecution in Hinduism, their new religions did not treat them as fully equal.</p>
<p>South Asian Christians, Muslims, Sikhs and Buddhists with Dalit family histories continue to face prejudice from their new co-religionists. They are excluded from or <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4412102?seq=1">experience segregation</a> at shared places of worship <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11229170">and sites of burial or cremation</a> across all these regions.</p>
<p>Social scientists have shown that strict caste-based rules continue to regulate social organization and everyday interactions. Intercaste marriages are rare: for example in India, they have stagnated at about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909619829896">5% of all marriages over the past several decades</a>. When they take place, rule-breaking individuals risk <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-47823588">violent retribution</a>.</p>
<p>While urbanization and education have normalized everyday interactions across caste groups in shared urban spaces, entertaining lower-caste individuals in upper-caste households is still taboo in many families. A 2014 <a href="https://www.ncaer.org/news/biggest-caste-survey-one-in-four-indians-admit-to-practising-untouchability">survey</a> found one in every four Indians to be practicing untouchability, a dehumanizing practice in which people from Dalit castes are not to be touched or allowed to come in contact with upper-caste individuals. Untouchability was prohibited in India in 1950 when its egalitarian constitution came into force. </p>
<p>However, homeownership is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247818812330">segregated</a> by caste, and religion and caste discrimination is <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24482557">pervasive in the rental market</a>, where residential associations use flimsy procedural excuses for keeping lower-caste individuals out. </p>
<p>Lower castes are expected to defer to the higher status of upper castes, refrain from expressing themselves in shared spaces and avoid displaying material affluence. They risk being punished by <a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/india/social-boycott-of-dalit-families-odisha-rights-panel-takes-cognizance-seeks-report-from-officials-6569912/">socioeconomic boycotts</a>, which could include ostracizing the Dalits or keeping them out of employment. </p>
<p>It may even include <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/02/21/india-dalits-wedding-horse/">assault</a> or <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/jun/13/nepal-to-investigate-dalit-killings-following-arranged-marriage-dispute">murder</a>. In Pakistan, anti-blasphemy laws are used as a pretext for <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/12/15/it-is-time-to-talk-about-caste-in-pakistan-and-pakistani-diaspora">caste violence against Dalits</a>, many of whom have <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-35910331">converted to Christianity</a>. </p>
<h2>Caste and life outcomes</h2>
<p>Studies show that caste-based identity is a major determinant of overall <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2109226119">success</a> in South Asia. Upper-caste individuals have better literacy and greater representation in <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1293431.pdf">higher education</a>. They tend to be <a href="http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/Bharti2018.pdf">wealthier</a> and dominate <a href="https://www.epw.in/journal/2007/41/caste-and-economic-discrimination-special-issues/legacy-social-exclusion.html">private-sector employment</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/06/special-articles/caste-and-entrepreneurship-india.html">entrepreneurship</a>. </p>
<p>While <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/9038/WDR2006_0012.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">affirmative action programs</a> initiated by the British and continued in independent India have made improvements in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414021989755">educational levels of lower-caste groups</a>, employment opportunities for them have been limited.</p>
<p>Studies also demonstrate how caste identity affects <a href="https://gsdrc.org/document-library/discrimination-and-childrens-nutritional-status-in-india/">nutrition and health</a> through purchasing power and <a href="https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FA117/FA117.pdf">access to health services</a>.</p>
<p>Most socioeconomic <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2394481118808107">elites in South Asia</a>, regardless of religion, are affiliated with upper-caste groups, and the vast majority of the poor come from lower-caste groups. </p>
<h2>Caste in the diaspora</h2>
<p>Scholars have documented similar discriminatory practices in the diaspora in the <a href="https://www.epw.in/journal/2002/31/commentary/punjabis-england.html">U.K.</a>, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-02-11/caste-system-of-india-and-south-asia-in-australia-dalit-rights/13135622">Australia</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/indian-caste-system-in-canada-called-a-disease-worse-than-racism-1.3090441">Canada</a> and the <a href="https://www.epw.in/journal/2015/37/notes/caste-among-indian-diaspora-africa.html">African continent</a>. </p>
<p>Caste has started getting recognition as a discriminatory category, especially in the U.S., in recent years. A 2016 <a href="https://www.equalitylabs.org/castesurvey">survey, “Caste in the USA</a>,”
the first formal documentation of caste discrimination within the U.S. diaspora, found that caste discrimination is pervasive across workplaces, educational institutions, places of worship and even in romantic partnerships. </p>
<p>In 2020, the state of California <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cisco-lawsuit/california-accuses-cisco-of-job-discrimination-based-on-indian-employees-caste-idUSKBN2423YE">sued</a> Cisco Systems, a technology company in the Silicon Valley, on a complaint against caste-based discrimination. <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/harvard-adds-caste-bias-protections-graduate-student-workers-rcna7279">Harvard University</a>, <a href="https://www.colby.edu/admission/nondiscrimination-policy/">Colby College</a>, <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/us/articles/2021-11-18/uc-davis-adds-caste-to-its-anti-discrimination-policy">University of California, Davis</a>, and <a href="https://www.brandeis.edu/president/letters/2019-12-17-adding-caste-to-our-nondiscrimination-harassment-policy.html">Brandeis University</a> have recognized caste as a protected status and have included it in their nondiscrimination policies. </p>
<p>Seattle’s new ordinance may trigger similar moves across other U.S. cities where South Asian Americans from nonelite caste backgrounds are settling down and address caste-based discrimination among other South Asian faith communities as well. For now, this ordinance will help put the spotlight on this centuries-old system that denies equality to a substantive section of the population on the basis of an oppressive ideology.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of a <a href="https://theconversation.com/caste-doesnt-just-exist-in-india-or-in-hinduism-it-is-pervasive-across-many-religions-in-south-asia-and-the-diaspora-180470">piece first published</a> on April 27, 2022.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200886/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Two social scientists explain how caste-identities are pervasive in not just Hinduism but other South Asian faith groups as well.Aseem Hasnain, Assistant Professor of Sociology, California State University, FresnoAbhilasha Srivastava, Assistant Professor of Economics, California State University, FresnoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1924852022-10-27T12:28:06Z2022-10-27T12:28:06ZWhat is the rosary? Why a set of beads and prayers are central to Catholic faith<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491771/original/file-20221025-232-3ead84.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C5%2C1979%2C1485&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rosaries are meant for praying anywhere and anytime.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/rosary-hanging-in-car-during-sunset-royalty-free-image/1140080568?phrase=Anderson%20Mouzinho&adppopup=true">Anderson Mouzinho/EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s one of the most famous moments in modern Catholicism: the apparition of Our Lady of Fatima. The Virgin Mary allegedly appeared to three Portuguese children in 1917, when much of the world was engulfed in World War I. Over a series of six appearances, Mary <a href="https://www.ncregister.com/blog/fatima-s-sister-lucia-explains-why-the-daily-rosary-is-a-must">emphasized to these young shepherds</a> that to bring peace, they should pray the rosary every day.</p>
<p>Devotion to the rosary already had a centuries-old history, and the Marian apparition at Fatima only deepened it. So what is a rosary, and why is it so important to many Catholics?</p>
<h2>Centuries of meaning</h2>
<p>As <a href="https://udayton.edu/directory/libraries/harriskayla.php">an archivist and associate professor</a> for the University of Dayton’s <a href="https://udayton.edu/marianlibrary/index.php">Marian Library</a>, I curate a collection of artifacts that illustrate many forms of popular devotion to the Virgin Mary, including nearly 900 unique rosaries. Each one tells a story of the people who owned them and how rosaries have evolved.</p>
<p>The word “rosary” refers to a set of prayers in the Catholic Church as well as a physical object. While <a href="https://www.usccb.org/how-to-pray-the-rosary">praying the rosary</a>, Catholics use a set of beads or knots to count and keep track of the prayers. Prayer beads as physical counting tools are quite common in several religions, including Islam, Hinduism, <a href="https://tricycle.org/magazine/mala-beads-history/">Buddhism</a> and Jainism.</p>
<p>The exact origins of the rosary are debated. Many theologians believe it was at least popularized by <a href="https://aleteia.org/2020/08/08/did-st-dominic-invent-the-rosary/">St. Dominic de Guzman</a>, a Spanish mystic and priest who allegedly received a vision in 1208 of the Virgin Mary in which she presented him with the rosary.</p>
<p>The Catholic Church celebrates the Feast of Our Lady of the Rosary on Oct. 7 each year – previously known as the <a href="https://udayton.edu/imri/mary/o/our-lady-of-victory.php">Feast of Our Lady of Victory</a> to commemorate a Christian victory in a <a href="https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/252503/the-holy-rosary-a-spiritual-weapon-that-lights-hearts-on-fire">naval battle</a> in 1571. Soon after, Pope Gregory XIII <a href="https://udayton.edu/imri/mary/o/our-lady-of-victory.php">changed the title</a> of the holy day, and now the entire month of October is dedicated to the rosary.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A photo taken from above a table shows a person's hands holding an open Bible, with a rosary nearby." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491465/original/file-20221024-17411-m3zoq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491465/original/file-20221024-17411-m3zoq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491465/original/file-20221024-17411-m3zoq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491465/original/file-20221024-17411-m3zoq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491465/original/file-20221024-17411-m3zoq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491465/original/file-20221024-17411-m3zoq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491465/original/file-20221024-17411-m3zoq1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rosaries have been used for centuries, but their exact origins are unclear.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/bible-and-rosary-royalty-free-image/538137956?phrase=rosaries&adppopup=true">Pascal Deloche/Stone via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>One prayer per bead</h2>
<p>To pray the rosary, a person will begin by holding the crucifix, make <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/sign-of-the-cross">a sign of the cross</a> over their chest and recite the <a href="https://www.usccb.org/prayers/apostles-creed">Apostles’ Creed</a>, which lays out the basics of Christian faith – such as that Jesus is the son of God and rose from the dead.</p>
