tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/ocean-pollution-17593/articles
Ocean pollution – The Conversation
2024-01-29T00:20:35Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/221966
2024-01-29T00:20:35Z
2024-01-29T00:20:35Z
Sediment runoff from the land is killing NZ’s seas – it’s time to take action
<p>The fishers at Separation Point, between Golden Bay and Tasman Bay in New Zealand’s northwest South Island, used to be cautious. Something they called “hard coral” would tear their nets. If you dived down about 30 metres, you could see why: extensive reefs.</p>
<p>These reefs were constructed by <a href="https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/147-bryozoans">bryozoans</a>, tiny polyp-like creatures that cooperate to build large, branching colonies. They are similar to corals but live in deeper and cooler water.</p>
<p>The reefs at Separation Point were gorgeous and biodiverse. They provided shelter for small animals such as oysters and young fish. In 1980, the world’s first bryozoan-based fishing exclusion area was created to protect them: 146 square kilometres of seafloor was closed to most fishing, from the coastline to a depth of about 50 metres.</p>
<p>It went well at first. A 1983 study from the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (<a href="https://niwa.co.nz/">NIWA</a>) of just one reef found 37 species of bryozoans and another 39 invertebrate species, plus numerous fish. In 2008, a <a href="https://niwa.co.nz/publications/water-and-atmosphere/vol16-no3-september-2008/effects-of-a-30-year-fishing-ban">study comparing fished and unfished areas</a> off Separation Point found more biodiversity where fishing had been limited.</p>
<p>Alas, subsequent developments have not been so kind. Land clearance for agriculture and forestry since human occupation has resulted in a ten-fold increase in sediment runoff in the area. </p>
<p>Thick beds of mud and silt have built up, destroying and burying the reefs. A <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/128742534/protected-fish-nursery-wiped-out-by-mud">survey of the same area</a> in 2021 found flat mud deposits, with the occasional small, dead bryozoan sticking up. No fish remained in this marine ghost town.</p>
<h2>Part of a bigger picture</h2>
<p>These days it’s hard to escape news that the ocean is in trouble. Warming waters cause heatwaves that bleach corals. Fish and sharks appear where they never used to. Plastic is everywhere, including the stomachs of dolphins and penguins. Overfishing is causing populations to crash.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, sea levels are rising, dredging and mining are destroying ecosystems, while underwater engine noise and artificial light are changing how animals behave. Even the fundamental chemistry of seawater is changing as CO₂ dissolves in it. UNESCO’s <a href="https://oceanliteracy.unesco.org/?post-types=all&sort=popular">Ocean Literacy Portal</a> reads like an obituary.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/plastic-pollution-in-some-nz-lakes-is-comparable-to-northern-hemisphere-lakes-in-highly-populated-areas-global-study-finds-209509">Plastic pollution in some NZ lakes is comparable to northern hemisphere lakes in highly populated areas, global study finds</a>
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<p>But there’s another problem often left off that grim list: sediment runoff. When people remove trees, build roads and overstock paddocks, sand, mud and silt flow into the sea.</p>
<p>The resulting damage to coastal ecosystems gets little press, despite being described by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/pollution.html">greatest single source of pollution</a> in the world’s waterways and coasts. </p>
<p>The first objective of the <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/science-publications/conservation-publications/marine-and-coastal/new-zealand-coastal-policy-statement/new-zealand-coastal-policy-statement-2010/">New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement</a> in 2010 was to maintain and restore marine water quality. But that’s far from what we have today.</p>
<p>Dark waters, turbid with silt, affect marine life. We are increasingly aware of the changes in seaweed cover around New Zealand, from damage to kelp canopies to changes in phytoplankton. Seaweeds need light and clear waters.</p>
<p>Bryozoans, barnacles, oysters, cockles and scallops are suffering too. They literally starve to death by collecting dirt particles rather than food. Their delicate feeding tentacles are damaged or clogged, while their neighbours (such as pāua) are smothered or buried.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nzs-vital-kelp-forests-are-in-peril-from-ocean-warming-threatening-the-important-species-that-rely-on-them-212956">NZ’s vital kelp forests are in peril from ocean warming – threatening the important species that rely on them</a>
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<h2>New Zealand’s disproportionate problem</h2>
<p>Sediment runoff is most likely in wet places with high and regular rainfall, prone to being disturbed by storms and earthquakes, and with steep slopes, young rocks and soils. Agricultural land is a particularly strong source of sediment to waterways. Sound like somewhere you know?</p>
<p>Aotearoa New Zealand is eroding into the sea right under our feet. Over 200 million tonnes of sediment are <a href="https://niwa.co.nz/news/reducing-sedimentation">transported by rivers to the sea</a> each year, making fine sediment the most important and widespread water contaminant in this country.</p>
<p>Despite covering only 0.2% of global land area, the Ministry for the Environment <a href="https://environment.govt.nz/publications/new-zealands-land-at-a-glance-our-land-2018/">reported in 2018</a> that New Zealand contributes 1.7% of the sediment to the world’s oceans.</p>
<p>Removal of forest and well-rooted plants, overgrazing and construction all result in sediment washing into the sea. Excavating old soils containing now-outlawed pollutants such as DDT, tin or lead exacerbates the problem.</p>
<p>Under the Resource Management Act, regional councils have the authority to prevent discharge of contaminants into water, and the responsibility to manage catchments to minimise sediment getting to the sea. Murky coastal waters suggest they’re not coping with this task. </p>
<h2>Action and policy needed</h2>
<p>We can make a difference. Planting and avoiding runoff are the most obvious solutions. Roots hold soil better than anything humans have invented. Usefully, they also direct water deep into the ground and remove carbon from the atmosphere.</p>
<p>The usual advice is to plant forests near the tops of catchments, where the ground is steepest and most vulnerable. Projects such as the government’s <a href="https://www.mpi.govt.nz/forestry/funding-tree-planting-research/one-billion-trees-programme/">One Billion Trees Programme</a> are promising, but the key is to leave those trees alone, or find ways to harvest them that minimise runoff.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-zealands-maritime-territory-is-15-times-its-landmass-heres-why-we-need-a-ministry-for-the-ocean-210123">New Zealand's maritime territory is 15 times its landmass – here's why we need a ministry for the ocean</a>
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<p>The Building Research Association of New Zealand recommends <a href="https://www.level.org.nz/health-and-safety/airborne-and-other-pollutants/sediment-and-run-off/">managing construction projects to avoid runoff</a>, including using settling ponds and channels to retain dirty water, or chemical “<a href="https://enva.com/case-studies/flocculants-in-wastewater-treatment">flocculants</a>” to make fine sediments bind together into a glob and sink. Every project should include the post-completion planting needed to retain soil.</p>
<p>Individuals and households can plant gardens and trees to avoid bare spots. They can limit the use of concrete and other impervious surfaces or choose permeable concrete. They can capture rain from their roof in a rain barrel instead of using storm water drains.</p>
<p>The Māori concept of “<a href="https://niwa.co.nz/news/ki-uta-ki-tai-niwas-role-in-mountains-to-sea-estuarine-management">ki uta ki tai</a>” recognises the connection between the land and sea, and should inform more robust and holistic environmental management policy, from the mountaintops to the deep ocean. </p>
<p>Regional councils use these words, but we need to see real action. Working together, we can keep soil on land where it belongs, and the ocean clean and clear.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221966/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Abigail M Smith does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Over 200 million tonnes of sediment are transported by rivers to the sea each year, the most widespread water contaminant in the country. Its devastating impact on marine life has to be reversed.
Abigail M Smith, Professor of Marine Science, University of Otago
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/213562
2023-09-25T20:07:23Z
2023-09-25T20:07:23Z
Container deposit schemes reduce rubbish on our beaches. Here’s how we proved it
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/549248/original/file-20230920-21-xmj3uw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C4896%2C3246&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our beaches are in trouble. Limited recycling programs and a society that throws away so much have resulted in more than <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-023-01216-0">3 million tonnes of plastic</a> polluting the oceans. An estimated <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-023-01216-0">1.5–1.9% of this rubbish</a> ends up on beaches.</p>
<p>So can waste-management strategies such as container deposit schemes make a difference to this <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-023-01216-0">50,000–60,000 tonnes</a> of beach rubbish?</p>
<p>The Queensland government started a <a href="https://containerexchange.com.au/">container deposit scheme</a> in 2019. We wanted to know if it reduced the rubbish that washed up on beaches in a tourist hotspot, the Whitsundays region. </p>
<p>To find out, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X23009050">our study</a>, the first of its kind, used data from a <a href="https://ecobargecleanseas.org.au/">community volunteer group</a> through the <a href="https://amdi.tangaroablue.org/">Australian Marine Debris Initiative Database</a>.</p>
<p>It turned out that for the types of rubbish included in the scheme – plastic bottles and aluminium cans – the answer was an emphatic yes.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/spotting-plastic-waste-from-space-and-counting-the-fish-in-the-seas-heres-how-ai-can-help-protect-the-oceans-196222">Spotting plastic waste from space and counting the fish in the seas: here's how AI can help protect the oceans</a>
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<h2>Container deposit schemes work</h2>
<p>After the scheme began, there were fewer plastic bottles and aluminium cans on Whitsundays beaches. Volunteer clean-up workers collected an average of about 120 containers per beach visit before the scheme began in 2019. This number fell to 77 in 2020.</p>
<p>Not only that, but those numbers stayed down year after year. This means people continued to take part in the scheme for years. </p>
<p>Rubbish that wasn’t part of the scheme still found its way to the beaches.</p>
<p>However, more types of rubbish such as larger <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/management/waste/recovery/reduction/container-refund/proposed-expansion">glass bottles are being added</a> to the four-year-old Queensland scheme. Other states and territories have had schemes like this for many years, the oldest in South Australia since 1971. </p>
<p>But we didn’t have access to beach data from before and after those schemes started. So our findings are great news, especially as <a href="https://consult.dwer.wa.gov.au/strategic-policy/container-deposit-scheme-expanding-scope/">some</a> of <a href="https://yoursayconversations.act.gov.au/act-container-deposit-scheme-expansion">these</a> other <a href="https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/news/media-releases/2022/epamedia221015-cheers-nsw-return-and-earn-set-to-expand">schemes</a> are set to expand too. The evidence also supports the creation of new schemes in Victoria this November and Tasmania next year.</p>
<p>These developments give reason to hope we will see further reductions in beach litter.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/spin-the-bottle-the-fraught-politics-of-container-deposit-schemes-37981">Spin the bottle: the fraught politics of container deposit schemes</a>
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<h2>The data came from the community</h2>
<p>To find out whether the scheme has reduced specific sorts of rubbish on beaches we needed a large amount of data from before and after it began. </p>
<p>The unsung heroes of this study are the diligent volunteers who provided us with these data. They have been recording the types and amounts of rubbish found during their cleanups at Whitsundays beaches for years. </p>
<p>Eco Barge Clean Seas Inc has been doing this work since 2009. In taking that extra step of counting and sorting the rubbish, they may not have known it at the time, but they were creating a data gold mine. We would eventually use their data to prove the container deposit scheme works.</p>
<p>The rubbish clean-ups are continuing. This means we’ll be able to see how <a href="https://containerexchange.com.au/qld-scheme-expansion/">adding more rubbish types</a> to the scheme will further reduce rubbish on beaches. </p>
<p>The long-term perspective we can gain from such data is testament to this sustained community effort.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/local-efforts-have-cut-plastic-waste-on-australias-beaches-by-almost-30-in-6-years-184243">Local efforts have cut plastic waste on Australia's beaches by almost 30% in 6 years</a>
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<h2>There’s still more work to do</h2>
<p>So if we recycle our plastics, why do we still get beaches covered in rubbish? The reality is that <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/whopping-91-percent-plastic-isnt-recycled/">most plastics aren’t recycled</a>. This is mainly due to two problems:</p>
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<li>technological limitations on the sorting needed to avoid contamination of waste streams</li>
<li>inadequate incentives for people to reduce contamination by properly sorting their waste, and ultimately to use products made from recycled waste.</li>
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<p>Our findings show we can create more sustainable practices and a cleaner environment when individuals are given incentives to recycle. </p>
<p>However, container deposit schemes don’t just provide a financial reward. Getting people directly involved in recycling fosters a sense of responsibility for the environment. This connection between people’s actions and outcomes is a key to such schemes’ success. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-new-100-recyclable-packaging-target-is-no-use-if-our-waste-isnt-actually-recycled-95857">The new 100% recyclable packaging target is no use if our waste isn't actually recycled</a>
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<p>Our study also shows how invaluable community-driven clean-up projects are. Not only do they reduce environmental harm and improve our experiences on beaches, but they can also provide scientists like us with the data we need to show how waste-management policies affect the environment. </p>
<p>Waste management is a concern for communities, policymakers and environmentalists around the world. The lessons from our study apply not only in Australia but anywhere that communities can work with scientists and governments to solve environmental problems.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213562/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Volunteers have been collecting and sorting washed-up rubbish on the beach for years. Thanks to their efforts, we have data on whether container deposit schemes help the issue.
Kay Critchell, Lecturer in Oceanography, Deakin University
Michael Traurig, PhD Researcher, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/207083
2023-06-06T12:29:31Z
2023-06-06T12:29:31Z
Protecting the ocean: 5 essential reads on invasive species, overfishing and other threats to sea life
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530186/original/file-20230605-15-w5h9js.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=23%2C15%2C5283%2C3516&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fish in a kelp forest off San Benito Island, Mexico.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/garibaldi-fish-in-kelp-forest-hypsypops-rubicundus-san-news-photo/551022897">Photo by Reinhard Dirscherl/ullstein bild via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Humans rely on the ocean for many things, including food, jobs, recreation and <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/climate.html">stabilization of Earth’s climate</a>. But although ocean resources may seem infinite, human impacts like pollution, overfishing and climate change are creating what United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres has called an “<a href="https://press.un.org/en/2022/sea2143.doc.htm">ocean emergency</a>.” Climate change is pushing ocean temperatures to <a href="https://phys.org/news/2023-05-sea-surface-surge.html">record levels</a>, many <a href="https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc0461en">fisheries are overharvested</a>, and plastic waste is <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/03/science/ocean-plastic-animals.html">accumulating in the deep sea</a>.</p>
<p>These five articles from The Conversation’s archive spotlight urgent challenges for ocean conservation, and describe what researchers are doing to devise effective responses.</p>
<h2>1. A devastating invasion is expanding</h2>
<p>Invasive lionfish are aggressive predators, native to the Indo-Pacific Ocean, that feed on smaller reef fish. They have caused heavy damage in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico since they first appeared in the Atlantic in 1985. Now, they’ve spread south to Brazil, which has many rare endemic fish species and is behind the curve in responding. </p>
<p>“As one of many Brazilian scientists who warned repeatedly about a potential lionfish invasion over the past decade, I’m disheartened that my country missed the window to take early action,” wrote Charles Darwin University marine scientist <a href="https://scholar.google.com.au/citations?user=_ArEYYMAAAAJ&hl=en">Osmar J. Luiz</a>. “Now, however, marine researchers and local communities are stepping up.”</p>
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<span class="caption">Lionfish have venomous spines that protect them against predators.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/u8LkfH">Florida Fish and Wildlife</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>One important control strategy was to create an interactive dashboard where anyone can report lionfish sightings. Other steps are likely to include environmental education, organized culls and genetic research to identify distinct lionfish populations and see where they’re moving. With a similar lionfish invasion underway in the Mediterranean, there’s urgent need for effective responses.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/invasive-lionfish-have-spread-south-from-the-caribbean-to-brazil-threatening-ecosystems-and-livelihoods-199229">Invasive lionfish have spread south from the Caribbean to Brazil, threatening ecosystems and livelihoods</a>
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<h2>2. Mining the seabed poses ecological risks</h2>
<p>One of the ocean’s potentially most valuable resources hasn’t been tapped yet – but that could be about to change. </p>
<p>Scattered across large zones of the ocean floor, manganese nodules – lumps that look like cobblestones – contain rich deposits of <a href="https://theconversation.com/deep-seabed-mining-plans-pit-renewable-energy-demand-against-ocean-life-in-a-largely-unexplored-frontier-193273">nickel, copper, cobalt and other metals</a> that are newly in demand for manufacturing batteries and renewable energy components. </p>
<p>“A fierce debate is now playing out as a Canadian company makes plans to launch the first commercial deep sea mining operation in the Pacific Ocean,” Indiana University scholars <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YtgRGx0AAAAJ&hl=en">Scott Shackelford</a>, <a href="https://law.indiana.libguides.com/ochoa">Christiana Ochoa</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=2bs3bogAAAAJ&hl=en">David Bosco</a> and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kerry-Krutilla">Kerry Krutilla</a> warned.</p>
<p>Less than 10% of the deep seabed has been mapped thoroughly, and most life forms discovered there have never been seen before. Collecting materials from the ocean floor could harm these species – for example, by burying them in sediments. “We believe it would be wise to better understand this existing, fragile ecosystem better before rushing to mine it,” the authors concluded.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/deep-seabed-mining-plans-pit-renewable-energy-demand-against-ocean-life-in-a-largely-unexplored-frontier-193273">Deep seabed mining plans pit renewable energy demand against ocean life in a largely unexplored frontier</a>
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<h2>3. Illegal fishing is common and hard to detect</h2>
<p>Illegal fishing – taking too many fish, or harvesting threatened species – causes economic losses estimated at US$10 billion to $25 billion annually. It also has been linked to human rights violations, such as forced labor and human trafficking. But it’s easy to conduct these activities out of sight on the high seas.</p>
<p>By looking at when and where fishing boats turned off their location transponders at sea, academic and nongovernment researchers showed that these silences can be an important signal. </p>
<p>“Vessels frequently went dark on the high-seas edge of exclusive economic zone boundaries, which can <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-fishing-boats-go-dark-at-sea-theyre-often-committing-crimes-we-mapped-where-it-happens-196694">obscure illegal fishing in unauthorized locations</a>,” wrote <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=L0Ue4hIAAAAJ&hl=en">Heather Welch</a>, a researcher in ecosystem dynamics at the University of California, Santa Cruz. </p>
<p>Ships may also disable their transponders to avoid pirates or avoid drawing competitors to rich fishing sites, so making it illegal to turn their signals off isn’t a practical strategy. But more analysis of where boats go dark could help governments target inspections and patrols, reducing crimes at sea.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-fishing-boats-go-dark-at-sea-theyre-often-committing-crimes-we-mapped-where-it-happens-196694">When fishing boats go dark at sea, they're often committing crimes – we mapped where it happens</a>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Dozens of dead red snapper arranged in rows on a pier." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530190/original/file-20230605-15-2du56b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Red snapper seized by Coast Guard law enforcement crews that interdicted a Mexican boat crew fishing illegally in federal waters off southern Texas, Nov. 24, 2017.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/ZwEV3B">U.S. Coast Guard</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>4. Scientists are designing an ‘internet of the ocean’</h2>
<p>Just as there are unnumbered life forms in the ocean yet to be discovered, there also are many unanswered questions about its physical processes. For example, scientists know that the ocean <a href="https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/Ocean+Carbon+Storage">pulls carbon from the atmosphere</a> and transfers it to deep waters, where it can remain stored for long periods. But they don’t know how biological and chemical shifts affect this carbon cycling process. </p>
<p>Scientists at the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> in Massachusetts are designing a monitoring system called the Ocean Vital Signs Network that could make it possible to test strategies for storing more carbon in the ocean and tracking how well they work. They envision “a large network of moorings and sensors that <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-envision-an-internet-of-the-ocean-with-sensors-and-autonomous-vehicles-that-can-explore-the-deep-sea-and-monitor-its-vital-signs-197134">provides 4D eyes on the oceans</a> – the fourth dimension being time – that are always on, always connected to monitor these carbon cycling processes and ocean health,” wrote WHOI director <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Etpzd_UAAAAJ&hl=en">Peter de Menocal</a>, a marine geologist and paleoclimatologist.</p>
<p>The network would include intelligent gliders and autonomous vehicles that could collect data and then dock, repower and upload it. It also would use sensors and acoustic transceivers to monitor dark, hidden reaches of the ocean where carbon is stored. “This network makes observation possible for making decisions that will affect future generations,” de Menocal wrote.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-envision-an-internet-of-the-ocean-with-sensors-and-autonomous-vehicles-that-can-explore-the-deep-sea-and-monitor-its-vital-signs-197134">Scientists envision an 'internet of the ocean,' with sensors and autonomous vehicles that can explore the deep sea and monitor its vital signs</a>
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<hr>
<h2>5. Ocean plastic waste has a message for humans</h2>
<p>Over the past several decades, plastic pollution has become one of the world’s more widespread environmental crises. Every year, millions of tons of plastic trash end up in the ocean, <a href="https://theconversation.com/newly-hatched-florida-sea-turtles-are-consuming-dangerous-quantities-of-floating-plastic-143785">killing sea creatures</a>, <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sciencematters/tiny-plastics-big-threat-how-are-microplastics-impacting-our-coral-reefs">smothering ecosystems</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/hundreds-of-fish-species-including-many-that-humans-eat-are-consuming-plastic-154634">threatening human health</a>.</p>
<p>Georgia State University art professor <a href="https://artdesign.gsu.edu/profile/pamela-longobardi/">Pam Longobardi</a> grew up in New Jersey, where her father brought home plastic trinkets from his job at the chemical company Union Carbide. Today, Longobardi collects plastic waste from shorelines around the world and sculpts it into large-scale installations that are both eye-catching and alarming. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large sculpted anchor in the center of an art gallery, with ties to life preservers mounted on the ceiling." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Albatross’ and ‘Hope Floats,’ 2017. Recovered ocean plastic, survival rescue blankets, life vest straps and steel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pam Longobardi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>“I see plastic as <a href="https://theconversation.com/my-art-uses-plastic-recovered-from-beaches-around-the-world-to-understand-how-our-consumer-society-is-transforming-the-ocean-187970">a zombie material that haunts the ocean</a>,” Longobardi wrote. “I am interested in ocean plastic in particular because of what it reveals about us as humans in a global culture, and about the ocean as a cultural space and a giant dynamic engine of life and change. Because ocean plastic visibly shows nature’s attempts to reabsorb and regurgitate it, it has profound stories to tell.”</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/my-art-uses-plastic-recovered-from-beaches-around-the-world-to-understand-how-our-consumer-society-is-transforming-the-ocean-187970">My art uses plastic recovered from beaches around the world to understand how our consumer society is transforming the ocean</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Editor’s note: This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207083/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Humans rely on the ocean for food, jobs and other resources, but these systems are being stressed to the brink.
