tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/rural-4174/articlesRural – The Conversation2024-03-15T12:09:55Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256382024-03-15T12:09:55Z2024-03-15T12:09:55ZHow meth became an epidemic in America, and what’s happening now that it’s faded from the headlines<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582056/original/file-20240314-20-ipf1yd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=163%2C92%2C4570%2C3009&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Police detectives sort through evidence after raiding a suspected meth lab. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/UrbanMeth/62442edc986247c08ccfff109e7b07e0/photo?Query=meth%20AND%20rural&mediaType=photo&sortBy=creationdatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=7&currentItemNo=6">AP Photo/Jeff Roberson</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Rural America has long suffered from an <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-hes-not-on-drugs-hes-a-good-person-one-communitys-story-of-meth-use-and-domestic-violence-176069">epidemic of methamphetamine use</a>, which accounts for <a href="https://news.illinois.edu/view/6367/548454463">thousands of drug overdoses and deaths every year</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>William Garriott, an anthropologist at Drake University, explored meth’s impact on communities and everyday life in the U.S. in his 2011 book “<a href="https://nyupress.org/9780814732403/policing-methamphetamine/">Policing Methamphetamine: Narcopolitics in Rural America</a>.” Since then, the problem has only gotten worse.</em></p>
<p><em>The rural news site <a href="https://dailyyonder.com">the Daily Yonder</a> spoke with Garriott about what has been driving the <a href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/trends-us-methamphetamine-use-associated-deaths">surge in meth use in recent decades</a> and what prompted him to focus on meth in his work. The Conversation has collaborated with The Daily Yonder to share the interview with you.</em></p>
<p><strong>How’d you get interested in methamphetamine as an academic subject?</strong></p>
<p>When I started my Ph.D in anthropology in 2003, I knew I wanted to focus on the Appalachian region of the United States. At the time, I was curious about religious life in the region and its contribution to the growth of Pentecostalism and evangelicalism around the world.</p>
<p>But I had also just taken a course with medical anthropologist Arthur Kleinman. He says that we should seek to understand “<a href="https://tannerlectures.utah.edu/_resources/documents/a-to-z/k/Kleinman99.pdf">what’s at stake</a>” or “<a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/what-really-matters-9780195331325?cc=us&lang=en&">what really matters</a>” for people in their everyday lives.</p>
<p>And what really mattered to people in places like eastern Kentucky at the time was drugs. We now know we were at the beginning of the opioid epidemic. OxyContin was already taking a toll on local communities, and there was little national concern because it was seen as an isolated regional problem (the derogatory term “hillbilly heroin” was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/jun/25/usa.julianborger">getting thrown around a lot</a> at the time).</p>
<p>When I started my dissertation research, methamphetamine had become the primary concern, both regionally and nationally. When the <a href="https://www.justice.gov/archive/ll/highlights.htm#%22%22">Patriot Act</a> was reauthorized in 2005, the only significant addition was anti-meth legislation called the <a href="https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/meth/cma2005.html">Combat Meth Epidemic Act</a>.</p>
<p><strong>In what sense was the meth surge of the ’90s and early 2000s a rural phenomenon?</strong></p>
<p>Lots of ways. The internet gave people access to meth recipes, and meth cooks tended to be located in rural areas. It was easier to hide and access key ingredients like <a href="https://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs13/13853/product.htm">anhydrous ammonia</a>. In fact, the number of meth labs grew so quickly that huge swaths of the rural U.S. were labeled <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5816/anthropologynow.5.1.0027">High Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas</a> – something that had only been applied to cities like New York and Los Angeles before.</p>
<p>The rural economy was also changing. Jobs weren’t paying as well or were going away altogether. Meth found a niche as a kind of performance enhancement drug for people working long hours at physically demanding jobs – something <a href="https://nyupress.org/9780814732403/policing-methamphetamine/">I saw</a> in the poultry industry in West Virginia, journalist <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/methland-9781608192076/">Nick Reding</a> found in the pork industry in Iowa, and anthropologist <a href="https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/the-alchemy-of-meth">Jason Pine</a> found in general in Missouri. Eventually some folks just left these jobs to work in the meth economy full time.</p>
<p>I think it’s also important to mention how meth was being portrayed in national media as the drug of choice for <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29733233/">poor white people</a>. From there, it doesn’t take much to connect it to rural communities, given how those communities are often thought of as predominantly white and poor in the public imagination.</p>
<p>Anti-meth programs like the <a href="https://montanameth.org/">Montana Meth Project</a> and <a href="https://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/2004/12/the_faces_of_meth.html">Faces of Meth</a> played a big part in this. They were very visual campaigns that focused on the damage meth does to the body. All of the people they pictured appeared to be white. They had sores, scars and sunken eyes. They also were often missing teeth. All of that invokes a lot of stereotypes. Sociologists Travis Linnemann and Tyler Wall have a great <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1362480612468934">journal article on this</a>.</p>
<p>With all of that said, it is important to keep in mind that meth is just as much an urban and suburban problem as a rural one, particularly now. Sociologist <a href="https://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/women-on-ice/9780813554594/">Miriam Boeri</a> has made this point really clearly. Also, something to keep in mind about Faces of Meth: It was created by a jail deputy in Oregon who used mugshots of people booked into the county jail. The jail is in Portland, so the folks featured probably weren’t living in rural communities at the time.</p>
<p><strong>Your book was called “Policing Methamphetamine.” I’m curious – what made you zero in on that element of meth culture, its policing?</strong></p>
<p>When I began my research, I thought my focus would be on the treatment experiences of people who use methamphetamine. But what I quickly found was that those experiences couldn’t be understood outside of the criminal justice system. Many people only got treatment after an arrest, and often as a condition of probation. One officer told me that people came up to him on the street and asked to be taken to jail so they could stop using drugs. Community members also often channeled their concerns into calls for increased enforcement.</p>
<p>In retrospect, none of this should have been surprising. U.S. drug policy has long focused on <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/war-on-drugs">enforcement</a>. This puts police and the criminal justice system on the front lines whenever and wherever a new drug problem emerges. There is no exception to this dynamic for rural communities. What’s more, the justice system is likely to be the most visible and well-resourced state institution in the community (which is not to say it is sufficiently resourced).</p>
<p><strong>What are the questions you still have about meth in American life?</strong></p>
<p>Today, the most pressing question from my perspective is how meth and opioids are converging. One of the more unfortunate developments is that people have started <a href="https://www.health.state.mn.us/communities/opioids/basics/intravenous.html">injecting meth</a>. There is also the broad contamination of the drug supply with fentanyl.</p>
<p>All of this creates additional public health challenges, particularly in rural communities.</p>
<p>Something else I’m thinking about a lot is what happens when drugs like meth stop making headlines and get replaced by the next drug scourge. Today, people are much more likely to <a href="https://www.texastribune.org/2023/06/19/texas-fentanyl-drugs/">talk about fentanyl than meth</a>. This is understandable given the overdose risks, as well as the way news media works. But what are the consequences of this for the communities where meth is still a major concern?</p>
<p>Bigger picture, I’m thinking about meth in the broader context of U.S. drug policy. My next book is about marijuana legalization and justice reform. It’s been interesting because the conversation around cannabis is so different from the conversation around meth. One of the big questions I have is if the kinds of reforms that are following cannabis legalization will do anything to change the conversation around the broader punitive approach to drugs. <a href="https://www.opb.org/article/2024/03/04/oregon-drug-misdemeanor-new-convictions-arrests/">The debate happening right now in Oregon over Measure 110</a> is something I’m watching very closely. It’s a major test case for whether or not a different, less punitive approach to drugs is possible.</p>
<p><em><a href="https://dailyyonder.com">The Daily Yonder</a> provides news, commentary and analysis about and for rural America. The interview accompanies a five-part series on its <a href="https://open.spotify.com/show/41tCRxV4af8cl7CuJi6NsN?si=868e20efc47142e4">Rural Remix podcast</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225638/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Will Garriott received funding for his meth research from the National Science Foundation. His current work on marijuana legalization and cannabis policy reform has been funded by the Wenner Gren Foundation, Drake University, and the Center for the Humanities at Drake University.
</span></em></p>An anthropologist who wrote a book exploring meth’s impact on rural communities explains what drove the epidemic and how it’s changed.William Garriott, Professor of Law, Politics, and Society, Drake UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2128882023-09-11T15:42:18Z2023-09-11T15:42:18ZWhy your perception of climate change threats might depend on where you live – new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546887/original/file-20230907-18-wk7k8j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3199%2C2217&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">People's perceptions of the threat of climate change vary according to where they live.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/road-closed-sign-flooded-street-york-120960130">JaneHYork/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our planet has just seen its <a href="https://theconversation.com/july-was-earths-hottest-month-on-record-4-factors-driving-2023s-extreme-heat-and-climate-disasters-209975">hottest month</a> on record, with many places on fire or flooded. Few events can be directly attributed to climate change, but the likelihood of extreme weather <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5295/ac6e7d?utm_campaign=Hot%20News&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=217900917&_hsenc=p2ANqtz--vIRNcML-N5eyhXNbUkFRofJMkOnQu1XYSZ1h_C1qgDnUdoOBCxFrsBkay1X6WZvEJ7egPLQ-Vog5y9mcE8Jm4WSnZZw&utm_content=217900917&utm_source=hs_email">keeps increasing</a> – and people are noticing. </p>
<p>However, not everyone notices or feels this threat to the same extent. Our <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0290354">new research</a> shows there is a contrast in how people in different locations perceive this threat, largely along urban and rural lines. </p>
<p>Cities are affected in different ways than rural areas. For instance, there are far fewer <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877705815026387">natural surfaces</a> in urban areas, which creates problems with rainwater drainage, increased temperatures and decreased evaporation. </p>
<p>Cities have been said to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate3358">spearhead climate action</a>, and climate activism such as the environmental movement inspired by Greta Thunberg, <a href="https://theconversation.com/fridays-for-future-how-the-young-climate-movement-has-grown-since-greta-thunbergs-lone-protest-144781">Fridays for Future</a>, evolved primarily <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/italian-political-science-review-rivista-italiana-di-scienza-politica/article/rich-kids-of-europe-social-basis-and-strategic-choices-in-the-climate-activism-of-fridays-for-future/9341161E2CF317C93DBD5E5A0E67D627">in cities</a>. </p>
<p>On the other hand, people living in rural areas often <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0467.2010.00353.x?casa_token=JymUEVw9sqcAAAAA:vNFeYoE2OCR8hD0XvehHqwvKb1KVsaVaXMEJFNN26ndBsOwPOb8OEhcCZHY1IRxpzqVeulsRrur2Idtm">identify strongly</a> with the place in which they live. They are close to nature and can feel passionately about it, especially if <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272494414000954">their livelihood</a> depends on that environment. </p>
<p>In our study, we wanted to find out how British people who live in cities experience the threat of climate change, compared with people who live rurally. We expected rural people to feel greater place attachment, but wondered if that also makes them perceive climate change as a greater threat. This is a connection that had not been previously explored. </p>
<p>Based on a representative sample of 1,071 survey respondents from across the UK,
we found that people in rural areas showed higher degrees of place attachment than people living in cities, as we expected. However, we were surprised to see that the perceived threat of climate change in the most rural locations was lower. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aerial scene of green fields and trees with a running through the middle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547174/original/file-20230908-29-9hz65x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547174/original/file-20230908-29-9hz65x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547174/original/file-20230908-29-9hz65x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547174/original/file-20230908-29-9hz65x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547174/original/file-20230908-29-9hz65x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547174/original/file-20230908-29-9hz65x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547174/original/file-20230908-29-9hz65x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People living in rural areas often identify strongly with where they live.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/aerial-view-rural-farmland-730291111">Richard Whitcombe/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We had not expected that outcome, so we started to dig a little deeper for possible reasons. As it turned out, there are three compelling explanations.</p>
<h2>1. Awareness</h2>
<p>People in rural areas may not be as aware of climate change as people in cities. This is certainly true for people in other countries like <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2728">China</a>, so it could be true for our participants, too. </p>
<p>However, looking more closely, the effect is mostly down to education rather than whether people live in rural areas or not. <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14693062.2012.702982?casa_token=t8LECc5bjwIAAAAA%3ABAGPw2sON-xdKShF2sfsZ5PWhBJsN0mIU08y-a2LPG6W31A8tSyvEx5k84lsV2-0euEwkXf4nImAdw">Research shows</a> that general levels of climate awareness in the UK are quite high. But this does not necessarily correspond to readiness for action or behavioural change. </p>
<p>It is well documented, though, that rural inhabitants tend to have <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ruso.12256?casa_token=fZGRm6oYGhAAAAAA:1DA0Mi0zUTxdXU_XBNZQa85x1OhhBioX-t37xtX0NY9a1kjYjJRhPbmCNnl7VqAvmuowsLN9cnZAEBAG">more conservative views</a>, which could affect the way climate change is interpreted. Conservative views <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09644016.2015.1090371?casa_token=MhVk4e-W4lsAAAAA:Fcqccoc2PD3cqFRB82Idd4i6d8lLLheQQYfupLzOm96qke8Pp4uxeRfQjm05FbLZf5pHEK0kJUgSfw">are often</a> associated with less concern about the climate. </p>
<h2>2. Experience</h2>
<p>People in rural areas may not experience climate change in the same way as people in cities. This is because rural areas have higher levels of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-00920-w">green space</a> than <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/alex/benv/2007/00000033/00000001/art00003">urban areas</a>. For example, you will feel the heat less when you are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721023093?casa_token=-Phv3ImaApcAAAAA:U6u2e48CnZy9iKG5LC8wrXeDSozeQpi8g8FRQFQkHf4HoSVLSOX1S59iUUK4OTVV2zD9702jPBM">surrounded by trees</a>.</p>
<p>In the past, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378011000173?casa_token=Yd49iGZlcLQAAAAA:QIG9V0eJVT3FGk4j1UYY5YN4kfqd7Tk6S1HmO5fa4xPlI0DR2QuZMJ5_Ng-MBsAwt225iwQmf0k">research has shown</a> that rural inhabitants were quite sceptical about climate change. This may also be related to their different perceptions about the threat. </p>
<h2>3. Resilience</h2>
<p>And rural people may be more resilient to change. This is something that has been previously observed <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468227620301356">in Ghana</a>, where the impact of climate change on farmers’ livelihoods is paired with low climate vulnerability and high resilience to climate change. </p>
<p>Rural people may be aware of climate change and they may experience it like everyone else, but they may have better ways of coping with it than city dwellers because of their closer relationship with nature. This may have taught them to be more <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10745-018-0026-7">flexible</a> in how they deal with change. After all, nature changes a lot and that could make them less worried about the major changes happening around them. </p>
<p>So, although we were surprised that the higher degree of place attachment in people living rurally did not necessarily lead to a higher perception of climate change threat, we can see there are good reasons for that. </p>
<p>Climate change is certainly worrying for most of us and sometimes linked with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0887618520300773?casa_token=vvO95F2IWFwAAAAA:EMVSaEy10Yg3AzZc2kC0TADqgVGch3MCHRiiC0Nix5mKFI6bk-OGsgtwpaEVYfFkDuIG7hP3IX8">heightened anxiety</a>. We will inevitably react emotionally to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2015.10.003">extreme weather that affects us</a>. What matters is what we do in our everyday lives, how much we recognise that things are changing and whether we are willing to take action. </p>
<p>This could mean making a change <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-yes-your-individual-action-does-make-a-difference-115169">in our own lives</a>, getting involved <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-action-shouldnt-mean-choosing-between-personal-and-political-responsibility-130656">in politics</a>, or <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/22/14645">taking action locally</a> to become more resilient when extreme weather, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/floods-are-going-to-get-worse-we-need-to-start-preparing-for-them-now-172902">flooding</a>, heat or violent storms, happen.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212888/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thora Tenbrink acknowledges Bangor University's seed funding for the reported research. She also receives funding through the UKRI-funded RECLAIM Network Plus grant (EP/W034034/1), and through the ESRC-funded Rural Wales Local Policy and Innovation Partnership (Phase 1), ES/Y000226/1. </span></em></p>People living in rural areas perceive the threat of climate change to be lower than people in cities.Thora Tenbrink, Professor of Linguistics, Bangor UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2100352023-08-10T20:29:09Z2023-08-10T20:29:09ZThe trauma caused by resettlement in Newfoundland and Labrador must be acknowledged<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538120/original/file-20230718-23-on95fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C17%2C1671%2C623&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Pushthrough, N.L. in the early 1960s. It was resettled in 1969.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Conrad Hiscock and John Marsden)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/the-trauma-caused-by-resettlement-in-newfoundland-and-labrador-must-be-acknowledged" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Between 1954 and 1975, <a href="https://mha.mun.ca/mha/resettlement/">30,000 Newfoundlanders and Labradorians</a> resettled from hundreds of remote communities to larger towns. The relocations were part of a plan by the provincial and federal governments to move people to areas with better economic opportunities, social amenities and improved educational facilities.</p>
<p>Today, there are only a handful of isolated communities in Newfoundland and Labrador. The provincial government continues to provide relocation assistance if at least 75 per cent of residents vote to resettle elsewhere. Residents of Gaultois, N.L., the most recent community to vote on resettlement, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/gaultois-relocation-decision-1.6817787">did not reach the 75 per cent threshold needed to relocate</a>.</p>
<p>Most families that moved under earlier resettlement programs found employment, better schools and modern conveniences, such as running water, electricity and an end to their isolation. However, many also endured mental anguish and trauma from being thrust into new communities with little social or economic support. The governments that relocated them were not there to help them.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/politics/resettlement-program.php">Resettlement</a> began as a provincial policy in Newfoundland and Labrador in the 1950s, and the Government of Canada joined the program in 1965, sharing the cost of resettling thousands of residents from small rural communities. </p>
<p>Resettled families did not receive adequate compensation for property such as land, sheds and fishing premises left behind, and were rarely provided with sufficient funds to build new lives in their new communities.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/KgHR1gJiqtg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Newfoundland and Labrador still runs a relocation program aimed at saving the provincial government money in providing costly services to remote communities.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The resettlement of Pushthrough</h2>
<p>When our family resettled from Pushthrough, N.L. to Hermitage, N.L. in 1969, our mother received $2,428 from both governments. That covered half the cost of a new home purchased for $5,000. My grandmother received $1,200 for her home, outbuildings and land she left behind; certainly not enough to build a new home.</p>
<p>Our mother had no savings and the $240 cheque she received monthly from worker’s compensation after our father was killed in an industrial accident in 1966 was barely enough for the family to survive.</p>
<p>Finances were only one source of stress for resettlement families. Resettled people were uprooted and moved to new communities where they were regarded as outsiders for years. </p>
<p>The state did not seem to care. It never provided any mental or social supports for those thousands dealing with anxiety and stress of all sorts. Resettlement people were often victims and faced trauma and anxiety that were either dismissed or simply ignored.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540528/original/file-20230801-19-d61kxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black and white photo of a sea side town." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540528/original/file-20230801-19-d61kxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540528/original/file-20230801-19-d61kxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540528/original/file-20230801-19-d61kxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540528/original/file-20230801-19-d61kxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540528/original/file-20230801-19-d61kxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540528/original/file-20230801-19-d61kxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540528/original/file-20230801-19-d61kxp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An undated black and white photo of the town of Pushthrough, N.L. Many families who relocated from communities like Pushthrough did not received the support they needed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Maritime History Archive, Memorial University)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Impacts of resettlement</h2>
<p>In 2017, <a href="https://www.saltwire.com/newfoundland-labrador/news/newfoundland-and-labradors-forced-resettlement-a-historic-injustice-brothers-say-170787">we wrote an article</a> about the Newfoundland resettlement program. We did not romanticize isolated Newfoundland communities. Nor did we lament the passing of those communities like Pushthrough.</p>
<p>As our article circulated, a large number of resettlement people reached out to us with their <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/forced-to-resettle-browne-1.4423073">riveting, often heart-wrenching stories</a>, recalling the trauma, hurt and anguish they experienced.</p>
<p>Many were children at the time, and they recounted stories of bullying, abuse and being othered in their new communities. Many dealt with their untenable situation by quitting school.</p>
<p>We heard from one woman teased relentlessly about her clothes and general appearance in her new school. Her lunch money was stolen regularly, she remembers, and the image of being “the laughing stock of the school” is seared permanently in her memory. </p>
<p>The bullying was so relentless her parents contacted the priest who then had the teacher place the young child in the back of the classroom, hoping she escaped the mocking mental abuse she endured. </p>
<p>“Looking back today,” she recalls, “it was bullying that I had encountered. I dropped out of school that same year and went to work on the fish plant. I could not take it anymore.”</p>
<p>Others related similar experiences that have plagued them all of their lives. Another individual who moved a short distance to a new town in Fortune Bay said it was like moving to a different world. She was only 12 when her family resettled and just two years later she was diagnosed with a stomach ulcer, all from worrying and loneliness. “I’m 60,” she said, “And I never really ever got over the trauma of resettlement.”</p>
<p>Another told us that his family moved in 1969 when their school closed, mail service stopped and the coastal boat ceased calling at their community. His family received just over $2,000 to move everything they owned. With that, they had to rebuild their lives in a new community.</p>
<p>Others remember living in houses that were no better than shacks or living in partially finished homes because their parents had not received enough in resettlement funds to complete their homes. Many houses were finished only when families could afford to purchase building materials.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540527/original/file-20230801-17-ljeulp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black and white photo of a church" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540527/original/file-20230801-17-ljeulp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540527/original/file-20230801-17-ljeulp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540527/original/file-20230801-17-ljeulp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540527/original/file-20230801-17-ljeulp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540527/original/file-20230801-17-ljeulp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540527/original/file-20230801-17-ljeulp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540527/original/file-20230801-17-ljeulp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An undated black and white photo of the town of Pushthrough, N.L. Resettled families did not receive adequate compensation for property and were rarely provided with sufficient funds to build new lives in their new communities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Maritime History Archive, Memorial University)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Acknowledging consequences</h2>
<p>State planners in Ottawa and St. John’s <a href="https://heritagenl.ca/discover/provincial-historic-commemorations-program-designations/resettlement-under-the-smallwood-administration/">saw considerable benefit in resettlement in the 1960s and 1970s as they do today</a>. They believed redistributing the population would facilitate economic development and provide citizens living in what they considered non-viable outport communities with essential educational, medical and social services. </p>
<p>Today, the relocation policy is about saving the provincial government money in providing services, such as ferry connections, electricity and medical services, to remote communities.</p>
<p>There were improvements for many people who resettled, but also deep costs that the provincial and federal governments never considered.</p>
<p>It is time we understand the impact of resettlement on thousands of people relocated from their communities. Government policies can cause harm and leave a legacy of trauma and hurt, even if those actions occurred a generation ago. </p>
<p>The Newfoundland Resettlement Program had severe social consequences, and caused anguish that people are still dealing with to this day. Newfoundland and Labrador’s current community relocation program is different from what it was in the 1960s and 1970s but the consequences for those citizens who were resettled should not be forgotten by governments as communities continue to contemplate resettlement.</p>