<p>Generally, a rosary will contain five groups of 10 beads each, known as a decade. When touching each of these beads, the user will recite a <a href="https://www.vaticannews.va/en/prayers/the-hail-mary.html">Hail Mary prayer</a>. At the completion of each decade is a slightly larger bead, which is a cue to recite the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lords-Prayer">Lord’s Prayer</a> – another of the most important prayers in Christianity – and to meditate on one of the <a href="https://www.vatican.va/special/rosary/documents/misteri_en.html">20 mysteries</a>, significant events in the life of Jesus and Mary. </p>
<p>The decade is completed by saying the <a href="https://www.vaticannews.va/en/prayers/glory-be-to-the-father.html">Glory Be to the Father prayer</a>, and after completing all five decades, the user recites the <a href="https://www.usccb.org/prayers/hail-holy-queen-salve-regina">Hail, Holy Queen prayer</a> to Mary. The U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops outlines <a href="https://www.usccb.org/how-to-pray-the-rosary">detailed instructions</a>, including a diagram showing the different parts of the rosary and the accompanying prayers.</p>
<p>The rosary can be recited alone, or in groups. Some Catholics <a href="https://rosarycenter.org/how-to-pray-the-rosary">pray the rosary daily</a>, and many recite it to thank God or to ask for intercession, such as healing or protection for a loved one. </p>
<h2>Shells and seeds</h2>
<p>The Marian Library’s collection demonstrates how the rosary as an object can be very personal and also engage different senses as people pray. Some are very fragrant, such as those made from peach pits. Some are souvenirs brought back from particular shrines, such as ones from the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes in France, which contain <a href="https://www.lourdes-france.com/en/day-pilgrims/the-water/">drops of holy water from its spring</a>. Other rosaries glow in the dark or are made from birthstones. Many have significance to a particular region, such as <a href="https://www.louisianafolklife.org/LT/Articles_Essays/Job'sTearsRosaries.html">rosaries made from a grain called Job’s tears</a>, which are popular in Cajun regions of Louisiana. </p>
<p>There are rosaries of natural materials such as seeds, olive pits or even seashells – <a href="https://udayton.edu/blogs/marianlibrary/2018-08-31-guadalcanal-rosary.php">including one</a> crafted out of cowrie shells and paper clips. A National Guard chaplain stationed in Guadalcanal, site of a key <a href="https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/solomon-islands-campaign-guadalcanal">series of battles</a> between U.S. and Japanese troops, mailed it to his sister, a nun, in 1943 with the message “pray for me.”</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A string of beads made of cowrie shells, with a cross on one end" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491773/original/file-20221025-20664-eyhnws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491773/original/file-20221025-20664-eyhnws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491773/original/file-20221025-20664-eyhnws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491773/original/file-20221025-20664-eyhnws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491773/original/file-20221025-20664-eyhnws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=687&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491773/original/file-20221025-20664-eyhnws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=687&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491773/original/file-20221025-20664-eyhnws.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=687&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A rosary sent to Ohio from Guadalcanal during World War II.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ryan O'Grady/The Marian Library, University of Dayton</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Then there is a <a href="https://scalar.usc.edu/works/mary-and-borders/borderlands-and-the-blessed-virgin-images-from-the-marian-library?path=introduction">photograph of a colorful pile of plastic rosaries</a> – these ones taken from Latin American migrants and others seeking asylum at the southern U.S. border. While working as a janitor at a U.S. Customs and Border Protection processing facility, <a href="https://www.tomkiefer.com/about">Tom Kiefer</a> used photography to <a href="https://factcheck.afp.com/photo-rosaries-confiscated-us-mexico-border-was-taken-2015">document migrants’ personal items</a> deemed nonessential and confiscated or thrown into the trash.</p>
<h2>Today and tomorrow</h2>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A flat piece of metal that works as a rosary, placed next to a yellowed sheet explaining how to use the Traveler's Rosary." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491473/original/file-20221024-17346-umq4pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491473/original/file-20221024-17346-umq4pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491473/original/file-20221024-17346-umq4pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491473/original/file-20221024-17346-umq4pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491473/original/file-20221024-17346-umq4pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491473/original/file-20221024-17346-umq4pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491473/original/file-20221024-17346-umq4pt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Traveler’s Rosary from the Father John T. Arsenault Rosary Collection.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Marian Library, University of Dayton</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Several new rosary inventions in the 21st century attempt to make praying the rosary convenient for even the busiest person. The Traveler’s Rosary, designed by the Archdiocese of New York, is made of a flat piece of metal with raised beads. It also comes with a case that commuters can use to hold a transportation ticket. <a href="https://udayton.warpwire.com/w/jcEEAA/">The Recording Rosary</a> is also meant to make praying more convenient: The beads are placed on a dial, and a small arrow points to the proper place, so the person praying can resume where they left off after an interruption. The rosary also emits a subtle sound at the completion of each decade.</p>
<p>The rosary itself, and the practice of praying it, continues to evolve today. In 2019 a church group launched the “<a href="https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2019-10/click-pray-rosary-smart-digital-device-world-peace.html">Click to Pray eRosary</a>”: a wearable device that connects with a free phone app to help users learn to pray the rosary. The developers explain that the device is “aimed at the peripheral frontiers of the digital world where the young people dwell.” </p>
<p>Whether made out of glass beads with holy water or of fragrant dried rose petals pressed into beads, the rosary reflects the myriad ways Catholics can practice their devotion.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192485/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kayla Harris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Rosaries are meant to be used wherever, whenever – and each one tells a story.Kayla Harris, Librarian/Archivist at the Marian Library and Associate Professor, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1929742022-10-21T15:34:24Z2022-10-21T15:34:24ZDiwali in the UK: how commodifying minority religions can risk cultural appropriation<p>The commercial potential of Diwali is capturing the attention of the high street. Big brand retailers are cashing in by adapting existing products to promote sales of Diwali-themed goods. But little, if any, mention is being made of the festival’s religious nature, and that’s a problem. </p>
<p>There might be no <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/diwali-history-customs-indian-festival-of-lights">single narrative story</a> about <a href="https://theconversation.com/diwali-a-celebration-of-the-goddess-lakshmi-and-her-promise-of-prosperity-and-good-fortune-191992">Diwali</a>, which falls on October 24 in 2022, but there is a shared meaning. This most <a href="https://www.asiahighlights.com/india/diwali">widely celebrated festival</a> in the Hindu calendar represents the victory of light over darkness, of good over evil. </p>
<p>Many Hindus associate Diwali with <a href="https://www.learnreligions.com/lakshmi-goddess-of-wealth-and-beauty-1770369">Lakshmi</a>, the goddess of wealth and prosperity. <a href="https://www.learnreligions.com/what-is-puja-1770067">Lakshmi <em>puja</em></a> (with puja being the act or ritual of worship used) is one of the rituals which marks the start of the new year. People prepare for the arrival of the goddess by cleaning their homes and donning new clothes. They gather together with family, light <em>diyas</em> (small oil lamps made from clay), exchange gifts, eat Indian sweets and have firework displays.</p>
<p>Businesses, of course, are geared towards grabbing attention. Marketing departments exist precisely to boost sales. And the sharing of minority cultures through food, dress, and music does contribute to consumer tastes diversifying. However, <a href="https://pure.hud.ac.uk/en/publications/cultural-appropriation-what-it-is-and-why-it-matters">my research suggests</a> that using symbols and motifs without sufficient contextualisation runs the risk of cultural appropriation. </p>
<p>In addition, it <a href="https://theconversation.com/jamie-olivers-jerk-rice-is-a-recipe-for-disaster-heres-why-101879#:%7E:text=The%20problem%20with%20Oliver's%20%E2%80%9Cjerk,attractive%20associations%20for%20his%20product.">does not</a> necessarily tackle deeper socio-economic issues – from inequality to structural racism – and can <a href="https://www.irishtimes.com/news/cook-s-tikka-masala-race-remarks-provoke-furious-debate-1.303592">exacerbate them</a>.</p>
<h2>Cashing in on religious festivals</h2>
<p>Diwali is important economically, both within both the Indian subcontinent and Hindu diaspora communities. In the UK, retailers from South Asian backgrounds who work in the food, fashion and accessories industries, as well as the corner shop owners who stock fireworks, see increased trade in the run up to the festival. </p>
<p>High streets in <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-leicestershire-63172444">predominantly South Asian communities</a>, including Belgrave Road in Leicester, transform into a visual spectacle. Shops are decked with colourful lights. People crowd in to buy Indian sweets including barfi, gulab jamun and jalebi. Restaurants are packed with festival goers eating out. </p>
<p>Retailers more broadly are increasingly looking to capitalise on this commercial potential. Sometimes existing products appear to simply be repackaged. <a href="https://www.jomalone.co.uk/gift-diwali?cm_sp=home-_-lead1-_-diwaligwp&gclid=Cj0KCQjwhsmaBhCvARIsAIbEbH4faRZIysSgeO5jJiCgZ91FMh7HCloqGzXVSZfmyI3VM85zmKbbK4caAmBWEALw_wcB&gclsrc=aw.ds">Jo Malone</a> foregrounds its fragranced candles and other products for the Diwali market by decorating giftboxes with <em>rangoli</em> motifs (elaborate designs made of coloured rice, sand and flower petals). </p>
<p>Other retailers bring out Diwali-themed, limited-edition product ranges. In the cosmetics sphere, in 2022, these have included <a href="https://www.maccosmetics.co.uk/diwali">MAC’s Diwali Light Festival collection</a> and Bobby Brown’s <a href="https://www.bobbibrown.co.uk/Aartip?utm_source=social&utm_medium=aartip&utm_campaign=aartip&utm_id=aartip&utm_term=aartip&utm_content=aartip">Aarti P. Diwali Edit 2022</a> makeup range, a collaboration with the multi-award winning British hair and makeup artist of South Asian descent. </p>
<p>Ikea, meanwhile, <a href="https://www.ikea.com/ae/en/campaigns/diwali-collection-pub4f417460">creates</a> standalone, seasonal collections, inspired by the festival. A spokesperson for Ikea said the 2022 collection was “inspired by Indian arts and crafts, originally designed for Indian autumn festivities.”</p>
<p>What these various campaigns have in common are similar marketing strategies that home in on the bright colours of the fireworks and the spirit of togetherness Diwali fosters. Commercial collaborations are presented as commitments to principles of inclusivity and diversity, both <a href="https://www.aperianglobal.com/leaders-diversity-inclusion-5-lessons-top-global-companies/">vital</a> for global organisations. </p>