Jennifer Weeks, Senior Environment + Cities Editor, The Conversation
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/187970
2023-02-14T13:26:35Z
2023-02-14T13:26:35Z
My art uses plastic recovered from beaches around the world to understand how our consumer society is transforming the ocean
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509865/original/file-20230213-409-u60wff.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C15%2C3424%2C2281&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pam Longobardi amid a giant heap of fishing gear that she and volunteers from the Hawaii Wildlife Fund collected in 2008.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">David Rothstein</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I am obsessed with plastic objects. I harvest them from the ocean for the stories they hold and to mitigate their ability to harm. Each object has the potential to be a message from the sea – a poem, a cipher, a metaphor, a warning. </p>
<p><a href="https://artdesign.gsu.edu/profile/pamela-longobardi/">My work</a> collecting and photographing ocean plastic and turning it into art began with an epiphany in 2005, on a far-flung beach at the southern tip of the Big Island of Hawaii. At the edge of a black lava beach pounded by surf, I encountered multitudes upon multitudes of plastic objects that the angry ocean was vomiting onto the rocky shore. </p>
<p>I could see that somehow, impossibly, humans had permeated the ocean with plastic waste. Its alien presence was so enormous that it had reached this most isolated point of land in the immense Pacific Ocean. I felt I was witness to an unspeakable crime against nature, and needed to document it and bring back evidence. </p>
<p>I began cleaning the beach, hauling away weathered and misshapen plastic debris – known and unknown objects, hidden parts of a world of things I had never seen before, and enormous whalelike colored entanglements of nets and ropes. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509862/original/file-20230213-409-crkctu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Three large plastic art installations, the central one a cornucopia spilling plastic objects onto the floor." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509862/original/file-20230213-409-crkctu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509862/original/file-20230213-409-crkctu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509862/original/file-20230213-409-crkctu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509862/original/file-20230213-409-crkctu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509862/original/file-20230213-409-crkctu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509862/original/file-20230213-409-crkctu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509862/original/file-20230213-409-crkctu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Bounty Pilfered’ (center), ‘Newer Laocoön’ (left) and ‘Threnody’ (right). All made of ocean plastic from the Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf of Mexico, installed at the Baker Museum in Naples, Fla., 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pam Longobardi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I returned to that site again and again, gathering material evidence to study its volume and how it had been deposited, trying to understand the immensity it represented. In 2006, I formed the <a href="https://driftersproject.net/about/">Drifters Project</a>, a collaborative global entity to highlight these vagrant, translocational plastics and recruit others to investigate and mitigate ocean plastics’ impact. </p>
<p>My new book, “<a href="https://falllinepress.com/products/ocean-gleaning">Ocean Gleaning</a>,” tracks 17 years of my <a href="http://driftersproject.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/2021-CV_-LONGOBARDI-Pam-.pdf">art and research</a> around the world through the Drifters Project. It reveals specimens of striking artifacts harvested from the sea – objects that once were utilitarian, but have been changed by their oceanic voyages and come back as messages from the ocean.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509512/original/file-20230210-28-ib15eh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Array of plastic objects, including toys, action figures and fragments of larger objects." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509512/original/file-20230210-28-ib15eh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509512/original/file-20230210-28-ib15eh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509512/original/file-20230210-28-ib15eh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509512/original/file-20230210-28-ib15eh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509512/original/file-20230210-28-ib15eh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=894&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509512/original/file-20230210-28-ib15eh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=894&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509512/original/file-20230210-28-ib15eh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=894&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Drifters Objects,’ a tiny sample of the plastic artifacts Pam Longobardi has collected from beaches worldwide.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pam Longobardi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Living in a plastic age</h2>
<p>I grew up in what some now deem <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/are-we-living-plastic-age-180957817/">the age of plastic</a>. Though it’s not the only modern material invention, plastic has had the most unforeseen consequences. </p>
<p>My father was a biochemist at the chemical company <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1977/01/02/archives/the-men-from-glad.html">Union Carbide</a> when I was a child in New Jersey. He played golf with an actor who portrayed “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mYkm7ts62VM">The Man from Glad</a>,” a Get Smart-styled agent who rescued flustered housewives in TV commercials from inferior brands of plastic wrap that snarled and tangled. My father brought home souvenir pins of Union Carbide’s hexagonal logo, based on the carbon molecule, and figurine pencil holders of “<a href="https://www.pinterest.ch/pin/vintage-union-carbide-dow-chemical-mascot-promo-figurine-tergie-statue--351773420877171292/">TERGIE</a>,” the company’s blobby turquoise mascot. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/cr5m8b28eqA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">On the 2013 Gyre Expedition, Pam Longobardi traveled with a team of scientists, artists and policymakers to investigate and remove tons of oceanic plastic washing out of great gyres, or currents, in the Pacific Ocean, and make art from it.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Today I see plastic as a zombie material that haunts the ocean. It is made from petroleum, the decayed and transformed life forms of the past. Drifting at sea, it “lives” again as it gathers a biological slime of algae and protozoa, which become attachment sites for larger organisms. </p>
<p>When <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-oceans-are-full-of-plastic-but-why-do-seabirds-eat-it-68110">seabirds</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/bait-and-switch-anchovies-eat-plastic-because-it-smells-like-prey-81607">fish</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/newly-hatched-florida-sea-turtles-are-consuming-dangerous-quantities-of-floating-plastic-143785">sea turtles</a> mistake this living encrustation for food and eat it, plastic and all, the chemical load <a href="https://theconversation.com/hundreds-of-fish-species-including-many-that-humans-eat-are-consuming-plastic-154634">lives on in their digestive tracts</a>. Their body tissues <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/srep03263">absorb chemicals from the plastic</a>, which remain undigested in their stomachs, often ultimately <a href="https://theconversation.com/bait-and-switch-anchovies-eat-plastic-because-it-smells-like-prey-81607">killing them</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509514/original/file-20230210-16-7dsqrz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two piles of tiny particles of virtually identical sizes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509514/original/file-20230210-16-7dsqrz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509514/original/file-20230210-16-7dsqrz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509514/original/file-20230210-16-7dsqrz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509514/original/file-20230210-16-7dsqrz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509514/original/file-20230210-16-7dsqrz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509514/original/file-20230210-16-7dsqrz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509514/original/file-20230210-16-7dsqrz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Plastic ‘nurdles’ (left), tiny pellets that serve as raw materials for manufacturing plastic products, and herring roe, or eggs (right). These visually analogous forms exemplify how fish can mistake plastic for food.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pam Longobardi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The forensics of plastic</h2>
<p>I see plastic objects as the cultural archaeology of our time – <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ojZhoPvhraw">relics of global late-capitalist consumer society</a> that mirror our desires, wishes, hubris and ingenuity. They become transformed as they leave the quotidian world and collide with nature. By regurgitating them ashore or jamming them into sea caves, the ocean is communicating with us through materials of our own making. Some seem eerily familiar; others are totally alien.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509539/original/file-20230210-19-9tzuuk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two views of a degraded arm from a plastic doll, found on Playa Jaco in Costa Rica." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509539/original/file-20230210-19-9tzuuk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509539/original/file-20230210-19-9tzuuk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509539/original/file-20230210-19-9tzuuk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509539/original/file-20230210-19-9tzuuk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509539/original/file-20230210-19-9tzuuk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509539/original/file-20230210-19-9tzuuk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509539/original/file-20230210-19-9tzuuk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A degraded plastic doll arm, from the series ‘Evidence of Crimes.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pam Longobardi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A person engaging in ocean gleaning acts as a detective and a beacon, hunting for the forensics of this crime against the natural world and shining the light of interrogation on it. By searching for ocean plastic in a state of open receptiveness, a gleaner like me can find symbols of pop culture, religion, war, humor, irony and sorrow. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509540/original/file-20230210-20-jweta0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A rolling landscape covered with thousands of life vests." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509540/original/file-20230210-20-jweta0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509540/original/file-20230210-20-jweta0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509540/original/file-20230210-20-jweta0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509540/original/file-20230210-20-jweta0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509540/original/file-20230210-20-jweta0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509540/original/file-20230210-20-jweta0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509540/original/file-20230210-20-jweta0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Division Line,’ 2016. This photograph shows the ‘life-jacket cemetery’ in Lesvos, Greece. Traumatized asylum-seekers and migrants arriving by boat from Türkey leave the life vests on shore as they stagger inland. Most of the waste is plastic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">© Pam Longobardi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In keeping with the drifting journeys of these material artifacts, I prefer using them in a transitive form as installations. All of these works can be dismantled and reconfigured, although plastic materials are nearly impossible to recycle. I display some objects as specimens on steel pins, and wire others together to form large-scale sculptures. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509543/original/file-20230210-22-89toay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A plastic bottle cap inscribed 'Endless' and a photograph of a beach littered with plastic objects." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509543/original/file-20230210-22-89toay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509543/original/file-20230210-22-89toay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509543/original/file-20230210-22-89toay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509543/original/file-20230210-22-89toay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509543/original/file-20230210-22-89toay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509543/original/file-20230210-22-89toay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509543/original/file-20230210-22-89toay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">From the series ‘Prophetic Objects,’ a plastic cap from a Greek manufacturer of cleaning products, found on the Greek island of Kefalonia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pam Longobardi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I am interested in ocean plastic in particular because of what it reveals about us as humans in a global culture, and about the ocean as a cultural space and a giant dynamic engine of life and change. Because ocean plastic visibly shows nature’s attempts to reabsorb and regurgitate it, it has profound stories to tell.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large sculpted anchor in the center of an art gallery, with ties to life preservers mounted on the ceiling." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/509544/original/file-20230210-25-ixc2yr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘Albatross’ and ‘Hope Floats,’ 2017. Recovered ocean plastic, survival rescue blankets, life vest straps and steel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pam Longobardi</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I believe humankind is at a crossroads with regards to the future. The ocean is asking us to pay attention. Paying attention is an act of giving, and in the case of plastic pollution, it is also an act of taking – taking plastic out of your daily life; taking plastic out of the environment; and taking, and spreading, the message that the ocean is laying out before our eyes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187970/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pam Longobardi has received funding from Georgia State University, the Hudgens Prize, the Ionion Center for Art and Culture in Kefalonia, Greece, the Oceanic Society, and the Georgia chapter of the Surfrider Foundation. She is a member of the Plastic Pollution Coalition and the Oceanic Society.</span></em></p>
Pam Longobardi collects and documents ocean plastic waste and transforms it into public art and photography. Her work makes statements about consumption, globalism and conservation.
Pam Longobardi, Regents' Professor of Art and Design, Georgia State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/194779
2022-11-25T07:42:35Z
2022-11-25T07:42:35Z
Why the UK needs to stop exporting plastic waste
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495846/original/file-20221117-22-wv1tzw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C0%2C5960%2C3964&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The mismanagement of plastic waste is one of the main causes of plastic pollution in nature.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/spilled-garbage-on-beach-big-city-1060330253">Larina Marina/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The world produces a vast amount of plastic. Global plastic production <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2020/07/breakingtheplasticwave_report.pdf">increased</a> from 2 million metric tons in 1950 to 348 million metric tons in 2017. Yet much of this plastic is wasted: <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2020/10/breakingtheplasticwave_mainreport.pdf">86%</a> of the world’s plastic waste in 2016 was either incinerated, sent to landfill or leaked into nature. </p>
<p>Many countries use international trade to manage their plastic waste. The justification for this is that plastic waste can be treated in destinations with better capacity for waste treatment. The UK, lacking capacity itself, <a href="https://wrap.org.uk/sites/default/files/2020-12/PackFlow%20COVID-19%20Plastic%20Phase%20I%20Report%20FINAL%20v2.pdf">exports 60%</a> of its plastic waste abroad. But in a recent <a href="https://committees.parliament.uk/publications/31509/documents/176742/default/">report</a>, the House of Commons Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee – the group of MPs responsible for improving and protecting the environment – have called on the government to stop the export of UK plastic waste by the end of 2027. </p>
<p>The movement of hazardous waste is controlled by an international agreement called the <a href="http://www.basel.int/">Basel Convention</a>. It requires the consent of the receiving country, accurate labelling of waste, and notification when plastic waste has been treated for waste to be exported legally. The Convention has recently increased the range of plastics that fall within its remit.</p>
<p>China has long been the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20741-9">world’s leading</a> plastic waste importer. But in 2017 its government banned plastic waste imports, citing concerns over the low quality of material received. This has displaced vast quantities of plastic waste. The UK now exports <a href="https://wrap.org.uk/sites/default/files/2021-10/WRAP-Plastics-Market-Situation-Report-2021.pdf">most of its plastic waste</a> to Turkey, Indonesia, Vietnam, Malaysia and the Netherlands. </p>
<h2>Passing the burden</h2>
<p>The import of plastic waste is a valuable source of foreign exchange for many countries. But these countries often have limited waste treatment infrastructure.</p>
<p>Uncontrolled imports can therefore lead to the volume of plastic waste received exceeding the capacity of a country to cope with it. It also displaces its ability to treat its own domestic waste. The result is more plastic waste than can be safely handled and high levels of mismanagement. </p>
<p>Once a country has received the waste, monitoring of the treatment process is also scarce. A <a href="https://www.greenpeace.org/international/press-release/47759/investigation-finds-plastic-from-the-uk-and-germany-illegally-dumped-in-turkey/">Greenpeace investigation</a> in 2021 found evidence of plastic waste from the UK and Germany dumped illegally across 10 sites in southwestern Turkey.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1492560606364377095"}"></div></p>
<p>But mismanaged plastic waste is one of the main causes of plastic pollution in nature. One <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/assets/2020/10/breakingtheplasticwave_mainreport.pdf">report</a> estimates that 56% (239 million metric tonnes) of global annual plastic waste production by 2040 will be subject to mismanagement.</p>
<p>Exporting plastic waste also raises ethical questions. It allows exporting nations to forgo their responsibility to deal with their own plastic waste while claiming to be managing their waste responsibly.</p>
<h2>Upstream solutions</h2>
<p>A more systemic and responsible way of dealing with plastic waste is to reduce plastic consumption. The Committee’s report recommends measures that focus on reducing plastic waste at source, rather than improving the ability of waste treatment infrastructure to manage a greater capacity of waste. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A brown paper bag with the text 100% recyclable and reusable printed on the bottom." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495851/original/file-20221117-17-5g7jto.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Committee of MPs recommend solutions that reduce plastic use at source.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/brown-paper-bag-that-100-recyclable-1506701819">Dr. Victor Wong/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The key suggestion was to accelerate the introduction of <a href="https://www.oecd.org/env/tools-evaluation/extendedproducerresponsibility.htm">Extended Producer Responsibility schemes</a>. Extended Producer Responsibility is an approach that aims to make companies bear a greater proportion of the cost of disposing the plastic they use for products put on the market. These schemes will apply to all companies in the UK who put at least 1 tonne of plastic packaging on the market each year by 2030, encouraging them to reduce their production of plastic waste. This can be achieved through innovations to “design out” plastics or by transitioning to a <a href="https://wrap.org.uk/taking-action/climate-change/circular-economy">circular economy</a> where plastic materials are reused or fully recycled. </p>
<p>The Committee’s report recommends the establishment of a plastic reuse task force, composed of representatives from industry and consumer groups. The group would coordinate strategies including incentives to adopt business models that encourage the reuse of plastic materials, single-use plastic charges, mandatory reporting on a company’s plastic footprint, and public campaigns to raise the profile of reuse schemes.</p>
<p>Deposit-return schemes also help and are already in progress in the UK. In 2023, <a href="https://depositreturnscheme.zerowastescotland.org.uk/">Scotland</a> will launch a national programme where people will pay a 20p deposit when they buy a drink in a plastic bottle or can, which will be repaid when the empty container is returned.</p>
<h2>Plastic waste is a global problem</h2>
<p>The recommendations made by the Committee are a positive step forward and would place the UK in a position of international leadership on tackling plastic pollution. But plastic value chains are transnational and waste is generated at each stage. This reduces the effectiveness of isolated national action. </p>
<p>National policies often do not have the reach or influence to tackle the global causes of plastic pollution. <a href="https://plasticspolicy.port.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/GPPC-Report.pdf">Research</a> that I co-authored found that isolated policies including national bans on plastic products are ineffective in reducing the generation of plastic waste. Fragmented national policies can also create loopholes in international policy that inadvertently reroutes plastic waste towards the destinations least equipped to deal with it. </p>
<p>But earlier this year, 173 countries formally adopted a <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/39764/END%20PLASTIC%20POLLUTION%20-%20TOWARDS%20AN%20INTERNATIONAL%20LEGALLY%20BINDING%20INSTRUMENT%20-%20English.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">UN resolution</a> to start negotiations for a global legally binding agreement to end plastic pollution by the end of 2024. The <a href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/ppesp_e/ppesp_e.htm">World Trade Organisation</a> has also launched an initiative to explore how trade policies can be used to reduce plastic pollution. International cooperation over plastic waste policy, along with the legal power of the Basel Convention, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-022-00361-1">offers hope</a> of a coordinated global response to plastic pollution that avoids policy fragmentation. </p>
<p>Environmental groups are critical of the trade in plastic waste. The Committee’s recommendation to ban UK plastic waste exports by 2027 is therefore an ambitious and welcome step forwards in tackling plastic pollution. But without global action, isolated national policies will not deliver change on the scale required to end this controversial trade.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194779/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steve Fletcher has received funding from the UN Environment Programme. He is a member of the UN International Resource Panel. </span></em></p>
Many countries export their plastic waste abroad – but the mismanagement of this plastic waste is one of the leading causes of plastic pollution in nature.
Steve Fletcher, Professor of Ocean Policy and Economy, University of Portsmouth
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/192356
2022-10-19T16:52:55Z
2022-10-19T16:52:55Z
Facing the dual threat of climate change and human disturbance, Mumbai – and the world – should listen to its fishing communities
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489362/original/file-20221012-24-hll9p1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Koli community depend on fishing, but fish stocks off Mumbai's coast have been declining.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mumbai-india-september-10-2017-south-1749662051">Akella Srinivas Ramalingaswami/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Coastal cities and settlements are at the forefront of climate disruption. Rising sea levels, warmer seas and changes in rainfall patterns are together creating conditions that mean misery for coastal dwellers.</p>
<p>Disasters triggered by extreme weather often make headlines, but many problems linked to the climate are harder to see. These include the effects of warmer sea temperatures on marine ecosystems, the encroachment of seawater into once-fertile land, and coastal erosion.</p>
<p>Climate risks vary for coastal cities around the world. But according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, people living in coastal settlements with high social inequality <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-ii/">are particularly at risk</a>. This includes cities with a high proportion of informal settlements and those built near river deltas.</p>
<p>The Koli people are one such community. As the original inhabitants of Mumbai, they are spread across a number of historic fishing villages on the city’s coast. But they have steadily been marginalised. Mumbai’s <a href="https://www.mcgm.gov.in/irj/go/km/docs/documents/EODB/Construction%20Permit/Related%20Circulars/DCPR-%202034%20and%20Notification.pdf">official development plan</a> ignores the role of the Koli, and the ecosystems they depend on, in reducing the climate risks facing the city. </p>
<p>This has forced the community to take risk mitigation into their own hands. Through our work with the Koli community, we have seen how their response to human threats has the potential to create a city more resilient to environmental change.</p>
<h2>Mumbai’s environmental problem</h2>
<p>In Mumbai, enormous wealth co-exists with poverty. Largely built on reclaimed land, the city has undergone rapid development.</p>
<p>Poor waste management, property development and increasingly frequent extreme weather have reduced mangrove cover and polluted the city’s coastal waters. Mangroves are important breeding grounds for a diverse range of aquatic species. Many of these species, such as the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2013/mar/22/bombay-duck-mumbai-fish">Bombay Duck</a> and <a href="https://ruralindiaonline.org/en/articles/the-shrinking-pomfret-of-suburban-mumbai/">Pomfret</a>, are vital sources of income for Koli fishers and are key to mangrove biodiversity.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="4 rows of bombay duck, a local fish, hanging to dry in front of a calm sea." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489364/original/file-20221012-14-2ag90b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bombay duck, a vital source of income for the Koli community, drying on a beach.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mumbai-india-bombil-bombay-duck-kept-1750309199">Akella Srinivas Ramalingaswami/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But fish stocks are disappearing fast. Environmental degradation combined with intensive trawling has led to <a href="https://www.cmfri.org.in/uploads/files/Attachment%201.%20Major%20Research%20Achievemnt_Mumbai.pdf">declining catches</a> for traditional fishers. This has affected livelihoods, with Koli women feeling the impact particularly strongly due to their prominent role in processing and selling fish.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1385110121001684">Studies</a> have also shown that mangrove forests protect coastal areas from storm surges and coastal erosion. Reduced mangrove cover means extreme weather events now inflict <a href="https://www.indiaspend.com/climate-change/exposed-at-sea-fishers-need-better-insurance-to-manage-climate-risks-781266">severe damage to fishing infrastructure</a>. <a href="https://moes.gov.in/sites/default/files/RS-in-English-4026-07042022.pdf">Cyclone Tauktae</a> in 2021 inflicted losses of 10 billion rupees (£109,000) to coastal fishers – damage to fishing boats alone was worth 250,000 rupees (£2,700).</p>
<h2>Taking the initiative</h2>
<p>Following <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148325/cyclone-tauktae-strikes-india">Cyclone Tauktae</a>, the Koli produced reports documenting the changing frequency and intensity of cyclones affecting the region. These reports, supplemented by <a href="https://qz.com/india/2030290/mumbais-koli-fishermen-cope-with-climate-change-and-cyclones/">media coverage</a>, have raised awareness of the community’s vulnerability towards climate change.</p>
<p>This has allowed the Koli to collaborate with various groups to reduce their vulnerability. We have been working with the Koli community through our own research project, <a href="https://tapestry-project.org/">Tapestry</a>. Our research has involved creating photographs and maps with the community to build a more comprehensive understanding of the consequences of climate change and environmental degradation for the region. This has highlighted the importance of mangroves for marine biodiversity and flooding protection.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aerial shot of a mangrove forest in the foreground of a large sprawling city." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489415/original/file-20221012-19-1diumc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mumbai’s mangrove forests are crucial for marine biodiversity and flood prevention.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/view-boats-mangroves-gorai-mumbai-india-1008986491">Viren Desai/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The efforts of the <a href="https://cat.org.in/">Conservation Action Trust</a>, a Mumbai-based non-profit organisation that aims to protect forests and wildlife, have also been key in protecting mangroves. They found that mangroves were being cleared to make way for golf courses, residential buildings, rubbish dumps and transport infrastructure. They were instrumental in the development of the <a href="https://mangroves.maharashtra.gov.in/">Mangrove Cell</a>, a government agency that monitors efforts to conserve and enhance mangrove cover in India’s western Maharashtra state.</p>
<p>Addressing water pollution also emerged as a priority through discussions with the Koli community. Our project partner <a href="https://bombay61.blogspot.com/">Bombay61</a> has since implemented measures to <a href="https://tapestry-project.org/2022/08/08/catching-plastic-mumbais-koli-community-uses-fishing-nets-to-tackle-pollution/">improve water quality</a>. Over three days, a pilot trial of net filters collected around 500kg of waste from a single creek. This initiative also challenges the perception of creeks as “drains” or “sewers”.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A cluster of plastic bottles and litter floating in brown water." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/489745/original/file-20221014-23-kcev7m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The coastal waters the Koli depend on are heavily polluted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mumbai-india-november-11-2017-rubbish-759116230">TK Kurikawa/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Engagement between the Koli community, environmental organisations, government officials and local public events and exhibitions has allowed more equitable solutions to human threats to be explored. These highlight the importance of local communities to resource governance and urban planning, and could help dissuade the government from destructive future development plans.</p>
<p>The lessons from the Koli experience extend beyond just Mumbai. While each coast and city will face different threats, the seeds of responses can be found in the people who know and understand the environments in which they live. Working with grassroots methods and groups can reveal how action can respond to local needs and address more than just physical climate risks.</p>
<p>If local strategies can be scaled up, they could transform urban planning and climate change mitigation. These strategies must address the need to adapt to climate change and minimise human disturbance. Paying attention to local people’s struggles and harnessing their ideas can be an essential part of creating cities that are more resilient to future threats.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192356/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lyla Mehta has based this article on research conducted for the Tapestry project. This project is financially supported by the Belmont Forum and NORFACE Joint Research Programme on Transformations to Sustainability, which is co-funded by ESRC, ISC, JST, RCN and the European Commission through Horizon 2020 under grant agreement No 730211</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>D Parthasarathy receives funding from Belmont Forum and International Science Council Paris. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shibaji Bose receives funding from Belmont-funded Tapestry project</span></em></p>
Facing human threats, Mumbai’s Koli community are taking risk reduction into their own hands – other vulnerable coastal settlements should take note.
Lyla Mehta, Professorial Fellow, Institute of Development Studies
D Parthasarathy, Professor of Sociology, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Shibaji Bose, PhD Student in Community Voices, National Institute of Technology Durgapur
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/190128
2022-10-11T13:08:20Z
2022-10-11T13:08:20Z
The 5 biggest threats to West Africa’s oceans – and what to do about them
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485775/original/file-20220921-26-wiob4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C0%2C4734%2C2997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plastic bottles and other waste are some of the contaminants destroying the oceans.