<p><em>This article was co-authored by Hayward Blake, a former instructor and coordinator at the Faculty of Education at Memorial University of Newfoundland.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210035/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Raymond B. Blake receives funding from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p>Resettled families did not receive adequate compensation for property left behind and were rarely provided with sufficient funds to build new lives.Raymond B. Blake, Professor and Department Head, Department of History, University of ReginaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2060972023-06-21T10:34:01Z2023-06-21T10:34:01ZKenya’s population: 5 key findings in the past 20 years of research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527685/original/file-20230523-19-sqncv8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Gerald Anderson/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Like many countries on the African continent, Kenya’s population is growing – fast. The country’s population was <a href="https://ncpd.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/61-PB-Why-Population-Issues-are-important.pdf">8.1 million</a> in 1963; today it stands at about <a href="https://www.unfpa.org/data/world-population/KE">55 million</a> people. More people have moved into urban areas too. In 1960 <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=KE">about</a> 7% of the population lived in urban areas; by 2021 it stood at 28%.</p>
<p>Some key changes within Kenya’s society have taken place alongside, and because of, this fast growth. </p>
<p>I’m the executive director of the <a href="https://aphrc.org/">African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC)</a>, an organisation which has been documenting population changes and dynamics in Kenya, and other countries, for 20 years. This work has helped to influence public policy and response. </p>
<p>Some of the key challenges identified in Kenya have been:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>a large number of urban residents, especially those in informal settlements, without social services such as public health facilities; </p></li>
<li><p>shortage of public schools (government funded); </p></li>
<li><p>widespread non-communicable diseases and their risk factors in urban informal settlements; </p></li>
<li><p>a high number of unsafe abortions driven by high levels of mistimed and unwanted pregnancies; and </p></li>
<li><p>uneven progress in <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals">sustainable development goals (SDGs)</a> targets related to mothers, children and adolescents.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>These findings are key to driving effective strategies. </p>
<h2>Urban residents without access to services</h2>
<p>Kenya’s development partners have tended to assume that urban areas and residents were well-served by social services, and didn’t need special attention from government and civil society organisations. As a result, in the 1980s and 1990s, poverty alleviation programmes focused on rural areas. </p>
<p>However, in 2002 we <a href="https://aphrc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Urban-Health-in-Kenya_Key-Findings_2000-Nairobi-Cross-sectional-Slum-Survey.pdf">produced evidence</a> that showed huge differences in health, education and other social outcomes among residents of urban informal settlements when compared to other urban residents. For some outcomes, residents of urban informal settlements were doing as badly as rural residents, if not worse. For instance, we found that children living in slums <a href="https://aphrc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Urban-Health-in-Kenya_Key-Findings_2000-Nairobi-Cross-sectional-Slum-Survey.pdf">were sicker</a> than those living elsewhere in Kenya. They were also less likely to get treatment when they were sick.</p>
<p>Our work highlighted the important point that simply presenting national statistics for rural and urban areas, without breaking them down further by socioeconomic status, was highly misleading. If countries were to make progress towards various development targets, urban informal settlements needed special attention. </p>
<p>Understanding this led to the design of projects and programmes by governments and other agencies that targeted disadvantaged urban areas. Over time, great progress has been made and the health and other social indicators in these areas have improved.</p>
<h2>Shortage of public schools</h2>
<p>Free primary education was implemented in Kenya in 2003. Its <a href="https://ossrea.net/publications/images/stories/ossrea/ogola.pdf">main objective</a> was to make primary education accessible to all. Research done at APHRC, however, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0883035511000036">showed</a> that the enrolment of children in public schools went up for a couple of years and then rapidly declined. </p>
<p>In 2012, <a href="https://aphrc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/ERP-III-Report.pdf">63%</a> of primary school students in Nairobi urban informal settlements were attending non-government schools, a percentage as high as it had been before the policy. This happened because there were not enough public schools to meet the demand. Parents realised that their children were not receiving the right amount of attention in overcrowded classrooms. Instead, they took their children back to the informal private schools they had been attending before the policy was rolled out.</p>
<p>Once our evidence was shared with the ministry of education, the <a href="https://vision2030.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Re-Alignment-Education-Sector..pdf">Education Taskforce of 2012</a> adopted recommendations to include all learners, including those in non-formal schools, who met set criteria to benefit from capitation grants. This was to ensure that learners in informal settlements benefited from the government programme. </p>
<h2>Widespread diseases in informal settlements</h2>
<p>A key health-related finding was that non-communicable diseases, and their risk factors, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3402/gha.v8.28697">showed</a> a high prevalence in the urban informal settlements of Nairobi. </p>
<p>There was a huge burden of undiagnosed, untreated and uncontrolled disease. For instance, about <a href="https://journals.lww.com/jhypertension/Abstract/2013/05000/Prevalence,_awareness,_treatment_and_control_of.26.aspx">80%</a> of adults diagnosed with diabetes and high blood pressure were previously undiagnosed. Among those who had been previously diagnosed, the majority had not received treatment in the past 12 months. Only a fraction had received treatment in the past two weeks. As a result, for every 100 people diagnosed with either condition, only one had it under control. </p>
<p>These findings are vital to understanding existing or potential gaps in a healthcare system. They shaped the APHRC’s subsequent research programmes on <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3402/gha.v6i0.22510">developing models</a> to improve care for chronic conditions in these settings. Some of these have been adopted by Nairobi County and other players. </p>
<h2>Huge number of unsafe abortions in Kenya</h2>
<p>In 2013, APHRC <a href="https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12884-015-0621-1">published the report</a> of the first ever incidence and magnitude study on unsafe abortion. The study estimated that over 464,000 abortions had been conducted in Kenya, and an estimated 120,000 women sought care in health facilities for complications. According to the World Health Organisation, <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/abortion">4.7% to 13.2% of maternal deaths</a> annually can be attributed to unsafe abortion. </p>
<p>An estimated half (49%) of all pregnancies were unintended and four in ten of these ended in an abortion, highlighting the need for increased access to contraception. </p>
<h2>Uneven progress in supporting mothers and children</h2>
<p>APHRC has been supporting the <a href="https://www.countdown2030.org/">analysis</a> of routine health information and survey data to track African countries’ progress towards meeting the SDG targets related to mothers, children and adolescents. These include the reduction in maternal mortality and the end of preventable deaths of newborns and children.</p>
<p>The analysis – conducted for at least 18 countries – shows a general trend of improvement in various outcomes at the country level, but also huge differences between regions for some indicators. For instance in Kenya, childhood mortality has declined from 99 per 1,000 live births in 2000 to 31 in 2020. Estimates from 2014 show significant regional differences, with the worst performing sub-region (coast) having more than double the rate of child deaths compared with the best performing one (central) – <a href="https://data.unicef.org/countdown-2030/country/Kenya/1/">87.4 against 42.1</a>.</p>
<p>The progress seen at national level can be explained by improvements in health outcomes in some regions, but not all. This analysis is important to provide evidence about how government and development partners can target resources towards disadvantaged regions if Kenya is to <a href="http://countdown2030.org">meet the SDG targets</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206097/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Kyobutungi receives funding from The Hewlett Foundation, Sida and The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation</span></em></p>Kenya’s experienced fast population growth and urbanisation - this has brought about some big challenges.Catherine Kyobutungi, Executive Director, African Population and Health Research CenterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2064102023-06-15T01:06:55Z2023-06-15T01:06:55ZAre tree-changers bad at managing their rural properties? A new study wades into the weeds to find the answer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529517/original/file-20230601-15-k0dgno.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C0%2C5725%2C3837&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock </span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Tree-changers opting for a rural lifestyle can get a bad rap for not managing their properties well. The COVID-19 pandemic prompted <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/city-slickers-use-covid-for-sea-and-tree-change-20220726-p5b4r7.html">thousands</a> more city-based Australians to buy property in the regions. So will this lead to more absentee neighbours who, in the eyes of some, don’t know what they’re doing?</p>
<p>If you buy rural land, you are buying into a community. You’re also expected to take on certain responsibilities, such as managing weeds on the property. This helps both the environment and your neighbours. </p>
<p>Tensions about weeds can be <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264837708000628">especially high</a> in areas with many tree-changers. Farmers, for example, may think new arrivals don’t care about how weeds affect agriculture, creating an “us and them” mentality. But are these perceptions warranted? </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2023.2217338">new paper</a> examined this question. We found almost everyone, including absentee landowners, were concerned about weeds and spent a lot of time managing them. But their motivations for doing so were different. These insights can help communities deal with the threat of invasive plants.</p>
<h2>Tree-changers: friend or foe?</h2>
<p>An estimated <a href="https://researchoutput.csu.edu.au/en/publications/absentee-ownership-of-rural-land-7">22-45% of landowners</a> in Australia are absentee. They might be corporations, Indigenous groups or farmers leasing their land to others. They can also be tree-changers who are generally more interested in rural lifestyles and “getting into nature” than farming the land. This group may visit their properties only on weekends or for holidays. </p>
<p>Of all absentee landowners, tree-changers can readily attract complaints because of the significant changes they bring to the look and culture of rural areas. They often occupy former farmland and may cease farming, engage in conservation work, build new houses or just ride motorbikes all weekend.</p>
<p>Absentee landholders can own vast swathes of land. So the way they manage their properties, including managing weeds, can have big consequences. </p>
<p>Weeds <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/research/natural-environment/biodiversity/fighting-plagues-and-predators">can cause</a> economic and environmental harm. They may lower crop productivity and damage pastures. They can also out-compete native vegetation and disrupt ecosystems.</p>
<p>Weed control methods include herbicides, intensive grazing with goats, or removal by hand or with machinery. </p>
<p>Government agencies <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920801998893">say</a> absentee landholders can be hard to contact and lack knowledge about weeds. They can also be time-poor and absent at times when weed spraying or removal is most effective. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cobi.13266">weed control</a> requires all landowners to pull their weight. People can feel their efforts are wasted if neighbours do little. </p>
<p>In places such as the Southern Tablelands in New South Wales, absentee landholders have been <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-03-09/concerns-about-weed-expansion-on-nsw-southern-tablelands/7232272">blamed</a> for enabling the spread of a noxious weed known as serrated tussock. The species damages pastures and is difficult for stock to digest.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-botanical-detective-story-shedding-light-on-the-journey-out-of-africa-for-one-of-australias-worst-weeds-205183">A botanical detective story: shedding light on the journey out of Africa for one of Australia's worst weeds</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The evidence is mixed</h2>
<p>So what does the research say on the matter? One <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S026483771200049X">literature review</a> in the United States found absentee owners, as compared with resident owners, were less likely to actively manage their land and had less scientific knowledge.</p>
<p>But another <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-021-01454-1">US study</a> did not identify residential status as a factor in weed management.</p>
<p>In Australia, research tends to note absentee owners as an issue for weed management. One small <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2019.100988">study</a>, however, found absentee landholders in Central West NSW were engaged, interested in collaboration on weed management, and reasonably knowledgeable.</p>
<p>Another <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-05071-170405">study</a> found length of ownership was a greater influence on land management than residential status.</p>
<p>Our research aimed to better understand whether absentee land ownership in Australia makes a difference to how weeds were managed.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="african love grass fronds" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529527/original/file-20230601-15-pr7e4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529527/original/file-20230601-15-pr7e4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529527/original/file-20230601-15-pr7e4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529527/original/file-20230601-15-pr7e4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529527/original/file-20230601-15-pr7e4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529527/original/file-20230601-15-pr7e4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529527/original/file-20230601-15-pr7e4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Does absentee land ownership influence weed management? Pictured: African love grass, which can quickly overtake pasture.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Our results</h2>
<p>Our research focused on the Shoalhaven and Bega Valley in southeastern NSW. These regions have experienced an influx of tree-changers in recent decades. They include towns such as Bega, Bowral, Candelo, Berry, Kangaroo Valley and Nowra. </p>
<p>We surveyed 439 landowners about their behaviours and attitudes toward weeds and their management. We then compared the responses of residential owners (88% of respondents) and absentee landowners (12%). We excluded responses from farmers and focused on “lifestylers”, which are themselves a significant group.</p>
<p>Both groups said weeds negatively affected them due to how they looked and the environmental damage they caused. Similar proportions of each group were trying to eradicate or control weeds. </p>
<p>Almost everyone was concerned about weeds. Both groups said weed management was a priority and said being a good neighbour was a primary motivation for taking action.</p>
<p>An overwhelming number of people in both groups managed weeds (and spent one to five hours per week doing so). One of the few significant differences between the groups was that residential landowners prioritised weeds that damaged agriculture, while absentee landowners prioritised weeds that threatened the environment.</p>
<p>This shows how values and interests, rather than indifference, shapes attitudes to weed management.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/trees-can-be-weeds-too-heres-why-thats-a-problem-182599">Trees can be weeds too – here's why that's a problem</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="house and shed in rural setting" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529528/original/file-20230601-23-2n4eeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529528/original/file-20230601-23-2n4eeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529528/original/file-20230601-23-2n4eeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529528/original/file-20230601-23-2n4eeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529528/original/file-20230601-23-2n4eeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529528/original/file-20230601-23-2n4eeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529528/original/file-20230601-23-2n4eeh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Values and interests, rather than indifference, shapes attitudes to weed management.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Look beyond where people live</h2>
<p>Weed management is determined by our varying <a href="https://www.science.org.au/academy-newsletter/mar-2020-136/managing-wild-and-weedy-australia">social relationships</a> with the land. This must be recognised in both research and policy.</p>
<p>Landowners are diverse and own land for a variety of reasons. Our approach to weed management should take account of these differences. Absenteeism is just one part of the puzzle – and perhaps not as important as we might think.</p>
<p>More research is needed. This should involve in-depth case studies to tease out the issues underpinning community tensions about weed management and identify common ground. Then, we can develop steps towards more effective weed management across fence lines.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206410/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicholas Gill receives funding from the NSW Government via the Bushfire and Natural Hazards Research Centre and has previously received funding from the Australian Research Council and the NSW Department of Planning and Environment </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurie Chisholm has previously received funding from the Australian Research Council and the NCRIS Australian National Data Service.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anna Lewis does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Tree-changers can get a bad rap for not managing their properties well. So will this lead to more absentee neighbours who let weeds run rampant?Nicholas Gill, Associate Professor in Geography, University of WollongongAnna Lewis, Research Program Manager, University of WollongongLaurie Chisholm, Associate Professor in Remote Sensing, University of WollongongLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1994932023-05-17T12:39:40Z2023-05-17T12:39:40ZLack of affordable child care is hurting young farm families’ ability to grow their businesses – the US farm bill may finally offer some help<p>Kerissa and Charlie Payne are beginning farmers living their dream of raising two daughters on a farm in Central Ohio. By conventional measures, their livestock farm, Covey Rise, is a success. Yet, below the surface, the challenge of finding quality affordable child care has kept their business from growing and reaching its full potential.</p>
<p>“It feels like we’re always split between keeping the kids safe on the farm, being a good parent, and the needs of the farm,” Kerissa Payne said. </p>
<p>The United States has a child care crisis, yet the issue remains largely invisible in the farm sector. For too long, the nation has ignored the fact that farm parents are working parents who must juggle child care while working what can be one of the most <a href="https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2020/a-look-at-workplace-safety-in-agriculture.htm">dangerous and stressful jobs</a> in America.</p>
<p>But as Bob Dylan might say, “The times they are a-changin’.”</p>
<p>For the first time in history, the two largest farm organizations, the <a href="https://www.fb.org/files/2023-Farm-Bill-Priorities-FINAL-23.0119.pdf">American Farm Bureau</a> and the <a href="https://nfu.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/2023-NFU-Policy-Book.pdf">National Farmers Union</a>, have included child care in their policy priorities for the 2023 <a href="https://theconversation.com/these-four-challenges-will-shape-the-next-farm-bill-and-how-the-us-eats-202555">federal farm bill</a>, a massive spending bill that passes every five years. As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=FxS3OVEAAAAJ&hl=en">rural researchers</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=GlcrpecAAAAJ&hl=en">our conversations</a> with policymakers suggest that there may be bipartisan support to help increase access to affordable quality rural child care as lawmakers hear from families. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man and adolescent work in a greenhouse." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526702/original/file-20230517-17-xion68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526702/original/file-20230517-17-xion68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526702/original/file-20230517-17-xion68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526702/original/file-20230517-17-xion68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526702/original/file-20230517-17-xion68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526702/original/file-20230517-17-xion68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526702/original/file-20230517-17-xion68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Keeping children busy and safe can divert time from parents’ own farm work.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-with-child-in-the-farm-royalty-free-image/1315791629">AnnaStills/iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Over the past 10 years, we have interviewed and surveyed thousands of farmers across the country to understand how child care affects farm business economic viability, farm safety, farm families’ quality of life <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-022-10307-4">and the future of the nation’s food supply</a>. What we found debunks the three most common myths that have kept child care in the shadows of farm policy debates and points to solutions that can support farm parents.</p>
<h2>Myth #1: Child care is a not a problem in the farm sector</h2>
<p>Despite hearing from countless parents about their challenges with child care, the issue has been largely invisible among farm business advisers, farm organizations, and federal and state agricultural agencies. When we were interviewing advisers and decision-makers about this topic early in the COVID-19 pandemic, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1043774">common first reactions we heard were</a>: “child care is not an issue for farmers,” “we have never thought to ask about it” and “does it affect the farm business?”</p>
<p>Nationally, three-quarters (77%) of farm families with children under 18 report <a href="https://doi.org/10.21636/nfmc.nccrahs.childcaresurvey.researchbrief.1.2023">difficulties securing child care</a> because of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2020.1800772">lack of affordability</a>, availability or quality. Almost half (48%) report that having access to affordable child care is important for maintaining and growing their farm business. </p>
<p>Our research has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1059924X.2022.2068716">consistently found</a> child care is an issue that affects all of agriculture regardless of farm size, production system or location.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A smiling little girl in a bright pink coat looks through the wires of a fence at the cattle beyond." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526099/original/file-20230515-20-i2fvqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1007%2C691&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526099/original/file-20230515-20-i2fvqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526099/original/file-20230515-20-i2fvqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526099/original/file-20230515-20-i2fvqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526099/original/file-20230515-20-i2fvqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=957&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526099/original/file-20230515-20-i2fvqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=957&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526099/original/file-20230515-20-i2fvqh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=957&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Growing up on a farm can be fun and educational, even as parents worry about risks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kerissa and Charlie Payne</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Access to child care is <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/article/coronavirus-will-make-child-care-deserts-worse-exacerbate-inequality/">especially acute in rural areas</a>, where even before COVID-19, 3 in 5 rural communities were <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/article/americas-child-care-deserts-2018/">categorized as child care deserts</a>. The high cost of child care left the Paynes in a position familiar to many Americans – they make too much to qualify for child care support, but they don’t make enough to afford the type of quality child care they want.</p>
<p>The Paynes’ experience reflects what we consistently hear from farmers: Child care affects the trajectory of the farm business and the ability of a farm family to stay on the land.</p>
<p><iframe id="CZGMg" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/CZGMg/11/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Myth #2: Farmers don’t want or need help with child care because they have family help</h2>
<p>Perhaps one of the biggest myths we have heard is that farm parents want to do it all on their own, and when they need help, they have family members who can watch the children.</p>
<p>This might work if relatives are nearby, but almost half of farmers we surveyed said their own parents were too busy to help with child care, had died or were in declining health.</p>
<p>Often, farm parents have <a href="http://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2020.1800772">had to move away</a> from family and friends to find affordable land. These parents consistently said the lack of community made it harder to take care of their children.</p>
<p>Farmers have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1059924X.2022.2068716">repeatedly said that it is a myth</a> that they don’t want help taking care of children. The problem is that they cannot find or afford help.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An adolescent boy in full beekeeper coveralls and veil stands besides his mother as she lifts a bee-covered honeycomb from a beehive." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526620/original/file-20230516-19-98pbr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526620/original/file-20230516-19-98pbr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526620/original/file-20230516-19-98pbr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526620/original/file-20230516-19-98pbr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526620/original/file-20230516-19-98pbr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526620/original/file-20230516-19-98pbr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526620/original/file-20230516-19-98pbr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A honey producer teaches her son about beekeeping in Maryland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/usdagov/51243388682/in/album-72157719739711317/">Preston Keres/USDA/FPAC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Myth #3: Children can just come along when doing farm work</h2>
<p>While wonderful places to grow up, farms can be dangerous, with large equipment, electric fencing, large animals, ponds and other potential hazards. Every day, <a href="https://marshfieldresearch.org/Media/Default/NFMC/PDFs/ChildAgInjuryFactsheet2020.pdf">33 children are seriously injured</a> in agricultural-related incidents, and every three days a child dies on a farm.</p>
<p>Farm parents we spoke with recounted stories of children who died after falling out of a tractor, drowned when they fell into a pond, or were maimed by a cow. Almost all farm parents – 97% – have <a href="https://doi.org/10.21636/nfmc.nccrahs.childcaresurvey.researchbrief.1.2023">worried that their children could get hurt</a> on the farm.</p>
<p>In our research, parents talked about constantly weighing the risks and benefits of having children on the farm. One farmer had hoped his young son would “be my little sidekick and do everything I did.” However, the reality was different. He admitted he “didn’t think about a baby not being able to be out in the sun all day,” and he was <a href="http://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-020-10162-1">struggling to balance care work and farm work</a>. The government has spent millions of dollars on farm stress programs, yet child care’s role in creating and exacerbating farm stress is rarely talked about.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A baby's bottle sticks out the front pocket of bib overalls." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526096/original/file-20230515-21-66xt42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526096/original/file-20230515-21-66xt42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526096/original/file-20230515-21-66xt42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526096/original/file-20230515-21-66xt42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526096/original/file-20230515-21-66xt42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526096/original/file-20230515-21-66xt42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526096/original/file-20230515-21-66xt42.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Without affordable child care, farm parents often do double duty.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kerissa and Charlie Payne</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Paynes asked a question we heard from many other parents: “Why is farming the only occupation where you are expected to take your kids to work?”</p>