<h2>The absence of religious context</h2>
<p>There is something genuinely appealing about seeing the festivals and traditions of minority religions explored by retailers in creative and innovative ways. High street retailers have seized on the fun and celebratory aspects of this festival, the dressing up, the sharing of food, the illuminations. </p>
<p>But there is not much mention of the religious context of the festival. Diwali is described as a “celebration”. MAC describes it as a “joyous holiday”. Hinduism or Hindus are not prominently mentioned. </p>
<p>Ikea, similarly, makes no mention of the religious aspect of Diwali and the company’s spokesperson acknowledged as much. They said that “while we haven’t called out Hinduism specifically in our advertising, we hope the range will appeal to many Ikea customers.”</p>
<p>Soapmaker Lush, by contrast, does explicitly reference the religious roots of the festivals to which it seeks to cater. For its <a href="https://www.lush.com/uk/en/c/eid-gifts">Eid gift range</a>, the website describes the religious holiday Eid Al Adha as being “celebrated by Muslims worldwide”. While the company did not explicitly mention Hindus and Hinduism in its advertising around Diwali products, a spokesperson said the decision was taken in concert with a working group made up of staff members who celebrate the festival “in recognition that other religions, as well as Hinduism” do so. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-cultural-appropriation-and-how-does-it-differ-from-cultural-appreciation-162331">Cultural appropriation</a> occurs when the culture of minority groups falls into the hands of the majority and dominant culture and becomes used inappropriately and/or without consideration of the views and feelings of the minority culture. The parading of cultural goods by their surface qualities can be seen, in this context, as distorting the deeper symbolism of Diwali. It can also be seen as <a href="https://www.teenvogue.com/story/stealing-my-religion-liz-bucar">commercially exploitative</a>. </p>
<p>Since the 1960s, <a href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_586">identity politics</a> scholarship has focused on the experience of minority groups and the alliances they have formed to defend their interests. Examples include the <a href="https://scholarlypublishingcollective.org/psup/soundings/article-abstract/104/4/281/281116/Identity-Politics-Justice-and-the-Quest-for?redirectedFrom=fulltext">civil rights movement</a>, the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4148079#metadata_info_tab_contents">feminist movement</a> and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/manchester-scholarship-online/book/19979/chapter-abstract/178919767?redirectedFrom=fulltext">gay liberation</a>. The way in which these minority identities are politicised means that minority <a href="https://www.academia.edu/35120984/Cultural_appropriation_Analysing_the_use_of_Hindu_symbols_within_consumerism">religious identities</a> also <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/identity-politics/">become political</a>. In avoiding mention of the religion, retailers focus only on the commercial aspects of the festival, the surface qualities of the outward and social rituals of celebration. </p>
<p>If retailers want to engage with the traditions of minority religions, they need to do this authentically and wholeheartedly rather than skirt around the religious core of these festivals. Partnering with members from these religions is an important step in the right direction. </p>
<p>However, this needs to be underpinned by a commitment to explicitly identify the religion and the contextual narratives of the festival rather than watering it down to the lowest common denominator of aspects, like joy and celebration, that are found in pretty much all festivals.</p>
<p>The retailers named in this piece were approached for comment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192974/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rina Arya does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Retailers run the risk of cultural appropriation when they commodify festivals from minority groups without acknowledging the religious context.Rina Arya, Professor of Visual Culture and Theory, University of HuddersfieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1896952022-09-14T18:23:20Z2022-09-14T18:23:20ZLeena Manimekalai’s documentary ‘Kaali’ challenges Hindutva nationalism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483387/original/file-20220908-9232-kzuqe7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=124%2C292%2C3104%2C1901&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A painting of the goddess Kali by Indian artist Raja Ravi Varma. The film Kaali by Leena Manimekalai has drawn controversy for the way it depicts the goddess. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(The Ganesh Shivaswamy Foundation, Bengaluru)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Over the summer, Toronto-based Indian filmmaker Leena Manimekalai uploaded a poster on Twitter of her upcoming documentary <em>Kaali</em>. The image showed the Hindu goddess smoking a cigarette and holding a rainbow flag among other accoutrements.</p>
<p>Predictably, it received widespread backlash from the <a href="https://thewire.in/communalism/hindutva-and-the-question-of-who-owns-india">Hindutva</a> community in India for “<a href="https://theprint.in/features/kaali-poster-complaint-filed-against-leena-manimekalai-for-hurting-religious-sentiments-director-clarifies/1024267/">hurting religious sentiments</a>.” But the popularly dubbed “<a href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/twitter-erupts-after-goddess-kali-shown-smoking-in-documentary-poster-director-leena-manimekalai-trends/articleshow/92646337.cms?from=mdr">poster row</a>” challenges us to consider disturbing political questions that Manimekalai’s work has persistently probed.</p>
<h2>Scandal and Censorship</h2>
<p>Following the social media outrage, leaders of the ruling Hindu nationalist BJP party <a href="https://theprint.in/politics/bjp-leader-files-police-complaint-against-kaali-producer-leena-manimekalai-for-hurting-sentiments-of-hindus/1024842/">filed a complaint</a> against Manimekalai with police in Delhi. Groups opposed to the documentary soon joined the bandwagon by <a href="https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/-kaali-controversy-bajrang-dal-bjp-workers-in-bihar-burn-effigies-of-leena-manimekalai-for-hurting-sentiments--news-207703">burning Manimekalai’s effigy</a> and issuing <a href="https://www.cnn.com/style/article/kaali-hindu-goddess-leena-manimekalai/index.html">death threats</a>. </p>
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<p><em>Kaali</em> was one of the 18 short projects in <a href="https://www.torontomu.ca/cerc-migration/under-the-tent">Under the Tent</a>, a program produced by Toronto Metropolitan University to promote cinema from diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds. <a href="https://www.torontomu.ca/cerc-migration/events/2022/07/under-the-tent-launch/">In a statement</a>, the university said it removed the film from the program because it felt that it caused unnecessary offense to the religious sentiment of many people in Canada and elsewhere.</p>
<p>In her documentary, Manimekalai walks the streets of Toronto at night donning the image of Kali from Tamil and Telegu village folklore. The performance depicts the rebellious spirit that possesses people, eats meat, smokes marijuana, drinks liquor, urinates publicly and dances in a disruptive show.</p>
<p>She places Kali in the “<a href="https://thewire.in/film/leena-manimekalai-kaali-tribal-goddess">land of immigrants to understand settler colonialism</a>.” Using the goddess figure to tackle politically controversial topics is a recurring feature of Manimekalai’s work that irks conservative factions.</p>
<p>The fluid iconography of Kali and the anxieties it poses for ruling power are not new. <a href="https://books.google.ca/books?id=1QOWRn_i1kcC&pg=PA38&lpg=PA38&dq=risley+chromolithograph+of+Kaali&source=bl&ots=9vRXobq9a2&sig=ACfU3U0SjXGlAoGc1Ssjgsnwx8B42COSxA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi4gMff1Pv5AhURKH0KHbVgDZsQ6AF6BAglEAM#v=onepage&q=risley%20chromolithograph%20of%20Kaali&f=false">Anthropologist Christopher Pinney</a> notes how the British colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley anxiously censored an 1880s chromolithograph of Kali because some of the faces in Kali’s garland of severed heads resembled Europeans. As India marks its 75th year of independence, Kali’s threatening presence persists with a different array of entrenched anxieties for the ruling elite beyond a cigarette and an LGBTIQ+ flag. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483099/original/file-20220906-4642-he753.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An image of Kali holing a bloodied blade in her hands. She stands above a body wearing heads around her neck." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483099/original/file-20220906-4642-he753.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/483099/original/file-20220906-4642-he753.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=770&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483099/original/file-20220906-4642-he753.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=770&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483099/original/file-20220906-4642-he753.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=770&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483099/original/file-20220906-4642-he753.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=967&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483099/original/file-20220906-4642-he753.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=967&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/483099/original/file-20220906-4642-he753.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=967&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">This image of Kali appeared in various versions till as late as the 1920s. This image attained iconic status in part because of its wide distribution and use to advertise cigarettes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(The Metropolitan Museum of Art)</span></span>
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<p>By imbibing the deity’s pagan form, Manimekalai participates in the Indigenous tradition of being possessed by goddesses or spirits. Her performance critically revisits issues of LGBTIQ+ rights, refugee crises, genocidal history and Hindutva politics that she has engaged with in her earlier films. </p>
<h2>Interpreting Kali</h2>
<p>In the short documentary <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt6278278/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_6"><em>Goddesses</em></a>, Manimekalai follows the daily lives of three Dalit women battling systemic caste and gender violence. One of the women, Lakshmi, works as a professional mourner in funerals — headily dancing, singing and chest-thumping to drummers’ beats. Krishnaveni is indispensable for the local police as she buries unclaimed corpses with an acquired deftness. Sethuraki goes deep into the sea to fish with bare hands, tackling adverse weather conditions. </p>
<p>Manimekalai focuses on the strength of these unapologetic, vocal characters who exercise agency through their work. They shout slurs, smoke and drink, help aged people and have a self-assertive bearing. In the final scene of <em>Goddesses</em>, the spirit of Kali possesses Lakshmi, who dances and rolls in the dust unheeded in a macabre trance. </p>
<p>Her recent feature, <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt8530836/?ref_=tt_mv_close"><em>Maadathy</em></a>, deals with the subversive power of local deities worshipped by subaltern communities across India. The film follows a young Dalit girl from the “unseeable” Puthirai Vannar caste who becomes immortalized as their local deity, Maadathy. In Tamil folk tradition, individuals who have struggled and fought against injustice get immortalized as these local Indigenous deities. They embody the spirit of justice.</p>