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/plastic-bottles-and-other-waste-float-in-the-water-near-the-news-photo/483002322">Issouf Sanogo/AFP via Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The natural resources that form ocean ecosystems can play a significant role in the socio-economic growth and development of nations. </p>
<p>West Africa has a variety of marine and coastal ecosystems, found within the Atlantic Ocean. This is one of the most diverse and economically important fishing zones in the world and provides an income for many through fishing, shipping, logistics and mining. </p>
<p>But unregulated and unsustainable exploitation has degraded the ecosystems severely. Threats have come from land based sources of pollution, insecurity and piracy, illegal and harmful fishing practices, and climate change. </p>
<p>These multiple stressors have had a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320957474_Emerging_%20Challenges_Threatening_the_Atlantic_and_Indian_Oceans_in_Africa">negative impact</a> on the ecological integrity and health of West Africa. They are causing an alarming decline in fishery resources, loss of coral reefs and seashells, coastal erosion, ocean acidity and rising sea levels.</p>
<p>For over 20 years I have worked as a marine biologist, conducting numerous studies on the Nigerian coastal waters. In this period, I have seen the impact of natural processes and human development. It is vital that scientists like myself highlight the biggest challenges that West African nations must focus on to save the ocean. </p>
<p>The ocean <a href="https://www.census.gov/newsroom/stories/ocean-month.html">produces</a> over half of the world’s oxygen and absorbs 50 times more carbon dioxide than the atmosphere. Its health is key to survival. </p>
<h2>1. Plastic waste</h2>
<p>Millions of tonnes of plastic <a href="https://www.ijaar.org/articles/Volume5-Number11/Sciences-Technology-Engineering/ijaar-ste-v5n11-nov19-p1.pdf">leak from land-based sources</a> into the oceans yearly. </p>
<p>The pollution of marine ecosystems in the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Guinea by plastic and associated contaminants has adverse effects. </p>
<p>In a recent <a href="https://fjs.fudutsinma.edu.ng/index.php/fjs/article/view/113">study</a>, we showed how ingesting plastic fragments affects crabs. We explored the implications for food safety as well as the growth and productivity of marine resources. We saw that ingesting plastic caused reduced food intake, delayed growth, cell damage and abnormal behaviour in aquatic organisms.</p>
<p>There is an urgent need to effectively manage plastic waste, replace single-use plastics and introduce plastic-free alternatives in West Africa.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nigerias-plastic-pollution-is-harming-the-environment-steps-to-combat-it-are-overdue-177839">Nigeria's plastic pollution is harming the environment: steps to combat it are overdue</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Oil spillage and oily waste</h2>
<p>Exploration and exploitation of petroleum resources in oil-rich countries like Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria is another big threat. It has led to leakage of crude oil and petroleum products and discharge of untreated waste and chemical <a href="https://books.google.com.ng/books?hl=en&lr=&id=TS33XBkRZhsC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Exploration+and+exploitation+of+petroleum+resources+in+oil-rich+countries+like+Equatorial+Guinea+and+Nigeria+in+the+Gulf+of+Guinea+has+led+to+leakages+of+crude+oil+and+petroleum+products,+discharges+of+untreated+waste+from+petrochemical+industries+and+asso&ots=acXxKWALMP&sig=U0NJaOV1E7lg44GwNgRNMIRgTuE&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false">into marine ecosystems</a>. These substances are a major source of potentially toxic heavy metals in the ocean. </p>
<p>In a recent <a href="https://www.banglajol.info/index.php/JBS/article/view/54830">study</a>, we reported high concentrations of heavy metals in tissues of edible aquatic snails (gastropod). This has implications for the health of human consumers if there is eventual bioaccumulation and biomagnification.</p>
<p>Sabotage, bunkering (loading ships with oil) and equipment failure are also risks.</p>
<p>The regular use of chemicals in cleaning operations at ports can introduce certain <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320957474_Emerging_Challenges_Threatening_the_Atlantic_and_Indian_Oceans_in_Africa">trace elements</a> which ecosystems can’t deal with. </p>
<p>Monitoring and prevention of these risks must be improved. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ships-risky-fuel-transfers-are-threatening-african-penguins-121575">Ships' risky fuel transfers are threatening African Penguins</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Man holding some dead fish on a beach" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485778/original/file-20220921-24-sikp9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ocean pollution is killing fishes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/man-holds-out-small-fish-recently-killed-as-acid-waste-is-news-photo/1236298965">from www.gettyimages.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Illegal fishing</h2>
<p>The extensive theft of local fish by foreign trawlers has left communities <a href="https://www.pviltd.com/more-measures-needed-to-curb-illegal-fishing-by-foreign-vessels-on-nigerias-waters">poorer</a>.</p>
<p>The unregulated and continuous exploitation of local fisheries has resulted in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165783621002848">overfishing</a> of over 50% of fisheries stock. <a href="https://www.unodc.org/nigeria/en/press/west-africa-loses-2-3-billion-to-maritime-crime-in-three-years-as-nigeria--unodc-rally-multi-national-efforts-to-thwart-piracy-in-the-gulf-of-guinea.html">Reports</a> show that once abundant fish species like blue fin tuna are increasingly endangered. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing costs West African nations’ economies up to <a href="https://www.unodc.org/nigeria/en/press/west-africa-loses-2-3-billion-to-maritime-crime-in-three-years-as-nigeria--unodc-rally-multi-national-efforts-to-thwart-piracy-in-the-gulf-of-guinea.html">$2.3 billion annually</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-illegal-fishing-off-cameroons-coast-worsens-maritime-security-168952">Illegal fishing</a> is quickly becoming a regional crisis. Governments should strictly enforce appropriate sanctions. </p>
<p>Conservationists advocate creating expansive marine reserves to protect the biodiversity of the oceans.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/illegal-fishing-is-a-major-threat-to-africas-blue-economy-61176">Illegal fishing is a major threat to Africa's blue economy</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. Ocean acidity</h2>
<p>Ocean acidity or ocean acidification is a reduction in the pH of the ocean over an extended time. It is caused by uptake of carbon dioxide (CO₂), a greenhouse gas emitted by human activities. The ocean’s average pH is now around 8.1, which is basic (or alkaline). But as the ocean continues to absorb more carbon dioxide, the pH decreases and the ocean becomes more acidic. </p>
<p>This has contributed to the loss of corals on a global scale as their calcium skeletons are <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/press-room/news-release/scientists-identify-how-ocean-acidification-weakens-coral-skeletons">weakened</a> by more acidic water. This also erodes and affects the formation of shells of shellfish.</p>
<p>It has thus brought changes in relative species dominance, potentially leading to ecosystem shifts in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358544995_Potential_Impacts_of_Ocean_Acidification_in_Cameroon_Marine_and_Coastal_Ecosystems_Central_Africa.">coastal waters of West Africa</a>. </p>
<p>Every West African country must adopt simple measures to reduce greenhouse gases. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-managing-ocean-acidification-is-crucial-for-south-africa-54607">Why managing ocean acidification is crucial for South Africa</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>5. Bioinvasion</h2>
<p>Invasive species of plants, animals and microbes are among the greatest threats to the world’s <a href="https://www.reabic.net/journals/mbi/2012/1/mbi_2012_1_borokini_babalola.pdf">oceans</a>. <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-we-found-a-way-to-track-alien-marine-species-along-south-africas-coast-149938">Shipping</a> and maritime activities are responsible for most accidental species translocation globally. Over 80% of the volume of international trade is transported by <a href="https://unctad.org/webflyer/review-maritime-transport-2021">sea</a>. The percentage is even higher for developing countries, including Nigeria, which has a coastline of about 852km. </p>
<p>Ship ballast water (held in ships for stability) is a <a href="https://archive.iwlearn.net/globallast.imo.org/ballast-water-as-a-vector/index.html">principal vector</a>. It aids the spread of toxic phytoplankton and occurrence of <a href="https://serc.carleton.edu/eslabs/carbon/6b.html">algal blooms</a> that produce toxins harmful to aquatic animals. </p>
<p>Invasive species often adapt to new areas quickly as they can tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions, grow very fast, are often bigger, carnivorous, and reproduce faster than endemic species.</p>
<p>The spread of the invasive South American water hyacinth, <em>Eichhornia crassipes</em>, for instance, is <a href="https://phys.org/news/2019-06-nigeria-lagos-aquatic-weed-plagues.html">damaging transport links</a> in Nigeria’s economic capital, Lagos. It forms <a href="https://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=jest.2012.128.136#">a thick mat</a> that impedes navigation and halts fishing.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/alien-species-are-moving-across-oceans-faster-climate-change-will-accelerate-this-184415">Alien species are moving across oceans faster: climate change will accelerate this</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What to do about it</h2>
<p>There are moves under way to tackle these <a href="https://www.iddri.org/en/publications-and-events/blog-post/west-africa-mobilising-protect-marine-environment">threats</a>. Four protocols have been adopted by 22 parties to the <a href="https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/oceans-seas/what-we-do/working-regional-seas/regional-seas-programmes/west-and">Abidjan Convention</a>: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>the <a href="https://abidjanconvention.org/themes/critai/documents/meetings/plenipotentiaries/working_documents/en/LBSA%20Protocol%20English%2022%20June%202012.pdf">Grand Bassam Protocol</a>, which aims to combat pollution from activities on land</p></li>
<li><p>the <a href="https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00WGWG.pdf">Pointe-Noire Protocol</a>, for integrated coastal zone management</p></li>
<li><p>the <a href="https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00WGWF.pdf">Calabar Protocol</a>, for sustainable mangrove management</p></li>
<li><p>the <a href="https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/AFR0161372017ENGLISH.pdf">Malabo Protocol</a> on environmental norms and standards related to offshore oil and gas activities. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Through awareness campaigns, ordinary people can learn <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/ocean/help-our-ocean.html">10 simple things</a> they can do anywhere and anytime to help save the oceans. </p>
<p>Coastal states in the West African sub-region where the maritime sector is critical to the economy should lead the transformation for a more resilient and sustainable ocean through the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-african-countries-can-harness-the-huge-potential-of-their-oceans-77889">blue economy</a>. The blue economy promotes economic growth, social inclusion and preservation of livelihoods, while sustaining the environment.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190128/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Aderonke Omolara Lawal-Are does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The oceans bordering West African countries are in grave danger from pollution; checking further degradation is crucial for human survival.
Aderonke Omolara Lawal-Are, Professor of Marine Sciences, University of Lagos
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/182791
2022-05-29T08:23:43Z
2022-05-29T08:23:43Z
Marine life in a South African bay is full of chemical pollutants
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462233/original/file-20220510-20-ldy7cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Limpets had the highest concentrations of chemical compounds compared to other marine organisms studied.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">A. Mertens/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The adage “out of sight, out of mind” has long summed up humans’ attitude to dumping personal and industrial waste. In a 1974 Scientific American <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24950139">article</a>, the oceanographer Willard Bascom wrote that “the ocean is the plausible place for man to dispose of some of his wastes”. If done “thoughtfully”, he continued, “it will do no damage to marine life.” </p>
<p>But it hasn’t been done thoughtfully. Earth’s oceans are not only full of plastics: they’re also clogged with dumped medications, antibiotics, disinfection products, household chemicals and pesticides, among other products. This isn’t just bad news for the environment and marine life. It harms humans, too. <a href="https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/er-2018-0054">The compounds</a> contained in some of these dumped products cause feminisation and lower the quality of sperm. They can also lead to sexual abnormalities and reproductive impairments in both sea life and humans, as well as causing persistent antibiotic resistance and endocrine disruption. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://setac.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/etc.5053">recent study</a> in South Africa, we tested for the presence of eight selected pharmaceuticals and personal care products in Cape Town’s False Bay marine environment. False Bay is 30km wide, located between Cape Hangklip and the Cape Peninsula of South Africa on the perimeter of Cape Town, a city with a population of close to 4.6 million people.</p>
<p>Our findings were troubling. We tested the seawater itself, as well as the sediment, seaweed, and five marine invertebrates: limpets, mussels, sea urchin, sea snail and starfish. Numerous compounds were found in the various species. These included diclofenac, a widely prescribed anti-inflammatory drug, and the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole, which can promote antibiotic resistance in the many faecal microorganisms that contaminate sea water through poorly treated sewage effluents. The City of Cape Town has <a href="https://resource.capetown.gov.za/documentcentre/Documents/City%20research%20reports%20and%20review/Know_Your_Coast_2020.pdf">published a report</a> showing extensive faecal contamination of the Peninsula coastline.</p>
<p>When humans eat fish, mussels and other foods tainted with antibiotics, the residual antibiotics may cause bacterial pathogens to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-021-00963-2">become resistant</a>. The resistant bacteria don’t respond to standard antibiotics and can proliferate unchecked. This means the most important treatment options for infections are rendered useless.</p>
<p>These results, which echo findings of our previous studies in two other Cape Town marine environments, <a href="https://sajs.co.za/article/view/3854/5333">Camps Bay</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969720338687">Sea Point</a>, point to major flaws in the city’s wastewater treatment plants. Urgent action is needed to address these issues and limit the many different chemical compounds and pollutants poured into marine environments.</p>
<p>This multi-source contamination is a global concern. A recent <a href="https://www.bonefishtarpontrust.org/downloads/bonefish-study-summary.pdf">US study</a>, for example, found 104 commonly prescribed pharmaceuticals in a popular food fish.</p>
<h2>Grim findings</h2>
<p>In our False Bay study, we found the presence of numerous pharmaceuticals and other compounds. Their concentrations varied significantly across the eight sample sites. This could be because the various species found at the sites have differing abilities to absorb and metabolise these compounds. The sites also had different contaminant profiles due to ocean current mixing or proximity to discharged effluents. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-whales-and-dolphins-can-tell-us-about-the-health-of-our-oceans-84169">What whales and dolphins can tell us about the health of our oceans</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Limpets, the varied-sized and -coloured seashells that cling to rocks, were found to have the highest concentrations of these compounds compared to the edible organisms such as mussels and sea urchins. Although limpets are not an edible species, this knowledge is valuable: limpets could be used as sentinel organisms to monitor pollution in and around the ocean – a sort of “canary in the coalmine.”</p>
<p>In this study, as in our previous research, the pharmaceuticals, pesticides, industrial chemicals and personal care products were most commonly found at low concentrations in the seawater samples. Significantly higher levels were detected in the marine species and seaweed samples. This can do serious harm over time, slowly killing off the sea creatures and affecting the area’s biodiversity. </p>
<p>We also studied samples of four common fish species that are often consumed locally, like snoek and bonita (a tuna species). We found even higher levels of these chemical compounds in their flesh. That included four types of pesticides, eight different pharmaceuticals and five different perfluorinated compounds, all of which are termed “<a href="https://enveurope.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/2190-4715-23-38">persistent organic pollutants</a>”. They do not degrade rapidly, so they stick around in the environment for a long time. </p>
<h2>Wastewater plant shortcomings</h2>
<p>The sewage that causes this widespread pollution isn’t just dumped into the ocean. The City of Cape Town has 17 wastewater treatment or sewerage works and six smaller facilities spread across the Cape Peninsula. The treatment plants are meant to clean the water enough that it can safely go into rivers, canals, the ocean, or other water bodies. </p>
<p>But these measures, our findings suggest, may not be keeping up with the city’s rapidly growing population and the rising number of pharmaceuticals and other chemicals being produced and consumed.</p>
<p>Ideally, wastewater should go through four treatment steps:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>pre-treatment to remove very large solid materials</p></li>
<li><p>primary treatment for the removal of smaller solids as well as grease, fats and oils</p></li>
<li><p>secondary treatment for the disinfection of the wastewater</p></li>
<li><p>tertiary treatment for the further “polishing” and more thorough removal of chemical compounds and microorganisms.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>In reality, there are few such tertiary treatment stages at any of Cape Town’s currently inadequate wastewater treatment facilities because the regulations governing the quality of effluents released from waste water treatment plants are not strict enough. This allows poorly treated effluents to be discharged – and many microbes, as well as chemical compounds and pharmaceutical pollutants, escape and are released directly into oceans via rivers. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-found-traces-of-drugs-in-a-dam-that-supplies-nigerias-capital-city-161927">We found traces of drugs in a dam that supplies Nigeria's capital city</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There are also three “marine outfall pipelines” that pump untreated sewage – only sieving out larger items – directly from toilets and drains into the ocean via underwater pipelines. As our studies show, then, microbial and chemical contamination from faeces is now widespread around the Peninsula.</p>
<p>The release of untreated sewage via marine outfalls must be prevented. Sewage water treatment plants should be upgraded to include tertiary stages. The regulations governing the quality of effluents need to be more stringent – and must be monitored more carefully for chemical content. </p>
<p>The ocean is part of Cape Town’s identity. It is a lifeblood for many in the fisheries sector, which is a <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.652955/full">multi-billion rand industry</a>. City officials need to act urgently to make sure not just that marine life can flourish but that human health isn’t compromised by what’s dumped into the oceans.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182791/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leslie Petrik receives funding from the National Research Foundation and the Water Research Commission of South Africa. She is affiliated with the University of the Western Cape.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cecilia Yejide Ojemaye does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
When humans eat fish, mussels and other foods containing antibiotics, the residual antibiotics may cause bacterial pathogens to become resistant.
Leslie Petrik, Professor / Leader of the Environmental and Nanoscience Research Group, University of the Western Cape
Cecilia Yejide Ojemaye, Researcher, Department of Chemistry, University of the Western Cape
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/180850
2022-04-27T20:10:19Z
2022-04-27T20:10:19Z
No time to waste: We need to start prioritizing solid waste management in First Nation communities
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459581/original/file-20220425-14-5g4zgo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=130%2C148%2C2488%2C1755&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A garbage dump fire is seen smouldering across the bay from the city of Iqaluit on July 9, 2014. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Adrian Wyld</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last year, Harry Towtongie, the mayor of Rankin Inlet, Nunavut, bemoaned how toxic substances released from <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/garbage-in-the-water-landfills-inuit-communities-1.5962102">the community’s dumpsite into the nearby ocean</a> have been harming local food sources. He said the dumpsite was full and overflowing, and must be decommissioned before a new one is built, but financial support is not readily available. </p>
<p>Many <a href="https://www.oceansnorth.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Towards-a-Waste-Free-Arctic.pdf">First Nations, northern and remote communities</a> face similar struggles as they find it difficult to properly manage municipal solid waste (MSW). They also often lack access to waste diversion programs, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.4137%2FEHI.S6974">recycling</a>. Inadequate funding and infrastructure, lack of capacity, unfavourable weather conditions, small population sizes and <a href="https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/DAM/DAM-ISC-SAC/DAM-AEV/STAGING/texte-text/ev_fnswmi_1642774307568_eng.pdf">socio-economic factors</a> add to their woes, making waste management a daunting task. <a href="https://doi.org/10.5276/JSWTM.2018.232">Burning and burying waste</a> have, therefore, become common management practices in these remote communities.</p>
<p>Despite the enormous challenges that communities have been facing, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2021.05.007">recent research</a> revealed that some First Nations in Western Canada now have access to MSW infrastructure, providing them a potential way out of the waste management crisis.</p>
<p>As a researcher interested in solid waste management in Indigenous and northern communities, I believe that these issues need to be prioritized in policy, research and development discourses to encourage sustained action that protects First Nations from environmental harm and protects the environment as well. </p>
<h2>Challenges persist despite community action</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2021.05.007">research on 12 First Nation communities in Western Canada</a> revealed that the majority of them have some solid waste management infrastructure in their communities, including transfer stations and recycling depots, which they had lacked for several years.</p>
<p>These facilities and added infrastructure have enabled many of the communities to pursue waste diversion programs. <a href="https://www.heiltsuknation.ca/">Heiltsuk Nation</a>, for example, has recycling, composting and reuse programs, and all 12 communities provide household garbage pick-up services for community members. </p>
<p>While the data on community efforts is lacking, the communities we worked with attributed the success of their MSW management programs to community involvement, free and regular residential curbside pickups and their ability to transport their collected waste to regional facilities. </p>
<p>Our research shows that communities have improved on their previously existing MSW management systems, but two communities still operated open dumps or pits, and only one community, Peguis First Nation, had an <a href="https://sswm.info/water-nutrient-cycle/wastewater-treatment/hardwares/solid-waste/landfills">engineered landfill</a>. </p>
<p>However, challenges with funding remain for all the communities and, without regular and dedicated funding, the programs cannot be sustained. </p>
<h2>Extended Producer Responsibility programs</h2>
<p>Since the introduction of <a href="https://ccme.ca/en/res/cap-epr_e.pdf">Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)</a> programs in Canada, which place responsibility on producers to deal with the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X12453379">end-of-life of products</a>, stewardship organizations in provinces have been collecting and treating products when <a href="https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/extended-producer-responsibility_9789264256385-en#page1">their life cycles end</a>.</p>
<p>Five of the 12 communities we worked with had signed up for stewardship programs for items like beverage containers, used oil and electronics. Through these programs they did receive some monetary compensation from stewardship organizations such as <a href="https://stewardshipmanitoba.org/">Multi-Material Stewardship Manitoba</a>, <a href="https://recyclebc.ca/">Recycle BC</a> and <a href="https://www.albertarecycling.ca/">Alberta Recycling</a>. Nonetheless, this is not representative of many other First Nations communities as there are about 379 First Nations in Western Canada.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"739140118603124736"}"></div></p>
<p>A major challenge participants mentioned was their inability to find stewardship organizations to work with. Reasons included an unwillingness of organizations to work with remote and rural communities, a lack of community capacity to comply with EPR program requirements — such as proper handling and storage of materials — and a lack of dedicated staff to handle onerous paperwork.</p>
<p>We found that provincial stewardship organizations don’t discriminate against First Nations on paper and that some <a href="https://stewardshipmanitoba.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Municipal-First-Nations-JULY-Workshops-FINAL.pdf">stewardship programs</a> are making efforts to work with First Nations. However, their mandates do not specify that they need to work with First Nations, specially those in remote and rural regions. </p>
<p>This is despite the fact that First Nations also pay environmental handling fees or container <a href="https://www.delltechnologies.com/asset/en-us/solutions/business-solutions/legal-pricing/canada-recycling-regulations-by-province.pdf">recycling fees</a> on designated materials, which support stewardship programs. </p>
<p>A clear mandate for stewardship organizations to work directly with First Nations and other rural communities could be an important solution to introducing waste diversion in these communities.</p>
<h2>The First Nations Solid Waste Management Initiative</h2>
<p>In 2016, <a href="https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1458682313288/1620824687328">the federal government committed $409 million</a> over a five-year period to directly deal with solid waste management in First Nations communities across the country. </p>
<p>The First Nations Waste Management Initiative (FNWMI) provided funding for eligible First Nations, organizations and <a href="https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/eng/1491490781609/1533647730166">groups</a> to pursue solid waste management <a href="https://cwma.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Genevieve-Lindsay-First-Nations-Solid-Waste-Management-Initiative.pdf">initiatives and develop programs</a> for First Nations. Some of these activities and programs include community capacity building and training and waste awareness and education programming.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/aWI3C7dWhqA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Community capacity building and waste education programming are examples of activities or programs under the FNWMI.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A recent <a href="https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/DAM/DAM-ISC-SAC/DAM-AEV/STAGING/texte-text/ev_fnswmi_1642774307568_eng.pdf">evaluation</a> of this initiative concluded that it was effective in responding to waste management needs of First Nations while also highlighting five areas for improvement. </p>
<p>It also identified two outstanding issues: gaps exist in providing adequate funding to sustain waste management systems and access to funding may somewhat favour First Nations that are near urban centres and are part of tribal councils.</p>
<p>The evaluation emphasized the need to provide regular and sustained funding for operations and maintenance of the systems that exist.</p>
<h2>Looking ahead</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.oceansnorth.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Towards-a-Waste-Free-Arctic.pdf">First Nations have faced many challenges</a> over the years when it comes to managing MSW and there is no quick fix. There is no one-size-fits-all solution.</p>
<p>Rather, sustainable and community-specific solutions must be developed. This requires the federal and provincial governments, stewardship organizations and communities to commit to working together through policies and programs that work for First Nations. </p>
<p>The federal government must commit to funding First Nations annually, provinces must design waste diversion policies focused on First Nations, especially those in the remote parts, and stewardship organizations must develop workable waste diversion models with communities. </p>
<p>This approach will help First Nations gain control over decision-making and establish long-term MSW management plans and programs to improve on current systems.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/180850/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anderson Assuah does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Priority should be given to improving municipal solid waste management in First Nation communities because they currently lack financial resources, infrastructure and solid waste diversion programs.