<p>Farm safety programs have traditionally focused on education. However, our research shows that farm parents <a href="https://doi.org/10.21636/nfmc.nccrahs.childcaresurvey.researchbrief.1.2023">are highly aware of the risks</a>. Instead of education, parents explain that they need resources to help with child care – 86% said they sometimes bring children to the farm worksite because they lack other options.</p>
<h2>Finding solutions to support child care</h2>
<p>There is no one-size-fits-all solution to America’s child care problems, particularly for farm parents, who are juggling raising their own families while working to feed and clothe the nation.</p>
<p>In our research, farmers spoke about a wide range of solutions: free or affordable quality child care, before- and after-school programs, better parental leave policies for wage and self-employed workers, financial support for safe play areas on the farm, college debt relief, free college tuition and more affordable health insurance.</p>
<p>Seeing his farm community struggling with child care, Adam Alson, a corn and soybean farmer in Jasper County, Indiana, co-founded <a href="https://www.appleseedchildhoodeducation.org/">Appleseed Childhood Education</a>, a nonprofit dedicated to creating care and education opportunities for children from birth through high school. It opened its first early learning center in 2023 with a mix of public and private support.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526092/original/file-20230515-27-jf5lfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People shoot confetti into the air outside a building in celebration." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526092/original/file-20230515-27-jf5lfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/526092/original/file-20230515-27-jf5lfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526092/original/file-20230515-27-jf5lfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526092/original/file-20230515-27-jf5lfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=355&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526092/original/file-20230515-27-jf5lfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526092/original/file-20230515-27-jf5lfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/526092/original/file-20230515-27-jf5lfm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Farmers, backers and staff celebrate the opening of the new Appleseed Childhood Education Center in Jasper County, Indiana, which had largely been a childcare desert, to the detriment of farm families.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adam Alson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Alson sees investing in child care as a path to attracting and retaining young farmers and families, and a strategy for growing and retaining the rural workforce.</p>
<p>“Throughout our country’s history, we have valued the importance of our rural communities and have invested in them and in sectors where the market does not go,” he said. “In 2023, quality child care is one of those sectors.”</p>
<p>As one Ohio farmer put it: “If America wants farmers, farm families need help with child care.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199493/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shoshanah Inwood receives funding from the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Florence Becot receives funding from the CDC National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.</span></em></p>Access to affordable child care affects farm productivity, safety and ultimately the nation’s food supply. Farm families across the U.S. are struggling without it.Shoshanah Inwood, Associate Professor of Rural Sociology, The Ohio State UniversityFlorence Becot, Associate Research Scientist in Rural Sociology, Adjunct Faculty - National Farm Medicine Center, The Ohio State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2047442023-05-08T19:37:13Z2023-05-08T19:37:13ZWhy rural Canadians need public transit just as urgently as suburbanites<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524902/original/file-20230508-213774-3dxxqs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C417%2C5472%2C2662&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rural public transit has important economic and social benefits. So why does Canada fail so badly on providing it to rural residents?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/why-rural-canadians-need-public-transit-just-as-urgently-as-suburbanites" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Transportation within and between Canadian communities is frustrating at best. At worst it’s impossible. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/bbc-race-across-the-world-1.6804863">BBC’s <em>Race Across the World</em> shows contestants trying to make their way around British Columbia</a> without access to rental cars or planes. Limited transit options leave contestants frustrated, <a href="https://westcoastnow.ca/2023/04/09/race-across-the-world-british-travelers-face-transport-challenges-in-bc/">reliant on hitch-hiking</a> and costly taxis. </p>
<p>The show loses its entertainment value when viewers have to watch contestants struggle every day to find transportation — especially rural viewers for whom this daily challenge is all too routine.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1644099397133963265"}"></div></p>
<p>Even so, compared with the rest of the country, rural B.C. actually has a large number of local transit options, as well as some longer distance inter-community services. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.bctransit.com/choose-transit-system">BC Transit</a> works with local governments <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/transportation-projects/surrey-langley-skytrain/surrey-langley-skytrain-project-indigenous-engagement">and First Nations</a> to deliver transit services. That’s unique in Canada and partly accounts for the relatively large number of rural public transit systems in B.C.</p>
<p>Transportation in rural Canada is an important issue. It’s also poorly understood, leading to ongoing policy failures and solutions that miss the mark.</p>
<h2>Rural transit needs</h2>
<p>Not all people living in rural areas have personal vehicles. It’s also a mistake to assume that regular, shorter trips happen within a single community. Inter-community travel is both long haul (occasional) and short (daily). </p>
<p>Personal mobility is critically important to accessing basic services like education and health care, as well as for employment, shopping and recreation. </p>
<p>Transit can increase available markets and workforce, make communities more attractive to potential residents and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In short, the benefits of accessible, affordable public transit in rural communities are economic, social and environmental.</p>
<p>Despite these benefits, rural communities across Canada struggle to establish and maintain transit systems. They face barriers different from urban areas, as well as different from each other. In a <a href="https://ojs.library.queensu.ca/index.php/cpp/article/view/15783/10572">recent study</a>, my fellow researchers and I identified seven types of rural transit barriers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A transit bus with a bike on a bike rack attached to the front of the vehicle." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524911/original/file-20230508-186646-djramq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524911/original/file-20230508-186646-djramq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524911/original/file-20230508-186646-djramq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524911/original/file-20230508-186646-djramq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524911/original/file-20230508-186646-djramq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524911/original/file-20230508-186646-djramq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524911/original/file-20230508-186646-djramq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=495&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A B.C. Transit bus arrives in Smithers, B.C., near the B.C.-Alaska border.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>All rural transit systems are likely to face barriers related to cost. This is due in part to their small size, as systems lack the ridership and economies of scale of urban systems. This means they’re less likely to be profitable because the benefits of transit are widespread across communities and society, while the costs are borne by the operator. </p>
<p>Combinations of local factors, like the physical environment, travel patterns and economic structure, also create unique challenges not easily addressed with a traditional, fixed-route bus transit system. </p>
<p>Rural communities need a high level of both human and financial capacity to start and maintain a transit system. Low (if any) potential profit means rural transit is often run by local governments or not-for-profit organizations, which require a high level of both human and financial capacity to start and maintain a transit system. </p>
<p>Limited human and financial capacity in rural places has an impact on the ability to pay both hard costs and operational ones. Nonetheless, the operational costs and their ongoing strain on capacity pose the most significant challenge. </p>
<h2>Gaps in our knowledge</h2>
<p>There is another issue: gaps within our knowledge base. In a synthesis of <a href="https://sc.arcabc.ca/islandora/object/sc%3A5510">rural transit literature in Canada</a>, my fellow researchers and I found three substantial gaps:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Research on rural transit is limited.</p></li>
<li><p>“Rural” is often treated as a single thing, as if all rural communities have the same needs and challenges, contradicting what we know about place-specific barriers. </p></li>
<li><p>What we know is biased towards larger, urban-adjacent rural communities, as well as towards regions like Ontario and British Columbia. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Overall, our understanding is narrow and incomplete. So it’s no wonder that we see gaps in the policies and programs created based on this limited understanding.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A green and white double-decker train sits at a red brick train station." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524910/original/file-20230508-174052-502jlx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524910/original/file-20230508-174052-502jlx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524910/original/file-20230508-174052-502jlx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524910/original/file-20230508-174052-502jlx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524910/original/file-20230508-174052-502jlx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524910/original/file-20230508-174052-502jlx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/524910/original/file-20230508-174052-502jlx.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A GO Transit train sits parked at the Niagara Falls train station in August 2022. The public transit challenges of urban-adjacent communities are different than those of rural areas.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Tara Walton</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Government initiatives fall short</h2>
<p>In early 2023, the federal government announced Canada’s <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gc.ca/rural-trans-rural/index-eng.html">Rural Transit Solutions Fund</a> would be accepting applications for capital projects. </p>
<p>With $250 million over five years dedicated to rural communities, the fund eliminates competition with urban centres. It is flexible in terms of what can be funded by government, and it’s open to innovative ideas. It’s also open to partnerships offering inter-community transit. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1376547695377010690"}"></div></p>
<p>The gap is in what it won’t fund. There are <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gc.ca/rural-trans-rural/faq-eng.html">no funds related to operations</a>. You can buy a bus or other vehicles, but you cannot lease one for a short-term pilot project. You can’t pay for a driver, or any of the other people needed to design, manage or operate a system. </p>
<p>It is typical of government funding not to cover operational costs. However, given the severity of the rural capacity gap and that it underscores every other barrier relative to rural transit systems, this is a significant issue. </p>
<p>The Rural Transit Solutions Fund is just one example of efforts to bolster rural transit that fall short. </p>
<h2>Missing the mark</h2>
<p>Other <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/trudeau-transit-fund-1.5908346">funding announcements</a>, as well as the work of the <a href="https://www.ourcommons.ca/Committees/en/TRAN/StudyActivity?studyActivityId=11904590">Standing Committee on Inter-City Transportation by Bus</a>, show there’s a recognition of the need for rural transit and an attempt to take some steps in the right direction. </p>
<p>But there is a continuing misunderstanding of rural realities, particularly relating to available human and financial capacity. Ultimately this puts transit out of reach for many rural areas.</p>
<p>There is a clear need for further research to address rural knowledge gaps. In the interim, decision-makers must be cognizant of gaps and biases. </p>
<p>When it comes to solutions, the differences among rural communities illustrate the need for solutions that are flexible and account for unique rural realities. And if we want the broad benefits of accessible transportation, we need to fund both the buses and the drivers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204744/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sarah-Patricia Breen received funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada in support of her rural transportation research.</span></em></p>There is a continuing misunderstanding of rural realities by policymakers. Ultimately this puts transit out of reach for many rural areas.Sarah-Patricia Breen, Adjunct Professor, Environment and Sustainability, University of SaskatchewanLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1913152023-04-26T12:29:17Z2023-04-26T12:29:17ZArctic sea ice loss and fierce storms leave Kivalina’s volunteer Search and Rescue fighting to protect their island from climate disasters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520352/original/file-20230411-24-kd0zun.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C17%2C3000%2C1944&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Kivalina sits on a narrow barrier island on the Chukchi Sea.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/an-aerial-view-from-a-drone-shows-the-village-of-kivalina-news-photo/1175058955?adppopup=true">Joe Raedle/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As winds and waves from Typhoon Merbok <a href="https://www.ktoo.org/2022/09/17/powerful-storm-slams-western-alaska/">devastated communities</a> along the coast of Western Alaska in 2022, Reppi Swan Sr.’s phone began to ring at Kivalina, a barrier island 80 miles above the Arctic Circle.</p>
<p>A neighboring family had lost 3 feet of land to the rumbling lagoon, and their home was now sitting just 6 feet from the angry water’s edge. Reppi called his brother Joe Swan Jr. and quickly slid into his insulated rain gear.</p>
<p>As a volunteer first responder, Reppi plans for emergencies like this. He and his wife, Dolly, had been patrolling the island for dangerous erosion every few hours during the storm. To prepare, he had already inspected the city’s heavy equipment and located a pile of boulders left over from a recent construction project.</p>
<p>Working through the rain, Reppi delivered boulders to the threatened home. With their cousin Carl Swan serving as a spotter, Joe carefully arranged the boulders with a backhoe to stabilize the bank. It would hold at least until the storm subsided.</p>
<p><img src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/2632/kiva3.gif?1681231737" width="100%" height="100%"> </p><figure><figcaption><span class="caption">Joe Swan Jr. and Carl Swan rush to arrange boulders to protect a home from erosion during Typhoon Merbok. The corner of the home is visible on the right. Video by Janet Mitchell</span></figcaption></figure> <p></p>
<p>With <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/as-2017-0024">protective sea ice declining</a> and warming Pacific waters supercharging <a href="https://theconversation.com/typhoon-merbok-fueled-by-unusually-warm-pacific-ocean-pounded-alaskas-vulnerable-coastal-communities-at-a-critical-time-190898">fall storms</a> in the Bering and Chukchi seas, Alaska Native villages like Kivalina are experiencing growing risks to coastal livelihoods and critical infrastructure, including runways. Reppi’s efforts reflect the challenges many front-line communities face as they struggle with the effects of climate change.</p>
<h2>Dealing with disasters has become normal</h2>
<p>Indigenous governments, nonprofits, hunters and first responders from Iñupiaq, Yupik and Unangan communities across Alaska have long been preparing for today’s climate hazards. They have created initiatives from <a href="http://www.thearcticsounder.com/article/2234inupiaq_researcher_documents_how_climate">coastal monitoring</a> to relocation planning, yet <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-09-551.pdf">state and federal support programs</a> are <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-09-551.pdf">underfunded</a> and <a href="https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/rural-alaska/2022/05/30/rural-alaska-villages-hope-to-eliminate-barriers-to-federal-funding-for-addressing-climate-change-threats/">poorly structured</a> for the scale of today’s challenges.</p>
<p>Kivalina, an Iñupiaq community of 500 people, has been dealing with climate-fueled erosion and flooding for decades. Nearly 20 years ago, it was one of four villages the U.S. government determined to be facing “<a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-04-142.pdf">imminent danger</a>.” In 2009, <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-09-551">27 additional villages</a> were added to the list.</p>
<p>Over the years, Reppi, Joe and scores of other volunteers in Kivalina have improvised sea walls with everything from sandbags to sheets of metal cut from the chassis of an abandoned fuel plane. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A profile image of Reppi swan, wearing a cap and camoflauge jacket" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519887/original/file-20230406-28-vzkh68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519887/original/file-20230406-28-vzkh68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519887/original/file-20230406-28-vzkh68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519887/original/file-20230406-28-vzkh68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519887/original/file-20230406-28-vzkh68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519887/original/file-20230406-28-vzkh68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519887/original/file-20230406-28-vzkh68.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">For Reppi Swan Sr., president of Kivalina’s Volunteer Search and Rescue, responding to disasters has become a normal part of everyday life.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kirk Koenig</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a field officer during such incidents, Reppi reflects on how difficult it is to send anyone into harm’s way, whether to search for a lost hunter or to save homes and infrastructure. He remembers one storm in which he put a lifeline on his volunteers as they tried to bolster the shoreline. “That was the hardest thing I had to do,” Reppi recalls, “because one of my guys had to stay down there and tie each super sack together. To top that off, the 8-foot to 10-foot waves would just engulf them completely.”</p>
<p>He talks about Typhoon Merbok with the calm of someone for whom storm readiness and response have become normal parts of everyday life. Because they have.</p>
<h2>‘We just can’t adapt this fast’</h2>
<p>For Indigenous nations around the world, the roots of climate risk today are often <a href="https://centerclimatejustice.universityofcalifornia.edu/posts/indigenous-peoples-and-climate-justice-by-kyle-powys-whyte/">colonial in origin</a>. Kivalina’s “<a href="http://www.alaskool.org/native_ed/historicdocs/kivalina/ki900012.htm">uneasiness</a>” with fall storms began shortly after 1905, when the U.S. Office of Education built a school on the island, and began a multidecade process to forcibly settle the autonomous and seminomadic <a href="https://upcolorado.com/university-of-alaska-press/item/5846-the-inupiaq-eskimo-nations-of-northwest-alaska">Kivalliñiġmiut nation</a>.</p>
<p>In 1981, after decades of deliberation, Kivalina’s municipal government initiated relocation planning as a means to gain running water and sewer services and to alleviate overcrowding. It was an attempt, as the elder Joe Swan Sr. puts it, to gain “breathing room” so that future generations might flourish. However, planning stalled in 2008 because of a disagreement between traditional knowledge holders in Kivalina and the <a href="https://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Portals/34/docs/civilworks/reports/KivalinaMasterPlanMainReportJune2006.pdf">U.S. Army Corps of Engineers</a> over the suitability of the community’s chosen site.</p>
<p>Kivalina’s relocation has now come to be framed as a response to climate change, but the initial needs that drove relocation planning still remain.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman wearing a fleece jacket and sunglasses sits in a doorway with her arms crossed." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520351/original/file-20230411-16-phj7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520351/original/file-20230411-16-phj7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520351/original/file-20230411-16-phj7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520351/original/file-20230411-16-phj7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=422&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520351/original/file-20230411-16-phj7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520351/original/file-20230411-16-phj7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520351/original/file-20230411-16-phj7w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=530&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Colleen Swan has been involved in disaster response for decades and has seen an increase in the damage to her island home.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/city-administrator-colleen-swan-relaxes-at-the-end-of-a-day-news-photo/1175057581">Joe Raedle/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>“We’re an adaptable people,” Colleen Swan, Kivalina’s city administrator, told me when I started my doctoral studies 12 years ago, “but since 2004, we just can’t adapt this fast.” </p>
<p>That was the year pieces of the island began shearing off into the sea.</p>
<h2>The local value of the Arctic’s diminishing sea ice</h2>
<p>Historically, Kivalina’s sea ice would form early enough to protect the coast from fall storms. But with climate change, it forms much later, if at all, leaving the shoreline <a href="https://doi.org/10.1139/as-2017-0024">vulnerable to increased wave activity</a>. </p>
<p>On March 6, 2023, when Arctic sea ice hit its maximum extent for the year, it was the <a href="https://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/2023/03/arctic-sea-ice-maximum-at-fifth-lowest-on-satellite-record/">fifth-lowest maximum extent on the satellite record</a>. Kivalina had open water less then 2 miles (3.2 km) out from town, a fraction of what’s needed for a successful bowhead whale hunt.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A snow and ice covered ocean with the edge of the island and its homes on one side. It looks cold out." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520329/original/file-20230411-16-5l672a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520329/original/file-20230411-16-5l672a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520329/original/file-20230411-16-5l672a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520329/original/file-20230411-16-5l672a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520329/original/file-20230411-16-5l672a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520329/original/file-20230411-16-5l672a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520329/original/file-20230411-16-5l672a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">During winter, sea ice protects the island from erosion, but Arctic ice is diminishing. This photo was taken in February 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Replogle Swan Sr.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><iframe id="NuxVz" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/NuxVz/9/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>In 2008, Colleen was among local leaders who initiated the landmark climate justice lawsuit <a href="http://climatecasechart.com/case/native-village-of-kivalina-v-exxonmobil-corp/">Kivalina v. ExxonMobil</a>. The community sought up to US$400 million in restitution from the 24 largest greenhouse gas emitters in the U.S., companies whose profits are driving climate change. That would have been enough <a href="https://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Portals/34/docs/civilworks/reports/KivalinaMasterPlanMainReportJune2006.pdf">to cover the costs</a> of comprehensive village relocation. </p>
<p>The case was <a href="https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/USCOURTS-ca9-09-17490/context">dismissed by a federal court</a>, a decision upheld by the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in 2012. On May 20, 2013, the Supreme Court <a href="http://climatecasechart.com/case/native-village-of-kivalina-v-exxonmobil-corp/">refused to consider</a> any further appeal.</p>
<p>With the media attention generated by the lawsuit, Colleen has become globally recognized as a front-line leader for climate justice. She has <a href="https://www.sciencefriday.com/person/colleen-swan/">spoken across the U.S.</a> and was part of an <a href="https://www.ienearth.org/">Indigenous delegation</a> to the U.N. climate change conference in Copenhagen in 2009. Today, she’s busy addressing climate change on a different scale.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520350/original/file-20230411-797-9exvac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An aerial view of Kivalina shows the boulders surrounding parts of the narrow island." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520350/original/file-20230411-797-9exvac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520350/original/file-20230411-797-9exvac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520350/original/file-20230411-797-9exvac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520350/original/file-20230411-797-9exvac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520350/original/file-20230411-797-9exvac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520350/original/file-20230411-797-9exvac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520350/original/file-20230411-797-9exvac.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Army Corps of Engineers built a rock revetment in 2008-2009 to help buffer Kivalina’s shore, but it does not surround the entire island.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/an-aerial-view-from-a-drone-shows-kivalina-which-is-at-the-news-photo/1175057966">Joe Raedle/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Colleen now manages Kivalina’s Volunteer Search and Rescue, known as SAR, and her brother Reppi serves as its president. Kivalina SAR is an association of hunters and first responders that plays a crucial role in community safety, coastal resilience and hunter support. But climate change has changed the nature of the organization.</p>
<p>“In the past, search and rescue looked for people who were lost or late returning from a hunt.” But with late freeze-up, thin ice and melting permafrost, she explains, “We’re spending more time helping people because of changes to environmental conditions.” Through fundraising, capacity building, and <a href="https://www.kvlseaice.org/">strategic partnerships</a>, Colleen is building up SAR to respond to new hazards as it faces a rapidly changing environment.</p>
<h2>Infrastructure investments remain unfinished</h2>
<p>From 2008 to 2009, the Army Corps of Engineers constructed 1,600 feet of a planned 2,000-foot <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-09-551.pdf">rock revetment wall</a> to help protect the island. These partial protections, built when funds were available, have been effective, but they leave critical infrastructure and lagoonside homes exposed – as Typhoon Merbok made clear. As Reppi tells me, “We’re always going to have erosion.”</p>
<p>When erosion from fall storms threatened the airport runway in 2019, city leaders made the difficult decision to redeploy boulders from the existing rock revetment.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519888/original/file-20230406-26-39xzyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An aerial photo of the coast showing a rock border on the coast ending and erosion clearly evident beyond it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519888/original/file-20230406-26-39xzyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519888/original/file-20230406-26-39xzyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519888/original/file-20230406-26-39xzyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519888/original/file-20230406-26-39xzyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519888/original/file-20230406-26-39xzyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519888/original/file-20230406-26-39xzyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519888/original/file-20230406-26-39xzyh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Where the rock revetment ends, homes and infrastructure face a high risk of erosion during storms. During Typhoon Merbok, volunteers gathered a new pile of boulders to try to protect homes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Janet Mitchell</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Without comprehensive planning and funding, key segments of the community remain at risk. Kivalina’s first responders must remain vigilant.</p>
<p>After 10 years of lobbying state and federal agencies, Kivalina’s tribal and city councils secured an 8-mile evacuation road to Kisimiġiuqtuq Hill that opened in November 2020. With the state of Alaska <a href="https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/article/state-settles-historic-lawsuit-over-village-school-funding/2011/10/05/">compelled by a lawsuit</a> to remedy its systemic underfunding of Alaska Native schools, the Northwest Arctic Borough School District joined the project, opening a new school at Kisimiġiuqtuq Hill in <a href="http://www.thearcticsounder.com/article/2246the_new_kivalina_school_opened_its_doors_to">November 2022</a>.</p>