<p>Dealing with refugee crises and ethnic cleansing, Manimekalai’s <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3281094/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1"><em>White Van Stories</em></a> follows seven women who have lost relatives during enforced disappearances in post-war Sri Lanka. The interviews record their trauma and daily uncertainties as they try to live their lives.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Leena Manimekalai talks about her film White Van Stories in an interview.</span></figcaption>
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<p>In her docudrama, <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1683488/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0"><em>Sengadal</em></a>, Manimekalai situates herself within the narrative to reflect on her shooting experiences in a conflict zone as a woman filmmaker. The film addresses the predicament of Dhanushkodi refugee fishermen caught between the border of India and Sri Lanka. </p>
<p>Throughout all these cinematic contexts, Manimekalai speaks to forms of women’s resistance with pagan renditions of the goddess. She positions them as countercultural avatars intersecting the boundaries of class, caste, gender, race and nationality. </p>
<p>The controversy over the poster of <em>Kaali</em> is hard to assess in isolation. Given the political nature of goddesses in Manimekalai’s oeuvre, her upcoming documentary questions the moral boundaries of Hindutva nationalism and its totalitarian politics. The scandalous concern is perhaps not just the cigarette in the poster but the discomforting issues it ignites. </p>
<p><em>This is a corrected version of a story originally published Sept. 14, 2022. The updated story states that Toronto Metropolitan University removed the film from its Under the Tent program.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189695/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Santasil Mallik does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Leena Manimekalai’s film Kaali has drawn controversy and criticism, but like her other films, it highlights the inequalities and discrimination many continue to face.Santasil Mallik, PhD Candidate, Media Studies, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1857552022-06-24T16:55:45Z2022-06-24T16:55:45ZAmerica’s religious communities are divided over the issue of abortion: 5 essential reads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470802/original/file-20220624-14-o8opah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=78%2C26%2C5638%2C3242&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Abortion rights advocates demonstrate in front of the U.S. Supreme Court in 2021, in Washington, D.C.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SupremeCourtAbortion/f9dd30d23ec6449588e1b043693f07f2/photo?Query=abortion&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=11307&currentItemNo=3">AP Photo/Jose Luis Magana</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Since the first indications that the U.S. Supreme Court could overturn the landmark Roe v. Wade ruling, following a leaked draft opinion on May 2, 2022, religious leaders from many denominations have been <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health-news/meet-the-religious-groups-fighting-to-save-abortion-access">working to preserve access to abortion care</a>, even as others <a href="https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/251143/us-bishops-urge-prayer-fasting-for-overturning-of-roe-v-wade-after-leak-of-abortion-draft-ruling">prayed for Roe to indeed be overruled</a>. A minister in Texas was among those working on coordinating abortion care, <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/network-religious-leaders-abortions-roe-v-wade-clergy-consultation-service-2022-5">including flying women to New Mexico to get abortions</a>. </p>
<p>Religious communities in the U.S. have long been divided over the issue of abortion. A 2017 Pew Research Center survey found that <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/01/22/american-religious-groups-vary-widely-in-their-views-of-abortion/">57% of Americans were supportive</a> of legal abortion. A majority of those who identified as evangelical were opposed to abortion.</p>
<p>Before June 24, 2022, when the Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade, The Conversation asked several scholars to explain the multiple views across faith groups and also the differences within denominations. Here are five articles from our archives:</p>
<h2>1. Abortion rights as religious freedom</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/steven-k-green-346301">Steven K. Green</a>, director of the Center for Religion, Law and Democracy at Willamette University, <a href="https://theconversation.com/religious-beliefs-give-strength-to-the-anti-abortion-movement-but-not-all-religions-agree-182500">explained why restricting abortion interferes with religious freedom</a>.</p>
<p>The strong opposition of some Christian churches, such as the Catholic Church or the Southern Baptist Convention, is based on their views about the time of “ensoulment,” the moment at which the soul is believed to enter the fetus. Conservative Christians believe this happens at the moment of conception.</p>
<p>Not all Christian denominations agree. As Green wrote, the United Church of Christ, for example, passed a resolution in 1981 that said “every woman must have the freedom of choice to follow her personal and religious convictions concerning the completion or termination of a pregnancy.” </p>
<p>Additionally, other faith groups such as Islam, Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism have differing beliefs about ensoulment.</p>
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<p>
<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/religious-beliefs-give-strength-to-the-anti-abortion-movement-but-not-all-religions-agree-182500">Religious beliefs give strength to the anti-abortion movement – but not all religions agree</a>
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<h2>2. What Jewish texts say</h2>
<p>Judaism allows for abortion and even requires it when a woman’s health is endangered, according to <a href="https://www.ctschicago.edu/people/rachel-s-mikva/">Rachel Mikva</a>, professor of Jewish studies at Chicago Theological Seminary. The majority of foundational Jewish texts <a href="https://theconversation.com/there-is-more-than-one-religious-view-on-abortion-heres-what-jewish-texts-say-116941">assert that a fetus does not attain the status of personhood until birth</a>. </p>
<p>There is some difference of opinion among Orthodox rabbis, but there is room to consider diverse perspectives.</p>
<p>Overall, according to a 2017 Pew survey, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/01/22/american-religious-groups-vary-widely-in-their-views-of-abortion/">83% of American Jews</a> believed that abortion should be legal in all or most cases. Even ultra-Orthodox leaders, as Mikva found, have resisted anti-abortion measures that do not allow religious exceptions. </p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/there-is-more-than-one-religious-view-on-abortion-heres-what-jewish-texts-say-116941">There is more than one religious view on abortion - here's what Jewish texts say</a>
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<h2>3. Hindu, Muslim and Buddhist views</h2>
<p>Beliefs from other faith traditions such as Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam also show that religions place ensoulment at different moments and <a href="https://theconversation.com/there-is-no-one-religious-view-on-abortion-a-scholar-of-religion-gender-and-sexuality-explains-184532">give it varying degrees of importance</a>, according to <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/samira-mehta-1109963">Samira Mehta</a>, assistant professor of women and gender studies and Jewish studies at University of Colorado, Boulder. </p>
<p>Muslim scholars and clerics, for example, have a range of positions on abortion. “Some believe abortion is never permitted, and many allow it until ensoulment, which is often placed at 120 days’ gestation, just shy of 18 weeks,” according to Mehta. In general, classical Islamic law sees legal personhood as beginning at birth, and many Muslim religious leaders therefore permit abortion to save the life of the mother. </p>
<p>Views in Hinduism and Buddhism are diverse. “Most Hindus believe in reincarnation, which means that while one may enter bodies with birth and leave with death, life itself does not, precisely, begin or end. Rather, any given moment in a human body is seen as part of an unending cycle of life – making the question of when life begins quite different than in Abrahamic religions,” wrote Mehta. For Buddhists, a decision about abortion is treated with compassion and considered to be a “moral choice,” depending on the circumstances. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/there-is-no-one-religious-view-on-abortion-a-scholar-of-religion-gender-and-sexuality-explains-184532">There is no one 'religious view' on abortion: A scholar of religion, gender and sexuality explains</a>
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<h2>4. Shift in views of Southern Baptists</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470800/original/file-20220624-20-hw0f9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man with a jacket that says SBC on its back stands during a meeting." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470800/original/file-20220624-20-hw0f9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/470800/original/file-20220624-20-hw0f9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470800/original/file-20220624-20-hw0f9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470800/original/file-20220624-20-hw0f9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470800/original/file-20220624-20-hw0f9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470800/original/file-20220624-20-hw0f9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/470800/original/file-20220624-20-hw0f9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">People gathered for the Southern Baptist Convention’s annual meeting in Anaheim, Calif., in June 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SouthernBaptists/9f7873e84aa34beea7843e277b147337/photo?Query=southern%20baptist&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=710&currentItemNo=15">AP Photo/Jae C. Hong</a></span>
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<p>Scholars have also pointed out how in conservative faith groups, beliefs have shifted over time. Scholar <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/susan-m-shaw-690928">Susan M. Shaw</a>, who has long studied the Southern Baptists, explained that they <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-history-of-southern-baptists-shows-they-have-not-always-opposed-abortion-183712">have not always been opposed to abortion</a>. </p>
<p>According to Shaw, the change in Southern Baptist views started in the 1980s, when a more conservative group took charge of the denomination. At that time a “resolution on abortion” was drafted that declared that “abortion ends the life of a developing human being” and called for legal measures “prohibiting abortion except to save the life of the mother.”</p>
<p>Additionally, as Shaw found, another “interesting shift” happened in that resolution – instead of referring to fetal life, as earlier resolutions did, the 1980 resolution called fetuses “unborn” or “pre-born” human life or “persons.” The fetus, as she wrote, “was no longer a developing organism dependent on a woman’s body, but rather it was a full human being with the same status and human rights as the women.” </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-history-of-southern-baptists-shows-they-have-not-always-opposed-abortion-183712">The history of Southern Baptists shows they have not always opposed abortion</a>
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<h2>5. Reproductive options in premodern Christianity</h2>
<p>Scholars have pointed out that among premodern Christians, too, views on abortion were more complex. <a href="https://theconversation.com/christian-attitudes-surrounding-abortion-have-a-more-nuanced-history-than-current-events-suggest-162560">According to religion scholar</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/luis-josue-sales-1240033">Luis Josué Salés</a>, pregnancy prevention and termination methods thrived in premodern Christian societies, especially in the medieval Roman Empire. </p>