Anderson Assuah, Assistant Professor, Aboriginal and Northern Studies, University College of the North
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/163087
2021-07-01T02:25:38Z
2021-07-01T02:25:38Z
The problem with Oodies: hooded blankets are cosy but they are not great for oceans or our health
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408592/original/file-20210628-13-1e0y7c0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C13%2C4539%2C2989&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/close-young-girls-face-hood-on-1511522849">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Last year, Australian kids hounded parents for <a href="https://7news.com.au/lifestyle/food/revealed-the-4-rare-woolworths-disney-ooshies-that-will-earn-you-a-fortune-c-1264382">Ooshies</a> — character-based plastic collectibles distributed by supermarket chain Woolworths. But like the attention span of a five year old, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/ooshies-a-cautionary-toy-story-about-cashing-in-on-childhood-innocence-121564">contentious marketing campaign</a> quickly faded. This year, the similarly named Oodies are gaining viral attention — and presenting their own plastic problem. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://theoodie.com/">Oodie</a> is essentially a wearable blanket comprising an oversized hooded sweatshirt and an equally oversized kangaroo pocket. Lined with light, ultra-soft and heat-retentive fabrics, Oodies are billed as the ultimate comfort-wear for those wanting to snuggle down in front of the TV — especially during a winter lockdown.</p>
<p>But what makes Oodies (<a href="https://www.news.com.au/best-of/fashion/best-hooded-blankets/news-story/122096a8ad3d9ff1e1ebba3d6eef2388">and other hooded blanket brands</a>) soft and warm is a wool-like material called fleece. While it can sometimes be made of cotton or acrylic, fleece is most often made of <a href="http://www.madehow.com/Volume-4/Polyester-Fleece.html#ixzz6yXZhfYin">polyester</a>. This synthetic fibre commonly derived from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) — the same plastic used to make water bottles — makes Oodies bad news for oceans.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/time-to-make-fast-fashion-a-problem-for-its-makers-not-charities-117977">Time to make fast fashion a problem for its makers, not charities</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>We know plastics are bad</h2>
<p>Environmental concerns about Oodies extend beyond the amount of water such bulky items require to wash them. As most PET plastics still originate from fossil fuels, concern regarding the environmental impact of polyester-based garments is justified.</p>
<p>Not only does its production contribute to enhanced carbon emissions and <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-global-plastics-climate-environment-idUSKCN2CZ0ED">global warming</a>, synthetic fibres like <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X19300451">polyester and acrylic</a> are the dominant form of <a href="https://phys.org/news/2020-10-million-tonnes-microplastics-sea-floor.html">microplastic pollution</a> in marine (and <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.9b02900">freshwater</a>) environments. The main pollution source is microplastic fibres released from the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-43023-x">washing</a> of synthetic fabrics. Fleece-type garments (including Oodies) are likely major culprits.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1385723581116522499"}"></div></p>
<p>Numerous studies have documented the detrimental effects of microplastic ingestion on various aquatic organisms (such as fish, mussels and <a href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/lol2.10137">crustaceans</a>), ranging from impaired physiology to lowered reproduction and survival. According to marine biologists at the Plymouth Marine Laboratory, these effects may transfer up the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-01143-3#ref-CR5">food chain</a> to reach humans.</p>
<p>Studies have also shown potential direct impacts of prolonged exposure to polyester microfibres on humans, including allergies, lung inflammation, disrupted hormonal function and even carcinogenic effects. This is allegedly due to harmful chemical additives (such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389419316358">phthalates</a>) that are commonly used in the manufacture of synthetic fabrics.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408594/original/file-20210628-21-1b1fryo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="plastic pollution in sea with fish" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408594/original/file-20210628-21-1b1fryo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408594/original/file-20210628-21-1b1fryo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408594/original/file-20210628-21-1b1fryo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408594/original/file-20210628-21-1b1fryo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408594/original/file-20210628-21-1b1fryo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408594/original/file-20210628-21-1b1fryo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408594/original/file-20210628-21-1b1fryo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Polyester fabrics can shed microplastics during washing that end up in the ocean. They might even wind up in fish we eat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://image.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fish-plastic-pollution-sea-microplastics-600w-1119123140.jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Natural vs synthetic fibres</h2>
<p>The apparel industry <a href="https://www.vogue.com/article/fashion-pact-sustainability-g7-summit-emmanuel-macron">is working</a> to become more sustainable, be it the fabrics used, or the manufacturing process involved. However, information about how and where Oodies are made is limited on their website. The garments are spruiked as <a href="https://theoodie.com/pages/about-us">vegan</a>, which provides a positive spin.</p>
<p>Fleece can be made from cotton — some hooded blankets are of a flannel fleece exterior (made of cotton). This natural fibre — provided it’s been <a href="https://textileexchange.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/TE-LCA_of_Organic_Cotton-Fiber-Summary_of-Findings.pdf">organically</a> and sustainably farmed — is arguably more sustainable than polyester. It is a renewable resource that can biodegrade under favourable conditions.</p>
<p>However, polyester-made fleece remains the preferred fabric for most hooded blanket brands available (including the Oodie with its 100% polyester interior), presumably due to its relatively light weight, durability, better heat retention, moisture resistance and recyclability — and yes, polyester can be recycled!</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/vegan-leather-made-from-mushrooms-could-mould-the-future-of-sustainable-fashion-143988">Vegan leather made from mushrooms could mould the future of sustainable fashion</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Is recycling (really) the answer then?</h2>
<p>According to a <a href="https://www.bafu.admin.ch/dam/bafu/en/dokumente/wirtschaft-konsum/externe-studien-berichte/Recycled-Textile-Fibres-and-Textile-Recycling.pdf.download.pdf/study-on-recycled-textiles-and-textile-recyclability-ch.pdf">2017 study</a> by the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment, production of <a href="https://www.iisd.org/articles/sustainable-cotton-or-recycled-polyester-conscious-shoppers-dilemma">recycled polyester</a> uses 59% less energy than virgin polyester. It is also ostensibly less environmentally harmful than growing organic cotton, given the latter leaches nutrients from the soil and requires large open spaces to grow.</p>
<p>Of the hooded blankets brands we looked at (including the Oodie, <a href="https://cottonon.com/AU/kids/kids-snugget/">Cotton On’s Snuggets</a>, <a href="https://www.bedbathntable.com.au/apparel/apparel/robes">Bed Bath N, Table’s Hooded Sherpa</a> and others) only <a href="https://www.bonds.com.au/super-softies-reversible-hoodie-avt6i-1f4.html?utm_medium=Affiliate&utm_campaign=Affiliate&network=rakuten&utm_source=rakuten&ranMID=38921&ranEAID=2116208&ranSiteID=TnL5HPStwNw-6Ez0n22pRMCfXshqod6WCw">BONDS’ Super Softies Reversible Hoodie</a> indicates the use of recycled polyester. But that doesn’t necessarily make it a significantly “greener” choice. The relative proportion of the garment made of recycled polyester is not specified — it could be 90%, 50% or even 5%!</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/CBSBQeDlzrr","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>With any polyester-based fabric, recycled or not, the release of synthetic microfibres into wastewater systems and subsequently into natural waterways is inevitable. </p>
<p>Installing a decent <a href="https://planetcare.org/">microfibre filter</a> in your laundry machine could help reduce the amount of microplastics entering the environment, but the efficiency of such filtering devices is still in need of urgent <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-020-11988-2">improvement</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sustainable-shopping-where-to-find-a-puffer-jacket-that-doesnt-warm-the-earth-95515">Sustainable shopping: where to find a puffer jacket that doesn't warm the Earth</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Some heroes wear capes … ones made of natural fibres!</h2>
<p>Given we could not find fully cotton-based hooded blankets for sale, the current best alternative may well be to stick with standard, natural fibre-based blankets, throws or hoodies. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408597/original/file-20210628-25-3miqq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="wool blanket" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408597/original/file-20210628-25-3miqq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408597/original/file-20210628-25-3miqq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408597/original/file-20210628-25-3miqq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408597/original/file-20210628-25-3miqq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408597/original/file-20210628-25-3miqq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408597/original/file-20210628-25-3miqq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/408597/original/file-20210628-25-3miqq0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Natural fibres, including wool, mean you can be cosy without synthetics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://image.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-woman-covered-chunky-merino-260nw-1524992126.jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These are typically made from organic cotton, hemp, <a href="https://ecocult.com/rayon-viscose-modal-lyocell-tencel-biodegradable-compostable-microfiber/">Tencel</a> or recycled wool and offered by eco-friendly brands like <a href="https://bhumi.com.au/collections/organic-cotton-blankets?gclid=Cj0KCQjw2tCGBhCLARIsABJGmZ43Zoa2rjbfDtI3eGzLlxZ7L58Yjsd5fxFEo4wR21K0B_qnVeG3rlEaAo2GEALw_wcB">Bhumi</a> and <a href="https://www.seljakbrand.com.au/pages/seljak-about">Seljak Brand</a>. </p>
<p>As winter warmers, they are equally functional and do not generate microplastics. This makes them a much safer bet for the environment and health-wise. </p>
<p>Alternatively, you could <a href="https://doitbetteryourself.club/product/the-billie-wearable-blanket-sewing-pattern/">sew your own</a> hooded blanket. This would allow a choice of non-synthetic fabrics as well as personalised designs.</p>
<p>Sure, the Oodie is new and exciting with cute fabrics. But you get to wear conventional, non-synthetic blankets like a superhero cape and, quite literally, save the planet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163087/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jennifer Lavers receives funding from the Pure Oceans Fund and Australian Academy of Science.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vincent H.S. Yap does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
The thing that makes hooded blankets comfy and unnaturally soft is also what makes them bad for the environment and our health.
Vincent H.S. Yap, University of Tasmania
Jennifer Lavers (Métis Nation ᓲᐊᐧᐦᑫᔨᐤ), Lecturer in Marine Science, University of Tasmania
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/161649
2021-06-08T04:02:37Z
2021-06-08T04:02:37Z
Why Indigenous knowledge should be an essential part of how we govern the world’s oceans
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/404958/original/file-20210607-134455-5eowi7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C148%2C4918%2C3132&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Chen Min Chun</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our moana (ocean) is in a state of unprecedented ecological crisis. Multiple, cumulative impacts include pollution, sedimentation, overfishing, drilling and climate change. All affect the health of both marine life and coastal communities.</p>
<p>To reverse the decline and avoid reaching tipping points, we must adopt more holistic and integrated governance and management approaches. </p>
<p>Indigenous peoples have cared for their land and seascapes for generations, using traditional knowledge and practices. But our <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/8/4217">research on marine justice</a> shows <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2018.02.013">Indigenous peoples</a> face <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.11.007">ongoing challenges</a> as they seek to assert their sovereignty and authority in marine spaces. </p>
<p>We don’t need to wait for innovative Western science to take better care of the oceans. We have an opportunity to empower traditional and contemporary Indigenous forms of governance and management for the benefit of all people and the ecosystems we are part of. </p>
<p>Our research highlights alternative governance and management models to improve <a href="https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol24/iss4/art10/">equity and justice</a> for Indigenous peoples. These range from shared decision-making with governments (co-governance) to Indigenous peoples regaining control and re-enacting Indigenous forms of marine governance and management.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/369797/original/file-20201117-13-180ibt9.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong><em>This story is part of <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/oceans-21-96784">Oceans 21</a></em></strong>
<br><em>Our series on the global ocean opened with <a href="https://oceans21.netlify.app/">five in-depth profiles</a>. Look out for new articles on the state of our oceans in the lead up to the UN’s next climate conference, COP26. The series is brought to you by The Conversation’s international network.</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>Indigenous environmental stewardship</h2>
<p>Throughout Oceania, Indigenous marine governance is <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26269694?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents">experiencing a revival</a>. The long-term environmental stewardship of Indigenous peoples is documented around the globe. </p>
<p>In Fiji, customary marine tenure is institutionalised through the <a href="https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/science/article/pii/S0308597X16300847">qoliqoli</a> system. This defines customary fishing areas in which village chiefs are responsible for managing fishing rights and compliance. </p>
<p>Coastal communities in Vanuatu continue to create and implement temporary marine protection zones (known as tapu) to allow fisheries stock to recover. In Samoa, villages are able to establish and enforce <a href="https://www.sprep.org/att/IRC/eCOPIES/Countries/samoa/153.pdf">local fisheries management</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Samoan man at the beach" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/403865/original/file-20210601-13-1ovkvt6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/403865/original/file-20210601-13-1ovkvt6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/403865/original/file-20210601-13-1ovkvt6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/403865/original/file-20210601-13-1ovkvt6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/403865/original/file-20210601-13-1ovkvt6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/403865/original/file-20210601-13-1ovkvt6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/403865/original/file-20210601-13-1ovkvt6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In Samoa, villages can set up and enforce marine protected areas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/39551170@N02/7079001413">Simon_sees/Flicker</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Aotearoa New Zealand, Māori environmental use and management is premised on the principle of <a href="https://www.sustainableseaschallenge.co.nz/tools-and-resources/hui-te-ana-nui-understanding-kaitiakitanga-in-our-marine-environment/">kaitiakitanga</a> (environmental guardianship) rather than unsustainable extraction of resources. </p>
<p>Australian Aboriginal societies likewise use the term “<a href="https://www-tandfonline-com.ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/doi/full/10.1080/14486563.2012.731308">caring for country</a>” to refer to their ongoing and active guardianship of the lands, seas, air, water, plants, animals, spirits and ancestors. </p>
<h2>From the mountains to the sea</h2>
<p>These governance and management systems are based on Indigenous knowledge that connects places and cultures and emphasises holistic approaches. The acknowledgement of inter-relationships between human and nonhuman beings (plants, animals, forests, rivers, oceans etc.) is a common thread. So is an emphasis on reciprocity and respect towards all beings.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/respect-for-indigenous-knowledge-must-lead-nature-conservation-efforts-in-canada-156273">Respect for Indigenous knowledge must lead nature conservation efforts in Canada</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Coastal and island Indigenous groups have specific obligations to care for and protect their marine environments and to use them sustainably. An inter-generational thread is part of these ethical duties. It takes into account the lessons and experiences of ancestors and considers the needs of future generations of people, plants, animals and other beings. </p>
<p>In contrast to Western ways of seeing the environment, the Australian Indigenous concept of country is not fragmented into different types of environment or scales of governance. Instead, land, air, water and the sea are all linked. </p>
<p>Likewise, for Māori, <a href="https://tewaihora.org/ki-uta-ki-tai/">Ki uta ki tai</a> (from the mountains to the sea) encapsulates a whole-of-landscape and seascape view. </p>
<h2>Sharing knowledge across generations</h2>
<p>Māori hold deep relationships with their rohe moana (saltwater territory). These are increasingly recognised by laws that emphasise Indigenous rights based on <a href="https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/treaty/the-treaty-in-brief">Te Tiriti o Waitangi</a>. One example is the <a href="https://www.kaiparaharbour.net.nz/">Integrated Kaipara Harbour Management Group</a>, which co-manages the Kaipara Moana (harbour). The co-management agreement specifies shared responsibilities between different Māori entities (Kaipara Uri) and government agencies. </p>
<p>The agreement recognises Kaipara hapū (sub-tribes) and iwi (tribe) rights, interests and duties. It provides financial support to enable them to enact kaitiakitanga practices as they work to restore the mauri (life force) of the moana through practical efforts such as replanting native flora and reducing sedimentation. </p>
<p>They are using their mātauranga Māori (Māori Knowledge) alongside scientific knowledge to enact kaitiakitanga and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327002810_He_Mahere_Pahekoheko_Mo_Kaipara_Moana_-Integrated_Ecosystem-Based_Management_for_Kaipara_Harbour_Aotearoa_New_Zealand">ecosystem-based management</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/when-rehoming-wildlife-indigenous-leadership-delivers-the-best-results-143890">When rehoming wildlife, Indigenous leadership delivers the best results</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Another <a href="https://www.thecommonsjournal.org/articles/709/print/">co-management agreement</a> is operating in Hawai'i between the community of Hā‘ena (USA) and the Hawai’ian state government. The Hā‘ena community operates an Indigenous fishing education programme. Members of all ages camp together by the coast and learn where, what and how to harvest and prepare marine products. </p>
<p>In this way, Indigenous knowledge, with its emphasis on sustainable practices and environmental ethics, is transmitted across generations. </p>
<p>Indigenous knowledge, values and relationships with our ocean can make significant contributions to marine governance. We can learn from Indigenous worldviews that emphasise connectivity between all things. There are many similarities between ecosystem-based and Indigenous knowledge management systems. </p>
<p>We need to do more to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X20308903">recognise and empower</a> Indigenous knowledge and ways of governing marine spaces. This could include new laws, institutions and initiatives that allow Indigenous groups to exercise their self-determination rights and draw on different types of knowledge to help create and maintain sustainable seas. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>The authors acknowledge Roa Crease, Karen Fisher, and Gloria Hinestroza for their assistance with the research as well as Sustainable Seas National Science Challenge for providing funding.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/161649/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Meg Parsons receives funding from the National Science Challenge Sustainable Seas Programme through a research grant for 4.3 project Enabling Kaitiaktanga and Ecosystem-based Management (C01X1901)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lara Taylor is sub-contracted to and receives funding from the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment for her research in the Sustainable Seas National Science Challenge. </span></em></p>
Indigenous marine governance is experiencing a revival throughout Oceania, building on traditional worldviews that acknowledge connections between people and all parts of ocean ecosystems.
Meg Parsons, Senior Lecturer, University of Auckland, Waipapa Taumata Rau
Lara Taylor, Kairangahau Māori - Māori Researcher, Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/160809
2021-05-17T17:36:46Z
2021-05-17T17:36:46Z
The UN Ocean Decade: can a UN resolution turn into a scientific revolution?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400270/original/file-20210512-20-1lq0fvx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C18%2C2048%2C1345&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Today the ocean is home to valuable biodiversity, but it is threatened by pollution and human activities.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chun Yu Chen/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The ocean we want is one that plays a key role in solving humanity’s three main global issues: protecting biodiversity, creating a sustainable economy and regulating climate. The ocean today moderates climate change, absorbs a significant fraction of our CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, hosts valuable biodiversity and provides food to millions.</p>
<p>But all of these services are threatened by pollution and human activities. If we continue business as usual, the natural capital represented by the ocean is set to decline.</p>
<p>In June 2017, UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) <a href="http://legacy.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_oe&task=viewDocumentRecord&docID=19647">adopted a resolution</a> to propose an “ocean decade”. In December of the same year, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed that 2021-2030 would be the <a href="https://oceandecade.org/">Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development</a>. </p>
<p>The IOC was tasked to coordinate the Ocean Decade, with implementation happening through collaboration between all interested and relevant parties in the UN system and beyond. The bold vision is “the science we need for the ocean we want” and the mission is “to catalyse transformative ocean science solutions for sustainable development, connecting people and our ocean”.</p>
<p>What are these solutions and how can they be developed to achieve the “ocean we want” by 2030?</p>
<h2>Transforming our relationship with the seas</h2>
<p>A momentous transformation in our relationship with the ocean is required if we are to achieve the stated outcomes of the Ocean Decade of a clean, healthy, resilient, productive, safe, accessible, inspiring and engaging ocean. But some promising ocean solutions that benefit people, nature and the economy <a href="https://oceanpanel.org/ocean-action/files/full-report-ocean-solutions-eng.pdf">have already been identified</a>.</p>
<p>Regenerative ocean farming involves focusing on species such as shellfish and seaweed that do not require active feeding. Seaweed farming is well developed in parts of Asia but not globally. A practical example in the United States is the <a href="https://www.greenwave.org/">Greenwave initiative</a>, spearheaded by <a href="https://www.futureoffish.org/profile/bren-smith">Bren Smith</a>, a fisherman turned restorative ocean farmer. With limited investment, he has created a profitable business combining kelp, clams, scallops, mussels and oysters. The vision is that this approach can be scaled up with neighbouring farms collaborating on hatcheries, processing and science support.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Fishing boat with nets" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400285/original/file-20210512-17-lamq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/400285/original/file-20210512-17-lamq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400285/original/file-20210512-17-lamq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400285/original/file-20210512-17-lamq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400285/original/file-20210512-17-lamq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400285/original/file-20210512-17-lamq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/400285/original/file-20210512-17-lamq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">While humanity has long focused on extracting fish from the ocean, regenerative ocean farming broadens the focus to include shellfish and seaweed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/photos/fishing-boat-fishing-fishing-vessel-2645137/">Detmold/Pixabay</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sustainable management of existing fisheries and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariculture">finfish mariculture</a> is also needed and should not be neglected. It requires political action supported by shared data, information and science. However, it is the scaling up of unfed mariculture for food and animal feed that can really become a game changer for the future role of seafood in feeding the world.</p>
<p>Combining practical farming approaches with <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/comments?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0242086">scientific testing of species, analysis of nutrients and contaminants</a> holds great promise.</p>
<h2>Ocean transportation and renewable energy</h2>
<p>In addition to fisheries and aquaculture, ocean transport is a key global economy sector. Just like seafood in comparison to land-based food, ocean-based transport has a considerably lower environmental footprint than land- or air-based transport. Still, with global trade increasing, the reduction and ultimately elimination of related greenhouse-gas emissions is imperative. Battery-electric near-shore ferry and short sea shipping solutions are already proven and hydrogen fuel cell based solutions for such applications are emerging. </p>
<p>For deep sea shipping, an exciting possibility is to power the ships with ocean-based renewable energy. Based on geophysical, technical and economic potential, offshore wind is set to increase <a href="https://oceanpanel.org/blue-papers/ocean-energy-and-mineral-sources">at least 40-fold by 2050 compared to 2018</a> – without any subsidies. Some of this electricity can be converted to hydrogen and ammonia at offshore fueling stations used by ships. This may seem like science fiction, but several industry-led projects are on the way, notably in the <a href="https://oceanpanel.org/ocean-action/people-nature-economy-report.html">North Sea</a>. Speeding up innovation to realise these opportunities early enough to avoid global climate crisis should be a priority.</p>
<p>In addition to potentially delivering a substantial portion of the global protein and nutrient supply to the world, powering marine transport and also activities on land, the ocean also holds other opportunities. Coastal protection against storms and tsunamis by <a href="https://www.mangrovealliance.org/mikoko-pamoja/">maintaining and restoring mangroves</a> also stores carbon, as does other kinds of blue forests, i.e. <a href="https://www.cell.com/one-earth/pdf/S2590-3322(20)30209-8.pdf">seagrass, salt marshes and kelp</a>. </p>
<p>Protected marine areas have a proven track record of both conserving biodiversity and ensuring the sustainability of commercial fisheries nearby. Coastal tourism is contingent upon clean and attractive ocean and coastal regions, after all, and conserving them positively impact human well-being.</p>
<p>Common to many of these issues is that they cannot be dealt with in isolation. Rather, there is a need for an integrated, science-based approach. For example, offshore wind holds great promise, but should be located where it does not conflict with other uses. And the ocean needs to be protected from land-based pollution in order to be able to deliver its services. The cumulative impacts of a series of human activities must be considered together in an ecosystem-based approach.</p>
<h2>Planning and working together</h2>
<p>Providing science support to <a href="https://oceanpanel.org/ocean-action/transformations.html">sustainable ocean planning</a> is an overarching challenge to the science community. I would contend that a revolution is needed and on its way, not only in technological innovation for energy, food or transport, in biogeographic characterisation of the ocean environment, including its biodiversity, but also in the way we orchestrate the entire <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2019.10.012">science-policy-society interface</a>.</p>
<p>If we are to manage seafood production sustainably, mitigate climate change, stem biodiversity loss, seize opportunity for economic recovery and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-03303-3">manage the ocean holistically</a>, there is a need for a series of scientific revolutions. Some are well on their way, but more are needed. The Ocean Decade is a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for all ocean scientists. It is a framework that does not in itself guarantee scientific progress, but the ocean challenges and opportunities have never been larger than they are today. We should not miss these opportunities.</p>
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<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398230/original/file-20210502-19-2lk7b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/398230/original/file-20210502-19-2lk7b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398230/original/file-20210502-19-2lk7b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398230/original/file-20210502-19-2lk7b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=333&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398230/original/file-20210502-19-2lk7b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398230/original/file-20210502-19-2lk7b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/398230/original/file-20210502-19-2lk7b1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=419&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em>For 60 years, UNESCO’s <a href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc-oceans/">Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission</a> (IOC) promotes international cooperation and coordinates programmes in marine research, services, observation systems, hazard mitigation, and capacity development in order to understand and effectively manage the resources of the ocean and coastal areas.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/160809/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter M. Haugan ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>
The ocean moderates climate change by absorbing CO₂ emissions, hosts valuable biodiversity and provides food to millions, but all of these services are threatened by pollution and human activities.