<p>Yet these achievements have also brought new concerns, and Reppi and Colleen are preparing their volunteers to respond to other types of problems, such as road accidents or stranded vehicles.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two men look at erosion that has exposed several feet of pipe. Rocks help protect part of the property." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519893/original/file-20230406-22-iuxkz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519893/original/file-20230406-22-iuxkz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519893/original/file-20230406-22-iuxkz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519893/original/file-20230406-22-iuxkz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519893/original/file-20230406-22-iuxkz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519893/original/file-20230406-22-iuxkz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519893/original/file-20230406-22-iuxkz7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reppi Swan Sr. and Joe Swan Jr. inspect an eroded property they shored up during a storm.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Janet Mitchell</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Since Kivalina’s Search and Rescue purchased its first truck in the summer of 2021, Reppi has made regular patrols to study every bend of the poorly lit and steeply pitched road – often through blowing snow. When Kivalina’s children began riding a school bus for the first time, he followed close behind – up and back, three times a day – just in case.</p>
<p>At times this winter, Kivalina’s school bus has been without a certified driver, or sidelined with mechanical issues. When the transportation burden falls on individual families, those without a vehicle, or unable to afford the <a href="https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/429b4ff23f2648e0b46f38c8aeff09d2">high cost of fuel</a>, are missing school outright. Lacking adequate snow removal equipment, heavy snow and high winds kept Kivalina’s school closed the entire month of March. </p>
<h2>Community efforts fill critical adaptation gap</h2>
<p>While Kivalina, like many other Indigenous communities, has been clear about its climate adaptation priorities, support from federal and international institutions has been limited. </p>
<p>The Biden administration recently made <a href="https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/biden-harris-administration-makes-135-million-commitment-support-relocation-tribal">$115 million available</a> to help 11 Indigenous communities with relocation, but the Army Corps estimated Kivalina alone would <a href="https://www.poa.usace.army.mil/Portals/34/docs/civilworks/reports/KivalinaMasterPlanMainReportJune2006.pdf">need $250 million to $400 million</a>. Kivalina wasn’t on the list.</p>
<p>Indigenous coastal communities bear a <a href="https://www.epa.gov/climateimpacts/climate-change-and-health-indigenous-populations">disproportionate amount of risk</a> from climate change, and the costs of adaptation often go uncompensated. Without comprehensive investment in local priorities – from planning and infrastructure to capacity-building – organizations like Kivalina’s Search and Rescue will continue to fill a critical gap, performing the invisible labor of climate adaptation.</p>
<p><em>This article, originally published April 26, 2023, has been updated with the date the Supreme Court declined Kivalina’s appeal, one decade ago.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191315/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>P. Joshua Griffin co-directs "Polar Science at a Human Scale" with Reppi Swan Sr. and Colleen Swan. Since 2020, their work has received funding from the University of Washington EarthLab, the UW Center for American Indian and Indigenous Studies, and the UW Program on Climate Change.</span></em></p>In the years since the Supreme Court rejected Kivalina’s appeal on May 20, 2013, the community’s search and rescue team has faced increasing climate disasters: ‘We just can’t adapt this fast.’P. Joshua Griffin, Assistant Professor of Marine and Environmental Affairs and American Indian Studies, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2021212023-04-02T11:46:43Z2023-04-02T11:46:43ZIn Canada’s two-tiered mental health system, access to care is especially challenging in rural areas<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518825/original/file-20230331-1042-xtdw0z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=77%2C325%2C4508%2C2879&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Psychologists can be found in the public system (for example, schools, hospitals, public health offices), but increasingly are choosing to work in private practice, fee-for-service, clinics. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rural Canadians face <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-016-0110-1">mental health concerns to the same degree as their urban counterparts</a>, but rural communities have less access to psychologists, and that access may be eroding. Psychologists can be found in the public system (for example, schools, hospitals, public health offices), but increasingly are choosing to work in private practice, in fee-for-service clinics. </p>
<p>Despite <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/news/2022/04/government-of-canada-invests-in-mental-health-and-distress-centres0.html">increasing discussion about investment into accessing mental health services</a>, as trainers of psychologists, we are <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/some-canadians-waiting-months-for-public-and-private-mental-health-services-1.6204350">observing fewer psychologist positions</a> and reduced focus on retaining psychologists within the public mental health system in Canada.</p>
<p>Not addressing these issues may have detrimental results for Canadians, such as:</p>
<ul>
<li> receiving services from non-psychologists who may not have the needed expertise to address present mental health challenges</li>
<li> participating in a two-tier system where only those who can pay for mental health care can receive it; and </li>
<li> exacerbating these issues for rural Canadians.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Where is the public investment in Canadians’ mental health?</h2>
<p>Problems retaining psychologists are <a href="https://www.canadianmountainnetwork.ca/blog/improving-access-to-mental-health-services">particularly evident in rural regions</a>, where issues like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.34.4.430">professional isolation, role confusion and burnout</a> are contributing to a crisis in mental health care access.</p>
<p>Rural clinicians are reporting <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0840470420933911">increased demand for mental health services</a>. This might be quickly interpreted to signal a higher degree of distress rates. However, it might instead be a sign that there are not enough psychologists — let alone integrated inter-professional mental health teams — to meet rural Canadians’ needs. </p>
<p>In rural settings, specialized mental health services are often not locally accessible, particularly in terms of early screening, treatment, tertiary care, teletherapy, integrated health services and community approaches. All these approaches have been suggested by <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332947233">policymakers to improve mental health service access in rural spaces</a>. </p>
<p>Access to needed services for all Canadians is central to the <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/health-care-system/canada-health-care-system-medicare/canada-health-act.html">Canada Health Act</a>. So where are they for rural Canadians? </p>
<p>While the Canadian government has announced billions in additional funding for mental health care and addictions, experts and practitioners acknowledge that <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-mental-health-federal-government-1.6761689">the public system has not kept up with needs</a>. </p>
<p>This leads us to ask: is mental health a responsibility of publicly funded health care, like a broken leg or cancer? Or has it fallen into a category of services that are necessary yet have limited coverage, such as dental care? The lines delineating what constitutes health seem arbitrary.</p>
<p>Sarah Kennell, director of public policy at the Canadian Mental Health Association, has stated, “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/canada-mental-health-federal-government-1.6761689">We can no longer continue to view mental health as not on par with physical health</a>.” </p>
<p>Investment is needed so that we can address the exodus of <a href="https://cjc-rcc.ucalgary.ca/article/view/61191">psychologists exiting the public system for private practice</a>.</p>
<h2>What is a psychologist?</h2>
<p>Psychologists are experts in mental health and provide essential services in identifying and treating behavioural disorders and difficulties. In collaboration with physicians and nurse practitioners, both of whom can prescribe pharmacological therapies, <a href="https://www.apadivisions.org/division-55/publications/tablet/2015/04/combininations">best outcomes for mental illness treatment</a> are observed when medications are paired with evidence-based psychological interventions.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man and a woman wearing lanyards discussing something while walking in a corridor" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518824/original/file-20230331-14-yqmubl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518824/original/file-20230331-14-yqmubl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518824/original/file-20230331-14-yqmubl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518824/original/file-20230331-14-yqmubl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518824/original/file-20230331-14-yqmubl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518824/original/file-20230331-14-yqmubl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518824/original/file-20230331-14-yqmubl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rural psychologists also need to work collaboratively with other health-care providers and mental health practitioners including counsellors, social workers and physicians.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Psychologists are a regulated profession requiring <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0829573516652992">graduate training, clinical supervision and comprehensive examination to enter practice</a>, and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/08295735221121059">continuing professional development to sustain competency over their careers</a>. Psychologists have at least six to twelve years of focused post-secondary training accredited by <a href="https://acpro-aocrp.ca/">provincial boards</a> that align with <a href="https://cpa.ca/docs/File/MRA.pdf">national standards</a> for competent and ethical practice.</p>
<p>Within rural areas, psychologists may often be asked to provide a range of services that are beyond their training and expertise. This results in a rural practice of psychology that is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000308">generalist in nature</a>, requiring <a href="https://cpa.ca/docs/File/Sections/RuralNorthern/fall_2019.pdf">rural psychologists to know a little about a lot</a>. </p>
<p>Rural psychologists also need to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2021.1949247">work collaboratively</a> with other health-care providers and mental health practitioners including counsellors, social workers and physicians. Noting of course, that these professions are also <a href="https://cpa.ca/docs/File/cpapadvocacyproject/rural.pdf">disproportionately allocated to urban settings</a>.</p>
<p>In the public system, many psychologists are frustrated by a failure to appropriately distribute responsibilities <a href="http://www.apnl.ca/assets/PDFS/APNL-Member-Survey-Feb-2022.pdf">between licensed psychologists, and other practitioners</a> and counsellors with minimal training in therapy. <a href="https://www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/wp-content/uploads/drupal/2017-07/Options_for_improving_access_to_counselling_psychotherapy_and_psychological_services_eng.pdf">That means resources are poorly deployed</a> and people may not get a suitable mental health practitioner for their needs. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman with a clipboard talking to a young boy" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518823/original/file-20230331-24-atj7uq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518823/original/file-20230331-24-atj7uq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518823/original/file-20230331-24-atj7uq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518823/original/file-20230331-24-atj7uq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518823/original/file-20230331-24-atj7uq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518823/original/file-20230331-24-atj7uq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518823/original/file-20230331-24-atj7uq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The exodus of psychologists from the public system means that experts in mental health are accessible only to those who can afford them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This results in <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/nl-psychologists-demand-rising-1.6352139">fewer psychologists working in the public system</a> and subsequently <a href="https://montrealgazette.com/opinion/opinion-as-private-sector-psychologists-were-speaking-up-for-the-public-system">more opting to work in private practice</a>. </p>
<p>Ultimately, this movement means that experts in mental health are accessible only to those who can afford them. Further, the private system tends to provide service in an out-patient setting to clients who are generally functioning in their day-to-day lives, whereas the public system serves a wider range including inpatient and high-needs care. </p>
<p>This exodus of psychologists from the public system results in a service-expertise mismatch, in that psychological care is more available to mild to moderate mental health concerns through private practices, and less psychological care is available for severe to profound cases within the public system.</p>
<h2>Brain drain to Canada’s cities</h2>
<p>Our team observes that these impacts are more <a href="https://omsa.ca/sites/default/files/media/inadequate_mental_health_supports_in_rural_and_northern_ontario_communities.pdf">directly felt within rural spaces in Canada</a>. Rural citizens often find it difficult to access psychologists who work within the public system. Many psychologists have increasing wait lists, and are administratively forced into <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/08295735211037810">assessment-only diagnostic practice</a>, preventing opportunities to provide direct therapeutic services. Once a diagnosis is made, counselling therapy is provided by less-trained practitioners.</p>
<p>Issues of isolation also impact the availability of psychologists in rural areas. This contributes to <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/features/rmh-0000002.pdf">the burnout experienced by several rural psychologists</a>, resulting in their leaving the rural or public system <a href="https://montreal.citynews.ca/2023/01/04/psychologist-public-students-quebec/">within five years of practice</a>, further exacerbating the disproportionate prevalence of psychologists between rural and urban/suburban regions.</p>
<p>Our team is concerned the rhetoric of increased investment in mental health does not address the systemic issues impacting psychologist engagement in the public system. Ultimately, leaving these issues unaddressed may further erode both access and standard of care for those seeking mental health services, and limit services to those who are able to pay for them. Rural Canadians are already affected.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202121/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Conor Barker receives funding from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Krista C Ritchie receives funding from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sara King receives funding from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Veronica Hutchings received funding from Canadian Institutes of Health Research. She is the chair of the Section on Rural and Northern Psychology of the Canadian Psychological Association. </span></em></p>Rural Canadians face challenges accessing mental health services, and an exodus of psychologists from the public system may make matters worse.Conor Barker, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology & Faculty of Education, Mount Saint Vincent UniversityKrista C Ritchie, Associate Professor, Faculty of Education, Mount Saint Vincent UniversitySara King, Associate Professor, Faculty of Education, Mount Saint Vincent UniversityVeronica Hutchings, Associate professor, Psychology, Memorial University of NewfoundlandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1993722023-02-22T12:55:04Z2023-02-22T12:55:04ZIn rural America, right-to-repair laws are the leading edge of a pushback against growing corporate power<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510919/original/file-20230217-18-bzd402.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=140%2C101%2C5052%2C3355&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Waiting for repairs can cost farmers time and money.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/combine-harvester-moves-through-a-field-of-barley-grains-news-photo/1162778105">VW Pics/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As tractors became more sophisticated over the past two decades, the big manufacturers allowed farmers fewer options for repairs. Rather than hiring independent repair shops, farmers have increasingly had to wait for company-authorized dealers to arrive. Getting repairs could take days, often leading to lost time and high costs.</p>
<p>A new <a href="https://www.fb.org/news-release/afbf-signs-right-to-repair-memorandum-of-understanding-with-john-deere">memorandum of understanding</a> between the country’s largest farm equipment maker, John Deere Corp., and the American Farm Bureau Federation is now raising hopes that U.S. farmers will finally regain the right to repair more of their own equipment. </p>
<p>However, supporters of right-to-repair laws suspect a more sinister purpose: <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/01/10/1147934682/john-deere-right-to-repair-farmers-tractors">to slow the momentum</a> of efforts to secure right-to-repair laws around the country. </p>
<p>Under the agreement, John Deere promises to give farmers and independent repair shops access to manuals, diagnostics and parts. But there’s a catch – the agreement isn’t legally binding, and, as part of the deal, the influential Farm Bureau promised not to support any federal or state right-to-repair legislation.</p>
<hr>
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<hr>
<p>The right-to-repair movement has become the leading edge of a pushback against growing corporate power. Intellectual property protections, whether patents on farm equipment, crops, computers or cellphones, have become more intense in recent decades and cover more territory, giving companies more control over what farmers and other consumers can do with the products they buy. </p>
<p>For farmers, few examples of those corporate constraints are more frustrating than repair restrictions and patent rights that prevent them from saving seeds from their own crops for future planting.</p>
<h2>How a few companies became so powerful</h2>
<p>The United States’ market economy requires competition to function properly, which is why U.S. <a href="https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=56116">antitrust policies were strictly enforced</a> in the post-World War II era.</p>
<p>During the 1970s and 1980s, however, political leaders began following the advice of a <a href="https://www.antitrustlawsource.com/2021/06/1990s-to-the-present-the-chicago-school-and-antitrust-enforcement/">group of economists</a> at the University of Chicago and relaxed <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1fx4h9c">enforcement of federal antitrust policies</a>. That led to a concentration of economic power in many sectors.</p>
<p>This concentration has become especially pronounced in agriculture, with a few companies <a href="https://farmaction.us/concentrationreport/">consolidating market share</a> in numerous areas, including seeds, pesticides and machinery, as well as commodity processing and meatpacking. One study in 2014 estimated that Monsanto, now owned by Bayer, was responsible for approximately <a href="https://fortune.com/2014/06/26/monsanto-gmo-crops/">80% of the corn and 90% of the soybeans</a> grown in the U.S. In farm machinery, John Deere and Kubota account for about a third of the market.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A tractor with several computer screens in the cab on the floor of a convention, with several people in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510917/original/file-20230217-28-unn1iv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510917/original/file-20230217-28-unn1iv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510917/original/file-20230217-28-unn1iv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510917/original/file-20230217-28-unn1iv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510917/original/file-20230217-28-unn1iv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510917/original/file-20230217-28-unn1iv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510917/original/file-20230217-28-unn1iv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">New tractors are increasingly high-tech, with GPS, 360-degree camera and smartphone controls.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/inside-the-cab-of-the-deer-co-john-deere-8r-fully-news-photo/1237542314">Patrick T. Fallon/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Market power often translates into political power, which means that those large companies can influence regulatory oversight, legal decisions, and legislation that furthers their economic interests – including securing more expansive and stricter intellectual property policies.</p>
<h2>The right-to-repair movement</h2>
<p>At its most basic level, right-to-repair legislation seeks to protect the end users of a product from anti-competitive activities by large companies. New York <a href="https://www.natlawreview.com/article/new-york-enacts-first-state-right-to-repair-law">passed the first broad right-to-repair law</a>, in 2022, and <a href="https://www.repair.org/stand-up">nearly two dozen states</a> have active legislation – about half of them <a href="https://apnews.com/article/agriculture-colorado-business-d5ea466725328d965a85a62130503d49">targeting farm equipment</a>.</p>
<p>Whether the product is an automobile, smartphone or seed, companies can extract more profits if they can force consumers to purchase the company’s replacement parts or use the company’s exclusive dealership to repair the product.</p>
<p><iframe id="yk0ep" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/yk0ep/7/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>One of the <a href="https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4247&context=law_lawreview">first cases</a> that challenged the right to repair equipment was in 1939, when a company that was reselling refurbished spark plugs was sued by the Champion Spark Plug Co. for violating its patent rights. The <a href="https://www.lexisnexis.com/community/casebrief/p/casebrief-champion-spark-plug-co-v-sanders">Supreme Court agreed</a> that Champion’s trademark had been violated, but it allowed resale of the refurbished spark plugs if “used” or “repaired” was stamped on the product.</p>
<p>Although courts have often sided with the end users in right-to-repair cases, large companies have vast legal and lobbying resources to argue for stricter patent protections. Consumer <a href="https://pirg.org/california/media-center/california-right-repair-bill-dies-senate-committee/">advocates contend</a> that these protections prevent people from repairing and modifying the products they rightfully purchased.</p>
<p>The ostensible justification for patents, whether for equipment or seeds, is that they provide an incentive for companies to invest time and money in developing products because they know that they will have exclusive rights to sell their inventions once patented.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-xg80-ct59">some scholars claim</a> that recent legal and legislative changes to patents are instead limiting innovation and social benefits. </p>
<h2>The problem with seed patents</h2>
<p>The extension of utility patents to agricultural seeds illustrates how intellectual property policies have expanded and become more restrictive.</p>
<p>Patents have been around since the founding of the U.S., but agricultural crops were initially considered natural processes that couldn’t be patented. That changed in 1980 with the U.S. Supreme Court decision <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1979/79-136">Diamond v. Chakrabarty</a>. The case involved genetically engineered bacteria that could break down crude oil. The court’s ruling allowed inventors to secure patents on living organisms.</p>
<p>Half a decade later, the U.S. Patent Office extended patents <a href="https://doi.org/10.3109/10731198909118281">to agricultural crops generated</a> through transgenic breeding techniques, which inserts a gene from one species into the genome of another. One prominent example is the insertion of a gene into corn and cotton that enables the plant to produce its own pesticide. In 2001, the Supreme Court <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2001/99-1996">included conventionally bred crops</a> in the category eligible for patenting.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Seeds grow in segmented compartments of petri dishes. The dishes have writing in marker on the top." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510918/original/file-20230217-364-qm2ktu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510918/original/file-20230217-364-qm2ktu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510918/original/file-20230217-364-qm2ktu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510918/original/file-20230217-364-qm2ktu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510918/original/file-20230217-364-qm2ktu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510918/original/file-20230217-364-qm2ktu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510918/original/file-20230217-364-qm2ktu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=513&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Genetically modified seeds, and even conventionally bred crops, can be patented.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/petri-dishes-containing-sprouting-embryos-of-an-news-photo/1314013422">Sean Gallup/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Historically, farmers would save seeds that their crops generated and replant them the following season. They could also sell those seeds to other farmers. They lost the right to sell their seeds in 1970, when Congress passed the <a href="https://www.ams.usda.gov/services/plant-variety-protection">Plant Variety Protection Act</a>. Utility patents, which grant an inventor exclusive right to produce a new or improved product, are even more restrictive.</p>
<p>Under a utility patent, farmers can no longer save seed for replanting on their own farms. University scientists even face <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470752555">restrictions on the kind of research</a> they can perform on patented crops.</p>
<p>Because of the clear changes in intellectual property protections on agricultural crops over the years, researchers are able to evaluate whether those changes correlate with crop innovations – the primary justification used for patents. The short answer is that they do not.</p>
<p>One study revealed that companies have used intellectual property to enhance their market power more than to enhance innovations. In fact, some vegetable crops with <a href="https://illinoislawreview.org/print/volume-2012-issue-4/veggie-tales-pernicious-myths-about-patents-innovation-and-crop-diversity-in-the-twentieth-century/">few patent protections had more varietal innovations</a> than crops with more patent protections.</p>
<h2>How much does this cost farmers?</h2>
<p>It can be <a href="https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/23395/genetically-engineered-crops-experiences-and-prospects">difficult to estimate</a> how much patented crops cost farmers. For example, farmers might pay more for the seeds but save money on pesticides or labor, and they might have higher yields. If market prices for the crop are high one year, the farmer might come out ahead, but if prices are low, the farmer might lose money. Crop breeders, meanwhile, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-06892-3">envision substantial profits</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly, it is difficult to calculate the costs farmers face from not having a right to repair their machinery. A machine breakdown that takes weeks to repair during harvest time could be catastrophic.</p>
<p>The nonprofit U.S. Public Interest Research Group calculated that <a href="https://pirg.org/resources/repair-saves-families-big/">U.S. consumers could save</a> US$40 billion per year if they could repair electronics and appliances – about $330 per family.</p>
<p>The memorandum of understanding between John Deere and the Farm Bureau may be a step in the right direction, but it is not a substitute for right-to-repair legislation or the enforcement of antitrust policies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199372/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leland Glenna does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Corporations restrict what farmers can do with their own seeds, as well as their farm equipment when it breaks down.Leland Glenna, Professor of Rural Sociology and Science, Technology, and Society, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1985972023-02-06T13:47:09Z2023-02-06T13:47:09ZChina’s demand for Africa’s donkeys is rising. Why it’s time to control the trade<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507537/original/file-20230201-14-y1ilnp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Women walk with their donkeys in Ethiopia's Amhara region.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Buena Vista Images/GettyImages</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>In recent years, there’s been a huge, rising demand for donkey hides in China, where they are used to make an ancient health-related product called <em>ejiao</em>. <em>Ejiao</em> is made from collagen <a href="https://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/end-the-donkey-skin-trade/what-is-ejiao">that’s been extracted</a> from donkey hides mixed with herbs and other ingredients to create medicinal and health consumer products. It’s believed to have <a href="https://www.thechinastory.org/yearbooks/yearbook-2017/forum-conspicuous-consumption/feasting-on-donkey-skin/">properties that strengthen</a> the blood, stop bleeding and improve the quality of both vital fluids and sleep. </p>