<p>Indeed, premodern Christians may have actively developed reproductive options for women, Salés found. Sixth-century Christian physician Aetios of Amida and Paulos of Aigina, who came a century later, were said to have provided instructions for performing abortions and making contraceptives. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/christian-attitudes-surrounding-abortion-have-a-more-nuanced-history-than-current-events-suggest-162560">Christian attitudes surrounding abortion have a more nuanced history than current events suggest</a>
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<p>In the U.S., the first abortion restrictions <a href="https://theconversation.com/religious-beliefs-give-strength-to-the-anti-abortion-movement-but-not-all-religions-agree-182500">were enacted only in the 1820s</a>. As Mehta aptly put it, “We tend to think of the religious response to abortion as one of opposition, but the reality is much more complicated.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185755/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Scholars explain why many see abortion access as a religious freedom issue and what the views of different faiths are on ‘ensoulment,’ the point at which the soul is believed to enter the fetus.Kalpana Jain, Senior Religion + Ethics Editor/ Director of the Global Religion Journalism InitiativeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1845322022-06-13T12:31:29Z2022-06-13T12:31:29ZThere is no one ‘religious view’ on abortion: A scholar of religion, gender and sexuality explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468114/original/file-20220609-23-dvo8xx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C6%2C1014%2C709&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Demonstrators stand outside the Supreme Court in 2014.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/pro-choice-demonstrators-stand-outside-the-us-supreme-court-news-photo/462793499?adppopup=true">Saul Loeb/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Catholic Church’s official line on <a href="https://www.usccb.org/issues-and-action/human-life-and-dignity/abortion/respect-for-unborn-human-life">abortion</a>, and even on <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/after-50-years-a-popes-birth-control-message-still-divides-catholics-1525962322">any artificial birth control</a>, is well known: Don’t do it.</p>
<p>Surveys of how American Catholics live their lives, though, tell a different story. </p>
<p>The vast majority of Catholic women <a href="https://www.guttmacher.org/religion-and-family-planning-tables">have used contraceptives</a>, despite the church’s ban. <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/10/20/8-key-findings-about-catholics-and-abortion/">Fifty-six percent</a> of U.S. Catholics believe abortion should be legal in all or most circumstances, whether or not they believe they would ever seek one. <a href="https://www.guttmacher.org/fact-sheet/induced-abortion-united-states">One in four</a> Americans who have had abortions are Catholic, according to the Guttmacher Institute, which advocates for reproductive health.</p>
<p>It’s a clear reminder of the complex relationship between any religious tradition’s teachings and how people actually live out their beliefs. With the U.S. Supreme Court <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-at-stake-as-supreme-court-appears-intent-on-overturning-roe-v-wade-3-essential-reads-182376">poised to overturn Roe v. Wade</a>, the 1973 ruling that protects abortion rights nationwide, religious attitudes toward a woman’s right to end a pregnancy are in the spotlight. But even within one faith, there is no one religious position toward reproductive rights – let alone among different faiths.</p>
<h2>Christianity and conscience</h2>
<p>As a scholar of <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/wgst/samira-mehta">gender</a> and <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/jewishstudies/people/faculty/samira-mehta">religion</a>, I <a href="https://www.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5149/northcarolina/9781469636269.001.0001/upso-9781469636269-chapter-009">research</a> how religious traditions shape people’s understandings of contraception and abortion.</p>
<p>When it comes to official stances on abortion, religions’ positions are tied to different approaches to some key theological concepts. For instance, for several religions, a key issue in abortion rights is “ensoulment,” <a href="http://www.anglicantheologicalreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/disney-poston_92.2.pdf">the moment at which the soul is believed to enter the body</a> – that is, when a fetus becomes human. </p>
<p>The catch is that traditions place ensoulment at different moments and give it various degrees of importance. Catholic theologians place ensoulment <a href="https://www.pillarcatholic.com/p/abortion-conception-and-ensoulment?s=r">at the moment of conception</a>, which is why the official position of the Catholic Church is that abortion is never permitted. From the moment the sperm meets the egg, in Catholic theology, a human exists, and you cannot kill a human, regardless of how it came to exist. Nor can you choose between two human lives, which is why the church <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/22/us-catholic-bishop-hospital-abortion">opposes aborting a fetus to save the life of the pregnant person</a>.</p>
<p>As in any faith, not all Catholics feel compelled to follow the church teachings in all cases. And regardless of whether someone thinks they would ever seek an abortion, they may believe it should be a legal right. Fifty-seven percent of U.S. Catholics say abortion is morally wrong, but 68% still <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/10/20/8-key-findings-about-catholics-and-abortion/">support Roe v. Wade</a>, while only 14% believe that abortion should never be legal. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People at a rally hold a life-size illustration of Pope Francis in front of an outdoor stage." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468096/original/file-20220609-19878-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468096/original/file-20220609-19878-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468096/original/file-20220609-19878-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468096/original/file-20220609-19878-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468096/original/file-20220609-19878-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468096/original/file-20220609-19878-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468096/original/file-20220609-19878-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People opposed to abortion gather at the Washington Monument during the 2017 March for Life rally in Washington, D.C.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/pro-life-supporters-gather-at-the-washington-monument-to-news-photo/632842482?adppopup=true">Tasos Katopodis/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some Catholics advocate for abortion access not despite but because of their dedication to Catholic teachings. The organization <a href="https://www.catholicsforchoice.org/">Catholics for Choice</a> <a href="https://www.catholicsforchoice.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/CatholicsForChoiceJustTheFacts.pdf">describes its work</a> as rooted in Catholicism’s emphasis on “social justice, human dignity, and the <a href="https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2017/11/11/pope-francis-reaffirms-primacy-conscience-amid-criticism-amoris-laetitia">primacy of conscience</a>” – <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/04/19/most-catholics-rely-heavily-on-their-own-conscience-for-moral-guidance/">people making their own decisions</a> out of deep moral conviction. </p>
<p>Other Christians also say faith shapes their support for reproductive rights. Protestant clergy, along with their Jewish colleagues, were instrumental in <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/05/how-the-clergy-innovated-abortion-services/484517/">helping women to secure abortions</a> before Roe, through a network called the Clergy Consultation Service. These pro-choice clergy were motivated by a range of concerns, including desperation that they saw among women in their congregations, and <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2019/05/progressive-christians-abortion-jes-kast/590293/">theological commitments to social justice</a>. Today, the organization still exists as <a href="https://rcrc.org/mission-statement/">the Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice</a>.</p>
<p>There are myriad Protestant <a href="https://www.christianitytoday.com/news/2022/january/evangelical-abortion-views-age-gap-younger-pro-life.html">opinions on abortion</a>. The most conservative equate it with murder, and therefore oppose any exemptions. The most liberal Protestant voices advocate for a broad platform of reproductive justice, calling on believers to “<a href="http://www.beacon.org/Trust-Women-P1344.aspx">Trust Women</a>.”</p>
<h2>Who is a ‘person’?</h2>
<p>Muslims scholars and clerics, too, have <a href="https://rcrc.org/muslim/">a range of positions</a> on abortion. Some believe abortion is never permitted, and many allow it until ensoulment, which is often placed at 120 days’ gestation, just shy of 18 weeks. In general, many Muslim leaders <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1016/S0968-8080%2806%2929279-6">permit abortion to save the life of the mother</a>, <a href="https://rcrc.org/muslim/">since classical Islamic law sees legal personhood as beginning at birth</a> – though while many Muslims may seek out their religious leaders for guidance about or assistance with abortion, many do not. </p>
<p>Jewish tradition has a great deal of debate about <a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/the-soul-of-a-fetus/">when ensoulment occurs</a>: Various rabbinic texts place it at or even before conception, and many place it at birth, but ensoulment is not as key as the legal status of the fetus under Jewish law. Generally, it is not considered to be a person. For instance, <a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/talmud-101/">the Talmud</a> – the main source of Jewish law – refers to the fetus as part of the mother’s body. The biblical Book of Exodus notes that if a pregnant woman is attacked and then miscarries, <a href="https://www.sefaria.org/Exodus.21.22?lang=bi&aliyot=0">the attacker owes a fine</a> but is not guilty of murder.</p>
<p>In other words, Jewish law protects a fetus as a “potential person,” but does not view it as holding the same full personhood as its mother. Jewish clergy generally agree that abortion is not only permitted, but mandated, <a href="https://rac.org/blog/abortion-and-reproductive-justice-jewish-perspective">to save the life of the mother</a>, because potential life must be sacrificed to save existing life – even during labor, as long as the head has not emerged from the birth canal.</p>
<p>Where <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-does-life-begin-theres-more-than-one-religious-view-167241">Jewish law on abortion</a> gets complicated is when the mother’s life is not at risk. For example, contemporary Jewish leaders debate whether abortion is permitted if the mother’s mental health will be damaged, if genetic testing shows evidence of a nonfatal disability or if there are other compelling concerns, such as that the family’s resources would be strained too much to care for their existing children.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A line of protesters hold signs behind a fence." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468089/original/file-20220609-20635-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468089/original/file-20220609-20635-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468089/original/file-20220609-20635-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468089/original/file-20220609-20635-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468089/original/file-20220609-20635-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468089/original/file-20220609-20635-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468089/original/file-20220609-20635-7sdug2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Protesters listen during the 2022 Jewish Rally for Abortion Justice in Washington, D.C.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/protesters-listen-during-the-jewish-rally-for-abortion-news-photo/1397755650?adppopup=true">Anna Moneymaker/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>American Jews have generally supported legal abortion with very few restrictions, seeing it as a religious freedom issue – and a question of life versus potential life. <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/religious-landscape-study/religious-tradition/jewish/views-about-abortion/">Eighty-three percent</a> support a woman’s right to an abortion, and while many might turn to their clergy for support in seeking an abortion, many would not see a need to.</p>