Peter M. Haugan, Programme director IMR Global Development, Institute of Marine Research, professor, University of Bergen
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/152641
2021-02-01T12:11:36Z
2021-02-01T12:11:36Z
Why ocean pollution is a clear danger to human health
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377023/original/file-20210104-23-1gss1v1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C2%2C994%2C661&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plastic waste is the most visible component of ocean pollution.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bali-indonesia-february-12-2017-beach-1036531933">Maxim Blinkov/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ocean pollution is widespread, worsening, and poses a clear and present danger to human health and wellbeing. But the extent of this danger has not been widely comprehended – until now. <a href="https://annalsofglobalhealth.org/article/10.5334/aogh.2831/">Our recent study</a> provides the first comprehensive assessment of the impacts of ocean pollution on human health. </p>
<p>Ocean pollution is a complex mixture of toxic metals, plastics, manufactured chemicals, petroleum, urban and industrial wastes, pesticides, fertilisers, pharmaceutical chemicals, agricultural runoff, and sewage. More than 80% arises from land-based sources and it reaches the oceans through rivers, runoff, deposition from the atmosphere – where airborne pollutants are washed into the ocean by rain and snow – and direct dumping, such as pollution from waste water treatment plants and discarded waste. Ocean pollution is heaviest near the coasts and most highly concentrated along the coastlines of low-income and middle-income countries. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376987/original/file-20210104-23-86a6lu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Infographic showing how sources of ocean pollution" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376987/original/file-20210104-23-86a6lu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376987/original/file-20210104-23-86a6lu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376987/original/file-20210104-23-86a6lu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376987/original/file-20210104-23-86a6lu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376987/original/file-20210104-23-86a6lu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376987/original/file-20210104-23-86a6lu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376987/original/file-20210104-23-86a6lu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The ‘pollution-berg’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Will Stahl-Timmins/Boston College/Centre Scientifique de Monaco</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
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<p>Ocean pollution can also be found far beyond national jurisdictions in the open oceans, the deepest oceanic trenches, and on the shores of remote islands. Ocean pollution knows no borders. </p>
<h2>The most hazardous ocean pollution</h2>
<p><strong>Plastic waste</strong> is the most visible component of ocean pollution. More than <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1093/reep/rez012">ten million tonnes</a> of plastic enter the seas every year. The majority of this breaks down into microplastic particles and accumulates in coastal and deep-sea sediments. </p>
<p>Some large pieces float in the water for decades ending up as massive concentrations where currents converge and circulate. The Pacific Ocean’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/it-might-be-the-worlds-biggest-ocean-but-the-mighty-pacific-is-in-peril-150745">so called “garbage patch”</a> is a well-known example. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/it-might-be-the-worlds-biggest-ocean-but-the-mighty-pacific-is-in-peril-150745">It might be the world's biggest ocean, but the mighty Pacific is in peril</a>
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<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/microplastics-have-even-been-blown-into-a-remote-corner-of-the-pyrenees-115503">Microplastics</a> contain multiple toxic chemicals that are added to plastics to make them flexible, colourful, waterproof or flame-resistant. These include carcinogens, neurotoxins, and endocrine disruptors – chemicals that interfere with hormones, and can cause cancer, birth defects, and reduced fertility. </p>
<p>These chemical-laden particles enter the food chain and accumulate in fish and shellfish. When humans eat seafood contaminated with these materials, we ingest millions of microplastic particles and the many chemicals they carry. Though there is still <a href="https://theconversation.com/plastics-in-oceans-are-mounting-but-evidence-on-harm-is-surprisingly-weak-93877">debate</a> on the harm to humans from microplastics, exposure to these chemicals increases the risk of all the diseases that they cause. Virtually all of us <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412020322297">have microplastics in our bodies</a> today.</p>
<p><strong>Mercury</strong> is widespread in the oceans, and the major culprit is coal burning in <a href="https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/publication/global-mercury-assessment-2018">homes and industry</a>. All coal contains mercury, and when it burns, mercury vaporises, enters the atmosphere, and eventually washes into the sea. <a href="https://theconversation.com/gold-rush-mercury-legacy-small-scale-mining-for-gold-has-produced-long-lasting-toxic-pollution-from-1860s-california-to-modern-peru-133324">Gold mining is another source</a>, as mercury is used to dissolve gold from the ore.</p>
<p>Mercury can accumulate to high levels in predatory fish such as tuna and swordfish, which are in turn eaten by us. <a href="https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/29830/GMAKF_EN.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Contaminated fish</a> can be especially dangerous if eaten by expectant mothers. Exposure of mercury to infants in the womb <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010945215001768?via%3Dihub">can damage</a> developing brains, reducing IQ and increasing risks for autism, ADHD, and other learning disorders. Adult mercury exposure increases risks <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5295325/">for heart disease</a> and <a href="https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1476-069X-2-8">dementia</a>.</p>
<p><strong>Petroleum pollutants</strong> from oil spills threaten the marine microorganisms that produce much of the Earth’s oxygen by reducing their capacity for photosynthesis. These beneficial microorganisms use solar energy to convert atmospheric CO₂ into oxygen and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-08425-9">are also affected</a> by <a href="https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/persistent-organic-pollutants-global-issue-global-response#pops">organic pollutants</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/plastic-poisons-ocean-bacteria-that-produce-10-of-the-worlds-oxygen-and-prop-up-the-marine-food-chain-117493">other chemicals</a>. When there is a major oil spill, the impact can be huge.</p>
<p><strong>Coastal pollution</strong> from industrial waste, agricultural runoff, pesticides, and sewage increases the frequency of harmful algal blooms, known as red tides, brown tides, and green tides. These blooms produce powerful toxins like ciguatera and domoic acid that accumulate in fish and shellfish. When ingested, these toxins can cause dementia, amnesia, paralysis, and even rapid death. When inhaled, they can cause asthma.</p>
<p><strong>Dangerous microorganisms</strong> result from a combination of coastal pollution and warming seas, which encourages their spread. Harmful bacteria such as the vibrio species – found in warmer waters and responsible for <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/vibrio/index.html">vibriosis</a>, a potentially fatal illness – are now appearing further north and causing life-threatening infections. There’s a high risk that cholera, caused by <em>vibrio cholerae</em>, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Reports-of-Vibrio-cholerae-from-sea-water-samples_fig4_277890080">could spread</a> to new, previously unaffected areas.</p>
<p>And the health impacts of ocean pollution fall disproportionately on indigenous peoples, coastal communities and vulnerable populations <a href="https://annalsofglobalhealth.org/article/10.5334/aogh.2831/">in the Global South</a>, underlining the planetary scale of this environmental injustice.</p>
<h2>Political will and scientific evidence</h2>
<p>While the findings in this report are alarming, the good news is that ocean pollution, as with all forms of pollution, can be controlled and prevented. Bans on single-use plastics and better waste sorting can curb pollution at its source, especially plastic waste, both on land and at sea.</p>
<p>Wise governments have curbed other forms of pollution by deploying control strategies based on law, policy, technology, and targeted enforcement. The US, for example, <a href="https://www.corning.com/emea/en/products/environmental-technologies/the-us-has-come-a-long-way-since-the-u-s-clean-air-act.html">has reduced air pollution by 70%</a> since the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970. They have saved thousands of lives. They have <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)32345-0/fulltext">proven highly cost-effective</a>.</p>
<p>Countries around the world are now applying these same tools to control ocean pollution. <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2018.00478/full">Boston Harbour in Massachusetts</a> and Victoria Harbour in Hong Kong have been cleaned. Estuaries from Chesapeake Bay in the US to the Seto Inland Sea in Japan have been rejuvenated. Some coral reefs have been restored, such as <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ecosystems/coral-reefs/reefs-american-samoa-story-hope">those in American Samoa</a>, where vigilance, protection and quick response have happened in relation to various pollution threats.</p>
<p>These successes have boosted economies, increased tourism, restored fisheries, and improved health. They demonstrate that broad control of ocean pollution is feasible and their benefits will last for centuries. Our study <a href="https://annalsofglobalhealth.org/article/10.5334/aogh.2831/">offers some clear recommendations</a> for preventing and controlling ocean pollution, including transitioning to cleaner energy, developing affordable alternatives to fossil fuel-based plastics, reducing human, agricultural and industrial discharges, and expanding <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/marine-protected-areas-10558">Marine Protected Areas</a>.</p>
<p>Protecting the planet is a global concern and our collective responsibility. Leaders who recognise the gravity of ocean pollution, acknowledge its growing dangers, engage civil society, and take bold, evidence-based action to stop pollution at source will be essential for preventing ocean pollution and safeguarding our own health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152641/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jacqueline McGlade receives funding from UKRI Global Challenges Research Fund (EPSRC)</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip Landrigan receives funding from Center Scientifique de Monaco and the Prince Albert II de Monaco Fondation</span></em></p>
Polluted oceans don’t just harm wildlife, they are a source of ill health for humans too.
Jacqueline McGlade, Professor of Natural Prosperity, Sustainable Development and Knowledge Systems, UCL
Philip Landrigan, Professor and Director, Global Public Health Program and Global Pollution Observatory, Schiller Institute for Integrated Science and Society, Boston College
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/151389
2020-12-04T14:05:31Z
2020-12-04T14:05:31Z
Can countries end overfishing and plastic pollution in just 10 years?
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373070/original/file-20201204-15-1uieyku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=573%2C577%2C2297%2C1289&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fishing-ship-530558665">Artem Mishukov/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In my career as a marine biologist, I’ve been fortunate enough to visit some of the most remote islands in the world. These beautiful places continue to remind me why I have this job in the first place, but they also bring home the pervasive influence of human societies. Uninhabited bird colonies on the Canadian West Coast, remote tropical Japanese islands, and tiny bits of land in South East Asia all have one thing in common: plastic waste on the beach.</p>
<p>When at home in Sweden, I regularly swim and sail in the Baltic Sea. But agricultural fertilisers and other types of pollution have created dead zones where fish either leave or suffocate. Meanwhile, offshore fisheries and aquaculture farms in many parts of the world overharvest and pollute the water. We know what proper management of these activities could look like, but political will has so far not been equal to the challenge.</p>
<p>That may be about to change. A <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/dec/02/global-sustainable-fishing-initiative-agreed-by-14-countries">recent agreement</a> between 14 heads of state – together representing 40% of the world’s coastline – promised to end overfishing, restore fish stocks and halt the flow of plastic pollution into the ocean within a decade.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A tropical beach strewn with plastic waste." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373068/original/file-20201204-19-dli2yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373068/original/file-20201204-19-dli2yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373068/original/file-20201204-19-dli2yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373068/original/file-20201204-19-dli2yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373068/original/file-20201204-19-dli2yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373068/original/file-20201204-19-dli2yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373068/original/file-20201204-19-dli2yf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ocean problems implicate every country – and demand coordinated solutions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beach-pollution-plastic-waste-ocean-on-1186745014">Musleemin Noitubtim/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Interconnected problems</h2>
<p>Pollution, plastics and unsustainable seafood may look like isolated problems, but they influence each other. As nutrients run off farmland and into the sea, they affect the conditions fish need to thrive. Pollution makes our seafood <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-pollution#:%7E:text=The%20impact%20of%20marine%20pollution,food%20out%20of%20the%20water.">less healthy</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/galapagos-how-to-protect-the-islands-amazing-marine-life-from-huge-chinese-fishing-fleets-144927">overfishing</a> is pushing some fish stocks beyond their capacity to renew themselves.</p>
<p>All of these stresses are amplified by global warming. The ocean has been acting as a sink for CO₂ emissions and excess heat for decades, but there is only so much that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/dec/03/great-barrier-reef-outlook-critical-as-climate-change-called-number-one-threat-to-world-heritage">marine ecosystems</a> can take <a href="https://theconversation.com/one-fifth-of-ecosystems-in-danger-of-collapse-heres-what-that-might-look-like-148137">before collapsing</a>. And we shouldn’t think these problems won’t affect us – <a href="https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2019/07/how-climate-change-is-making-hurricanes-more-dangerous/">stronger storms</a>, fuelled by <a href="https://oceantoday.noaa.gov/fuelforthestorm/">warmer ocean waters</a>, are <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/mapped-how-climate-change-affects-extreme-weather-around-the-world">happening more often</a>. </p>
<p>It’s in everyone’s interests to protect the ocean. Clean seas would be more profitable and <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/8/eaao1378">research</a> suggests that better managed fisheries could generate six times more food than they do currently. The exclusive economic zones of coastal states would be more productive if every country agreed to protect the high seas. And sailing in the Baltic Sea would be much nicer if the boat didn’t have to plough a thick, green sludge. </p>
<p>So how can the world make progress – and what’s holding us back?</p>
<h2>International solutions</h2>
<p>As part of the recent agreement between 14 heads of state, the participating countries – Australia, Canada, Chile, Fiji, Ghana, Indonesia, Jamaica, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, Namibia, Norway, Palau and Portugal – committed to a number of goals within their national waters, including investment in zero-emission shipping, eliminating waste and ensuring fisheries are sustainable. The aim is to ensure all activity within these exclusive economic zones is sustainable by 2025.</p>
<p>The countries agreed to fast-track their plan for action, rather than work through the UN. Their combined national waters roughly equal the size of Africa. They each have clear stakes in the continued functioning of ocean ecosystems and economies, so this pragmatic approach makes sense. That’s a sentiment that businesses could no doubt respect. After all, there are no economic opportunities in a dead ocean.</p>
<p>The agreement is an encouraging message from political leaders, and these states can leverage vast sums of money and resources to effect change. But the ocean is home to <a href="https://theconversation.com/blue-acceleration-our-dash-for-ocean-resources-mirrors-what-weve-already-done-to-the-land-130264">a dozen global industries</a>, and around <a href="https://ungc-communications-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/docs/publications/Call-To-Action_Imminent-Threats-to-the-Integrity-of-Global-Supply-Chains.pdf">50,000 vessels</a> traverse it at any one time. Clearly, we need more than governments to deliver on this ambitious agenda.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Colourful shipping containers and cranes fill a bustling seaport." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373069/original/file-20201204-21-1e5z9m9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/373069/original/file-20201204-21-1e5z9m9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373069/original/file-20201204-21-1e5z9m9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373069/original/file-20201204-21-1e5z9m9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373069/original/file-20201204-21-1e5z9m9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373069/original/file-20201204-21-1e5z9m9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/373069/original/file-20201204-21-1e5z9m9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shipping accounts for nearly 90% of all global trade.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/ukraine-odessa-september-7-2019-color-1658009893">Harmony Video Production/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>My scientific colleagues and I have been developing a <a href="https://seabos.org">global coalition</a> of businesses concerned with sustainable seafood. Our strategy is to find “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-017-0133">keystone actors</a>” within the private sector – companies with a disproportionate ability to influence change due to their size and strength. </p>
<p>The seafood industry is vast, and includes some of the largest companies in the world – from entire fisheries, to aquaculture farms and feed processors. After four years of working together, change within the participating companies is accelerating. For example, Nissui, the world’s second-largest seafood company, has evaluated their entire production portfolio for <a href="https://s3-ap-northeast-1.amazonaws.com/sustainability-cms-nissui-s3/pdf/en/2020_sustainability_full_en.pdf">sustainability challenges</a>.</p>
<p>Collaboration <a href="https://www.cell.com/one-earth/fulltext/S2590-3322(20)30300-6?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2590332220303006%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">between scientists and businesses</a> is vital to delivering commitments made by governments. Scientists can help define the problems, and business can develop, pilot and scale solutions. For instance, we’re developing software that can <a href="https://sustainabilityreport2019.nutreco.com/pdf/nutreco-sustainability-report-2019.pdf">automatically detect</a> which species of fish are caught on vessels, to radically improve the transparency of seafood production.</p>
<p>The ocean has been a source of inspiration, imagination and adventure since the beginning of time. It has fed us and generated livelihoods for billions. Politicians have stood serenely on the sidelines for some time now, content to be passive observers of deteriorating ecosystems. But the era of passive observation may finally be coming to an end.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151389/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Henrik Österblom is a scientific collaborator with the SeaBOS initiative. This work is not funded by the companies involved, but through independent research grants. He has also provided scientific support to the work carried out by the High Level Panel, by producing scientific background papers on ocean equity and ocean transitions.</span></em></p>
An international agreement has set an ambitious deadline for action on some of the biggest problems facing the world’s oceans.
Henrik Österblom, Professor of Environmental Science, Stockholm University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/143220
2020-07-24T12:57:42Z
2020-07-24T12:57:42Z
How Earth’s plastic pollution problem could look by 2040
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349117/original/file-20200723-21-n9fkbq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4512%2C3005&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fish-plastic-pollution-sea-microplastics-contaminate-1119123140">Rich Carey/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>During a visit to a bookstore a few weeks ago, we couldn’t help but stare at a display unit featuring no fewer than ten books telling you how to rid plastics from your daily life. We’re bombarded by information on the topic of marine litter and plastic pollution, but how much do we really know about the problem?</p>
<p>Think about other planetary challenges, like climate change or ozone layer depletion. Mature areas of research have developed around them, allowing scientists to identify where the gases that cause these problems come from, and how much reaches the atmosphere each year. </p>
<p>But when it comes to plastic pollution, we know close to nothing about how and where plastic waste is generated, managed, treated and disposed of, especially in low and middle income countries. As a result, we’re struggling to limit the amount of litter accumulating in the environment.</p>
<p>Our research published in <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2020/07/22/science.aba9475">Science</a> involved a herculean effort to spot, track and model the current and future flows of plastics into the world’s land and waterbodies. We found that plastic entering the marine environment is set to double by 2040 and, unless the world acts, more than 1.3 billion tonnes of plastic waste will be dumped on land and in waterbodies.</p>
<p>By identifying the ways in which this litter is produced and distributed, we’ve also discovered how best to reduce the plastic deluge. In the process, we found the unsung heroes on the frontline fighting the pollution crisis who could be the world’s best hope of stemming the tide.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Discarded face masks on a rocky beach." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349120/original/file-20200723-37-feayxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349120/original/file-20200723-37-feayxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349120/original/file-20200723-37-feayxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349120/original/file-20200723-37-feayxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349120/original/file-20200723-37-feayxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349120/original/file-20200723-37-feayxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349120/original/file-20200723-37-feayxq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Single-use plastic consumption has increased during the pandemic.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/waste-during-covid19-discarded-ocean-coronavirus-1736321861">Fevziie/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The world’s plastic problem in numbers</h2>
<p>We developed a model called <a href="https://plasticpollution.leeds.ac.uk/toolkits/p2o/">Plastic-to-Ocean (P₂O)</a> which combines years of accumulated knowledge on global flows of plastic. It compares our current production, use and management of waste with what is projected in the future. </p>
<p>Do you burn your waste in the garden or in the street? Do you drop it into the river? If you answered no to both of these questions then you are possibly one of the 5.5 billion people whose waste gets collected. If you were among the remaining two billion, what would you do with your uncollected waste? Would you make use of a nearby stream, cliff edge, or perhaps squirrel the odd bag in the woods after dusk?</p>
<p>More often than not, uncollected plastic waste is simply set on fire as a cost-free and effective method of disposal. Our model suggests that cumulatively, more than 2.2 billion tonnes of plastic will be open burned by 2040, far more than the 850 million tonnes that’s anticipated to be dumped on land and the 480 million tonnes in rivers and seas.</p>
<p>Having tracked the sources of plastic items through the supply chain and their fate in the environment, we explored what might help reduce aquatic pollution. We found that the single most effective intervention is to provide a service for the two billion people who currently don’t have their waste collected.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349111/original/file-20200723-37-1uul02h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graph showing how different measures could reduce the flow of plastic into the ocean." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349111/original/file-20200723-37-1uul02h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/349111/original/file-20200723-37-1uul02h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349111/original/file-20200723-37-1uul02h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349111/original/file-20200723-37-1uul02h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=378&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349111/original/file-20200723-37-1uul02h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349111/original/file-20200723-37-1uul02h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/349111/original/file-20200723-37-1uul02h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=475&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Breaking the Plastic Wave</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But, of the nine interventions we tested, none solved the problem on their own. Only an integrated approach that in addition to increasing collection coverage includes interventions such as reducing demand for single-use and unrecyclable plastic and improving the business case for mechanical recycling, could be successful. For the countries suffering most from plastic pollution, this knowledge could offer a way forward.</p>
<p>But even in our best-case scenario, in which the world takes the kind of concerted and immediate action proposed in our study, approximately 710 million tonnes of plastic waste will be released into the environment by 2040. That may sound a lot, but it would mean an 80% reduction in the levels of plastic pollution compared to what will happen with no action over the next two decades.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-oceans-plastic-problem-is-closer-to-home-than-scientists-first-thought-123422">The ocean's plastic problem is closer to home than scientists first thought</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Could waste pickers save the day?</h2>
<p>Our work also cast light on the contributions of 11 million waste pickers in low and middle-income countries. These informal workers collect waste items, including plastics, for recycling, to secure a livelihood for day-to-day survival. The model estimates that they may be responsible for 58% of all plastic waste collected for recycling worldwide – more than the combined formal collection services achieve throughout all the high-income countries put together. </p>
<p>Without this informal waste collection sector, the mass of plastic entering rivers and the ocean would be considerably greater. Their efforts should be integrated into municipal waste management plans, not only to recognise their tremendous contribution but to improve the appalling safety standards that they currently endure.</p>
<p>Establishing a comprehensive baseline estimate of sources, stocks and flows of plastic pollution, and then projecting into the future, has been an immense task. When it comes to solid waste, the availability, accuracy and international compatibility of data is notoriously insufficient. </p>
<p>Plastic items occur throughout the world in tens of thousands of shapes, sizes, polymer types and additive combinations. There are also considerable differences in cultural attitudes towards the way waste is managed, how plastic products are consumed, and the types of infrastructure and equipment used to manage it when it becomes waste. </p>
<p>Our modelling effort was a delicate and tedious exercise of simplifying and generalising this complexity. To understand how reliable, accurate, and precise our findings are likely to be, think of the first models that estimated how sensitive the climate is to human influence back in the 1970s. </p>
<p>Hopefully, the strong evidence base we have presented today will inform a global strategy and strong local preventive action. The plastic pollution challenge can be substantially controlled within a generation’s time. So, is anyone ready to act?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/143220/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Costas Velis serves as Leader for the Marine Litter Task Force, established by the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA). P₂O was co-developed by The Pew Charitable Trust, SYSTEMIQ, the University of Leeds and the University of Oxford. Research activities at the University of Leeds were funded by The Pew Charitable Trusts through SYSTEMIQ. The project was supported by 19 experts, 29 co-authors, Common Seas and the Ellen MacArthur Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ed Cook does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Plastic flows to the world’s waterbodies could double over the next two decades.