<p><em>Ejiao</em> <a href="http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-12/21/c_137690073.htm">sells for about</a> US$783 per kilo and the Chinese market for it has increased <a href="https://new.qq.com/rain/a/20220609A032D100">from about US$3.2 billion in 2013 to about US$7.8 billion in 2020</a>. This recent rise in demand is driven by several factors, including rising incomes, popularisation of the product via a television series, and an ageing population (age is a key demographic driving demand). In addition, <em>ejiao</em> is sometimes prescribed by doctors and the cost can newly be covered by health insurance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507853/original/file-20230202-2164-klq9tc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507853/original/file-20230202-2164-klq9tc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507853/original/file-20230202-2164-klq9tc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507853/original/file-20230202-2164-klq9tc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507853/original/file-20230202-2164-klq9tc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507853/original/file-20230202-2164-klq9tc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/507853/original/file-20230202-2164-klq9tc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ejiao.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">HelloRF Zcool/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The demand for <em>ejiao</em> has led to a shortage of donkeys in China and increasingly worldwide. Countries in Africa have been particularly affected. </p>
<p>Africa is home to the highest number of donkeys in the world: about <a href="http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?q=ass&d=FAO&f=itemCode%3a1107">two-thirds</a> of the estimated global population of 53 million donkeys in 2020. Exact figures on how many hides are exported to China aren’t available due to a growing illicit trade, but there are indications. A <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/12/9/1073">study</a> of South Africa’s donkey population, for instance, suggests that it went from 210,000 in 1996 to about 146,000 in 2019. This was attributed to the export of donkey hides.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://saiia.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/SAIIA_OP-339_ChinaAfricaDonkeys.pdf">recent paper</a> I examined the trends, issues and prospects for the Africa–China donkey trade. My information came from interviews, literature and news reviews in English and Chinese. </p>
<p>My findings are that the scale of the donkey trade, both illicit and legal, poses a challenge for many countries in Africa, especially in terms of its impact on the most marginalised communities. Besides donkey welfare, a big part of the challenge is how affordable donkeys are locally. Donkeys have a valuable, ancient role as a workhorse and losing access to them creates a huge problem for poor households. The other part of the challenge is regulatory. Only when the donkey hide trade is fully regulated - and export numbers are able to be very limited - might the trade work without adverse consequences for the poor. </p>
<p>This was also highlighted by a <a href="https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/tanzania/news/east-africa-news/trade-in-donkey-skins-still-unpopular-in-east-africa-4069512">recent survey</a> of the <a href="https://www.eac.int/">East African Community</a> which found that the region was not ready for the mass slaughter and unregulated trade of donkeys. Millions of vulnerable East Africans rely on donkeys for a living and are at risk of losing out through the donkey skin trade. </p>
<h2>Value of donkeys</h2>
<p>Donkeys are <a href="https://thehorse.com/features/beasts-of-burden-africas-working-horses-and-donkeys/">estimated to support about 158 million people in Africa</a>. In rural areas, the presence of a donkey in a household helps to alleviate poverty and frees women and girls from household drudgery. </p>
<p>Donkeys are one of the simplest, most sustainable and affordable means of transporting people, goods and farm inputs and outputs from home to farm to market and vice versa, as well as to water wells and other places. Even in harsh environments donkeys can travel long distances with a heavy load, limited fluids, and without showing signs of fatigue. They are a durable household asset. </p>
<p>Donkey ownership increases productivity and lessens hard work by, for example, reducing the loads women must otherwise carry themselves. In Ghana, for instance, owning a donkey was <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/11/11/3154?type=check_update&version=1">found to save</a> adults about five hours of labour a week, and children 10 hours a week. The presence of a donkey also freed girl children to go to school.</p>
<p>Donkeys can also carry heavy loads of firewood and water. This means people need to make fewer trips. This <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/11/11/3154?type=check_update&version=1">frees up labour</a> and time for other income generating activities, such as sowing someone’s farm for money.</p>
<p>The value of having a donkey in the household is evident. The loss of a donkey to a household in rural Kenya is <a href="http://erepo.usiu.ac.ke/11732/7197">associated with</a> an increased risk of poverty – children drop out of school, and there’s less water security and more economic fragility. This makes the donkey trade a sensitive topic.</p>
<h2>Government responses</h2>
<p>Rising Chinese demand for donkeys has elicited a variety of responses by governments across Africa. </p>
<p>Tanzania, for example, attempted to create a formal donkey industry and trade. But, in 2022, <a href="https://www.capitalethiopia.com/2022/06/19/tanzania-bans-donkey-slaughter-to-stop-risk-of-extinction/">authorities banned it</a> because legal supply couldn’t keep up with demand. Female donkeys typically produce only a few foals each in a lifetime. </p>
<p>In Kenya, public outrage – largely due to the rise of donkey prices and diminishing supply – led to a ban on exports in February 2020. Kenya’s donkey exporters, however, <a href="https://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202008/07/WS5f2cf3e0a31083481725eeea.html">took their case</a> against the ban to Kenya’s High Court in June 2020, and won.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-kenya-has-banned-the-commercial-slaughter-of-donkeys-121455">Why Kenya has banned the commercial slaughter of donkeys</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Elsewhere, countries such as Botswana, Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Tanzania banned donkey exports. Others, such as South Africa, banned or limited the donkey trade with requirements for established slaughterhouses and related quotas. </p>
<p>However, the implementation of donkey bans varies according to the strength of the regulatory capacity in each country - and how easy it is to smuggle things across borders.</p>
<p>In South Africa’s case, export quotas have merely sent the trade underground. This leads to more donkey theft. Illicitly traded hides from South Africa are <a href="https://www.voanews.com/a/africa-s-donkeys-are-being-stolen-and-slaughtered-for-chinese-medicine-/6651256.html">typically</a> from donkeys that are slaughtered inhumanely in the bush or in sub-standard slaughterhouses in Lesotho. Then they are exported to China. </p>
<p>Poverty also fosters the trade, which in turn can lead to further impoverishment. Donkey owners, needing a short-term income windfall, will <a href="https://www.thebrooke.org/news/world-animal-day-research-shows-detrimental-effect-donkey-skin-trade-families">sell their animal</a>. It may then be slaughtered and traded illegally and lead to diminished income-earning opportunity in the medium and long run. </p>
<h2>What needs to be done</h2>
<p>A recent <a href="https://panafricandonkeyconference.org/">Pan-African Donkey Conference</a> called for a <a href="http://www.environewsnigeria.com/pan-african-conference-seeks-15-year-ban-on-donkey-slaughter/#:%7E:text=%E2%80%9CTo%20curb%20this%20unsustainable%20exploitation,and%20other%20donkey%20related%20products.">15-year continent-wide moratorium</a> on the trade to allow supply to recover and regulatory capacity to be enhanced. </p>
<p>The <em>ejiao</em> industry in China is well organised and resourced. A handful of major firms and one province dominate the industry in China, and they are represented by the Shandong Ejiao Industry Association. </p>
<p>A China-Africa donkey hide trade may be possible if African countries get organised, form associations and establish a dialogue with the Shandong Ejiao Industry. The aim would be to work out sustainable mechanisms, prevent damage to local interests and help to counter the illicit trade. </p>
<p>In parallel to this, it would be important for animal welfare agencies in China to raise awareness of the illicit and damaging impact of the illicit donkey hide trade. </p>
<p>For now, I believe that the trade is premature. Better regulatory standards are needed by China’s <em>ejiao</em> industry such that illegally traded and stolen donkey hides are not part of the industry. Deeper cooperation across African countries would also help to preserve the ancient role of the donkey in supporting trade and the continent’s most vulnerable and geographically isolated groups.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198597/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Johnston does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The demand for donkey hides to produce ejiao has led to a shortage of donkeys in China and increasingly worldwide.Lauren Johnston, Senior Researcher, South African Institute of International AffairsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1975512023-01-16T18:19:33Z2023-01-16T18:19:33ZJapan is paying families 1 million yen to move to the countryside – but it won’t make Tokyo any smaller<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504664/original/file-20230116-16-dga048.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/7Xl0a6KCDyM">Denys Nevozhai | Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Japanese government <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/03/million-yen-per-child-to-leave-tokyo-japans-offer-to-families">has announced</a> a fresh round of incentives for people to move out of the Tokyo region. From April 2023, families seeking a new life in greener pastures will receive JPY1 million (£6,380), per child. This represents an increase of JPY700,000 on previous such payments. </p>
<p>Once the whole benefits package is included, the maximum amount a family will be able to receive is JPY5 million. 5 million yen might sound like a lot of money. However this translates to £31,900, which <a href="https://www.vice.com/en/article/m7gdzy/japan-pays-families-leave-tokyo">will be quickly used up</a> in relocating to a new home, job and community, and reduced incomes.</p>
<p>The main purpose of the scheme is to contribute both to easing overcrowding in the Tokyo region and revitalising more rural and remote areas of Japan with an injection of youth and entrepreneurialism.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Grasses in the foreground of a deep countryside view under sunshine." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504663/original/file-20230116-12-q5m884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504663/original/file-20230116-12-q5m884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504663/original/file-20230116-12-q5m884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504663/original/file-20230116-12-q5m884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504663/original/file-20230116-12-q5m884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504663/original/file-20230116-12-q5m884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504663/original/file-20230116-12-q5m884.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The government is seeking to revitalise the Japanese countryside.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/dfdFyCyKHto">Muhammad Faiz Zulkeflee | Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is significant that this new scheme was announced in December, ahead of the new year holidays when many urban dwellers return to their rural roots, and conversations inevitably turn to what the future holds. </p>
<p>Even more significant is the fact that this is not the first time the government has launched such a scheme. In fact, successive Japanese administrations have tried – and largely failed – to stabilise rural prefectures’ populations and reduce urban overcrowding for 70 years.</p>
<h2>Attempts at counterurbanisation</h2>
<p>The scheme concerns residents from the 23 wards of Tokyo proper, as well as commuter cities in neighbouring Chiba, Saitama and Kanagawa prefectures, seeking to move to one of 1,800 provincial municipalities. The government hopes that around 10,000 people annually will take advantage of the offer.</p>
<p>There are conditions, of course. At least one earner in each household must either set up a business in their new locale or take up employment in a small or medium sized enterprise there. And the family must stay for a minimum of five years. Failure to do so may result in having to repay the whole amount.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An empty, run-down train station platform." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504660/original/file-20230116-6411-caekqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504660/original/file-20230116-6411-caekqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504660/original/file-20230116-6411-caekqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504660/original/file-20230116-6411-caekqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504660/original/file-20230116-6411-caekqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504660/original/file-20230116-6411-caekqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504660/original/file-20230116-6411-caekqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rural Japan is emptying of residents and investment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/gMVsDTcWyzI">Tzepang Ngaa | Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Japan is not the only country where governments pay people to relocate to the countryside. In 2021, Ireland started to move up to 68,000 government workers out of Dublin in its <a href="https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/4c236-our-rural-future-vision-and-policy-context/">Our Rural Future</a> plan. </p>
<p>Many countries have taken similar advantage of the increased flexibility of remote working the pandemic has stimulated, such as with the so-called <a href="https://www.william-russell.com/blog/zoom-towns-the-countries-and-states-that-will-pay-you-to-move-there/">“Zoom towns”</a> in rural US. Other examples include <a href="https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/paid-to-relocate_albinen-cash-incentives-attract-new-residents/44308024">Albinen</a> in Switzerland, various <a href="https://www.thinkspain.com/news-spain/33497/rural-allure-six-villages-that-have-paid-people-to-move-in">Spanish villages</a> and <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/presicce-italy-pay-to-move/index.html">Presicce</a> in Italy, which is offering £30,000 to buy an empty dwelling and take up residency.</p>
<p>There have been a long list of such measures in Japan since world war two. As detailed by <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/udi.2012.26">German geographer Thomas Feldhoff</a>, starting with the 1953 Remote Island Promotion Act, most of them met with only marginal success.</p>
<p>In the early 1970s, Prime Minister Tanaka Kakuei’s government invested in huge infrastructure development programmes in Japan’s provinces. This was partly in an effort to boost employment and stabilise populations. </p>
<p>Tanaka was so ambitious that he wrote a book about it, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1795023#metadata_info_tab_contents">Remodelling the Japanese Archipelago</a>, which was published in 1972. And his plan did work for a while. However, it generated enormous environmental damage in the process, with which Japan is still coming to terms.</p>
<p>In the 1980s, the <em>Isson Ippon</em>, or One Village One Product movement, as it is known in English, was launched in Oita prefecture in Kyushu. It provided a gentler alternative, which is still being <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cc2693en/cc2693en.pdf">promoted internationally</a> by the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization, as part of Japan’s overseas development activities. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A street scene in a small town in the mountains." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504667/original/file-20230116-26-yi0k29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504667/original/file-20230116-26-yi0k29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504667/original/file-20230116-26-yi0k29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504667/original/file-20230116-26-yi0k29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504667/original/file-20230116-26-yi0k29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504667/original/file-20230116-26-yi0k29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504667/original/file-20230116-26-yi0k29.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Oita prefecture, in Kyushu.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/LJil2jfhTxU">Tayawee Supan | Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More recently, <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ssjj/article-abstract/13/2/187/1698938">research</a> I have undertaken with my colleague Yasuyuki Sato has shown how rural municipalities have resigned themselves to ever reducing populations. In an attempt to take control of such futures, they have begun instead to focus on the health, wellbeing and living conditions of those people who remain.</p>
<h2>A global concern</h2>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/the-era-of-the-megalopolis-how-the-worlds-cities-are-merging-193424">Urban sprawl</a> and rural emptying are two sides of the same 21st-century coin, and are global in their extent. In the 19th and 20th centuries, as populations across the world grew exponentially, urbanisation processes didn’t necessarily affect rural regions negatively. Some communities benefited from younger people moving out to seek employment, education, and marriage in nearby cities, as families often had more children than they could adequately support.</p>
<p>In the 21st century, however, as family size has shrunk dramatically nearly everywhere, the so-called <a href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1274.html">demographic dividend</a> – that is, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/as-the-8-billionth-person-is-born-heres-how-africa-will-shape-the-future-of-the-planets-population-194067">benefits</a> of a growing population – has come to an end in developed countries. </p>
<p>Japan has led the way in East Asia. In 1974, the Japanese total fertility rate <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?locations=JP">fell below</a> the population replacement rate of 2.1. Demographers would have known then that, should conditions persist, the country would eventually slip into depopulation. Sure enough, conditions did persist, and in 2008 Japan registered its <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/psp.2543">first peacetime population decrease</a>.</p>
<p>Although Tokyo’s population is now 13 million, the Kanto region of which it is the core boasts more than 37 million people – 30% of the whole population of Japan. Elsewhere in the country, hundreds of rural hamlets and villages face <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jennawang/2019/07/31/waiting-for-the-end-in-japans-terminal-villages/">imminent extinction</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An aerial view of a city and traffic at sunset." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504668/original/file-20230116-26-82jp3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504668/original/file-20230116-26-82jp3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504668/original/file-20230116-26-82jp3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504668/original/file-20230116-26-82jp3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504668/original/file-20230116-26-82jp3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504668/original/file-20230116-26-82jp3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504668/original/file-20230116-26-82jp3f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=449&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Seoul cityscape.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/01hH6y7oZFk">Mathew Schwartz | Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Japan is not unique. Greater Seoul has around 25 million people, nearly half of South Korea’s population in one urban area with the rest spread out across the rest of the country. And in China, the Pearl River delta area, which encompasses Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Macau and Guangzhou, counts <a href="https://www.thestoryinstitute.com/pearl-river">100 million people</a> living within it, while the wider country now boasts <a href="https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/cities/china">155 cities</a> with more than 1 million population.</p>
<p>Further afield, at 1.7 million, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/05/bulging-at-the-seams-auckland-a-super-city-struggling-with-its-own-success">the city of Auckland</a> comprises nearly a third of New Zealand’s population. Only 1.2 million people, <a href="https://www.citypopulation.de/en/newzealand/southisland/">by contrast</a>, live in all of the South Island. </p>
<p>The spatial impacts of this demographic transition have been felt most deeply in rural regions of the Asia-Pacific. These grew most rapidly in the 20th century, and now face almost as rapid a depopulation in the 21st. <a href="https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/78027/1/MatanleFCO2014_Deposit.pdf">Entire communities</a> are disappearing. Land and housing are being abandoned. Infrastructure is decaying.</p>
<p>As the rest of east and south-east Asia follows in Japan’s footsteps, the archipelago is to some extent a laboratory for devising effective policies for dealing with the socioeconomic and environmental outcomes of depopulation, a phenomenon which will increasingly be felt globally.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197551/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>In the course of his research on Japanese spatial demography Peter Matanle received funding from the Daiwa Anglo-Japanese Foundation, the Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation, the Economic and Social Research Council, the Arts and Humanities Research Council, and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.</span></em></p>Successive Japanese administrations have tried – and largely failed – to reduce urban overcrowding for 70 years.Peter Matanle, Senior Lecturer in Japanese Studies, University of SheffieldLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1945402022-11-16T23:18:43Z2022-11-16T23:18:43ZLocal newspapers are vital for disadvantaged communities, but they’re struggling too<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495249/original/file-20221115-21-3zokly.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5538%2C3686&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>As residents in the small Victorian city of Portland voiced concerns about the loss of vital healthcare services in their area, the local newspaper – <a href="https://spec.com.au/article/general/2022/06/05/hospital-woes-catch-opposition-leaders-ear/">The Portland Observer</a> – was there to cover the story. It produced a series of reports highlighting the impact on residents (including a <a href="https://spec.com.au/article/general/2022/04/08/it-was-just-good-luck/">baby being born in a carpark</a>), eventually attracting <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/mothers-devastated-as-birthing-unit-suspended-amid-portland-hospital-crisis-20220323-p5a710.html">broader media attention</a> and putting pressure on politicians to act.</p>
<p>This is just one example of how rural and regional newspapers can play an <a href="https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Local_Journalism_in_a_Digital_World/WsZKEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover">important role</a> in serving their communities. </p>
<p>Small, local newspapers can campaign and advocate on key issues such as roads, telecommunications infrastructure, or improved mental health services. In many ways, they are an essential service for rural communities. </p>
<p>But the <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House/Communications/Regionalnewspapers/Report">future of rural newspapers</a> is uncertain. Advertising revenue is declining and they face tough competition from tech giants. Several closed their doors during the pandemic, leaving many areas without local news services.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495250/original/file-20221115-11-91vwmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495250/original/file-20221115-11-91vwmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495250/original/file-20221115-11-91vwmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495250/original/file-20221115-11-91vwmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495250/original/file-20221115-11-91vwmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495250/original/file-20221115-11-91vwmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495250/original/file-20221115-11-91vwmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495250/original/file-20221115-11-91vwmw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The future of rural newspapers is uncertain.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/print-isnt-dead-major-survey-reveals-local-newspapers-vastly-preferred-over-google-among-country-news-consumers-160353">Print isn't dead: major survey reveals local newspapers vastly preferred over Google among country news consumers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>An uncertain future</h2>
<p>Portland, in the Glenelg Shire Council, is in the bottom third of the list of Australia’s <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/2033.0.55.0012016?OpenDocument">disadvantaged local government areas</a>. Across Australia, the <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/2071.0%7E2016%7EMain%20Features%7ESocio-Economic%20Advantage%20and%20Disadvantage%7E123press%22%22">top ten regions for socio-economic disadvantage</a> are based in rural and regional areas. This means local newspapers are especially important in such communities.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.localnewsinnovation.org/">research team</a> examined the future of local, independently owned newspapers across country Australia. Of the 180 newspapers across the <a href="https://countrypressaustralia.com.au/">Country Press Australia</a> network, a considerable proportion serve disadvantaged populations.</p>
<p>Other areas, such as the mining town of Lightning Ridge in the Walgett shire (ranked 39 in the <a href="https://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/2033.0.55.0012016?OpenDocument">Australian Bureau of Statistics’</a> disadvantaged local government area list) have no local newspaper, and rely on an intermittent Facebook page. <a href="https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.996025496767872">Research</a> reveals local residents here feel they lack important information about civic, social and political affairs.</p>
<p>The role of local media in rural and regional areas is especially highlighted in times of hardship, such as during floods or drought.</p>
<p>When disaster strikes, local newspapers can promote community cohesion and resilience. A local printed newspaper is especially important in areas with poor <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-10-16/australia-digital-divide-millions-cannot-access-internet/101498042">digital connectivity</a> (in other words, much of rural Australia).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495272/original/file-20221115-13-87381l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495272/original/file-20221115-13-87381l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495272/original/file-20221115-13-87381l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495272/original/file-20221115-13-87381l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495272/original/file-20221115-13-87381l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495272/original/file-20221115-13-87381l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495272/original/file-20221115-13-87381l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/495272/original/file-20221115-13-87381l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A local printed newspaper is especially important in areas with poor digital connectivity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>It takes time, effort and money</h2>
<p>Of course, local media can also generate <a href="https://firstnationsmedia.org.au/sites/default/files/files/Submissions/Media%2520Diversity%2520in%2520Australia%2520submission%25202020.pdf">inequalities</a>. They can end up ignoring marginalised voices and privileging the powerful. </p>
<p>But here, we argue, the benefits of independent public interest journalism in local communities outweigh the negatives when it comes to spotlighting issues about disadvantage. They are, despite their imperfections, a fundamental essential service for disadvantaged rural and regional areas.</p>
<p>Practicing local journalism, however, takes time, effort and money. Many newsrooms operate, as one small newspaper proprietor put it, “on the smell of an oily rag”. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.localnewsinnovation.org/">Our research</a> has looked at some of the sector’s structural issues especially, in an effort to find ways to maintain or improve resources for rural media. </p>
<p>This has included, for example:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>stemming loss of revenue from local, state and federal government advertising spend, which has been redirected to social media</p></li>
<li><p>alternative business models</p></li>
<li><p>collaboration </p></li>
<li><p>drawing more on community contributed content.</p></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-governments-regional-media-bailout-doesnt-go-far-enough-here-are-reforms-we-really-need-144666">The government's regional media bailout doesn't go far enough — here are reforms we really need</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A role for government</h2>
<p>Victorian Premier Daniel Andrews recently <a href="https://www.danandrews.com.au/news/backing-regional-news-in-regional-communities">announced</a> an election pledge to guarantee his government would pay for a full-page public notice “every single week in every single regional newspaper”. This move, he said, would “bring some certainty to your business model”. </p>