<h2>A different view of life</h2>
<p>As much diversity as exists in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, there is likely even more in Hinduism, which has a range of texts, deities and worldviews. Many scholars argue that the fact so many different traditions are all lumped together under the umbrella term “Hindusim” <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/0195166558.001.0001">has more to do with British colonialism</a> than anything else. </p>
<p>Most Hindus believe in <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zmgny4j/revision/3">reincarnation</a>, which means that while one may enter bodies with birth and leave with death, life itself does not, precisely, begin or end. Rather, any given moment in a human body is seen as part of an unending cycle of life – making the question of when life begins quite different than in Abrahamic religions.</p>
<p>Some bioethicists see Hinduism as <a href="https://doi.org/10.18502/jmehm.v12i9.1340">essentially pro-life</a>, permitting abortion only to save the life of the mother. Looking at what people do, though, rather than what a tradition’s sacred texts say, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30453-9">abortion is common</a> in Hindu-majority India, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/dec/27/families-want-a-son-at-any-cost-the-women-forced-to-abort-female-foetuses-in-india">especially of female fetuses</a>. </p>
<p>In the United States, there are immigrant Hindu communities, Asian American Hindu communities, and people who have converted to Hinduism who bring this diversity to their approaches to abortion. Overall, however 68% say <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/religious-landscape-study/religious-tradition/hindu/views-about-abortion/">abortion should be legal</a> in all or most cases.</p>
<h2>Compassionate choices</h2>
<p>Buddhists also have varied views on abortion. The <a href="https://rcrc.org/buddhist/">Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice</a> notes: “Buddhism, like the other religions of the world, faces the fact that abortion may sometimes be the best decision and a truly moral choice. That does not mean there is nothing troubling about abortion, but it means that Buddhists may understand that reproductive decisions are part of the moral complexity of life.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A row of small mossy statues of seated figures along a path in the forest." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468084/original/file-20220609-16-5yvlwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468084/original/file-20220609-16-5yvlwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468084/original/file-20220609-16-5yvlwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468084/original/file-20220609-16-5yvlwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468084/original/file-20220609-16-5yvlwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468084/original/file-20220609-16-5yvlwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468084/original/file-20220609-16-5yvlwu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Jizo statues sit along the Daiya River and Jiunji Temple in Nikko, Japan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/alternatively-called-bake-jizo-narabi-jizo-or-hyaku-jizo-a-news-photo/167603855?adppopup=true">John S Lander/LightRocket via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://tricycle.org/trikedaily/buddhism-and-abortion/">Japanese Buddhism</a> in particular can be seen as offering a “middle way” between pro-choice and pro-life positions. While many Buddhists see life as beginning at conception, abortion is common and addressed through <a href="https://www.npr.org/2015/08/15/429761386/adopting-a-buddhist-ritual-to-mourn-miscarriage-abortion">rituals involving Jizo</a>, one of the enlightened figures Buddhists call bodhisattvas, who is believed to take care of aborted and miscarried fetuses.</p>
<p>In the end, the Buddhist approach to abortion emphasizes that abortion is a complex moral decision that should be made with <a href="https://rcrc.org/buddhist/">an eye toward compassion</a>.</p>
<p>We tend to think of the religious response to abortion as one of opposition, but the reality is much more complicated. Formal religious teachings on abortion are complex and divided – and official positions aside, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/fact-sheet/public-opinion-on-abortion/">data shows that over and over</a>, the majority of Americans, religious or not, support abortion.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184532/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Samira Mehta does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Views on abortion differ not only among major religious traditions, but within each one.Samira Mehta, Assistant Professor of Women and Gender Studies & Jewish Studies, University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1825172022-05-12T00:47:41Z2022-05-12T00:47:41ZAI, philosophy and religion: what machine learning can tell us about the Bhagavad Gita<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462366/original/file-20220511-22-g63bhm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=164%2C116%2C1601%2C970&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#/media/File:BhagavadGita-19th-century-Illustrated-Sanskrit-Chapter_1.20.21.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Machine learning and other artificial intelligence (AI) methods have had immense success with scientific and technical tasks such as predicting how protein molecules fold and recognising faces in a crowd. However, the application of these methods to the humanities are yet to be fully explored. </p>
<p>What can AI tell us about philosophy and religion, for example? As a starting point for such an exploration, we used deep learning AI methods to <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9715095">analyse English translations of the Bhagavad Gita</a>, an ancient Hindu text written originally in Sanskrit.</p>
<p>Using a deep learning-based language model called BERT, we studied sentiment (emotions) and semantics (meanings) in the translations. Despite huge variations in vocabulary and sentence structure, we found that the patterns of emotion and meaning were broadly similar in all three.</p>
<p>This research opens a path to the use of AI-based technologies for comparing translations and reviewing sentiments in a wide range of texts.</p>
<h2>An ancient book of wisdom</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a> is one of the central Hindu sacred and philosophical texts. Written more than 2,000 years ago, it has been translated into more than 100 languages and has been of interest to western philosophers since the 18th century.</p>
<p>The 700-verse poem is a part of the larger <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> epic, which recounts the events of an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurukshetra_War">ancient war</a> believed to have occurred at Kurukshetra near modern-day Delhi in India.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indian-philosophy-helps-us-see-clearly-act-wisely-in-an-interconnected-world-135412">Indian philosophy helps us see clearly, act wisely in an interconnected world</a>
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<p>The text of the Bhagavad Gita relates a conversation between the Hindu deity Lord Krishna and a prince called Arjuna. They discuss whether a soldier should go to war for ethics and duty (or “dharma”) if they have close friends or family on the opposing side. </p>
<p>The text has been instrumental in laying the foundations of Hinduism. Among many other things, it is where the philosophy of karma (a spiritual principle of cause and effect) originates. </p>
<p>Scholars have also regarded the Bhagavad Gita as a book of <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0975156420120102">psychology</a>, management, <a href="https://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/abs/10.1504/IJICBM.2018.088593">leadership</a> and conflict resolution. </p>
<h2>Countless translations</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462359/original/file-20220511-22-a73evc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462359/original/file-20220511-22-a73evc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462359/original/file-20220511-22-a73evc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1010&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462359/original/file-20220511-22-a73evc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1010&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462359/original/file-20220511-22-a73evc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1010&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462359/original/file-20220511-22-a73evc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1269&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462359/original/file-20220511-22-a73evc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1269&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462359/original/file-20220511-22-a73evc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1269&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The first of many English translations of the Bhagavad Gita was published in 1785.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#/media/File:1785_Bhagavad_Gita_translation_English.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There have been countless English translations of the Bhagavad Gita, but there is not much work that validates their quality. Translations of songs and poems not only break rhythm and rhyming patterns, but can also result in the loss of semantic information. </p>
<p>In our research, we used deep learning language models to analyse three selected translations of the Bhagavad Gita (from Sanskrit to English) with semantic and sentiment analyses which help in the evaluation of translation quality. </p>
<p>We used a pre-trained language model known as <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.04805v2">BERT</a>, developed by Google. We further tuned the model using a human-labelled training dataset based on Twitter posts, which captures 10 different sentiments.</p>
<p>These sentiments (optimistic, thankful, empathetic, pessimistic, anxious, sad, annoyed, denial, surprise, and joking) were adopted from our previous research into <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0255615">social media sentiment</a> during the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461889/original/file-20220509-15-kmhzr9.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461889/original/file-20220509-15-kmhzr9.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461889/original/file-20220509-15-kmhzr9.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461889/original/file-20220509-15-kmhzr9.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=354&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461889/original/file-20220509-15-kmhzr9.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461889/original/file-20220509-15-kmhzr9.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461889/original/file-20220509-15-kmhzr9.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=445&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A schematic diagram showing how the AI analysis works.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9715095">Chandra</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Patterns of sentiment</h2>