Costas Velis, Lecturer in Resource Efficiency Systems, University of Leeds
Ed Cook, Research Fellow in Circular Economy Systems, University of Leeds
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/135229
2020-04-06T14:18:06Z
2020-04-06T14:18:06Z
A South African theatre project explores collective solutions to saving the ocean
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325701/original/file-20200406-104477-a42tb5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Courtesy Lalela uLwandle</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The earth’s oceans are under grave threat. Scientists in many fields have pointed to the large-scale negative shifts brought about by <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X17301650">human-made pollutants</a>, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/issj.12159?casa_token=yo1hu6jL9h4AAAAA%3AnsdpJweEdPal13QVMb1RBN-jnfJR10c-yU12iCoDEtfaYHHF0kXGv65aIEIPV2KMuRnwjr7Qdzk1tedw">mining</a> and <a href="http://www.scielo.org.za/pdf/sajs/v112n9-10/04.pdf">overfishing</a>.</p>
<p>How people now choose to behave, make collective decisions and build solidarity around the health of oceans has an impact not just on our own species but on all life on earth.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.empatheatre.com/lalela-ulwandle">Lalela uLwandle</a> (Listen to the Sea) is a theatre production in South Africa that was developed by the <a href="https://www.empatheatre.com/about">Empatheatre</a> group after listening to the voices of coastal dwellers that care for or live off the ocean. The Lalela uLwandle research and engagement project was implemented along the KwaZulu-Natal coastline in 2019. </p>
<p>The production was first staged at home but has now embarked on an international tour. On 7 June it was <a href="https://www.jozigist.co.za/empatheatre-at-united-nations-world-oceans-week-in-new-york-why-storytelling-is-the-sacred-medicine-ocean-governance-needs/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=empatheatre-at-united-nations-world-oceans-week-in-new-york-why-storytelling-is-the-sacred-medicine-ocean-governance-needs">performed</a> at the United Nations in New York for World Oceans Week. Lead actress and co-director of Empatheatre, Mpume Mthombeni also gave a speech at the UN headquarters on 8 June, World Oceans Day.</p>
<h2>A chorus of voices</h2>
<p>The idea for the play emerged from a <a href="https://risingsunchatsworth.co.za/123628/community-oil-gas-mining-kzn-coast/">public consultation meeting</a>. It was between community representatives from small towns along the coastline, and the <a href="https://www.sapia.org.za">Petroleum Association of South Africa</a>. Many felt they had not been adequately consulted in an environmental impact assessment for permits to drill for oil and gas along the coastline. </p>
<p>The association, a regulatory body meant to consider public needs when granting or denying such licences, was sympathetic to some of the arguments. But the consultation process failed to make room for the different perspectives and concerns in the room.</p>
<p>In response, a team of researchers working in ocean governance from Rhodes University and the Durban University of Technology began the Lalela project. It set out to explore how different coastal people, in and around the coastal city of Durban, make sense of their relationship with the ocean. </p>
<p>The research participants included a broad spectrum. They were small-scale and subsistence fishers, marine scientists, activists, church followers, marine educators at the aquarium and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/sangoma">sangomas</a> (traditional healers). </p>
<p>The opening question was simple: What are your first memories of the sea? It’s important because the symbolic, scientific and spiritual meanings of the oceans are key to understanding <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40152-020-00163-5">humans’ relationship with the oceans</a>. Memories, belief systems, stories and myths are powerful ways in which we make sense of our world and choose to act on and in it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325696/original/file-20200406-103690-1c7nil7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325696/original/file-20200406-103690-1c7nil7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325696/original/file-20200406-103690-1c7nil7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325696/original/file-20200406-103690-1c7nil7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325696/original/file-20200406-103690-1c7nil7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325696/original/file-20200406-103690-1c7nil7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325696/original/file-20200406-103690-1c7nil7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325696/original/file-20200406-103690-1c7nil7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Faye (Allison Cassels) recounts the wonder of baby cuttlefish.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Casey Pratt</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The research team partnered with <a href="http://www.uncannyjustness.org/empatheatre.html">Empatheatre</a>, a collective who use research-based theatre as a participatory decision-making tool for social justice. They have tackled issues related to street-level drug use (<em><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jguiaUniBbE">Ulwembu</a></em>), gender and migration (<em><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dg4P38dbBao">The Last Country</a></em>), and mining (<em><a href="https://soilandash.weebly.com/">Soil&Ash</a></em>). They wove these incredible everyday stories of the sea, together with archival material, into the production <em>Lalela uLwandle</em>. </p>
<h2>On stage among the audience</h2>
<p><em>Lalela uLwandle</em> draws on the stories of three people. Nolwandle is a marine educator whose mother is a Zionist and grandmother a sangoma. Niren is a young environmental activist whose family has a long history of seine-net fishing. Faye is a retired marine biologist reflecting on life as a scientist and activist. </p>
<p>Audience members sit in a circle with the actors and witness these intergenerational stories. They recount how the ocean is linked to, among other things, livelihoods, medicine and healing, and scientific study. Included is the site of the sea for spiritual connections with ancestors.</p>
<p>The play deals with acts of past and present power and exclusion in South Africa. It performs the painful experiences of <a href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/forced-removals-south-africa">forced removals</a> under <a href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/history-apartheid-south-africa">apartheid</a>, which robbed many of a life on the coast. It explores how extractive mining on land and sea, and industrial fishing, continue to create forms of oppression and exclusion. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325707/original/file-20200406-151304-1hujff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325707/original/file-20200406-151304-1hujff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325707/original/file-20200406-151304-1hujff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325707/original/file-20200406-151304-1hujff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325707/original/file-20200406-151304-1hujff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325707/original/file-20200406-151304-1hujff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325707/original/file-20200406-151304-1hujff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325707/original/file-20200406-151304-1hujff8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nolwandle (Mpume Mthombeni) performs the symbolic destruction of homes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kelly Daniels</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It also performs the tensions between environmental justice and environmental conservation. These are frequently played out <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0964569117304015">in real life</a> when local people are restricted from accessing sites of heritage and livelihood in <a href="http://mpaforum.org.za/marine-protected-areas/">Marine Protected Areas</a>.</p>
<p>Last year the play toured six small towns on the KwaZulu-Natal coast, with a final week’s <a href="https://www.iol.co.za/mercury/goodlife/listen-to-the-sea-33807711">run</a> in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Durban">Durban</a>. The general public came to watch along with guests invited from government, civil society, small-scale fisher associations, marine science and conservation. </p>
<p>Each performance was followed by a facilitated discussion. In many, audience members grappled with what it means to think collectively in a time of ocean degradation. They asked of themselves and fellow audience members how the hurt and inequalities in our past, and in the present, should shape thinking on ocean governance. </p>
<h2>If we listened carefully</h2>
<p>South Africa remains deeply divided by racial injustices and <a href="https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2020/01/29/na012820six-charts-on-south-africas-persistent-and-multi-faceted-inequality">economic inequalities</a>. Rather than skirt over these divides <em>Lalela uLwandle</em> told different stories of power and vulnerability. What arose from the research, performances and discussions was how cultural connections offer valuable contributions towards conservation and environmental efforts. </p>
<p>The play offered an invitation to an alternative conversation. One in which culture, science and conservation may, if people learn to listen to each other carefully, find strategic alignment.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325708/original/file-20200406-196131-1utf8hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325708/original/file-20200406-196131-1utf8hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/325708/original/file-20200406-196131-1utf8hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325708/original/file-20200406-196131-1utf8hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325708/original/file-20200406-196131-1utf8hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325708/original/file-20200406-196131-1utf8hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325708/original/file-20200406-196131-1utf8hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/325708/original/file-20200406-196131-1utf8hs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Niren (Rory Booth) sends a prayer into the ocean for his grandfather.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Val Adamson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The public discussions showed an encouraging move away from various trade-offs that normally play out. Where big business gains at the expense of poor communities, or conservation wins at the expense of marginal groups, or where marginal groups are awarded socio-economic resources at the expense of environmental conservation. </p>
<p>To find solutions the world desperately needs to become better equipped at more equitable collective decision making. To do that we need to find translation devices between scientific, conservation, cultural and spiritual canons. We need them to spark an imagination for working in solidarity across difference, with and for the oceans that sustain us all. </p>
<p><em>Lalela uLwandle is led by Dylan McGarry and Taryn Pereira at the <a href="https://www.ru.ac.za/elrc/">Environmental Learning Research Centre</a>, Rhodes University, with Neil Coppen and Mpume Mthombeni from <a href="http://www.uncannyjustness.org/empatheatre.html">Empatheatre</a>, and Kira Erwin at the <a href="https://www.dut.ac.za/faculty/engineering/urban_futures/">Urban Futures Centre</a>, Durban University of Technology. Lalela uLwandle forms part of the <a href="https://www.strath.ac.uk/research/strathclydecentreenvironmentallawgovernance/oneoceanhub/">One Ocean Hub</a>, a global action research network led by Strathclyde University and funded by the <a href="https://www.ukri.org/research/global-challenges-research-fund/">UKRI Global Challenge Research Fund</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>This article was updated to include developments around international performances of the play.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/135229/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kira Erwin has received funding from the National Research Foundation, as well as other external funders for research projects at the Urban Futures Centre. Her work on Lalela uLwandle is done in-kind with no direct funding.</span></em></p>
Empatheatre’s latest production is more than a play about three characters who live near the sea. It’s a model for collective consultation on how to save the ocean.
Kira Erwin, Senior researcher, Durban University of Technology
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/123422
2019-09-23T11:14:54Z
2019-09-23T11:14:54Z
The ocean’s plastic problem is closer to home than scientists first thought
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292459/original/file-20190913-8701-1rkoky0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5000%2C3330&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/nwS3b_s-IRs">Brian Yurasits/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You’re probably used to hearing that the ocean is full of plastic, but scientists are puzzled by a rather different problem – there actually appears to be a lot less of it than there should be. Most large plastic debris floats, but observations of it on the sea surface offshore are far lower than what would be expected, considering that <a href="https://oceanconservancy.org/trash-free-seas/plastics-in-the-ocean/">8m metric tonnes of plastic</a> is estimated to empty into the ocean from land each year.</p>
<p>Scientists assumed that the missing plastic has simply broken down into <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/microplastics-17592">tiny microplastics</a> and sunk to the sea floor. These particles are smaller than 5mm and either sink or float depending on the type of plastic and what happens while they’re in the ocean. But there’s still plastic that has been floating at the surface in the open ocean for <a href="https://inhabitat.com/ocean-plastic-waste-has-been-a-problem-since-the-1950s-reveals-60-year-plankton-study/">decades</a>, so clearly not enough has fragmented to account for the discrepancy. So where’s the rest of it going?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292292/original/file-20190912-190061-ki002z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292292/original/file-20190912-190061-ki002z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292292/original/file-20190912-190061-ki002z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292292/original/file-20190912-190061-ki002z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292292/original/file-20190912-190061-ki002z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292292/original/file-20190912-190061-ki002z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292292/original/file-20190912-190061-ki002z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292292/original/file-20190912-190061-ki002z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hard plastic fragments recovered from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://theoceancleanup.com">The Ocean Cleanup</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To try and solve the mystery, scientists from <a href="https://theoceancleanup.com/">The Ocean Cleanup</a> – an environmental organisation dedicated to removing plastic waste from the ocean – modelled how plastics move in nearshore and open ocean currents to predict where they’re accumulating. Their findings suggest that even radical action to phase out plastics wouldn’t prevent a potential explosion in marine microplastics by mid-century.</p>
<h2>Where does all the plastic go?</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292239/original/file-20190912-190002-1uajz75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292239/original/file-20190912-190002-1uajz75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292239/original/file-20190912-190002-1uajz75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=868&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292239/original/file-20190912-190002-1uajz75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=868&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292239/original/file-20190912-190002-1uajz75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=868&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292239/original/file-20190912-190002-1uajz75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1091&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292239/original/file-20190912-190002-1uajz75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1091&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292239/original/file-20190912-190002-1uajz75.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1091&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Plastic emissions from land are projected to climb into the future.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://theoceancleanup.com">The Ocean Cleanup</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-49413-5">The researchers found</a> that nearshore currents tend to trap a lot of plastic debris in coastal waters. The plastic that you find littering the strand line on beaches is brought in with the tide and then taken out again. It may swirl around offshore for a while and travel further along the coast, but this plastic tends to return to beaches and may stay stuck in this rhythm – from beach to coastal waters and back – for many years. </p>
<p>Occasionally, some of this plastic escapes the nearshore currents and is buoyed far out to sea by oceanic currents. The plastic waste that’s found far from shore – such as in open ocean areas like the <a href="https://theconversation.com/uk/topics/great-pacific-garbage-patch-46255">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a> – probably arrived there after a journey of years or even decades.</p>
<p>This means that the plastic on beaches and in coastal waters tends to be much “younger” than that polluting the open ocean. The study found that 79% of all the buoyant plastic in surface waters near the shore came from objects that were less than five years old. Meanwhile, microplastics found far offshore likely broke down from plastics that were created as long ago as the 1950s.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292237/original/file-20190912-190031-q5ak8f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292237/original/file-20190912-190031-q5ak8f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292237/original/file-20190912-190031-q5ak8f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292237/original/file-20190912-190031-q5ak8f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292237/original/file-20190912-190031-q5ak8f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292237/original/file-20190912-190031-q5ak8f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292237/original/file-20190912-190031-q5ak8f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292237/original/file-20190912-190031-q5ak8f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nearshore currents delay the journey of plastic from land to the open ocean.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://theoceancleanup.com/">The Ocean Cleanup</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For that reason, travelling out from shore is a bit like travelling back in time. The further you get from land, the older the plastic waste tends to be. The plastic spoon you find tangled in seaweed on the shore may only be a year old. Tiny particles in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean may have came from plastic that was produced during the Cold War.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/designing-new-ways-to-make-use-of-ocean-plastic-120180">Designing new ways to make use of ocean plastic</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The reason why there seemed to be plastic missing from offshore waters is because so much of it accumulates in coastal waters, as nearshore currents keep it there. Only some of that plastic eventually filters out to the open ocean.</p>
<p>Even if all the plastic that’s produced on land stopped reaching the ocean tomorrow, the researchers from The Ocean Cleanup predict that marine microplastic could still double by 2050, as the larger debris already out there breaks down. If the plastic debris that’s out there isn’t actively removed, floating islands of plastic waste could persist in the ocean for several centuries.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292238/original/file-20190912-190031-mg61lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292238/original/file-20190912-190031-mg61lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/292238/original/file-20190912-190031-mg61lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292238/original/file-20190912-190031-mg61lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292238/original/file-20190912-190031-mg61lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292238/original/file-20190912-190031-mg61lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292238/original/file-20190912-190031-mg61lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/292238/original/file-20190912-190031-mg61lh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Without efforts to remove it, quantities of ocean plastic could still accumulate even as production on land is halted.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://theoceancleanup.com/">The Ocean Cleanup</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Solving the ocean’s plastic problem will therefore take governments and manufacturers developing materials that can be re-used and disposed of properly. But it will also require removing the plastic that’s already floating in the sea. </p>
<p>Anyone who has ever taken part in a beach clean will appreciate that it can often feel like an uphill struggle, but the new study offers a note of encouragement. By removing plastic from the beach today, you’re permanently removing it from the cycle and preventing it from spending many decades in coastal waters or offshore. While much needs to be done, the people who give up their time to scour the sand for plastic pieces should be buoyed by the fact that their efforts do add up after all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/123422/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ted Henry receives funding from the NERC.</span></em></p>
Where does plastic waste go when it reaches the ocean? For most of it, not far.
Ted Henry, Professor of Environmental Toxicology, Heriot-Watt University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/107263
2018-12-10T18:55:42Z
2018-12-10T18:55:42Z
Cities can grow without wrecking reefs and oceans. Here’s how
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248335/original/file-20181203-194953-1yx65zo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cairns has lots of hard grey infrastructure but much less green infrastructure that would reduce the impacts of the city's growth.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Karine Dupré</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>“<a href="https://www.iyor2018.org/">What happens if the water temperature rises by a few degrees?</a>” is the 2018 <a href="https://www.icriforum.org/about-icri/iyor">International Year of the Reef</a> leading question. While the ocean is the focus, <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html">urbanisation</a> is the main reason for the rising temperatures and water pollution. Yet it receives little attention in this discussion. </p>
<p>In turn, rising temperatures <a href="https://theconversation.com/urban-floods-we-can-pay-now-or-later-96160">increase downpours and urban floods</a>, adding to the pressures on urban infrastructure. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/design-for-flooding-how-cities-can-make-room-for-water-105844">Design for flooding: how cities can make room for water</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Protecting the reef as Cairns grows</h2>
<p>Cairns is an expanding Queensland city located between two World Heritage sites – the <a href="http://www.greatbarrierreef.org/about-the-reef">Great Barrier Reef</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daintree_Rainforest">Daintree Rainforest</a>. While important research focuses on these sites themselves, not much is known about how the surrounding urban areas influence these natural environments. Similarly, little is known about how urban planning and design contribute to the health of the inner city and surrounding water bodies, including the ocean. </p>
<p>Cairns is a major Australian tourism destination with a unique coastal setting of rainforest and reef. This attracts growing numbers of visitors. One effect of this success is increased urbanisation to accommodate these tourists. </p>
<p>There are many opportunities to promote sustainable and socially acceptable growth in Cairns. Yet this growth is not without challenges. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li>impacts of climate change, including sea-level rise and ocean warming</li>
<li>lack of comprehensive urban infrastructure strategy</li>
<li>lack of comprehensive assessment of the benefits of integrated urban design to maximise coastal resilience and the health of streams and oceans. </li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249156/original/file-20181206-186055-r0mm58.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rain gardens are common in Singapore.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/rogersoh/4742030401/in/photolist-8e39qR-8cTrF9-5ZVakG-6SD8Xr-dYNhd-5ZVULb-5ZVkTj-9WFvAV-d39rTQ-9WFtHH-9WJmQ1-9WFvgn-ojCd4B-8e3c2R-ojCdzB-5ZVUtA-5ZV7BU-8ur9JW-9SnZ4W-ov8N8x-9WFwY6-5ZV8Nf-c5y1kE-uLxdpo-o1nqXY-9WFwaa-ohFgoE-ot6Rgd-55jr8c-7jH9xY-2mMoCW-fVdLWn-6zSj5d-94ndL2-omyHjz-fzRSHi-oBpfnr-6dnEtg-m79GPr-FVFE9-eKdaHR-oi6UuW-einXy8-mKHUHk-5cFXGA-omswap-oV1kxp-oChdwV-oudGjB-9WFumT">Roger Soh/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As with most Australian cities, Cairns has an urban layout based on wide streets, mostly with little or no greenery. <a href="https://www.melbournewater.com.au/community-and-education/help-protect-environment/raingardens">Rain gardens</a>, for instance, are rare. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioswale">Bioswales</a> that slow and filter stormwater are present along highways, but seldom within the city. </p>
<p>The arguments for not adding greenery to the urban environment are familiar. These typically relate to costs of implementation and maintenance, but also to the speed with which water is taken out of streets during the tropical rainy season. This is because green stormwater solutions, if not well planned, can slow down the water flow, thus increasing floods.</p>
<p>However, cities can be designed in a way to <a href="https://theconversation.com/stormwater-innovations-mean-cities-dont-just-flush-rainwater-down-the-drain-40129">imitate nature</a> with solutions that are an integral part of the urban system. This can include dedicated areas of larger wetlands and parks, which capture water and filter pollution and undesired nutrients more efficiently, reducing polluted runoff to the reef.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/if-planners-understand-its-cool-to-green-cities-whats-stopping-them-55753">If planners understand it's cool to green cities, what's stopping them?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Integrated urban design</h2>
<p>Integrated urban design is an aspect of city planning and design that could be further developed to ensure the whole system works more efficiently. This involves integrating the three elements that make up urban infrastructure: </p>
<ol>
<li><a href="https://theconversation.com/our-cities-need-more-trees-and-water-not-less-to-stay-liveable-22166">the green</a> – parks, residential gardens, rain gardens, green roofs and walls, bioswales, etc</li>
<li>the grey – built drains, footpaths, buildings, <a href="http://www.envacgroup.com/products/our_products/envac-stationary-vacuum-system">underground vacuum
system</a>, etc</li>
<li><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Blue-Urbanism-Exploring-Connections-Between/dp/1610914058">the blue</a> – streams, stormwater systems, etc.</li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248338/original/file-20181203-194953-1cjc3uf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A rain garden, which absorbs rain and stores water to help control run-off from impervious hard surfaces, in Wellington, New Zealand.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Karine Dupré</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Urban infrastructure, therefore, can and should be planned and designed to provide <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11355-017-0346-6">multiple services</a>, including coastal resilience and healthier water streams and oceans. To achieve this, a neighbourhood or city-wide strategy needs to be implemented, instead of intermittent and ad hoc urban design solutions. Importantly, <a href="http://webpages.uidaho.edu/larc380/new380/assets/images/StormwaterFiles/images/HighPtSect.jpg">each element should coordinate with the others</a> to avoid overlaps, gaps and pitfalls. </p>
<p>This is what integrated urban design is about. So why don’t we implement it more often?</p>
<h2>Challenges and opportunities</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935117317115?via%3Dihub">Research has shown</a> that planning, designing and creating climate-resilient cities that are energy-optimised, revitalise urban landscapes and restore and support <a href="http://www.agriculture.gov.au/ag-farm-food/natural-resources/ecosystem-services">ecosystem services</a> is a major challenge at the planning scale. To generate an urban environment that promotes urban protection and resilience while minimising urbanisation impacts and restoring natural systems, we need to better anticipate the risks and have the means to take actions. In other words, it is a two-way system: well planned and designed green and blue infrastructures not only deliver better urbanised areas but will also protect the ocean from pollution. Additionally, it helps to manage future risks of severe weather. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901117305282?via%3Dihub">uncertainties of green infrastructure capacity and costs of maintenance, combined with inflexible finance schemes</a>, are obstacles to integrated urban solutions. Furthermore, the lack of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01426397.2017.1353069">inter- and transdisciplinary approaches</a> results in <a href="http://www.arj.no/2012/03/12/disciplinarities-2/">disciplinary barriers</a> in research and policymaking to long-term planning of the sort that generates urban green infrastructure and its desired outcomes.</p>
<p>On the bright side, there is also strong evidence to suggest sound policy can <a href="http://sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1618866716305027?via%3Dihub">help overcome these barriers</a> through technical guides based on scientific research, standards and financial incentives. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-how-green-infrastructure-can-easily-be-added-to-the-urban-planning-toolkit-57277">Here’s how green infrastructure can easily be added to the urban planning toolkit</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877343514001110">Collaborative partnerships</a> are promising, too. Partnerships between academia and industry tend to be more powerful than streamlined industry project developments. </p>
<p>Finally, and very promisingly, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935117316778?via%3Dihub">Australia has its own successful green infrastructure examples</a>. <a href="https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/community/parks-open-spaces/urban-forest/Pages/urban-forest-strategy.aspx">Melbourne’s urban forest strategy</a> has been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935117316778?via%3Dihub">internationally acclaimed</a>. Examples like these provide valuable insights into local green infrastructure governance. </p>
<p>Cairns has stepped up with some stunning blue <a href="http://www.qldbeaches.com/cairns-esplanade.html">infrastructure on the Esplanade</a> which raises awareness of both locals and visitors about the protection of our oceans. </p>
<p>This is only the start. Together academics, local authorities, industry stakeholders and communities can lead the way to resilient cities and healthier oceans.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=266&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249195/original/file-20181206-128208-ixjv4.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cairns Esplanade Lagoon helps raise awareness of the need to protect the ocean as the city grows.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Karine Dupré</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-green-is-our-infrastructure-helping-cities-assess-its-value-for-long-term-liveability-50528">How green is our infrastructure? Helping cities assess its value for long-term liveability</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/107263/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Urbanisation is the main reason for rising temperatures and water pollution, but receives little attention in discussions about the health of water streams, reefs and oceans.