<p>Subject to ironing out the finer details, this is an important and necessary step to securing the future of local news. The Victorian government recognises the importance of this type of expenditure more than any other government in the country, <a href="https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/House/Communications/Regionalnewspapers/Report">according to the latest government inquiry</a>.</p>
<p>A further challenge is to prioritise support for small independent media in the country’s most disadvantaged areas, where the commercial advertising dollar is arguably scarce. </p>
<p>In recent years, two rounds of <a href="https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/media-technology-communications/television/relief-australian-media-during-covid-19">federal government funding packages</a> have been open to media outlets to apply for help, employ new journalists and purchase digital equipment or online services. </p>
<p>However, new start-ups did not qualify for the funding, even when they play a vital role in keeping communities informed in the interests of democracy.</p>
<p>Any public money granted to private media entities must benefit community, so any
rural and regional newspapers receiving government funding will need to be monitored. With the right policy settings, we can support them to ensure they are producing quality, local, public interest journalism that represents their diverse communities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/194540/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kristy Hess receives funding from the Australian Research Council Linkage program to examine the civic value of country newspapers with support of Country Press Australia. She also receives funding from the Australian Research Council Discovery program and the Victorian Drought Resilience, Adoption and Innovation Hub. This article is part of The Conversation’s Breaking the Cycle series, which is supported by a philanthropic grant from the Paul Ramsay Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison McAdam receives funding from the Australian Research Council Linkage program to examine the civic value of country newspapers with support of Country Press Australia.</span></em></p>Across Australia, the top ten regions for socio-economic disadvantage are based in rural and regional areas. Local newspapers are especially important in such communities.Kristy Hess, Professor (Communication), Deakin UniversityAlison McAdam, Lecturer in Professional Practice (Communication), Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1854432022-07-14T13:49:40Z2022-07-14T13:49:40Z‘Walk straight’: how small-town residents navigate without street signs and names<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/472068/original/file-20220701-14-hg04ln.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C0%2C5069%2C3397&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Residents of rural areas depend on social interactions to give directions.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/napier-overberg-region-south-africa-the-r316-highway-news-photo/1263655234?adppopup=true">Peter Titmuss/Education Images/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0261927X970161002">Linguistic landscape</a> is the study of languages used in signs. As most of the field’s pioneering studies were based on cities, research comes to be associated with <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books?hl=en&lr=&id=YH2QAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA13&dq=coulmas+2009+linguistic+landscape&ots=0Ujx6ti7af&sig=4WpRZkRm1NW-HrXjs97_MX8E5Uk#v=onepage&q&f=false">cityscapes</a>.</p>
<p>However, a focus on written language or signage overlooks the reality that information is not always consumed and produced through writing. Additionally, associating linguistic landscape research with cities marginalises the experiences of people residing in “non-urban” spaces. Lastly, in South Africa, <a href="https://www.rimisp.org/wp-content/files_mf/1422297966R_ULinkages_SouthAfrica_countrycasestudy_Final_edited.pdf">the distinction between rural and urban environments</a> is not always clear.</p>
<p>An example of information that is primarily consumed and produced orally due to insufficient or non-existent written signage in “rural” parts of the Northern Cape province in South Africa is route directions. </p>
<p>As part of <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03736245.2020.1786443?journalCode=rsag20">my PhD studies</a> in linguistics, I explored the oral strategies that people use to find their way around and give directions. I chose two sparsely populated settlements in South Africa, Ulco and Delportshoop, for the research because they have little or no written signage in their physical environments. </p>
<p>I asked residents to explain step by step how they would travel from their home to the local shop, and to mention examples of street names in their town. I wanted to know what resources they drew on to navigate space. The residents used a mixture of rural and urban spatial markers to produce oral route directions. They also invented oral street names.</p>
<p>Oral route directions have not received much attention in linguistic landscape studies. This neglected area merits more attention as finding one’s way in both rural and urban environments depends on more than written signage.</p>
<h2>Ulco and Delportshoop</h2>
<p>Ulco and Delportshoop are about 20km apart in South Africa’s Northern Cape province. Their stark socio-geographical differences yet interrelated nature make them intriguing research sites.</p>
<p>Ulco is a private town providing accommodation for workers of a limestone mine and cement factory. The population was <a href="https://census2011.adrianfrith.com/place/384004">860</a> in 2011. While 55.58% reported Setswana as their first language, 35.81% cited Afrikaans. Ulco has only one officially-named street called Work Street, which is located at the entrance of the cement factory.</p>
<p>Delportshoop’s population was 10,346 in 2011. It is state-run and administratively governed by Dikgatlong Municipality. It has a government clinic, a police station, four public schools, a municipal office and some public transport (taxis). Delportshoop has visible street name poles in most of its residential areas. </p>
<p>What the towns have in common is inadequate or inconsistent written signage that could make it easier for people to find their way around. And the residents of both places mostly get around by walking.</p>
<p>Being sparsely populated qualifies a place as non-urban or <a href="https://www.ecsecc.org/documentrepository/informationcentre/rural-development-framework-document_72333.pdf">rural</a> in South Africa. But the results of my study question this perception.</p>
<h2>How residents give directions</h2>
<p>Central to my study was the idea of <a href="https://asset-pdf.scinapse.io/prod/2137284728/2137284728.pdf">semiotic resources</a>, defined as
“the actions and artefacts we use to communicate, whether they are produced physiologically or by means of technologies”. For example, speech is a semiotic resource that is produced physiologically while a GIF is technological. By considering all actions and artefacts as potential way-finding strategies, this study was not restricted to written signs. In so doing, it deviated from the main unit of analysis of traditional linguistic landscape research.</p>
<p>Residents gave me oral directions from their homes to their local shop. They showed that “rural” and “urban” spatial navigation practices are not so neatly separated. In rural and urban areas alike, people use landmarks to navigate space. The difference is the type of features that are perceived as landmarks. </p>
<p>In rural environments, residents draw on natural features such as big trees. The residents of these supposedly rural places used landmarks (road traffic signs, a school, a shop and a police station) and relative directions (mostly left and right), as people would in urban environments. They also frequently used the houses of notable people as landmarks. For example, as part of her oral directions, a resident stated that “from here, you walk straight until you get to Moleele’s corner” – Moleele is the surname of the family whose house is on that corner. </p>
<p>This suggests that successful way-finding in sparsely populated areas requires residents to depend on numerous semiotic resources because written signage is scarce. </p>
<p>To counter the absence of street names, residents in Ulco, particularly, invented street names. Streets were unofficially named after the purpose they served (for example, Main Road), features that once existed in the vicinity (for instance a clinic), or a popular resident. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nairobis-street-names-reveal-what-those-in-power-want-to-remember-or-forget-141378">Nairobi's street names reveal what those in power want to remember, or forget</a>
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<p>Because public transport systems are poor in these places, distance is mostly perceived in terms of walking – which is different from the understanding of distance in areas where people get around in vehicles.</p>
<p>One practice that stood out was the way they used the word “straight” to indicate both direction and distance. The re-purposing of the word “straight” was a novel finding; no way-finding study to date has found that “straight” can be a distance estimator. </p>
<p>Instead of saying, “not too far from here” or “a kilometre from there”, Ulco and Delportshoop residents drew on three pronunciations of “straight”: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>normal pronunciation (no emphasis) – this implies that the distance to travel is short</p></li>
<li><p>repeating the word (straight, straight) – fairly far</p></li>
<li><p>stressing the word (straaaighttt!) – extremely far.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The understanding of “straight” as a distance indicator suggests that in rural areas, way-finding is socially constructed. In other words, in sparsely populated areas, there are agreed-upon ways of finding your way that are common yet “unspoken”. Knowledge and use of these strategies are orally transferred. </p>
<p>Other studies have found similar systems in use in <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021909613510246">“nondescript” places</a> in urban sub-Saharan Africa. </p>
<h2>Signs aren’t always written</h2>
<p>By focusing on oral instead of written signage, my study broadens the scope of what linguistic landscape scholars can consider as signage. Non-linguistic semiotic resources such as trees, bushes, and the houses of residents are signage.</p>
<p>The findings also show how the concepts of rural and urban are blurred as residents of both environments use similar ways of finding their way around. Orality continues to be central in way-finding, particularly in rural areas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185443/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lorato Mokwena receives funding from National Research Foundation (NRF) in South Africa. </span></em></p>While many people rely on written signage to find their way around, oral language plays a significant role in giving directions in rural areas.Lorato Mokwena, Lecturer, University of the Western CapeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1813932022-05-12T12:14:01Z2022-05-12T12:14:01ZFor some people, religious leaders might be most effective at communicating the importance of COVID-19 vaccination<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462095/original/file-20220509-16-m42mc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=429%2C36%2C7750%2C5420&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Washington National Cathedral hosted a public vaccination event in March 2021 to help demonstrate trust by faith leaders of all denominations in the COVID-19 vaccines.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/mariann-budde-bishop-of-episcopal-diocese-of-washington-news-photo/1307482259?adppopup=true">Alex Wong/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Vaccinating a substantial portion of society has been found to be the best way to bring the COVID-19 pandemic <a href="https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/covid-19-vaccines">under control</a>, but the pace of vaccination has slowed down since the vaccines were first made available to the public in <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/health/2020/12/29/covid-vaccine-floridas-roll-out-seniors-gets-off-rocky-start/4067324001/">December 2020</a>. As of May 2022, only <a href="https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#vaccinations_vacc-people-onedose-pop-5yr">66% of the eligible population</a> in the United States was fully vaccinated, even as <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/covid-19-vaccinations-decline-new-lows-n1291240">vaccines were going unused</a> around the country. </p>
<p>Some groups, such as political conservatives, <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2021/04/rural-americans-are-much-less-likely-get-vaccine/618573/">rural residents</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/05/us/covid-vaccine-evangelicals.html">evangelical Christians</a>, are less likely to get vaccinated. Low vaccination rates could lead to more deaths and prolong the pandemic.</p>
<p>Experts <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1838096">believe</a> that effective public health messages are needed to encourage people to receive a COVID-19 vaccination. People are more likely to follow advice if it comes from someone they can trust. </p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.sdstate.edu/directory/filip-viskupic">political</a> <a href="https://www.sdstate.edu/directory/david-wiltse">scientists</a>, we found in our recent study that religious leaders are more effective messengers than medical and political leaders.</p>
<h2>Religious leaders and COVID-19 messaging</h2>
<p>In April 2021, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S104909652200004X">we surveyed</a> 709 unvaccinated registered voters in South Dakota, a state with a large proportion of Republican voters, rural residents and evangelical Christians.</p>
<p>We wanted to find out whether public health messaging from three different types of leaders – political leaders, medical leaders or religious leaders – might increase the willingness of the unvaccinated population to receive a COVID-19 vaccine. We also wanted to find out which messenger would be most successful in delivering this message.</p>
<p>As a part of the survey, we conducted what social scientists call a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108777919">survey experiment</a>,” which is similar to experiments that scientists conduct in laboratories. Participants were randomly assigned into one of four groups: three treatment groups and one control group. </p>
<p>Participants in each of the treatment groups received an identical message encouraging COVID-19 vaccination. This message came either from a political leader, medical leader or a religious leader from South Dakota. </p>
<p>For scientific validity, participants in the fourth group read a short message unrelated to the COVID-19 pandemic (similar to a placebo in a clinical trial). Afterward, all participants answered the same question about their vaccination intentions.</p>
<p>We found that of the three messengers, only the religious messenger succeeded in pushing the interest of the unvaccinated toward getting the shot. Compared to the participants in the control group, those who received a message from the religious leader showed a 12% greater likelihood of getting vaccinated. We also saw that messaging from a religious leader increased evangelical Christians’ interest in getting vaccinated by 14% compared with those in the control group. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462099/original/file-20220509-18-h338kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman in a white shirt, holding a sign saying 'I fear God, not COVID.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462099/original/file-20220509-18-h338kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462099/original/file-20220509-18-h338kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462099/original/file-20220509-18-h338kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462099/original/file-20220509-18-h338kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462099/original/file-20220509-18-h338kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462099/original/file-20220509-18-h338kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/462099/original/file-20220509-18-h338kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">A protestor opposing COVID-19 vaccine mandates holds a sign in front of City Hall in downtown Los Angeles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/APTOPIXVirusOutbreakCaliforniaVaccine/c45970b57e9a4ba5a029aeeefdaac916/photo?Query=vaccine%20protests&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=1308&currentItemNo=9">AP Photo/Damian Dovarganes</a></span>
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<p>Conversely, we found that the same message delivered by both the medical and political leaders failed to persuade the unvaccinated population to receive a COVID-19 vaccine. When we asked every respondent about their interest in learning more about the vaccines, we found a backlash against the medical messenger. Compared with the control group, respondents who received an encouragement from the medical messenger were 9% less likely to seek out information about vaccines. </p>
<h2>A reason for cautious optimism?</h2>
<p>The good news of our study is that attitudes toward vaccination are not set and the vaccine-hesitant are responsive to certain kinds of encouragements. </p>
<p>Our findings are in line with existing studies that showed the high levels of trust clergy enjoy in the society. For example, a Pew survey conducted last year <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/10/15/most-americans-who-go-to-religious-services-say-they-would-trust-their-clergys-advice-on-covid-19-vaccines/">reported</a> that over 60% of congregants have at least “a fair amount” of confidence in their religious leaders to provide guidance about getting a COVID-19 vaccine. The Pew survey also found that the congregants’ confidence in state and local elected officials as well as news media was lower – at 50% and 41%, respectively. A scientific study <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2101723118">found</a> that a religious message from an evangelical leader led more evangelicals to see wearing face masks as important.</p>
<p>Discouragingly, we found that messaging from medical leaders had little to no effect. Our data shows that this is largely attributed to the politicization of the COVID-19 pandemic. Unfortunately, public health authorities in particular have become part of the political skirmish surrounding vaccination. </p>
<p>For example, Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and chief medical adviser to the president, and other scientists have been <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/17/us/politics/fauci-trump-coronavirus.html">repeatedly criticized</a> by several Republican politicians, including former President Donald Trump. It is likely that many among those who are unvaccinated may not heed scientists’ advice about COVID-19 vaccines.</p>
<p>Overall, the findings of our study should be interpreted as cautious optimism. COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy is challenging to overcome, but we argue that there are ways to break through some of the hesitancy and skepticism.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181393/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Two political scientists in their study in South Dakota found people trusted medical professionals the least when it came to public health messages.Filip Viskupič, Assistant Professor of Political Science, South Dakota State UniversityDavid Wiltse, Associate Professor of Political Science, South Dakota State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1766102022-04-07T10:16:34Z2022-04-07T10:16:34ZFarmers are finding a new following on social media – our research suggests it could help with isolation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456576/original/file-20220406-24-ngzw8f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C18%2C4126%2C3069&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Farmers are at increased risk of loneliness and isolation.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/VBkijqR9xVM">David George/Unsplash</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the wake of a chaotic <a href="https://theconversation.com/im-a-sheep-and-cattle-farmer-in-england-and-brexit-has-left-farmers-in-fear-for-their-futures-165843">Brexit</a> and an ongoing <a href="https://www.fwi.co.uk/news/coronavirus-farmers-remain-key-workers-in-third-lockdown">pandemic</a>, farmers in the UK are experiencing high levels of <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-devon-59319869">isolation and loneliness</a>. A poll in Farmers Guardian found that <a href="https://www.fginsight.com/farmersstrivetothrive/strive-to-thrive---articles/loneliness-is-a-key-factor-in-feeling-depressed-farmers-confirm--110876">94% of UK farmers</a> felt this isolation was harming their mental health.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0743016721002643">research</a> funded by the British Academy, we looked at how farmers engage with social media to understand whether it can help overcome isolation. To do this, we analysed 5,000 tweets by farmers and interviewed 25 farmers who use social media. </p>
<p>Our findings showed that social media provides farmers with a way of connecting to others and reaffirming positivity about their identity as a farmer. For example, the hashtag <a href="https://twitter.com/search?q=%23Farming365">#Farming365</a> started life as an annual social media event to bring farmers together online. Now, it’s become a way for farmers to <a href="https://www.fwi.co.uk/farm-life/five-farmers-share-their-social-media-stories">share</a> their everyday lives online all year round to show that farming requires constant commitment.</p>
<p>Given the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/research/news/articles/longworkinghoursandlone-w.html">long hours</a> spent in remote locations and the number of social events in the farming calendar <a href="https://www.fwi.co.uk/events/viability-fears-grow-as-more-shows-fall-victim-to-covid-19">cancelled</a> thanks to the pandemic, this sense of positivity is crucial to prevent plummeting job satisfaction or even a mass <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/aug/25/the-anxiety-is-off-the-scale-uk-farm-sector-worried-by-labour-shortages">exodus</a> of farmers from their jobs. So anything that can be done to increase it could be worthwhile.</p>
<h2>Connecting with community</h2>
<p>Social media – especially Facebook and Twitter – can help farmers learn about new technologies, equipment and practices. And information shared on social media can offer immediate answers to farming questions ranging from upcoming weather forecasts to fixing farm machinery. </p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/from-field-to-store-to-plate-farmers-are-worried-about-climate-change-178885">From field to store to plate, farmers are worried about climate change</a>
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<p>But farmers’ social media use goes beyond simple information gathering. We found that Twitter is often used by farmers as a diary to map out farm work as it progresses, using <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0743016721002643">photos and videos</a>. </p>
<p>As farming is shaped by annual rhythms, it’s common for farmers to reflect on their decisions in relation to previous seasons – for example, by comparing pictures of their current crops with last year’s. Documenting farming online allows farmers to receive empathy and encouragement in real time.</p>
<p>Farmers also use social media to interact with the public. In particular, many advertise their skills and products – such as meat and vegetables – through sharing stories about the journey from <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-fate-of-our-planets-environment-depends-on-the-state-of-its-soil-170985">field to fork</a>. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/iTBBPxDncP8?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Vlogger and farmer Tom Pemberton has achieved online visibility and support sharing his experience of life on a farm.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Farming vloggers such as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/c/TomPembertonFarmLife">Tom Pemberton</a> have even found an alternative <a href="https://www.fwi.co.uk/business/diversification/how-a-young-farmers-youtube-income-paid-for-new-sprayer">stream of income</a> by making YouTube videos discussing their everyday struggles and achievements. As part of the online event <a href="https://www.morrisons-farming.com/backing-british/farm24/">#farm24</a> run by Farmers Guardian and supermarket Morrisons, Tom <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wyzkpCdNRjc&t=757s">shares with viewers</a> the typical tasks he accomplishes in a day’s farming: including milking, calf-rearing and running the family’s farm shop. </p>
<p>Alongside marketing benefits, our findings suggest that social media is an important way for farmers to respond to <a href="https://twitter.com/HawfordFarm/status/1503426803943329792">news items</a> and <a href="https://www.fwi.co.uk/news/environment/farmers-reject-monbiot-claims-that-livestock-are-killing-the-planet">farming debates</a>. One farmer we interviewed commented that social media offers “a chance to give our side of the story”. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ukraine-how-the-global-fertiliser-shortage-is-going-to-affect-food-179061">Ukraine: how the global fertiliser shortage is going to affect food</a>
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<p>This might involve revealing unseen aspects of farming to the public, such as routine activities like milking which take place inside <a href="https://twitter.com/AshTreeFarm42/status/1444015242787360774">farm buildings</a> during the <a href="https://twitter.com/cups_on/status/1389323193727569923">early morning</a> and <a href="https://twitter.com/search?q=%23farming%20AND%20night&src=typed_query&f=live">late night</a>. We found that receiving <a href="https://twitter.com/search?q=farmers%20AND%20%20%23keyworker&src=typed_query&f=video">positive responses</a> to these posts, particularly during the <a href="https://www.nffn.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/NFFN-Report-1.pdf">pandemic</a>, helped to boost farmers’ sense of pride in their work. </p>
<p>On the flipside, <a href="https://www.fwi.co.uk/news/country-sports-fans-face-online-death-threats">negativity</a> was commonly reported by farmers on social media: especially around issues of <a href="https://sustainablefoodtrust.org/articles/online-abuse-and-farm-protests-the-vegans-impacting-on-farmers-mental-health/">animal welfare</a>, <a href="https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/red-shepherdess-farmer-fights-male-chauvinist-pigs-0cm39spwq">gender</a> and environmental issues. Our research found that this potential for criticism meant social media posts are often heavily curated and stylised.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A lamb peers over a farm gate" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456579/original/file-20220406-26-f0qgt4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456579/original/file-20220406-26-f0qgt4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456579/original/file-20220406-26-f0qgt4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456579/original/file-20220406-26-f0qgt4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456579/original/file-20220406-26-f0qgt4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456579/original/file-20220406-26-f0qgt4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/456579/original/file-20220406-26-f0qgt4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Posts showing the lighter side of farming often avoid its dirtier realities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/-DdbQGZEkZM">Harry Grout/Unsplash</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This can lead other farmers to feel that such posts give a “rose-tinted” view of farming, masking some of the <a href="https://twitter.com/TheHornedBeefCo/status/1117772425176002561">harsher truths</a> of the occupation such as animal death and disease. Such a bias towards <a href="https://www.farmersguide.co.uk/ally-hunter-blair-talks-farm-life-social-media-and-covid-19/">positivity</a> can be detrimental to farmers’ wellbeing, with one commenting that “it makes you feel that everyone is doing a better job than you.” </p>
<p>Social media cannot replace face-to-face contact or in-person networking opportunities, both from a personal and professional perspective. But online platforms can play a big part in bridging the gap between rural and urban communities, offering avenues for support beyond one’s immediate farming network, and helping farmers work together with the public to build a more sustainable food system.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176610/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Riley receives funding from the British Academy for this research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bethany Robertson receives funding from the British Academy for this research.</span></em></p>New research shows using social media can provide a much-needed boost to UK farmers’ wellbeing, connectedness and mental health, and even bank balances.Mark Riley, Reader in Geography, University of LiverpoolBethany Robertson, Lecturer in Sociology and Social Policy, University of LeedsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1745822022-02-01T13:15:39Z2022-02-01T13:15:39ZHow to build wildfire-resistant communities in a warming world<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/448414/original/file-20220224-47163-u9f5hn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C23%2C5254%2C3489&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Few homes in this Boulder County, Colo., neighborhood survived a fire that swept through in December 2021.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Ciaglo/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The risk of devastating wildfires is growing as the planet warms. <a href="https://www.fire.ca.gov/media/4jandlhh/top20_acres.pdf">California</a> and <a href="https://dfpc.colorado.gov/wildfire-information-center/historical-wildfire-information">Colorado</a> have both faced record fires in recent years, and states are seeing wildfires at unexpected times, like the December 2021 fire in <a href="https://theconversation.com/devastating-colorado-fires-cap-a-year-of-climate-disasters-in-2021-with-one-side-of-the-country-too-wet-the-other-dangerously-dry-173402">Boulder County, Colorado</a>, that destroyed over 1,000 homes and businesses.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/report/spreading-wildfire-rising-threat-extraordinary-landscape-fires">new report</a> released Feb. 23, 2022, by the United Nations Environment Program estimates that with even moderate temperature increases, the number of extreme wildfires globally will increase by as much as 30% by midcentury and 50% by 2100. </p>