<p>The three translations we studied used very different vocabulary and syntax, but the language model recognised similar sentiments in the different chapters of the respective translations. According to our model, optimistic, annoyed and surprised sentiments are the most expressed. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461888/original/file-20220509-21-pxw5zt.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461888/original/file-20220509-21-pxw5zt.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=661&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461888/original/file-20220509-21-pxw5zt.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=661&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461888/original/file-20220509-21-pxw5zt.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=661&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461888/original/file-20220509-21-pxw5zt.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=831&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461888/original/file-20220509-21-pxw5zt.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=831&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461888/original/file-20220509-21-pxw5zt.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=831&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sentiments captured by our language model for different translations of the Bhagavad Gita.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9715095">Chandra and Kulkarni</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Moreover, the model showed how the overall sentiment polarity changes (from negative to positive) over the course of the conversation between Arjuna and Lord Krishna. </p>
<p>Arjuna is pessimistic towards the beginning and becomes optimistic as Lord Krisha imparts knowledge of Hindu philosophy to him. The sentiments expressed by Krishna show that with philosophical knowledge of dharma and mentorship, a troubled mind can get clarity for making the right decisions in times of conflict. </p>
<p>One limitation of our model is that it was trained on data from Twitter, so it recognises “joking” as a common sentiment. It applies this label inappropriately to some parts of the Bhagavad Gita. Humour is complicated and strongly culturally constrained, and understanding it is too much to ask of our model at this stage.</p>
<p>Due to the nature of the Sanskrit language, the fact that the Bhagavad Gita is a song with rhythm and rhyme, and the varied dates of the translations, different translators used different vocabulary to describe the same concepts.</p>
<p>The table below shows some of the most semantically similar verses from the three translations. </p>
<p><iframe id="1ZUL9" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/1ZUL9/1/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>The uses of sentiment analysis</h2>
<p>Our research points the way to the use of AI-based technologies for comparing translations and reviewing sentiments in a wide range of texts. </p>
<p>This technology can also be extended to review sentiments expressed in entertainment media. Another potential application is analysing movies and songs to provide insights to parents and authorities about the suitability of content for children. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>The author would like to acknowledge the invaluable contribution of Venkatesh Kulkarni to this research.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182517/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rohitash Chandra receives funding from NHMRC and ARC - ITTC Data Analytics for Resources and Environments</span></em></p>Using machine learning, we analysed meaning and feeling in different translations of an ancient Hindu holy text.Rohitash Chandra, Senior Lecturer, UNSW SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1804702022-04-27T12:19:32Z2022-04-27T12:19:32ZCaste doesn’t just exist in India or in Hinduism – it is pervasive across many religions in South Asia and the diaspora<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459541/original/file-20220425-12-7muqn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=53%2C22%2C2941%2C2025&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Nuns from a group of Dalit Christians, or India's lowest caste who converted to Christianity, protest in New Delhi.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/IndiaCasteProtest/249f166d16ba461b8f6e2eb43a73b52c/photo?Query=india%20caste&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=966&currentItemNo=57">AP Photo/Gurinder Osan</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The California State University system, America’s largest public higher education system, recently added caste, a birth-based social hierarchy system, to its <a href="https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2022-01-20/csu-adds-caste-to-its-anti-discrimination-policy">anti-discrimination policy</a>, allowing students, staff and faculty across its 23 campuses to report caste bias and discrimination. </p>
<p>CSU’s move has drawn a sharp response from some in the Indian diaspora: About <a href="https://www.hinduamerican.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Faculty-Staff-Petition-Oppose-Addition-Caste-Faculty-Contract-PUBLIC.pdf">80 faculty members of Indian heritage</a>, as well as the <a href="https://www.hinduamerican.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/HAF-Letter-Cal-State-Board-of-Trustees-2022-0120.pdf">Hindu American Foundation</a>, a Washington, D.C.-based advocacy group, have opposed the decision, claiming that it is potentially stigmatizing for persons of Hindu or Indian heritage. They have also threatened a lawsuit against CSU if this decision is not revoked. </p>
<p>The caste system is often conflated in <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-35650616">Western media</a> with Hindu religion and India alone. However, as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2016.1152173">social</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12309">scientists</a> specializing in South Asian Studies, we know that the caste system is neither exclusive to Hindu religion nor is it endemic to India. </p>
<h2>Caste in South Asia</h2>
<p>While the <a href="https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691088952/castes-of-mind">caste system originated in Hindu scriptures, it crystallized during British colonial rule</a> and has stratified society in every South Asian religious community. In addition to India, it is present in <a href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1875415">Pakistan</a>, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25764189">Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka</a>, the <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24365026?seq=1">Maldives</a> and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3295446">Bhutan</a>.</p>
<p>Social, economic and political status in this pernicious system is tied to traditional occupations fixed by birth. Brahmins, for example, who are assigned priestly work, are at the top, and Dalits, relegated to the bottom, are forced into occupations that are considered abject in South Asia, such as cleaning streets and toilets, or working in the tanning industry. Caste-based rules of marriage maintain these boundaries firmly. </p>
<p>Caste organizes social life not only among Hindus but also in Muslim, Christian, Sikh and Buddhist communities in the region. It is an intergenerational system based on birth into a caste group. Caste identities stay even generations after someone converts out of Hinduism and into any of these faiths.</p>
<p>Among <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christian-caste">South Asian Christians</a>, Anglo-Indians are at the top of the hierarchy. This small community includes individuals of mixed descent from Indian and British parents. Those who converted to Christianity, even generations ago, from middle level Hindu castes come next, followed by those from Indigenous backgrounds. <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/07/12/8-key-findings-about-christians-in-india/">Those who converted to Christianity from Dalit castes</a> are placed at the bottom. </p>
<p><a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Caste_and_Social_Stratification_Among_Mu.html?id=8dGFAAAAIAAJ">Muslims across the region</a> are organized with the minority Ashraf communities at the top. The Ashraf community claims noble status as the “original” Muslims in South Asia, due to their descent from Central Asian, Iranian and Arab ethnic groups. The middle in this social hierarchy is comprised of Ajlaf, considered to be “low-born” communities that converted from Hindu artisanal castes. The group at the bottom includes converts from Dalit communities who are identified with the demeaning term Arzal, which means vile or vulgar. </p>
<p>In the <a href="https://www.epw.in/journal/2003/26/special-articles/scheduled-castes-sikh-community.html">Sikh</a> community, the powerful land-owning caste, Jat-Sikhs, are at the top, followed by converts from Hindu trading communities in the middle and converts from lower caste Hindu communities, Mazhabi Sikhs, at the bottom. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Sikh men wearing colorful turbans and women with their heads covered gathered together in New Delhi, India." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=390&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/459542/original/file-20220425-2721-nf6eea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=490&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dalit Sikhs gather for a protest in New Delhi.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/IndiaDalitProtest/87814b9fc16e412aa1933d416f10d360/photo?Query=hindus%20caste&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=191&currentItemNo=12">AP Photo/ R S Iyer</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While Buddhism in India is close to being casteless, its dominant versions in Sri Lanka and Nepal have <a href="https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/view/8676">caste-based hierarchies</a>.</p>
<h2>Caste carries over after conversion</h2>
<p>While many of the so-called lower caste groups converted to escape their persecution in Hinduism, their new religions did not treat them as fully equal.</p>
<p>South Asian Christians, Muslims, Sikhs and Buddhists with Dalit family histories continue to face <a href="https://www.minorityaffairs.gov.in/sites/default/files/sachar_comm.pdf">prejudice</a> from their new co-religionists. They are excluded from or <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4412102?seq=1">experience segregation</a> at shared places of worship <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11229170">and sites of burial or cremation</a> across all these regions.</p>
<p>Social scientists have shown that strict caste-based rules continue to regulate social organization and everyday interactions. Intercaste marriages are rare: In India alone, they have remained at about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909619829896">5% of all marriages over the past several decades</a>. When they take place, the couples risk <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-47823588">violence</a>.</p>
<p>While urbanization and education have normalized everyday interactions across caste groups in shared urban spaces, entertaining lower caste individuals in upper caste households is still taboo in many families. A 2014 <a href="https://www.ncaer.org/news_details.php?nID=91">survey</a> found one in every four Indians to be practicing untouchability, a dehumanizing practice in which people from Dalit castes are not to be touched or allowed to come in contact with upper caste individuals. Untouchability was prohibited in India in 1950 when its egalitarian constitution came into force. However, home ownership is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247818812330">segregated</a> by caste, and religion and caste discrimination is <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24482557">pervasive in the rental market</a> where residential associations use flimsy procedural excuses for keeping lower caste individuals out. </p>
<p>Lower castes are expected to defer to the higher status of upper castes, refrain from expressing themselves in shared spaces and avoid displaying material affluence. They risk being punished by <a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/india/social-boycott-of-dalit-families-odisha-rights-panel-takes-cognizance-seeks-report-from-officials-6569912/">socioeconomic boycotts</a>, which could include ostracizing the Dalits or keeping them out of employment. It may even include <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/02/21/india-dalits-wedding-horse/">assault</a> or <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/jun/13/nepal-to-investigate-dalit-killings-following-arranged-marriage-dispute">murder</a>. In Pakistan, <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/12/15/it-is-time-to-talk-about-caste-in-pakistan-and-pakistani-diaspora">anti-blasphemy laws are used as a pretext for caste violence against Dalits</a>, many of whom have <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-35910331">converted to Christianity</a>. </p>