Silvia Tavares, Lecturer in Urban Design, James Cook University
Karine Dupré, Associate Professor in Architecture, Griffith University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/107743
2018-12-03T11:18:23Z
2018-12-03T11:18:23Z
COP24: how a plastics treaty could clean up our oceans
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248107/original/file-20181130-194928-zd5bit.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A necessary sea change.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/spilled-garbage-on-beach-big-city-1086143243?src=PgPrK6OtHiHeOX0jw1mnVg-1-21">Larina Marina/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It seems new action to tackle plastic pollution is announced every week, from the 5p plastic bag charge to governments debating a tax on <a href="https://theconversation.com/tax-plastic-takeaway-boxes-the-scourge-of-the-oceans-87818">plastic packaging</a>. Businesses are also showing their green credentials as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/26/uk-supermarkets-launch-voluntary-pledge-to-cut-plastic-packaging">major supermarkets pledge</a> to reduce plastic packaging alongside some <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-42746911">multinational companies</a>.</p>
<p>With such serious steps, it looks like our problem with plastic will soon be fixed. Before we get too excited though, other recent news stories include billions of dollars being invested in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/dec/26/180bn-investment-in-plastic-factories-feeds-global-packaging-binge">new plastics refineries</a> and plastics being found everywhere, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/27/the-hills-are-alive-with-the-signs-of-plastic-even-swiss-mountains-are-polluted">including in our soil</a>.</p>
<p>It’s estimated that 4.8–12.7m metric tonnes of plastic enters the ocean from <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/347/6223/768">land-based sources annually</a>. That’s everything from toothbrushes to microplastics worn off vehicle tyres. The plastics found in the ocean come from every country in the world and if we are to tackle it we need a worldwide solution. </p>
<p>Like COP24 for climate change, an international summit for plastic pollution could achieve just that.</p>
<h2>Getting the world to recycle</h2>
<p>We do have some international laws that attempt to tackle plastic pollution. The <a href="http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/UNCLOS-TOC.htm">UN Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> contains a commitment to “prevent, reduce and control pollution from land-based sources” which covers plastics. More recently, the <a href="http://marinelitternetwork.engr.uga.edu/global-projects/strategy/">Honolulu Strategy</a> was agreed in 2011 to help tackle marine debris coming from land-based activities. If these commitments were to be fully met then our plastic problem would be vastly reduced.</p>
<p>One issue is that these obligations depend on plastic being recognised as harmful to humans or marine life. Plastic has long been considered a wonder material, which makes modern life possible. Like other “wonderful inventions” such as the <a href="https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/ozone-layer-antarctic-ozone-hole-may-be-completely-healed-within-50-years-un-report/116451">ozone-eating CFCs</a>, it is only as plastic has started to accumulate in the world that we have realised it is a problem.</p>
<p>A second issue is that each country has responded to this problem in different ways. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/28/kenya-brings-in-worlds-toughest-plastic-bag-ban-four-years-jail-or-40000-fine">Kenya</a>, for example, has adopted legislation banning single use plastic bags, while the <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/single-use-plastic-carrier-bags-why-were-introducing-the-charge/carrier-bags-why-theres-a-5p-charge">UK</a> has added a charge to their use. </p>
<p>Current proposals to tackle plastics focus on increasing recycling. It is worth remembering though that only around <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2018/drowning-in-plastic?lang=cy">11% of plastic is currently recycled around the world</a>. If we are to rely on recycling as a means to tackle plastic pollution we need to rapidly increase recycling in almost every country. </p>
<p>An increase in recycling to the extent needed can’t happen overnight. We’d need effective and accessible recycling facilities and public education. Both would need huge investments of time and resources across the world. </p>
<p>A treaty may be one way of coordinating such action and sharing knowledge about how best to improve recycling. Countries already share knowledge about how they meet some treaty obligations through <a href="https://www.cbd.int/reports/">reports to a governing body</a> on climate change, a similar approach could be taken in a plastics treaty.</p>
<h2>Tax and replace</h2>
<p>Another measure being used is taxation. The assumption is that if we make plastics more expensive then either less will be used or alternative materials will replace them. Deposit return schemes are also suggested as a way to “nudge” producer and consumer behaviour. These types of measures do not always, however, <a href="http://www.oecd.org/development/extended-producer-responsibility-9789264256385-en.htm">prompt the desired response</a>. </p>
<p>Sometimes, for example, costs are simply passed on to consumers. It is also difficult to apply these measures in emerging economies which lack the same regulatory bodies and infrastructure to monitor these measures, so other approaches may be needed.</p>
<p>Governments have faced the question of how to tackle a pervasive pollutant produced by all countries before and the answer was to adopt a treaty for a rapid and coordinated response. The best known example is the <a href="http://ozone.unep.org/">Ozone Convention</a> which was adopted in 1985 to reduce chemicals used in refrigeration and aerosols which damaged the ozone layer.</p>
<p>Like subsequent treaties addressing other harmful chemicals, such as the <a href="http://chm.pops.int/">POPs Convention</a>, the Ozone Convention tackled the most harmful first and was designed to enable alternatives to be introduced. Alternatives to harmful plastics do already exist – current plastics are largely derived from oil and so do not easily degrade. </p>
<p>Alternative plastics are being developed <a href="https://www.cuantec.com/science">from prawn shells</a> and from <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/science-environment-45711720/plastics-watch-could-seaweed-replace-plastic-packaging">plants such as seaweed</a> which will degrade more easily.</p>
<h2>Ban the unnecessary, phase out the rest</h2>
<p>World leaders have called for <a href="http://web.unep.org/about/cpr/resolutions-adopted-un-environment-assembly-its-second-session">action on plastics</a>. It’s time to follow through with a “plastics convention”, containing binding commitments to phase out and prevent future plastic pollution.</p>
<p>A plastics convention could ban oil-based plastics in a similar way to the ban on ozone-eating chemicals. Single use bags and straws could be phased out almost immediately under a global treaty, with other plastics addressed over a longer time frame. Those used in medical surgery may take decades to phase out, but support could be provided to industry to develop bioplastics, or other alternatives to plastics.</p>
<p>A treaty could also address gaps in the current law. There is, for example, no provision for cleaning up the plastics already in the ocean. A new treaty could provide for a clean up fund to address these “legacy” plastics.</p>
<p>The fund could be supported through contributions from importers and exporters of plastics, as already happens with importers and exporters of oil who pay into <a href="http://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-on-the-Establishment-of-an-International-Fund-for-Compensation-for-Oil-Pollution-Damage-(FUND).aspx">a fund</a> to address harm from oil spills, or through a tax on oil-based plastics products.</p>
<p>The public are <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/aug/18/uk-public-backs-tough-action-on-plastic-waste-record-numbers-consultation-latte-levy-tax">clearly supportive of action</a> to tackle plastic pollution and alternative materials are being developed that could replace oil-based plastics. A treaty negotiated by the world’s governments would allow us to take coordinated action against oil-based plastics.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/107743/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Kirk does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
While the world gathers to negotiate on climate change, governments must recognise the public desire for action on plastic pollution and work together to solve it.
Elizabeth Kirk, Professor of International Environmental Law, Nottingham Trent University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/106295
2018-11-13T11:46:31Z
2018-11-13T11:46:31Z
The world’s plastic problem is bigger than the ocean
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/243991/original/file-20181105-74787-8tdfn5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plastic floats on and near the surface of the ocean.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://blog.marinedebris.noaa.gov/derelict-fishing-nets-and-pacific-islands">NOAA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As you read this, a strange object that looks like <a href="https://www.sciencefriday.com/segments/to-combat-the-great-garbage-patch-a-great-pool-noodle/">a 2,000-foot floating pool noodle</a> is drifting slowly through the central north Pacific Ocean. This object is designed to solve an enormous environmental problem. But in so doing, it brings attention to a number of others.</p>
<p>There are an estimated <a href="https://www.theoceancleanup.com">five trillion pieces of plastic</a> floating on and in the world’s oceans. The massive pool noodle will move through the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pacific_garbage_patch">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a>, driven by the wind and currents and picking up the plastic it encounters along the way. Ocean Cleanup, the organization that developed the device, promises “<a href="https://www.theoceancleanup.com/">the largest cleanup in history</a>.”</p>
<p><a href="https://www.cnn.com/2018/09/10/health/ocean-cleanup-test-trnd/index.html">If it works</a>, the device – blandly named System 001 – could make a dent in the enormous amount of <a href="https://oceanconservancy.org/trash-free-seas/plastics-in-the-ocean/">ocean-borne plastic</a>. But once that plastic is collected the options are not good. That’s where an <a href="https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/synthetic-age">environmental ethicist like me</a> starts thinking about where this plastic will end up next. The ocean is better off without it, of course, but the plastic problem has many more layers than it first appears.</p>
<h2>The struggle of sorting</h2>
<p>Recycling plastic is only possible if it can be meticulously separated into its various chemical types. What people generally describe with the single word “plastic” encompasses <a href="https://www2.illinois.gov/cms/agency/recycling/i-cycle/Pages/plastics.aspx">seven main types of materials</a> – the ones used to make soda bottles, trash bags, cling wrap, shopping bags, yogurt containers, fishing nets, foam insulation and non-metal parts of many household appliances. Recycling each of these types, which you might know by their acronyms – such as PETE, LDPE, PVC, PP and HDPE – requires a different chemical process.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/244191/original/file-20181106-74757-18q9hru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/244191/original/file-20181106-74757-18q9hru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/244191/original/file-20181106-74757-18q9hru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244191/original/file-20181106-74757-18q9hru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244191/original/file-20181106-74757-18q9hru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=432&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244191/original/file-20181106-74757-18q9hru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244191/original/file-20181106-74757-18q9hru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244191/original/file-20181106-74757-18q9hru.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=543&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sorting materials is one of the most difficult challenges in recycling.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/recyclable-garbage-consisting-glass-savings-plastic-649900345">one photo/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That’s why many household recycling programs ask residents to sort their plastics – and why communities that let people put recyclables of all types into one big bin employ people and machines to sort it after it’s collected. </p>
<p>Sorting won’t be easy with the plastic in the ocean. All the different kinds of plastic are mixed up together, and some of it has been chemically and physically broken down by sunlight and wave action. Much of it is now in tiny pieces called <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-are-guinea-pigs-in-a-worldwide-experiment-on-microplastics-97514">microplastics</a>, suspended just below the surface. The first difficulty, but by no means the last, will be sorting all that plastic – plus seaweed, barnacles and other sea life that may have attached itself to the floating debris.</p>
<h2>Recycling or downcycling?</h2>
<p>Ocean Cleanup is working on how best to reprocess, and brand, the material it collects, hoping that a willing market will emerge for its uniquely sourced product. Even if the company’s engineers and researchers can figure out how to sort it all, there are physical limitations to how useful the collected plastic will be.</p>
<p><a href="https://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2012/01/31/what-happens-to-all-that-plastic">The act of recycling</a> involves grinding up materials into very small pieces before melting and reforming them. An inescapable part of that process is that every time plastic is recycled, its polymers – the long chemical sequences that provide its structure – become shorter.</p>
<p>Generally speaking, lighter and more flexible types of plastic can only be recycled into denser, harder materials – unless large amounts of new virgin plastic are added to the mixture. After one or two rounds of recycling, the <a href="https://earth911.com/business-policy/how-many-times-recycled/">possibilities for reuse become very limited</a>. At that point, the “downcycled” plastic material is formed into textiles, car bumpers or plastic lumber, none of which end up anywhere else but the landfill. The plastic becomes garbage.</p>
<h2>Plastic composting</h2>
<p>What if there were a way to ensure that plastic was genuinely recyclable over the long term? Most bacteria can’t degrade plastics because the polymers contain strong carbon-to-carbon chemical bonds that are <a href="https://www.livescience.com/33085-petroleum-derived-plastic-non-biodegradable.html">different from anything bacteria evolved alongside in nature</a>. Fortunately, after being in the environment with human-discarded plastics for a number of decades, bacteria seem to be evolving to use this synthetic feedstock that pervades modern life. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/244187/original/file-20181106-74766-70qage.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/244187/original/file-20181106-74766-70qage.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/244187/original/file-20181106-74766-70qage.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244187/original/file-20181106-74766-70qage.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244187/original/file-20181106-74766-70qage.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244187/original/file-20181106-74766-70qage.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244187/original/file-20181106-74766-70qage.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/244187/original/file-20181106-74766-70qage.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sea turtles have not yet evolved to eat plastic – but some bacteria have.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/plastic-pollution-problem-sea-turtle-eats-1034150206">Rich Carey/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 2016, a team of biologists and materials scientists found a bacterium that can <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-plastic-munching-bacteria-could-fuel-a-recycling-revolution-55961">eat the particular type of plastic used in beverage bottles</a>. The bacteria turns PET plastic into more basic substances that can be <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-plastic-eating-bacteria-actually-work-a-chemist-explains-95233">remade into virgin plastics</a>. After identifying the key enzyme in the bacteria’s plastic-digestion process, the research team went on to deliberately engineer the enzyme to make it more effective. One scholar said the engineering work has managed to “<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-plastic-eating-bacteria-actually-work-a-chemist-explains-95233">overtake evolution</a>.”</p>
<p>At this point, the breakthroughs are only working in laboratory conditions and only on one of the seven types of plastics. But the idea of going beyond natural evolution is where the ears of an environmental philosopher go on alert.</p>
<h2>Synthetic enzymes and bacteria</h2>
<p>Discovering the plastic-eating bacterium and its enzyme took a lot of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad6359">watching, waiting and testing</a>. Evolution isn’t always quick. The findings suggest the possibility of discovering additional enzymes that work with other plastics. But they also raise the possibility of taking matters into our own hands and designing new enzymes and microbes. </p>
<p>Already, completely artificial proteins coded by synthetically constructed genes are acting like artificial enzymes and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nchembio.2550">catalyzing reactions in cells</a>. One researcher claims “<a href="https://www.princeton.edu/news/2018/01/18/artificial-enzyme-protein-designed-entirely-scratch-functions-cells-life-sustaining">we can develop proteins</a> – that would normally have taken billions of years to evolve – in a matter of months.” In other labs, synthetic genomes built entirely out of bottles of chemicals are now <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad6253">capable of running bacterial cells</a>. Entirely synthetic cells – genomes, metabolic processes, functional cellular structures and all – are thought to be only <a href="http://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-07289-x">a decade away</a>. </p>
<p>This coming era of synthetic biology not only promises to change what organisms can do. It threatens to change what organisms actually are. Bacteria will no longer just be naturally occurring life forms; some, even many, of them will be purpose-built microbes constructed expressly to provide functions useful to humans, such as composting plastic. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt0408-387">border between life and machine will blur</a>. </p>
<p>The plastics polluting the world’s oceans need to be cleaned up. Bringing them back to land would reinforce the fact that even on a global scale, it’s impossible to throw trash “away” – it just goes somewhere else for a time. But people should be very careful about what sort of technological fixes they employ. I cannot help but see the irony of trying to solve the very real problem of too many synthetic materials littering the oceans by introducing to the world trillions of synthetically produced proteins or bacteria to clean them up.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106295/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christopher J. Preston has received funding from The US National Science Foundation, The John Templeton Foundation, and Critical Scientists Switzerland. He is also the author of The Synthetic Age, published by MIT Press, which provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.</span></em></p>
Cleaning up plastic pollution in the ocean is good – and long overdue. But where will the waste go? Recycling isn’t always an option. Bacteria and enzymes could process it, raising new questions.
Christopher J. Preston, Professor of Philosophy, University of Montana
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/90990
2018-02-08T22:41:02Z
2018-02-08T22:41:02Z
An international plastics treaty could avert a ‘Silent Spring’ for our seas
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205569/original/file-20180208-180841-sxk7nf.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A seal trapped in a mat of plastic pollution.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Nels Israelson/Flickr)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Global problems — like our <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0111913">plastic-choked seas</a> — need global solutions.</p>
<p>It was welcome news when <a href="https://ipolitics.ca/2018/01/25/canada-will-push-g7-partners-sign-no-plastics-pledge-save-oceans/">Prime Minister Justin Trudeau announced</a> that Canada will use its year-long G7 presidency to turn the global spotlight on ocean plastics and pollution. </p>
<p>Environment Minister Catherine McKenna has said plastics will be a main theme of June’s summit when leaders from Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and the United States join Trudeau in Charlevoix, Quebec.</p>
<p>But can Canada move these nations to establish enforceable rules?</p>
<p>The G7 has raised the plastics issue before. The Germans launched an action plan to combat marine litter in 2015 and Japan <a href="http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/summit/2016shima/ise-shima-declaration-en.html#resource">reaffirmed the commitment</a> to address the problem in 2016. </p>
<p>During the World Economic Forum meeting in Davos later that year, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/jan/19/more-plastic-than-fish-in-the-sea-by-2050-warns-ellen-macarthur">headlines blared</a> “More Plastic than Fish in the Sea by 2050” after the <a href="https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/publications/the-new-plastics-economy-rethinking-the-future-of-plastics">release of a report</a> on global plastic waste. In 2017, Italy held a workshop on marine litter during its G7 presidency.</p>
<h2>Promises proliferate while plastic waste piles up</h2>
<p>But despite these promises, plastic production and waste <a href="http://wormlab.biology.dal.ca/publication/view/worm-b-et-al-2017-plastic-as-persistent-marine-pollutant/">continues to grow</a>. </p>
<p>Globally, millions of metric tonnes of plastic waste enter the ocean each year. In 2010, for example, between 4.8 million and 12.7 million metric tonnes of plastic hit the water. That’s equivalent to dumping a garbage truck of plastic into marine waters every minute.</p>
<p>Alarmingly, production of single-use plastic, like grocery bags, contributed nearly 40 per cent of total plastic production in 2015. Many end up in our oceans.</p>
<p>Boris Worm, a marine scientist at the Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, has warned that if current trends continue, we’ll face a <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/112/38/11752">new “Silent Spring”</a> of the seas. Today, close to 90 per cent of seabirds have plastics in their guts, similar to the ubiquitous presence of the toxic chemical DDT in the 1960s, the focus of Rachel Carson’s book <em>Silent Spring</em>. </p>
<p>These voluntary international pledges are failing to stem the plastic tide. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=443&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205572/original/file-20180208-180829-1q1zybf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=557&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Controlling plastic pollution on land could limit what ends up in the sea.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Ingrid Taylar/Flickr)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most of the plastic in the sea comes from land. Most of it is not abandoned fishing gear, but plastic bags, milk and water bottles, and consumer goods like flip-flops dumped into waterways and washed out to sea. We’ve recognized this for years — more than 100 countries have <a href="http://web.unep.org/gpa/">endorsed efforts to reduce the impacts of marine litter worldwide</a> since 1995. But that was also a non-binding agreement.</p>
<p>Since then, promises to cut ocean plastics have proliferated, including the 2011 <a href="https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/solutions/honolulu-strategy">Honolulu Strategy</a> and “The Future We Want” <a href="https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/unsystem/index.php?page=view&type=5007&menu=32&nr=81&template=924">agreement</a> at the 2012 Rio+20 conference.</p>
<p>The 2015 <a href="https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg14">Oceans Goal</a>, one of the UN’s 20 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), repeats the target of significant marine pollution reduction. </p>
<p>And last year, the United Nations Environmental Programme launched its “war on plastic” with the <a href="http://www.cleanseas.org/">Clean Seas</a> campaign, which aims to eliminate microplastics in cosmetics and the wasteful usage of single-use plastic by the year 2022.</p>
<h2>Law rules</h2>
<p>What we lack are binding rules for land-based sources of plastic pollution that apply to countries around the world. As the Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL) <a href="http://www.ciel.org/countries-tackle-pollution-source-unea-3/">noted</a>: “Current initiatives to tackle plastic pollution focus on the symptoms but not the root of the problem.”</p>
<p>At home, Trudeau can support the development of a coordinated national strategy to combat plastics pollution, backed up by law.</p>
<p>There’s plenty of evidence that voluntary actions aren’t enough. In 2000, Canada was the first country to act with a <a href="http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/En21-204-2000-1E.pdf">National Plan of Action on land-based sources of marine pollution</a>. But with no legal mechanism to compel action, the national plan to keep plastic pollution from entering the sea has languished. </p>
<p>It would be a step forward even if the G7 only acknowledged the need for binding laws.</p>
<h2>G7 to the rescue?</h2>
<p>Still more can be done. Canada can start a race to the top to see who can put the best laws in place, and who can reap the gains from a new plastic economy. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205573/original/file-20180208-180816-13cvo6i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=620&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Plastic collected from the Pacific Ocean.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Chris Jordan/flickr)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Trudeau can convince his fellow G7 leaders to emulate Canada’s <a href="https://www.ec.gc.ca/lcpe-cepa/eng/regulations/detailReg.cfm?intReg=238">new regulations</a> that prohibit the manufacture, import and sale of personal toiletry products that contain plastic microbeads. The G7 leaders can share their experiences on what’s worked well for them, whether it’s the European Union’s new <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/pdf/plastics-strategy.pdf">Plastics Strategy</a> and legislative initiative on single-use plastics, <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2016/09/19/europe/france-bans-plastic-cups-plates/index.html">France’s ban</a> on plastic cups and plates, or the U.S. initiative called <a href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/756?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22s756%22%5D%7D&r=1">Save Our Seas Act</a>.</p>
<p>Canada could plan a “Plastic-Free Day” during the meeting, or host an ocean plastics art competition at the Charlevoix venue with entries from all G7 nations. It could help to bring industry on side by showcasing promising initiatives like the <a href="https://newplasticseconomy.org/">New Plastics Economy</a>, focused on increasing recapture, reuse and recycling of plastics. And it could screen a heart-wrenching film like <a href="https://bluethefilm.org/">Blue</a> for the world leaders. </p>
<p>A bold step forward would be a G7 agreement to fast-track an international plastics treaty.</p>
<h2>End game: A plastic pollution treaty</h2>
<p>Canada can build on its past leadership on environmental treaties, such as the <a href="https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/canada-celebrates-30th-anniversary-of-the-montreal-protocol-644711343.html">Montreal Protocol</a> that eliminated more than 99 per cent of ozone-depleting substances globally, to tackle marine plastic pollution. </p>
<p>During the G7 presidency, Trudeau can take the lead to initiate an international treaty that sets global reduction targets for the production and consumption of plastics, and regulates their production, consumption, disposal and clean-up.</p>
<p>At the <a href="http://web.unep.org/environmentassembly/">U.N. Environment Assembly</a> in December, nations failed to include any reductions targets or a timetable in their resolution on marine litter and microplastics. They did, however, establish a group to “further examine the barriers to, and options for, combating marine plastic litter and microplastics from all sources, especially land-based sources.” </p>
<p>This group can recommend the formation of a treaty. If the G7 were to endorse this idea, it might get the international treaty-making machinery moving even more quickly.</p>
<p>There are many proposals at hand. </p>
<p>One based on the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X16307096">Montreal Protocol</a> — widely regarded as one of the world’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/saving-the-ozone-layer-why-the-montreal-protocol-worked-9249">most successful</a> environmental agreements — would impose caps on plastics production and trade bans.</p>
<p>Another <a href="https://ensia.com/voices/we-need-a-global-treaty-on-plastics-heres-what-it-should-look-like/">points to the climate treaty</a>, with countries setting a binding plastics goal and then developing national action plans.</p>
<p>Alternatively, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5617320/">others call</a> for an agreement that institutes a waste hierarchy, where plastics are first reduced, then reused, re-purposed and finally recycled, and creates a global fund to help pay for better waste management practices and infrastructure. </p>
<p>But successful treaties need industry involvement — and commitment to change. A recent <a href="http://www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Fueling-Plastics-Plastic-Industry-Awareness-of-the-Ocean-Plastics-Problem.pdf">CIEL report</a> traces industry awareness of the ocean plastics problem back to the 1970s. There is no time for the kind of industry denial we’ve seen regarding climate change. </p>
<p>It’s an opportune time for Canada to use its G7 leadership to avert another Silent Spring and begin tackling the problem of plastics in the oceans.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90990/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span> Linda Nowlan receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, and Oceans5, a a sponsored project of Rockefeller Philanthropy Advisors, Inc. She works for West Coast Environmental Law. </span></em></p>
Millions of tonnes of plastic garbage winds up in our oceans each year. Voluntary pledges haven’t worked. It’s time for Canada to advocate for an international plastics treaty.