<p>Fire risk varies by location, but every community can take steps to improve fire safety. Here are some key strategies that communities and anyone building in the wildland-urban interface need to consider. </p>
<h2>Know the risk and plan for it</h2>
<p>Designing for resiliency starts with risk assessments, particularly for communities in the wildland-urban interface – areas at the edge of forests and grasslands that are typically at higher risk of wildfires. <a href="https://www.cpr.org/2021/12/31/colorado-wildfire-risk-urban-suburban-areas/">Nearly half of Colorado residents lived in these areas</a> in 2017, according to the Colorado State Forest Service.</p>
<p>From these risk assessments, communities can <a href="https://planningforhazards.com/wildland-urban-interface-code-wui-code">strategically plan and design safer developments</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441864/original/file-20220120-8260-fjpesi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Map showing clusters of burned homes in Boulder County" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441864/original/file-20220120-8260-fjpesi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/441864/original/file-20220120-8260-fjpesi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441864/original/file-20220120-8260-fjpesi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441864/original/file-20220120-8260-fjpesi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441864/original/file-20220120-8260-fjpesi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441864/original/file-20220120-8260-fjpesi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/441864/original/file-20220120-8260-fjpesi.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Homes don’t have to be in wilderness to be destroyed by wildfire, as the December 2021 Boulder County fire damage showed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.bouldercounty.org/disasters/wildfires/marshall/">Boulder County Office of Emergency Management</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.hcd.ca.gov/building-standards/state-housing-law/wildland-urban-interface.shtml">California</a> has a statewide code for its wildland-urban interface areas that includes details such as how far trees and shrubs should be kept away from homes, and <a href="https://static.colostate.edu/client-files/csfs/pdfs/firewise-construction2012.pdf">construction materials</a> to use that can help protect homes within a fire hazard zone. Typically, builders must follow these codes to get permits for the construction of certain buildings and neighborhoods in the risk areas. </p>
<p>Not all states provide that guidance, though. Colorado lawmakers <a href="https://www.cpr.org/2021/01/26/stronger-building-codes-and-other-rules-can-save-homes-from-wildfires-so-why-doesnt-colorado-have-a-statewide-law-mandating-them/">rejected recommendations for a statewide code</a> in 2014, leaving wildland-urban interface decisions to each county. Some Colorado communities and counties, including Boulder County, do require fire mitigation measures in wildland-urban interface areas. The <a href="https://codes.iccsafe.org/content/IWUIC2021P1">International Code Council</a> and <a href="https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards/detail?code=1144">National Fire Protection Association</a> publish wildland-urban interface fire codes that can be adjusted to local conditions. </p>
<p>In a fire spread by extreme winds like the Boulder County fire, even following code may not be enough to save homes, but following that guidance in many circumstances will better protect a community.</p>
<h2>Creating defensible space</h2>
<p>Creating resilience in the wildland-urban interface involves several layers of defense.</p>
<p>At the community level, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-years-of-fighting-every-wildfire-helped-fuel-the-western-megafires-of-today-163165">forest management</a>, including thinning forests around communities and clearing away brush that could fuel a fire, is an important aspect of fire risk reduction and has become a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/19/climate/biden-administration-wildfire-plan.html">priority for the federal government</a>. </p>
<p>Carefully planning how land is used in communities can <a href="https://www.nfpa.org/News-and-Research/Publications-and-media/Blogs-Landing-Page/NFPA-Today/Blog-Posts/2021/01/08/Fire-Apparatus-Access-Roads">lower the risk to homes and property</a>. A site’s vegetation types, weather and wind patterns, and slope of the ground can all affect how a fire spreads. Planning also ensures firefighters have <a href="https://codes.iccsafe.org/content/IFC2018/chapter-5-fire-service-features">road access to reach homes</a> in all weather and identifies water sources for firefighting.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442349/original/file-20220124-19-19rshd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442349/original/file-20220124-19-19rshd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442349/original/file-20220124-19-19rshd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442349/original/file-20220124-19-19rshd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442349/original/file-20220124-19-19rshd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=670&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442349/original/file-20220124-19-19rshd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=843&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442349/original/file-20220124-19-19rshd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=843&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/442349/original/file-20220124-19-19rshd8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=843&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Examples of land-use planning within a community.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">CPAW, a program of Headwaters Economics</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the neighborhood scale, fire experts recommend maintaining an open area around housing developments in wildland fire-risk areas that is clear of tall grass and dense trees. These buffer zones could include mowed recreation fields, shopping area parking lots or other features that can slow a fire’s spread. </p>
<p>Depending on the fire risk, each house should have a perimeter of defensible space extending out at least 30 feet and as much as 100 feet from the home. Within this area, landscapes should be maintained in a way that reduces the chances of a wildfire spreading to the house and adjacent structures. That means keeping trees and shrubs separated from structures like the house, barn or garage, as well as from other landscaping. It’s best to avoid more combustible landscaping like conifer trees, and grass should be mowed and kept free of debris, such as dead leaves and branches that could catch fire.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nfpa.org/News-and-Research/Publications-and-media/Blogs-Landing-Page/Fire-Break/Blog-Posts/2020/09/23/revisiting-the-home-ignition-zone-the-immediate-0-5-feet">closest 5 feet</a> around a house should be totally free of trees and debris, bushes, wood mulch, furniture, barbecue pits and grills – basically anything that can be ignited by flames, embers or radiant heat. Decks, fences and other projections can be built with non-combustible material or wood treated with fire retardant.</p>
<h2>How to make construction fire-resistant</h2>
<p>The last line of defense to reduce flammability and fire spread is the design of the house and its construction.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://ibhs.org/">simple shape</a> with few projections and indented corners has been shown to be more resilient because there are fewer areas that can catch debris.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/HjA9yLP1icg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Insurance Institute for Business & Home Safety Research Center conducted an ember storm test on a house with vulnerable yard, roof, gutter and wall material on one side.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most codes and the insurance industry suggest the roof be made of <a href="https://disastersafety.org/wildfire/wildfire-ready/">fire-resistive</a> <a href="https://www.nfpa.org/-/media/Files/Firewise/Fact-sheets/FirewiseFactSheetsRoofingMaterials.ashx">Class A materials</a>, such as asphalt shingles or concrete tiles. The walls should be a continuous fire-rated construction from the foundation to the roof, and its assembly of materials, like wood studs, insulation, gypsum board and siding, should have undergone regulated testing. These assemblies of materials are <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lgqDx646s-U">rated based on</a> the <a href="https://www.icc-nta.org/astm-e119-and-fire-resistance-standards/">duration of time they can withstand fire</a>. </p>
<p>Vulnerable openings like windows and doors should also have rated assemblies. And <a href="https://ibhs.org/wildfire/ember-entry-vents/">vents</a>, if required for a particular climate, should be protected with <a href="https://disastersafety.org/wildfire/wildfire-ready/">fine mesh screens</a> made of metal that can block most blowing embers.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A home catches fire a wildfire moves through Lower Lake, California, in 2015" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443196/original/file-20220128-17-4i2pqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2995%2C1850&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443196/original/file-20220128-17-4i2pqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443196/original/file-20220128-17-4i2pqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443196/original/file-20220128-17-4i2pqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443196/original/file-20220128-17-4i2pqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443196/original/file-20220128-17-4i2pqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443196/original/file-20220128-17-4i2pqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How homes are built and landscaped affects their ability to withstand a wildfire.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/house-burns-after-being-overcome-by-flames-from-the-rocky-news-photo/482572190">Justin Sullivan/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://ucanr.edu/sites/Wildfire/Roof/Edge_of_Roof_Issues/Gutters_785/">Gutters and downspouts</a> should be made of non-combustible materials – metal rather than vinyl – and be regularly cleaned or covered with a metal leaf guard. If possible, gutters can be eliminated with the addition of an underground drainage system to direct water away from the foundation and wall, but those systems also need maintenance.</p>
<h2>Ideas for the future</h2>
<p>These are all passive measures – they don’t need to be activated in an emergency, but they should be in place well before a fire event. </p>
<p>Researchers are also testing the performance of active systems for use in imminent threats, such as exterior sprinklers that don’t require electricity, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmech.2019.00060/full">large fire blankets</a> that can cover a house, and fire-retardant foam that can be sprayed on structures.</p>
<p>With thorough risk assessment and several lines of defense, neighborhoods can be safer. But these strategies will have to be balanced with initial and long-term costs, realistic maintenance expectations and efforts to mitigate future anticipated threats. As storms become more intense and wildfires more frequent, we should be designing to reduce risk and our impact on the environment.</p>
<p><em>This article was updated Feb. 24, 2022, with the new UNEP report</em></p>
<p>[<em>Understand new developments in science, health and technology, each week.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?nl=science&source=inline-science-understand">Subscribe to The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/174582/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeanne Homer is affiliated with Oklahoma State University Fire Council.</span></em></p>As more people move into high fire-risk areas, an architect explains what to do to keep properties as safe as possible.Jeanne Homer, Associate Professor of Architecture, Oklahoma State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1759582022-01-31T16:00:51Z2022-01-31T16:00:51ZNew flood maps show US damage rising 26% in next 30 years due to climate change alone, and the inequity is stark<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443292/original/file-20220130-21-1nyzsyx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C22%2C3000%2C1967&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Coastal cities like Port Arthur, Texas, are at increasing risk from flooding during storms.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/evacuees-sit-on-a-boat-after-being-rescued-from-flooding-news-photo/841006468">Joe Raedle/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Climate change is raising flood risks in neighborhoods across the U.S. much faster than many people realize. Over the next three decades, the cost of flood damage is on pace to rise 26% due to climate change alone, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01265-6">an analysis of our new flood risk maps</a> shows.</p>
<p>That’s only part of the risk. Despite <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/08/29/houston-is-experiencing-its-third-500-year-flood-in-3-years-how-is-that-possible/">recent devastating floods</a>, people are still building in high-risk areas. With population growth factored in, we found the increase in U.S. flood losses will be four times higher than the climate-only effect.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=RO4T7pcAAAAJ&hl=en">Our team</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=iDOrsycAAAAJ&hl=en">develops</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=NSG7Vz0AAAAJ&hl=en">cutting-edge flood</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=cko_yyIAAAAJ&hl=en">risk maps</a> that incorporate climate change. It’s the data that <a href="https://www.fathom.global/newsroom/fathom-partners-with-first-street-foundation-to-create-flood-factor-a-transformative-tool-democratising-flood-data-across-the-us/">drives local risk estimates</a> you’re likely to see on real estate websites.</p>
<p>In the new analysis, published Jan. 31, 2022, we estimated <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01265-6">where flood risk is rising fastest and who is in harm’s way</a>. The results show the high costs of flooding and lay bare the inequities of who has to endure America’s crippling flood problem. They also show the importance of altering development patterns now.</p>
<p><iframe id="V3e9W" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/V3e9W/7/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>The role of climate change</h2>
<p>Flooding is the <a href="https://www.fbiic.gov/public/2010/mar/FloodingHistoryandCausesFS.PDF">most frequent and costliest</a> natural disaster in the United States, and its costs are projected to rise as the climate warms. Decades of measurements, computer models and basic physics all point to <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-water-cycle-is-intensifying-as-the-climate-warms-ipcc-report-warns-that-means-more-intense-storms-and-flooding-165590">increasing precipitation and sea level rise</a>.</p>
<p>As the atmosphere warms, it holds about <a href="https://theconversation.com/devastating-colorado-fires-cap-a-year-of-climate-disasters-in-2021-with-one-side-of-the-country-too-wet-the-other-dangerously-dry-173402">7% more moisture </a> for every degree Celsius that the temperature rises, meaning more moisture is available to fall as rain, potentially raising the risk of inland flooding. A warmer climate also leads to rising sea levels and higher storm surges as land ice melts and <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/chapter-4-sea-level-rise-and-implications-for-low-lying-islands-coasts-and-communities/">warming ocean water expands</a>.</p>
<p>Yet, translating that understanding into the detailed impact of future flooding has been beyond the grasp of existing flood mapping approaches.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443260/original/file-20220129-13-vcoz11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of Houston showing flooding extending much farther inland." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443260/original/file-20220129-13-vcoz11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443260/original/file-20220129-13-vcoz11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443260/original/file-20220129-13-vcoz11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443260/original/file-20220129-13-vcoz11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443260/original/file-20220129-13-vcoz11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443260/original/file-20220129-13-vcoz11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443260/original/file-20220129-13-vcoz11.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A map of Houston shows flood risk changing over the next 30 years. Blue areas are today’s 100-year flood-risk zones. The red areas reflect the same zones in 2050.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wing et al., 2022</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Previous efforts to link climate change to flood models offered only a broad view of the threat and didn’t zoom in close enough to provide reliable measures of local risk, although they could illustrate the general direction of change. Most local flood maps, such as those produced by the <a href="https://www.fema.gov/flood-maps">Federal Emergency Management Agency</a>, have a different problem: They’re based on historical changes rather than incorporating the risks ahead, and <a href="https://biotech.law.lsu.edu/blog/rhc3.12166.pdf">the government is</a> <a href="https://asfpm-library.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/FSC/MapNation/ASFPM_MaptheNation_Report_2020.pdf">slow to update them</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR028673">Our maps</a> account for flooding from rivers, rainfall and the oceans – both now and into the future – across the entire contiguous United States. They are produced at scales that show street-by-street impacts, and unlike FEMA maps, they cover floods of many different sizes, from nuisance flooding that may occur every few years to once-in-a-millennium disasters.</p>
<p>While hazard maps only show where floods might occur, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-021-01265-6">our new risk analysis</a> combines that with data on the U.S. building stock to understand the damage that occurs when floodwaters collide with homes and businesses. It’s the first validated analysis of climate-driven flood risk for the U.S.</p>
<h2>The inequity of America’s flood problem</h2>
<p>We estimated that the annual cost of flooding today is over US$32 billion nationwide, with an outsized burden on communities in Appalachia, the Gulf Coast and the Northwest.</p>
<p><iframe id="aMW46" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/aMW46/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>When we looked at demographics, we found that today’s flood risk is predominantly concentrated in white, impoverished communities. Many of these are in low-lying areas directly on the coasts or Appalachian valleys at risk from heavy rainfall.</p>
<p>But the increase in risk <a href="https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/">as rising oceans reach farther inland during storms and high tides</a> over the next 30 years falls disproportionately on communities with large African American populations on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Urban and rural areas from Texas to Florida to Virginia contain predominantly Black communities projected to see at least a 20% increase in flood risk over the next 30 years.</p>
<p>Historically, poorer communities <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.105023">haven’t seen as much investment</a> in <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2021.752307">flood adaptation</a> or infrastructure, <a href="https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/WP134-Understanding-the-adaptation-deficit.pdf">leaving them more exposed</a>. The new data, reflecting the cost of damage, contradicts a common misconception that flood risk exacerbated by sea level rise is concentrated in whiter, wealthier areas.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman carries a child past an area where flood water surrounds low-rise apartment buildings." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443291/original/file-20220130-13-kkji9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443291/original/file-20220130-13-kkji9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443291/original/file-20220130-13-kkji9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443291/original/file-20220130-13-kkji9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443291/original/file-20220130-13-kkji9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443291/original/file-20220130-13-kkji9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443291/original/file-20220130-13-kkji9y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Hurricane Florence’s storm surge and extreme rainfall flooded towns on North Carolina’s Neuse River many miles inland from the ocean in 2018.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/diamond-dillahunt-2-year-old-ta-layah-koonce-and-shkoel-news-photo/1032890856">Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Our findings raise policy questions about disaster recovery. Prior research has found <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10527001.2020.1838172">that these groups recover less quickly</a> than more privileged residents and that disasters can further exacerbate existing inequities. Current federal disaster aid <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-2021-hurricane-season-showed-us-isnt-prepared-as-climate-related-disasters-push-people-deeper-into-poverty-169075">disproportionately helps wealthier residents</a>. Without financial safety nets, disasters can be tipping points into financial stress or deeper poverty.</p>
<h2>Population growth is a major driver of flood risk</h2>
<p>Another important contributor to flood risk is the growing population.</p>
<p>As urban areas expand, people are building in riskier locations, including expanding into existing floodplains – areas that were already at risk of flooding, even in a stable climate. That’s making adapting to the rising climate risks even more difficult.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443262/original/file-20220129-17-189cjvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A satellite image of Kansas City showing flood risk overlaid along the rivers." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443262/original/file-20220129-17-189cjvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443262/original/file-20220129-17-189cjvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443262/original/file-20220129-17-189cjvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443262/original/file-20220129-17-189cjvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443262/original/file-20220129-17-189cjvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443262/original/file-20220129-17-189cjvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443262/original/file-20220129-17-189cjvd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Kansas City flood map shows developments in the 100-year flood zone.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.fathom.global">Fathom</a></span>
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<p>Hurricane Harvey made that risk painfully clear when its record rainfall sent two reservoirs spilling into neighborhoods, inundating homes that had been <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/03/22/us/houston-harvey-flooding-reservoir.html">built in the reservoirs’ flood zones</a>. That was in 2017, and <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/fresh-from-hurricane-harveys-flooding-houston-starts-to-build-anew--in-the-flood-plain/2018/05/22/2c5ccab8-53b6-11e8-a551-5b648abe29ef_story.html">communities in Houston are rebuilding</a> in risky areas again.</p>
<p>We integrated into our model predictions how and where the increasing numbers of people will live in order to assess their future flood risk. The result: Future development patterns have a four times greater impact on 2050 flood risk than climate change alone.</p>
<h2>On borrowed time</h2>
<p>If these results seem alarming, consider that these are conservative estimates. We used a <a href="https://sos.noaa.gov/catalog/datasets/climate-model-temperature-change-rcp-45-2006-2100/">middle-of-the-road trajectory</a> for atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, one in which global carbon <a href="https://ar5-syr.ipcc.ch/topic_futurechanges.php">emissions peak in the 2040s</a> and then fall.</p>
<p>Importantly, much of this impact over the next three decades is <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/09/climate/climate-change-report-ipcc-un.html">already locked</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3357">into the climate system</a>. While cutting emissions now is crucial to slow the rate of sea level rise and reduce future flood risk, adaptation is required to protect against the losses we project to 2050.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 140,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>If future development was directed outside of the riskiest areas, and new construction met higher standards for flood mitigation, some of these projected losses could be avoided. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0437-5">In previous research</a>, we found that for a third of currently undeveloped U.S. floodplains it is cheaper to buy the land at today’s prices and preserve it for recreation and wildlife than develop it and pay for the inevitable flood damages later.</p>
<p>The results stress how critical land use and building codes are when it comes to adapting to climate change and managing future losses from increasing climate extremes. Protecting lives and property will mean moving existing populations out of harm’s way and stopping new construction in flood-risk areas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175958/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Oliver Wing is a Research Fellow at the University of Bristol and also the Chief Research Officer of Fathom, a flood risk analytics firm.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Carolyn Kousky is the Executive Director of the Wharton Risk Center at the University of Pennsylvania.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremy Porter is Professor of Quantitative Methods in the Social Sciences at CUNY and also the Chief Research Officer at the research and technology non-profit First Street Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Bates is Professor of Hydrology at the University of Bristol and also a founding shareholder of Fathom.</span></em></p>A street-by-street analysis shows where the risks are rising fastest and also lays bare the inequities of who has to endure America’s crippling flood problem.Oliver Wing, Research Fellow, University of BristolCarolyn Kousky, Executive Director, Wharton Risk Center, University of PennsylvaniaJeremy Porter, Professor of Quantitative Methods in the Social Sciences, City University of New YorkPaul Bates, Professor of Hydrology, School of Geographical Sciences, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1724292021-11-23T11:54:36Z2021-11-23T11:54:36ZAlbanese promises commissioner and more workers to deal with domestic violence<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/433428/original/file-20211123-13-1hohv8j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=480%2C339%2C3000%2C1576&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source"> Cottonbro/Pexels</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A Labor government would appoint a domestic violence commissioner and provide funds for 500 new community sector workers to help women in crisis.</p>
<p>In an initiative to be announced by Labor leader Anthony Albanese on Wednesday, Labor will undertake that half these extra workers would be in rural and regional areas.</p>
<p>Meanwhile in a late night statement on Tuesday, the government announced it would spend $22.4 million over five years to set up a domestic, family and sexual violence commission to oversee the implementation of the next national plan to end violence against women. </p>
<p>Dealing with domestic violence has proved one of the most intractable policy challenges for federal and state governments, despite the increasing attention that has been given to it in recent years.</p>
<p>On average, one woman is killed each week by a current or former partner, and violence is the leading preventable cause of death, illness and disability for women aged between 15-44.</p>
<p>According to data released by the Australian Bureau of Statistics in June, the number of police-recorded victims of family and domestic violence related sexual assault increased by 13% in 2020.</p>
<p>Thursday is the International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women.</p>
<p>The extra workers funded by Labor would enable shelters to employ an extra case manager, community organisation to hire a financial counsellor to advise women, and women’s services to take on a support worker to counsel children. The initiative for the workers would cost $153 million over the forward estimates.</p>
<p>The commissioner would “act as a strong voice for victim-survivors”, Labor says.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-analysed-almost-500-000-police-reports-of-domestic-violence-mental-health-was-an-issue-153649">We analysed almost 500,000 police reports of domestic violence. Mental health was an issue</a>
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<p>The person would work with federal agencies as well as the states and community organisations to ensure adequate data was available. They would also help with co-ordination of policies and provide accountability and transparency.</p>
<p>Labor’s proposed commissioner follows the National Women’s Safety Summit in September where Prime Minister Scott Morrison <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/what-did-australia-s-women-s-safety-summit-achieve-and-what-needs-to-happen-now/0d6deaab-9870-46a7-a9a2-312b2e8b2e66">acknowledged</a> too many Australian women were not safe. </p>
<p>“It is not a new problem and it is not a simple problem. But Australia does have a problem,” he said.</p>
<p>*<em>If you or someone you know is impacted by family and domestic violence or sexual assault, call 1800RESPECT on 1800 737 732 or visit 1800RESPECT.org.au. In an emergency, call 000.