<h2>Caste and life outcomes</h2>
<p>Studies show that caste-based identity is a major determinant of overall <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2109226119">success</a> in South Asia. Upper caste individuals have better literacy and greater representation in <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1293431.pdf">higher education</a>. They are <a href="http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/Bharti2018.pdf">wealthier</a> and dominate <a href="https://www.epw.in/journal/2007/41/caste-and-economic-discrimination-special-issues/legacy-social-exclusion.html">private sector employment</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/06/special-articles/caste-and-entrepreneurship-india.html">entrepreneurship</a>. </p>
<p>While <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/9038/WDR2006_0012.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">affirmative action programs</a> initiated by the British and continued in independent India have made improvements in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414021989755">educational levels of lower caste groups</a>, employment opportunities for them have been limited.</p>
<p>Studies also demonstrate how caste identity affects <a href="https://gsdrc.org/document-library/discrimination-and-childrens-nutritional-status-in-india/">nutrition and health</a> through purchasing power and <a href="https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FA117/FA117.pdf">access to health services</a>.</p>
<p>Most socioeconomic <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/2394481118808107">elites in South Asia</a>, regardless of religion, are affiliated with upper caste groups, and the vast majority of the poor come from lower caste groups. </p>
<h2>Caste in the diaspora</h2>
<p>Scholars have documented similar discriminatory practices in the diaspora in the <a href="https://www.epw.in/journal/2002/31/commentary/punjabis-england.html">U.K.</a>, <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-02-11/caste-system-of-india-and-south-asia-in-australia-dalit-rights/13135622">Australia</a>, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/indian-caste-system-in-canada-called-a-disease-worse-than-racism-1.3090441">Canada</a> and the <a href="https://www.epw.in/journal/2015/37/notes/caste-among-indian-diaspora-africa.html">African continent</a>. </p>
<p>Caste has started getting recognition as a discriminatory category, especially in the U.S., in recent years. A 2016 <a href="https://www.equalitylabs.org/castesurvey">survey, “Caste in the USA”</a>, the first formal documentation of caste discrimination within the U.S. diaspora, found that caste discrimination was pervasive across workplaces, educational institutions, places of worship and even in romantic partnerships. </p>
<p>In 2020, the state of California <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-cisco-lawsuit/california-accuses-cisco-of-job-discrimination-based-on-indian-employees-caste-idUSKBN2423YE">sued</a> Cisco Systems, a technology company in the Silicon Valley, on a complaint against caste-based discrimination. <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/harvard-adds-caste-bias-protections-graduate-student-workers-rcna7279">Harvard University</a>, <a href="https://www.colby.edu/admission/nondiscrimination-policy/">Colby College</a>, <a href="https://www.usnews.com/news/us/articles/2021-11-18/uc-davis-adds-caste-to-its-anti-discrimination-policy">UC Davis</a> and <a href="https://www.brandeis.edu/president/letters/2019-12-17-adding-caste-to-our-nondiscrimination-harassment-policy.html">Brandeis University</a> have recognized caste as a protected status and have included it in their nondiscrimination policies. </p>
<p>These developments in the U.S. have put the spotlight again on this centuries-old system that denies equality to large populations on the basis of an oppressive and rigid hierarchical system. It is up to the American diaspora how they commit to engage with it, as they themselves strive for equality and fairness in their new multicultural society. </p>
<p>[<em>More than 150,000 readers get one of The Conversation’s informative newsletters.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140K">Join the list today</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180470/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Several US universities now recognize caste as part of nondiscrimination policies. Two scholars of South Asian studies explain how caste-based violence isn’t limited to Hinduism, or to India.Aseem Hasnain, Associate Professor of Sociology, Bridgewater State UniversityAbhilasha Srivastava, Assistant Professor of Economics, California State University, San BernardinoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1766852022-02-11T13:32:32Z2022-02-11T13:32:32ZThis god shoots love darts – but no, it’s not Cupid<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445796/original/file-20220210-19-gayopg.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C985%2C702&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The love god Kamadeva prepares to shoot Shiva with a love dart.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Kama_Shiva.jpg/1024px-Kama_Shiva.jpg">British Museum/Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>With the coming of Valentine’s Day, images of a chubby Cupid aiming his arrows of love at unwary humans’ hearts seem to be everywhere.</p>
<p>The Cupid that Americans see splashed across greeting cards and chocolate boxes began life as a Roman God of love and desire, based on his <a href="https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203490822">Greek counterpart</a>, Eros. The word <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/erotic#learn-more">erotic</a> is even drawn from his name.</p>
<p>What is less well known in the Western world is that Eros has <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Tales_for_the_Dying/qJ_tiIqjyxAC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=kamadeva+Suka&pg=PA94&printsec=frontcover">a Hindu equivalent</a>: Kamadeva, the Hindu god of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lfi005">love, desire and infatuation</a>. Indeed, as <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=aRrsKvYAAAAJ">a scholar of Indic traditions</a>, I find that there are often parallels between the sacred stories of Hindu deities and those found in cultures around the world, particularly Indo-European ones.</p>
<p>The Hindu Cupid also shoots his arrows into hearts. Kamadeva, however, is not a chubby cherub, but a handsome youth who <a href="https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/%7Erfrey/116kamadeva.htm">rides upon a large green parrot</a> named Suka. His bow is made of sugarcane, its bowstring is made up of honeybees and his arrows are made of flowers. Indeed, this description can be found as early as <a href="https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rvi09.htm">the Rigveda</a>, the <a href="https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/rig-veda#:%7E:text=The%20philological%20and%20linguistic%20evidence,between%201500%20and%201200%20BCE.">most ancient</a> of Hindu scriptures, which dates back at least 3,000 years.</p>
<p>All these elements symbolize the sweetness of love. They also evoke the springtime, when new life emerges into the world. Kamadeva’s parrot, Suka, also represents spring, as well as <a href="https://awingandaway.wordpress.com/2015/07/13/birds-in-hindu-culture/">romantic love</a>, as parrots are often observed living in pairs.</p>
<p>Kamadeva, also known as Madana, is accompanied by <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/God_of_Desire/4g3dXlr0TasC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Rati">his partner, Rati</a>, who is, appropriately, the goddess of love.</p>
<p>What is probably the most famous story about the pair illustrates the tension between two of the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zmvhsrd/revision/2">most deeply held values</a> in Hindu tradition. Romantic love, particularly within family life, is greatly prized. On the other hand, the highest ideal, liberation from the cycle of rebirth, is often seen as requiring spiritual aspirants to renounce worldly attachments – including conventional social relationships – in the pursuit of meditative solitude.</p>
<p>One of the most celebrated and revered Hindu deities, Shiva, <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Siva/dnfZ_MBErlQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=siva+erotic+ascetic&printsec=frontcover">embodies this tension</a>, as he is both a great yogi and a loving husband and father. Once, when Shiva was deep in meditation, Kamadeva sought to pierce his heart with an arrow. Furious at having his meditation disturbed, Shiva blasted the hapless god of love with a powerful beam of energy emanating from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0118.1991.tb01143.x">his famous third eye</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A painting shows the Hindu deity Shiva turning the love god Kamadeva to ashes as women look on." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445794/original/file-20220210-18418-jl8ce0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445794/original/file-20220210-18418-jl8ce0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445794/original/file-20220210-18418-jl8ce0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445794/original/file-20220210-18418-jl8ce0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445794/original/file-20220210-18418-jl8ce0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445794/original/file-20220210-18418-jl8ce0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445794/original/file-20220210-18418-jl8ce0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shiva did not appreciate having his meditation interrupted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Heritage Images/Hulton Archive via Getty Images</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Kamadeva was not trying to pierce Lord Shiva’s heart out of whimsy. Rather, <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/God_of_Desire/cWAh8sL3gOEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=kamadeva&printsec=frontcover">the story says</a>, the world was being threatened by a monstrous demon, or asura, called Taraka, whom none of the gods was able to defeat.</p>
<p>According to a prophecy, only Kartikeya, the son of Lord Shiva and his wife, the Mother Goddess Parvati, would be able to defeat this demon. The problem was that Kartikeya had not yet been conceived. Given Shiva’s commitment to meditation, as the patron deity and embodiment of yoga, it was unlikely that this would happen any time soon.</p>
<p>Kamadeva was therefore dispatched by the gods for precisely this reason: to arouse Shiva’s love for Parvati and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1946-7_22">awaken him from his meditation</a> so he could father the son who would save the world.</p>
<p>Though sometimes quick to anger, Shiva is portrayed as a merciful deity. Rati, inconsolable at the loss of her beloved, pleaded with Shiva to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/19472498.2017.1371503">restore Kamadeva to life</a>, which he did. Subsequently, Shiva and Parvati conceived their son, Kartikeya, who went on to destroy the demon.</p>
<p>The message of this story? That even in a tradition where asceticism and meditation are prized as paths to humanity’s highest goal – liberation from the realm of rebirth and its sufferings – erotic love <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Siva/dnfZ_MBErlQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=siva+erotic+ascetic&printsec=frontcover">has its place</a> as a necessary part of life. Kamadeva is no mere distraction, but has a positive role to play in the world.</p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffery D. Long does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Kamadeva, also known as Madana, is the Hindu god of love, desire and infatuation.Jeffery D. Long, Professor of Religion and Asian Studies, Elizabethtown CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.