Linda Nowlan, Adjunct Professor, Allard School of Law, University of British Columbia
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/89519
2017-12-22T14:02:06Z
2017-12-22T14:02:06Z
Five things to consider about glitter this Christmas
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200465/original/file-20171222-16518-11kdf8g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Glitter – it gets everywhere.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pixabay.com/en/sparkles-glow-blacklight-glowing-1989955/">heyerlein</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Does glitter bring to mind the prospect of shiny, sparkly, Christmassy, harmless fun? I’m afraid it is a bit more complicated than that. The popularity of glitter and the sheer volume used at Christmas presents us with a growing problem. Here are five reasons to rethink your glitter habit.</p>
<h2>1. All that glitters is … plastic</h2>
<p>Millions of items are adorned with glitter, from baubles to wrapping paper. Christmas is not Christmas without sparkly accessories and flamboyant decorations, but is it really? Modern glitter originated in 1934, when an American farmer named Henry Ruschmann created a way of cutting mylar and plastic sheets into tiny shapes. He formed <a href="https://meadowbrookglitter.com/">Meadowbrook Inventions</a>, which today is still one of the main global suppliers of glitter. </p>
<p>The majority of commercial products that contain glitter, whether these are single use items, such as Christmas cards, or more permanent items such as Christmas tree decorations, use inorganic glitter – chiefly plastics such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and also polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Glitter is usually <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037907381100048X">layered with other materials</a>, such as aluminium to provide extra sparkle. Underneath the microscope, it is possible to see the <a href="http://projects.nfstc.org/trace/docs/final/Blackledge_Glitter.pdf">huge variation of glitter shapes and sizes</a>: hexagons, squares, rectangles and even hearts and stars ranging from 6.25mm to a truly tiny 0.05mm.</p>
<h2>2. Glitter is not fabulous (for marine life)</h2>
<p>Most people now understand that microplastics, such as fibres from clothes or microbeads in facial scrubs, are <a href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es802970v">dangerous to sea life</a>. Glitter is a microplastic too, classed as a <a href="https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2017-002.pdf">primary type of microplastic</a> as the particles are less than 5mm in size and have been purposely manufactured to be of microscopic size. </p>
<p>Glitter can <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135417308400#bib2">enter seas and oceans from rivers</a>, via wastewater from our homes and via run-off from landfill sites. Although many microplastics are removed at wastewater treatment plants, a huge amount of microplastics still find their way through to the oceans. The size of these particles means they are easily consumed by small marine organisms, who <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18949831">cannot discriminate between particles of food and plastic</a>. </p>
<p>Microplastic particles attract inorganic and organic chemicals to adhere to them, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653517311724">PCB’s</a>, which have been <a href="https://www.epa.gov/pcbs/learn-about-polychlorinated-biphenyls-pcbs">banned since 1979</a>) and toxic <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027277141530158X">heavy metals</a>. A big risk to wildlife comes from the <a href="http://www.globalwaterresearchcoalition.net/_r2619/media/system/attrib/file/706/Microplastics%20White%20Paper%20CEC7R17%20web%20%28002%29.pdf">bioaccumulation of these toxins</a> in the food chain – as recently highlighted in the final episode of the BBC’s <a href="http://www.radiotimes.com/news/tv/2017-12-11/blue-planet-2-plastic-waste-final-episode/">Blue Planet II television programme</a> on Earth’s oceans, which showed how young dolphins have been found dead, possibly killed by toxins accumulated in their mother’s milk.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200466/original/file-20171222-16483-1eagrbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200466/original/file-20171222-16483-1eagrbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200466/original/file-20171222-16483-1eagrbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200466/original/file-20171222-16483-1eagrbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200466/original/file-20171222-16483-1eagrbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200466/original/file-20171222-16483-1eagrbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200466/original/file-20171222-16483-1eagrbw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Microplastics are a menace to the planet’s ocean life.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/oregonstateuniversity/21282786668">oregonstateuniversity</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>3. Glitter is not just for Christmas</h2>
<p>Microplastics break down under UV light which <a href="https://www.osapublishing.org/as/abstract.cfm?uri=as-19-5-141">changes the structure of the plastic</a>, by the mechanical action of water and by <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07388550500346359?journalCode=ibty20">microbes</a>. Some plastics such as PVC contain plasticisers, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X11005133">which can extend the degradation time of plastic</a>. Given that plastics already may take hundreds, possibly even thousands of years to decompose, this is a concern. Glitter, like any other plastic, will degrade in the marine environment into further smaller pieces, called <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/environment/marine/good-environmental-status/descriptor-10/pdf/GESAMP_microplastics%20full%20study.pdf">secondary sources of microplastic</a>, but while it may grace your Christmas card only for a few weeks, it will hang around for much longer.</p>
<h2>4. Glitter is hard to dispose of</h2>
<p>Knowing the problems posed by glitter, you may be wondering what now to do with it all. This is a difficult question to answer, as whichever way you dispose of it there is a chance it will end up in the oceans. Most importantly, do not wash glitter down the sink. Instead, try reusing the glitter (or item adorned with it) for a future festive project. This still does not eliminate the risk, merely potentially prolonging the moment it enters the ocean. So what to do? </p>
<p>Where possible try not to buy cards or paper that features glitter, or make-up containing glitter particles. Nurseries in Dorset have already <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-42023245">banned the use of glitter</a> – could you do without it too? Ultimately, the only way to prevent this type of plastic adding to the global microplastic problem is to get rid of it completely, and opt for an eco-friendly alternative.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200462/original/file-20171222-16486-15v7n82.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200462/original/file-20171222-16486-15v7n82.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/200462/original/file-20171222-16486-15v7n82.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=213&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200462/original/file-20171222-16486-15v7n82.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=213&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200462/original/file-20171222-16486-15v7n82.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=213&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200462/original/file-20171222-16486-15v7n82.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=268&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200462/original/file-20171222-16486-15v7n82.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=268&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/200462/original/file-20171222-16486-15v7n82.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=268&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Google Trends data shows growing interest in searches for ‘biodegradable glitter’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Google</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>5. There are guilt-free glitter alternatives</h2>
<p>In line with the 2017 <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/banning-the-use-of-microbeads-in-cosmetics-and-personal-care-products">ban on microbeads in toiletries</a>, there have recently been calls <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/glitter-ban-environment-microbead-impact-microplastics-scientists-warning-deep-ocean-a8056196.html">to ban glitter.</a>. This has been met with some resistance and accusations that this represents scientists “<a href="http://www.smh.com.au/environment/ban-the-glitter-scientists-calling-for-an-end-to-microplastics-20171202-gzxek1.html">wanting to take the sparkle out of life</a>”. But we don’t have to go all the way from bling to bland.</p>
<p>Just as manufacturers of facial scrubs are looking at using natural exfoliating materials, such as apricot or walnut husks, glitter manufacturers have now started producing biodegradable glitter, available from many online stores (such as <a href="https://glitterevolution.com/">Glitterevolution</a> and <a href="https://www.ecoglitterfun.com/">Ecoglitterfun</a>). Biodegradable glitter is made from the cellulose of plants, such as the eucalyptus tree, grown on land unsuitable for food crops using <a href="http://www.lenzing.com/sites/botanicprinciples/website/sustainability03.htm">sustainable forestry initiatives that require little water</a>. On top of that, it is also compostable – truly an eco-glitter.</p>
<p>Even the company where modern glitter was born is getting environmentally friendly: Meadowbrook Inventions also now supplies <a href="https://meadowbrookglitter.com/biodegradable-glitter/">biodegradable glitter</a>, which means that with such a major supplier on board, there is hope for sparkly yet environmentally friendly Christmases in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89519/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Claire Gwinnett is affiliated with the UK Microplastics Network. </span></em></p>
Once unleashed, glitter gets everywhere – not just in your house, but into the environment. Time to call a halt to the glitter explosion.
Claire Gwinnett, Associate Professor in Forensic and Crime Science, Staffordshire University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/87818
2017-11-22T10:44:01Z
2017-11-22T10:44:01Z
Tax plastic takeaway boxes: the scourge of the oceans
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195669/original/file-20171121-6051-ff4030.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/water-pollution-plastic-foam-garbage-floating-488228482">Shutterstock/wk1003mike</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>That takeaway box that was in your hands for 10 minutes on Friday night could be in the ocean forever. Single use plastics are a real concern for the planet. The use and throwaway nature of items such as food packaging and drinks bottles means that millions of tons of plastic waste are created. Unfortunately, much of this can enter waterways and oceans. </p>
<p>This week, the UK Government will discuss the possibility of introducing <a href="http://resource.co/article/uk-consider-tax-single-use-plastics-tackle-marine-plastic-pollution-12250">taxes on single-use plastic items</a>, such as bottles and takeaway containers, to try to reduce the amount of plastic pollution entering the oceans. This follows the successful introduction of the 5p plastic bag initiative in 2015 which <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/single-use-plastic-carrier-bags-why-were-introducing-the-charge/carrier-bags-why-theres-a-5p-charge">reduced plastic bag use by 80%</a>. This taxation on single-use plastics could be a major step towards improving the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/qanda-a-plastic-ocean-can-a-movie-help-us-see-this-invisible-crisis-56691">plastic ocean</a>” which humans have created.</p>
<p>Studies showing <a href="https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/what-we-know-about-entanglement-and-ingestion">entangled turtles</a>, sea birds with <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0025326X9400121O">stomachs full of plastic pieces</a> and can holders <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X87800206">cutting into the flesh of seals</a> are shocking and clearly show the effect of plastics on marine life – but it doesn’t stop there.</p>
<p>So, let’s imagine your Friday night takeaway box for a moment. If you are a careful consumer, you will have checked to see if it’s recyclable before throwing it in the bin. Unfortunately, many containers are not recyclable. Even some of those that are may be thrown into general waste if they have food residue on them that can’t be rinsed off. And how many people carry round washing-up liquid and a sponge on a Friday night anyway? </p>
<p>The excess of these containers enters the waste system due to the extreme amounts entering our waterways from land or <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X87800164">through drainage systems</a>. A study by the <a href="http://rozaliaproject.org/">Rozalia Project</a> that monitored storm drains in Boston Harbour found that a plastic item was released into the water <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5DhpxpBye_I&list=PLsRNoUx8w3rP2AXhPk27cE0Dx8kHznLwz&index=10">every three seconds</a>.</p>
<p>Now imagine that takeaway box has made its way to sea via urban waterways, moving with the currents until it reaches the deep ocean. At this stage, your takeaway box is a <a href="http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1526/1999?ijkey=f90ba21cdfe9506bf58cd03899f1c26b9a936f05&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha#sec-1">megaplastic</a> (items of plastic bigger that 10cm in size that stay intact for a long time). These plastics have been made to resist age and not break down easily. They can move around the planet, enter <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/great-pacific-garbage-patch/">huge floating garbage patches</a>, reach <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2131051-remote-pacific-island-found-buried-under-tonnes-of-plastic-waste/">far flung beaches</a> and become <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X01000583">buried in sand and sediment</a>.</p>
<h2>Degradation and sea pollution</h2>
<p>But these takeaway boxes and bottles don’t just stay as they were when we were using them. These containers slowly <a href="https://marinedebris.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/Lippiatt%20et%20al%202013.pdf">degrade and break down</a> into macroplastics (2.5cm to 10cm), mesoplastics (5mm to 2.5cm), microplastics (smaller than 5mm) and sometimes even into nano particles (smaller than a micrometre, the equivalent of around 1/70th of the width of an average human hair). Depending on the size of your takeaway box, this can mean one box is turned into millions of pieces. </p>
<p>To get to this size, your takeaway box has been exposed to the sun, where <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653508008333">UV degradation</a> occurs. The pounding action of the waves, which causes mechanical damage, helps to fragment the plastic. Your takeaway box also becomes a home for many microbes which cause <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969717311579">biodegradation</a> of the plastic. As the plastic particles become less buoyant and covered in microorganisms, your takeaway box will sink, <a href="http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1526/1985">disappearing from the ocean surface</a> into the depths. So, is this the last we see of your takeaway box? Unfortunately, no.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195672/original/file-20171121-6035-10vl9o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/195672/original/file-20171121-6035-10vl9o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195672/original/file-20171121-6035-10vl9o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195672/original/file-20171121-6035-10vl9o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195672/original/file-20171121-6035-10vl9o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195672/original/file-20171121-6035-10vl9o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/195672/original/file-20171121-6035-10vl9o8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Plastic sea pollution.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/plastic-sea-pollution-save-planet-410688712">Shutterstock/olenalavrova</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At this stage, the box may be at its most dangerous. Now, these many individual pieces can be eaten by marine life large and small, even those in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep33997">deepest depths of the ocean</a>. These microplastics have large surface area to volume ratios, which mean that they concentrate <a href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es0010498%E2%80%8Bhttp://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1526/1985">chemical toxins</a> on their surfaces that then can transfer to the animals that eat them. This ingestion has been seen in multiple marine organisms and has led to a debate over whether these can lead to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27145606">ecological effects</a> both to the organism and any humans who consume them.</p>
<p>What we do know, is that we need more research into how plastics degrade in the ocean and where they end up to fully understand what effect they may have on marine life. </p>
<p>So how much do you really care that your Friday night takeaway is being served in a plastic tray? Would it taste different if it was in a recycled cardboard container or even something as hipster as a bamboo tray? However you feel about this, without some action, you actually might end up eating your discarded takeaway box at some point in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87818/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Claire Gwinnett is affiliated with the UK Microplastics Network.</span></em></p>
Taxing plastic takeaway boxes will help to reduce the massive amount of plastic which is dumped into the oceans.
Claire Gwinnett, Associate Professor in Forensic and Crime Science, Staffordshire University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/86157
2017-10-27T15:43:53Z
2017-10-27T15:43:53Z
Blue Planet academic consultants: the message humanity cannot afford to ignore
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192245/original/file-20171027-13298-1uj7qns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.bbcpictures.co.uk/">BBC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As expected, the first episode of Sir <a href="https://www.biography.com/people/david-attenborough">David Attenborough’s</a> <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p04tjbtx">Blue Planet II</a> has been greeted with rapturous applause. But alongside the gasps of delight at the beauty of the natural world, the programme came with an urgent message for viewers which we can no longer afford to ignore.</p>
<p>Produced by the BBC’s <a href="https://www.bbcstudios.com/teams/the-natural-history-unit/">Natural History Unit</a> in partnership with the <a href="http://www.open.ac.uk/about/main/">Open University</a>, and narrated by the world’s favourite natural historian, the series revisits The Blue Planet after a gap of 16 years.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192250/original/file-20171027-13355-8drj6g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192250/original/file-20171027-13355-8drj6g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=654&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192250/original/file-20171027-13355-8drj6g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=654&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192250/original/file-20171027-13355-8drj6g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=654&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192250/original/file-20171027-13355-8drj6g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=821&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192250/original/file-20171027-13355-8drj6g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=821&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192250/original/file-20171027-13355-8drj6g.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=821&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Natural historian Sir David Attenborough, the 91-year-old presenter of Blue Planet II.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.bbcpictures.co.uk/">BBC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The series does what the BBC’s Natural History Unit does best – films the natural world in a fresh and compelling way using the latest technology. Blue Planet II allows the audience to get up close and personal to an array of extraordinary creatures that depend on and harness Earth’s vast oceans for their survival.</p>
<p>From the depths of the abyss where sunlight is absent and the pressure immense, to the wild rapidly changing coast, viewers are introduced to a variety of habitats and privy to remarkable behaviours, some of which have never been filmed before.</p>
<h2>An ocean-going journey</h2>
<p>The series is based around five ocean habitats, exploring the world of the animals that live there and the threats they face. There are many filming firsts: the ingenious tusk fish which uses rocks as an anvil to smash clam shells; co-operative hunting between bottlenose dolphins and <a href="http://www.whalefacts.org/false-killer-whale-facts/">false killer whales</a>; as well as a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/shortcuts/2017/oct/23/giant-trevally-blue-planet-david-attenborough-ocean-wildlife">giant trevally</a> fish that hunts terns by plucking them out of the air. All that and sealions hunting as a co-ordinated pack, driving 60kg tuna into the shallows; as well as coral grouper and reef octopus hunting together and communicating using gestures – a behaviour usually associated with apes.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/-pdlqV4fo68?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">BBC/YouTube.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There are also behaviours that are new to science, such as an octopus that covers itself with shells to create a suit of armour to deter predators and female cuttlefish that flash a white stripe to indicate to amorous males an unwillingness to mate. Some of these uncovered behaviours demonstrate an intelligence that has been vastly underestimated. </p>
<p>As academic consultants on the series, we were captivated by the footage that leads viewers into this largely unexplored world from the perspective of the creatures that live there, capturing fascinating behaviour in exquisite detail.</p>
<p>But working on it also made us acutely aware how much humans and the planet stand to lose if we fail to recognise and acknowledge the negative impact we are having on the oceans. And it is this awareness which makes the timing of Blue Planet II so important. By revealing the awe-inspiring nature of the oceans in a way the audience can connect with emotionally, Blue Planet II raises critical awareness of the immediate threats facing our oceans and underscores what we stand to lose by ignoring them. </p>
<h2>The cost of global warming and pollution</h2>
<p>Scientific research now overwhelmingly demonstrates that the ocean is changing. Sea surface temperatures have <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/v6/n4/full/nclimate2915.html">increased</a>, levels of dissolved oxygen are <a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v542/n7641/full/nature21399.html">declining</a>, sea water has become <a href="https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What+is+Ocean+Acidification%3F">more acidic</a> and food supplies have <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2010/07/critical-ocean-organisms-are-disappearing">declined</a>. The consequences are uncertain in their details but the rapidity and breadth of changes means that they will be profound.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192252/original/file-20171027-13311-6knmqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192252/original/file-20171027-13311-6knmqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192252/original/file-20171027-13311-6knmqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192252/original/file-20171027-13311-6knmqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192252/original/file-20171027-13311-6knmqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192252/original/file-20171027-13311-6knmqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192252/original/file-20171027-13311-6knmqb.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The twin evils of pollution and global warming threaten the delicate balance of our oceans, which will have profound consequences for sea creatures and their habitats.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.bbcpictures.co.uk/">BBC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Recent <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms14682">research</a> suggests that more than half the world’s oceans could suffer these multiple effects of rising carbon dioxide level over the next 15 years. By mid-century it is possible that more than 80% of oceans could be affected, forcing its inhabitants to migrate, adapt, or in some cases, face extinction.</p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192282/original/file-20171027-13309-ppzkd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/192282/original/file-20171027-13309-ppzkd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192282/original/file-20171027-13309-ppzkd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192282/original/file-20171027-13309-ppzkd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192282/original/file-20171027-13309-ppzkd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192282/original/file-20171027-13309-ppzkd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/192282/original/file-20171027-13309-ppzkd7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=547&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coral bleaching has afflicted two-thirds of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.bbcpictures.co.uk/">BBC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s happening already. Huge swaths of coral reefs around the world have <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html">bleached</a> in recent years, and two-thirds of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is <a href="https://theconversation.com/great-barrier-reef-disaster-is-the-latest-harbinger-of-a-global-mass-extinction-57327">affected</a> by coral bleaching. Seagrass meadows, kelp beds and mangrove forests are some of the most productive habitats on earth, storing vast amounts of carbon – but are also some of the most threatened. In 2015 and 2016 the worst instance of <a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-weather-likely-behind-worst-recorded-mangrove-dieback-in-northern-australia-71880">mangrove forest die-off</a> ever recorded occurred off the Australian coast.</p>
<p>And that is not all. The oceans are facing a major threat from pollution – by 2050 it is <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/by-2050-there-ll-be-more-plastic-than-fish-in-our-oceans">predicted</a> that without significant action there will be more plastic in the oceans than fish. It is estimated that between 4-12m metric tons of plastic makes its way into the oceans each year.</p>
<p>Nearly 700 marine species have been found entangled in plastic, and an increasing number – from microscopic plankton to whales – ingest it, compromising their ability to digest food, maintain body condition and give birth to healthy young. Persistent organic pollutants have been <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-we-discovered-pollution-poisoned-crustaceans-in-the-mariana-trench-72900">found</a> 10km down in the <a href="http://www.marianatrench.com/">Mariana trench</a>, and are ingested by organisms that live there.</p>
<p>This is the more serious message that the series addresses alongside its spellbinding footage, particularly in the final episode that explores the struggle many species experience in the face of environmental change caused by humans.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/AZrCX52UsjE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">BBC/YouTube.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But, there is also a message of hope. Now we understand more fully the consequences of our actions we can act to stop or at least slow them. Some of the initiatives aimed at mitigating the damage humans have inflicted are highlighted in the final episode.</p>
<p>For example, overfishing in the 1950s resulted in the collapse of Norway’s herring stock, but better regulation and scientific monitoring has led to a spectacular recovery in numbers. Today, there is enough herring for both humans and the hundreds of humpback whales and orcas that feed on them. Ultimately though, keeping our oceans healthy and functioning properly will require bold leadership, motivation and coordinated effort on a global scale. </p>
<p>As Sir David Attenborough succinctly puts it: “For the first time in 500m years, one species has the future in its hands.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86157/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors would like to acknowledge Dr Pallavi Anand and Dr Mark Brandon of the The Open University, who also served as academic consultants on Blue Planet II.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Philip Sexton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Besides wondrous creatures, new discoveries and spectacular filming, Sir David Attenborough’s follow up to The Blue Planet comes with a stark warning about the future
Miranda Dyson, Senior Lecturer in Biology, The Open University
Philip Sexton, Senior Lecturer in Earth Sciences, The Open University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/83261
2017-09-01T10:44:32Z
2017-09-01T10:44:32Z
Your sunscreen may be polluting the ocean – but algae could offer a natural alternative
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184179/original/file-20170831-22607-pji8qb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>An estimated <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00244-015-0227-7">6,000-14,000 tons of sunscreen</a> are deposited into coral reef areas of the sea every year. The chemicals we rub onto our skin might help prevent skin cancer but we’re only just beginning to understand the environmental impact of sunscreen – and the initial assessments are not looking good. But early stage research suggests that nature might provide a solution to this emerging problem if we can mimic the way that some plants and animals protect themselves from the sun.</p>
<p>Sunscreen is vital to helping prevent skin damage from ultraviolet radiation (UVR) that can cause melanoma and other skin cancers. They contain a number of ingredients that act as UVR filters, absorbing and scattering the radiation and stopping it from reaching the skin. Many studies have demonstrated the benefits of regular sunscreen use, including long-term studies in Australia that have shown <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24417448">reduced skin cancer rates.</a>.</p>
<p>The potential problem is that many ingredients used in sunscreen products are synthetic organic molecules, like those used to make plastics. These molecules are designed to be highly stable and so they don’t break down when they enter the environment. As a result, sunscreen ingredients are detectable in species including fish, <a href="http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es400675y">sea mammals such as dolphins</a> and even marine dwelling birds.</p>
<p>The impact of these molecules on the environment isn’t fully understood but is a growing focus of research. We know that some filters have a similar structure to the hormone oestrogen and mimic can its action. This can <a href="http://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/scs/chimia/2008/00000062/00000005/art00011">cause hormonal changes</a> and even alter the sex characteristics of some fish. UVR filters have also been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2291018/">linked to coral bleaching</a>. </p>
<p>These concerns are being monitored by many regulatory agencies. <a href="https://echa.europa.eu/information-on-chemicals/evaluation/community-rolling-action-plan/corap-table">The European Chemicals Agency has listed</a> eight out of the 16 most commonly used sunscreens in Europe as a potential threat to the environment and health, raising the ultimate possibility of a ban. Fears about damage to coral reef systems has already led to bans of particular sunscreen ingredients in some coral hotspots <a href="https://www.nature.com/news/hawaii-seeks-to-ban-reef-unfriendly-sunscreen-1.21332">such as Hawaii</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184181/original/file-20170831-22597-xs59i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184181/original/file-20170831-22597-xs59i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184181/original/file-20170831-22597-xs59i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184181/original/file-20170831-22597-xs59i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184181/original/file-20170831-22597-xs59i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184181/original/file-20170831-22597-xs59i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/184181/original/file-20170831-22597-xs59i7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coral bleaching.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These fears are currently relatively minor – but ways to improve the safety and biocompatibility of sunscreens need to be investigated. As is often the way, the answer may lie within the very environment that is being affected. Many marine species are continuously exposed to high levels of UVR throughout the day and have evolved efficient ways to prevent damage.</p>
<p>For example, microorganism species such as cyanobacteria and algae produce a group of compounds called <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11826269">mycosporine-like amino acids (MAA)</a>, which act as UVR filters. These are passed up the food chain to animals such as corals, invertebrates and fish, which then store the compounds in tissues exposed to UVR such as the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Ultraviolet+radiation-absorbing+mycosporine-like+amino+acids+(MAAs)+are+acquired+from+their+diet+by+medaka+fish+(Oryzias+latipes)+but+not+by+SKH-1+hairless+mice">skin, eyes and eggs</a>. MAA efficiently absorb UVR and convert it to harmless light and heat, and aren’t broken down by the radiation. </p>
<p>There is also evidence that these compounds can act as <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4665425/">potent antioxidants</a>, another very beneficial property that most synthetic filters don’t have. Solar radiation can cause highly reactive atoms or molecules, known as free radicals, to break away from other bigger molecules. Free radicals can cause what is known as <a href="https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Oxidative-Stress.aspx">oxidative damage</a> to tissues, but they can be neutralised by antioxidants</p>
<p>The potential for these compounds to be applied to human health, particularly as sunscreens, is only just <a href="http://www.eurekaselect.com/152756/article">beginning to be explored</a>. They have shown excellent potential in laboratory models. The next step is to translate this to human studies to truly understand their potential.</p>
<p>In the meantime, it’s very important for public health that people don’t stop using synthetic sunscreens. So far, there is only limited evidence for the potential ecological harm of sunscreens, especially at the concentrations at which UVR filters are found in the environment. But the effects of UVR on the skin are well known and proven beyond any doubt.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83261/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karl Lawrence's PhD studentship was funded by a sunscreen manufacturer.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Antony Young receives funding from MRC, British Skin Foundation, NIHR and sunscreen manufacturers. </span></em></p>
Sun cream ingredients have been linked to hormonal changes in fish and coral bleaching.
Karl Lawrence, PhD Candidate in Photobiology, King's College London
Antony Young, Professor of Experimental Photobiology, King's College London
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.