*</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/172429/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Grattan does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An initiative to be announced by Labor on Wednesday promises to appoint a domestic violence commissioner and provide funds for 500 new community sector workers to help women in crisis.Michelle Grattan, Professorial Fellow, University of CanberraLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1702532021-11-17T18:26:35Z2021-11-17T18:26:35ZCOVID-19 accelerated many changes impacting rural communities — we need to support their resilience<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431335/original/file-20211110-21-1ikai9l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C23%2C3825%2C2562&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Rural Canada has and will continue to play an essential role in the social, economic and cultural fabric of this country. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Brian Holdsworth/Unsplash)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rural Canada is vital to the socio-economic fabric of this country. </p>
<p>Rural communities are places of employment, food production, energy generation, resource extraction, environmental stewardship, cultural production and leisure. They are also home to millions of people. The COVID-19 pandemic, however, has illuminated many new and existing inequities, which are shaping the realities of life in rural Canada. </p>
<p>In our work with the <a href="http://crrf.ca/">Canadian Rural Revitalization Foundation</a>, we co-edited the 2021 <a href="https://sorc.crrf.ca/fullreport2021/"><em>State of Rural Canada Report</em></a>. The report provides a snapshot of key rural issues while also highlighting opportunities, recovery and resiliency in each province and territory. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Introduction into the State of Rural Canada 2021 Report.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Rural resilience in changing times</h2>
<p>Rural communities across Canada are facing unprecedented changes — from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10599240902845120">demographic shifts</a> and <a href="https://journals.brandonu.ca/jrcd/article/view/40">economic restructuring</a> to the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6553582/">impacts of climate change</a> and weak <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429489075-33/rural-policy-canada-bill-reimer">rural development policies and programs</a>. </p>
<p>The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated many changes impacting rural communities. For example, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/spotty-internet-stresses-rural-ontario-students-1.6033257">communities without reliable broadband</a> could not easily shift to remote work and education.</p>
<p>However, the researchers who authored chapters in our report illustrate the many ways rural people and organizations have demonstrated resilience to challenges and change. </p>
<p><a href="http://islandstudiespress.com/from-black-horses-to-white-steeds-building-community-resilience/">Understanding resilience</a>, or the processes through which community members use existing assets and resources to manage change and build strong, inclusive and sustainable communities, is important for community well-being. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/schitts-creek-and-letterkenny-are-love-letters-to-rural-canada-143065">'Schitt's Creek' and 'Letterkenny' are love letters to rural Canada</a>
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<p>For example, in response to the pandemic, <a href="https://sorc.crrf.ca/ns2021/">Farmer’s Markets of Nova Scotia</a> quickly coordinated a shift to online markets and pick-up hubs. <a href="https://sorc.crrf.ca/nl2021/">In Labrador</a>, the NunatuKavut Community Council implemented a number of programs including food and heat vouchers. </p>
<p>Other examples of resiliency include <a href="https://sorc.crrf.ca/sk2021/">Coronach, Sask.</a>, which has embarked on a journey to discover a new identity to mitigate the anticipated closure of the coal industry. As part of this revisioning, Coronach created the <a href="https://www.sasktoday.ca/south/local-news/south-saskatchewan-regional-economic-partnership-communities-sign-revenue-sharing-agreement-4164142">South Saskatchewan Regional Economic Partnership</a>. And <a href="https://sorc.crrf.ca/yk2021/">Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in First Nation</a>, in partnership with Yukon College, developed the Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in Teaching and Working Farm to address food security on their traditional territory. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Rural issues and examples of resilience in Ontario.</span></figcaption>
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<p>These examples and others provided throughout the report, highlight the importance of collaboration, capacity and support for rural people and organizations. In fact, supporting rural resilience is key for rural people and organizations in continuing to shape their own stories of success.</p>
<h2>Supporting rural resilience</h2>
<p>Many communities did not have appropriate capacity and resources — such as <a href="http://crrf.ca/covid-red/">staff or budgets for economic development</a> — to respond to changes related to the pandemic. These examples highlight the importance of strong policy frameworks in supporting rural communities. </p>
<p>Here are five recommendations on how we can support rural resilience through policy and practice.</p>
<ol>
<li><p><strong>Invest in rural policy & development:</strong>
Senior governments should invest in robust rural policy and development frameworks that recognize the diversity of rural communities. This should include <a href="https://www.roma.on.ca/rural-and-northern-lens-voice-rural-and-northern-ontario">applying a rural and northern lens</a> when developing or adapting policies, programs, legislation or other government practices to ensure rural voices are engaged and heard. Federal and provincial governments should help fund, collect and analyze data on rural communities to ensure evidence-based policy development, program design and evaluation.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Support rural capacity to plan for resilience:</strong>
Governments should invest in rural capacity to plan for rural resilience. The ability of local governments and organizations to respond and facilitate processes of resiliency largely relies on the capacity they have to adapt to changes. This could include supporting staff and community development initiatives as well as creating alternative program delivery models and applications.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Enhance regional collaboration:</strong>
Rethinking how rural governments and organizations work together is an important strategy to address shortcomings in policy development and service provision. This requires support from senior governments and efforts by local governments and organizations. Regional approaches can be effective ways to understand the assets, resources and gaps that communities — and regions — collectively possess.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Take decisive action on truth & reconciliation:</strong>
The resilience of rural places is largely intertwined with and dependent on relationships with Indigenous Peoples. Rural communities and policy-makers must engage in discussions of the history and ongoing impacts of colonization. Rural leaders at all levels of government should incorporate the <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/british-columbians-our-governments/indigenous-people/aboriginal-peoples-documents/calls_to_action_english2.pdf">Calls to Action</a> and <a href="https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Calls_for_Justice.pdf">Calls for Justice</a> into their policy and programming initiatives. </p></li>
<li><p><strong>Plan for sustainable rural futures:</strong>
Rural communities, leaders and policy-makers need to leverage their intimate knowledge of rural places to actively plan for a range of changes and challenges. We need to consider possibilities that will be faced in the short and long-term future. Anticipating and planning for environmental, demographic, technological and socio-economic changes will be key factors in whether rural communities survive and thrive in increasingly uncertain times.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>The pandemic helped highlight the issues faced by rural Canadians. Rural Canada has and will continue to play an essential role in the social, economic and cultural fabric of this country. </p>
<p>All Canadians must be invested in the sustainability and resilience of rural communities through critical reflection, political action and continued creativity in policy development.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170253/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kyle Rich receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. He is also affiliated with the Canadian Rural Revitalization Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Grace Nelson receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council scholarship. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Hall receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. She is also affiliated with the Canadian Rural Revitalization Foundation. </span></em></p>Rural communities are coming together to support their own resilience. The rest of Canada needs to follow suit.Kyle Rich, Assistant Professor of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Brock UniversityGrace Nelson, Research Assistant, Applied Health Sciences, Brock UniversityHeather Hall, Assistant Professor, School of Environment, Enterprise and Development, University of WaterlooLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1693452021-10-12T12:08:27Z2021-10-12T12:08:27ZInfrastructure bill passed by Congress promises billions for bridge repair – rural Alaska shows the growing need as temperatures rise<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425347/original/file-20211007-18680-1vufxgf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=305%2C7%2C4725%2C2855&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Denali Highway as it crosses the Susitna River.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/susitna-river-bridge-offers-views-of-alaskan-range-denali-news-photo/661898060">Joe Sohm/Visions of America/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>America’s bridges are in rough shape. Of the nearly 620,000 bridges over roads, rivers and other waterways across the U.S., <a href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/nbi/no10/condition19.cfm">more than 43,500 of them</a>, about 7%, are considered “structurally deficient.”</p>
<p>In Alaska, bridges face a unique and growing set of problems as the planet warms. </p>
<p>Permafrost, the frozen ground beneath large parts of the state, is thawing with the changing climate, and that’s shifting the soil <a href="https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/weather/2019/12/17/as-alaska-permafrost-melts-roads-sink-bridges-tilt-and-greenhouse-gases-escape/">and everything on it</a>. Bridges are also increasingly crucial for rural residents who can no longer trust the stability of the rivers’ ice in spring and fall. </p>
<p>The infrastructure bill passed by Congress on Nov. 5 and headed for President Joe Biden’s desk includes <a href="https://www.murkowski.senate.gov/press/release/murkowski-announces-big-wins-for-alaska-in-infrastructure-bill-">US$40 billion in new federal funds for bridge</a> construction, maintenance and repairs – the <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2021/08/10/remarks-by-president-biden-on-the-senate-passage-of-the-bipartisan-infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act/">largest investment in bridges</a> since construction of the interstate highway system started in the 1950s. In that funding is about <a href="https://www.murkowski.senate.gov/press/release/historic-infrastructure-package-heading-to-presidents-desk">$225 million</a> to address 140 structurally deficient bridges throughout Alaska.</p>
<p>Given the high cost to build and maintain bridges in rural Alaska, and the increasing risk to their structures as the climate warms, we believe the bill is a good start but hardly sufficient for a growing rural problem.</p>
<p><iframe id="utQEX" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/utQEX/5/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Increasing need for bridges as the planet warms</h2>
<p>Alaska is warming <a href="https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/new-report-highlights-alaska%E2%80%99s-last-five-years-dramatic-climate">faster than any other U.S. state</a>. As Alaska’s temperature rises, rivers and lakes are freezing later, thawing earlier and forming thinner ice.</p>
<p>When the ice is unstable or unpredictable, people who rely on crossing the river are stuck and the risk of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/10/us/alaska-ice-melting.html">snowmobile fatalities</a> rises. Rural residents often use rivers to travel between communities, either as icy roads in winter or waterways in summer, and they often have to cross rivers to hunt, gather traditional foods or reach health care facilities.</p>
<p>Alaska has just over <a href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/nbi/no10/condition21.cfm">1,600 bridges</a> that are open to the public – the fourth-lowest total of any state, despite being the largest state by land area. <a href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/nbi/no10/condition21.cfm">Only about 44%</a> of those bridges are considered to be in good shape.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A make-shift barricade blocks a road that has collapsed into water." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425349/original/file-20211007-19127-1m8wafk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425349/original/file-20211007-19127-1m8wafk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425349/original/file-20211007-19127-1m8wafk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425349/original/file-20211007-19127-1m8wafk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=365&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425349/original/file-20211007-19127-1m8wafk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425349/original/file-20211007-19127-1m8wafk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425349/original/file-20211007-19127-1m8wafk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thawing permafrost and erosion conspire to eat away the land beneath a road in the Yup'ik Eskimo village of Quinhagak on the Yukon Delta in 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/climate-change-erosion-caused-by-melting-permafrost-tundra-news-photo/1139520720">Mark Ralston/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Building bridges here is an expensive, complex process, and they require long-term maintenance that gets complicated in rural areas. It’s a challenge with two important facets: one is structural, and the other human.</p>
<h2>Engineering: The problem of permafrost</h2>
<p>From an engineering perspective, bridges are vulnerable to the effects of climate change. They are particularly sensitive to seasonal freezing effects, which can quickly change their mechanical properties and structural integrity.</p>
<p>Alaska has some of the harshest conditions for infrastructure, with temperatures ranging from minus 80 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 62 Celsius) to 100 F (37.8 C). Snowfall can reach 81 feet (24.7 meters) per year in some areas, and an ice-rich permafrost underlies <a href="https://dot.alaska.gov/stwdmno/index.shtml">80%</a> of the state. </p>
<p>One of the most important factors affecting the service life of a bridge is corrosion of the reinforcing steel. As permafrost thaws and water becomes liquid, it can <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-007-2436-5_19">accelerate corrosion</a> and cause other types of damage.</p>
<p>A variety of techniques have been used to minimize the effects of cracking, but damage from freezing and thawing still plays a significant role in limiting the lifespan of a bridge. After a bridge is built, it requires regular monitoring to ensure it remains in good condition. That’s difficult in areas that are remote and where harsh weather can be challenging.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An old silver metal bridge over a dry river bed" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425351/original/file-20211007-17-vgc3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425351/original/file-20211007-17-vgc3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425351/original/file-20211007-17-vgc3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425351/original/file-20211007-17-vgc3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425351/original/file-20211007-17-vgc3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425351/original/file-20211007-17-vgc3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425351/original/file-20211007-17-vgc3w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This World War II-era truss-style bridge on the Alaska Highway near Tok was recently replaced by a detour.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/AlaskaHighwayBridge/ef0a4d3fedda4306b88ec7202d464e41/photo">Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities via AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Another major engineering challenge for rural areas is human-dependent bridge inspection, which limits how often bridges can be inspected and presents significant safety risks for inspectors. One exciting development in maintenance involves advances in drone technology. <a href="https://www.geospatialworld.net/news/nys-thruway-authority-launches-drone-pilot-program-with-nuair/">Bridge inspections could be done safely by drones</a> and at more reliable intervals, but that too involves investment.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/melting-arctic-sends-a-message-climate-change-is-here-in-a-big-way-95573">Melting Arctic sends a message: Climate change is here in a big way</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<h2>High costs and better planning</h2>
<p>Infrastructure construction, especially in rural Alaska, already comes with a hefty price tag.</p>
<p>The cost of delivering steel and concrete to a remote location, sourcing available local materials and bringing in outside specialized labor can significantly increase the cost of a bridge. For example, the <a href="https://www.ahfc.us/application/files/7714/2793/1526/constcosts_2015final.pdf">2015 Construction Cost Survey</a> in Alaska found that home construction, based on materials alone, is three times more expensive in Barrow, a remote community in the North Slope of Alaska, than in Anchorage, the state’s largest city.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Children play basketball and ride bikes on a large wooden platform above the wet ground. Weather-beaten houses stand in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425353/original/file-20211007-25-1sgm3du.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425353/original/file-20211007-25-1sgm3du.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425353/original/file-20211007-25-1sgm3du.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425353/original/file-20211007-25-1sgm3du.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425353/original/file-20211007-25-1sgm3du.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425353/original/file-20211007-25-1sgm3du.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425353/original/file-20211007-25-1sgm3du.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Children play in Newtok, Alaska, in June 2015. The town is losing ground to flooding as permafrost thaws, and many residents have relocated to a new community across the river.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/yupik-children-play-during-summer-vacation-on-june-30-2015-news-photo/479112736">Andrew Burton/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In rural Alaska, the process of building bridges is complex and can take many years. It depends on cooperation, often among several communities, navigating state processes and support of political leaders. It’s critical to understand from the beginning how a bridge’s construction will affect community well-being and how communities can work together on funding, design, construction and maintenance.</p>
<p>Our team of engineers and social scientists is working on a guide to successful bridge funding, construction and maintenance for remote areas that establishes a community-driven process.</p>
<p>Alaska has no income tax or statewide sales tax and has been <a href="https://www.adn.com/opinions/2021/07/03/alaskas-fiscal-crisis-and-a-proposed-solution/">facing a fiscal crisis</a> as state oil revenues have fallen. Federal infrastructure investment could help direct funds to rural bridges that might otherwise continue to deteriorate.</p>
<p><em>This article was updated Nov. 6 with Congress passing the infrastructure bill.</em></p>
<p>[<em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/169345/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Guangqing Chi receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, and the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture and Multistate Research Project.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Davin Holen receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Park Service, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heather Randell receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Megan Mucioki receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the USDA Agriculture and Food Research Initiative. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rebecca Napolitano receives funding from Oak Ridge Associated Universities, National Science Foundation, and the Department of Energy. </span></em></p>Alaska is warming faster than any other U.S. state, and that’s causing problems, a team of bridge engineers and social scientists explains. The infrastructure bill in Congress would offer some help.Guangqing Chi, Professor of Rural Sociology and Demography, Penn StateDavin Holen, Research Assistant Professor, University of Alaska FairbanksHeather Randell, Assistant Professor of Rural Sociology and Demography, Penn StateMegan Mucioki, Assistant Research Professor in the Social Science Research Institute, Penn StateRebecca Napolitano, Assistant Professor of Architectural Engineering, Penn StateLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1674892021-09-21T19:19:40Z2021-09-21T19:19:40ZFall means more deer on the road: 4 ways time of day, month and year raise your risk of crashes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422435/original/file-20210921-23-1p1nd4v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4832%2C3216&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Deer cross roads whenever they wish, but some time periods are higher risk than others.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/deer-stands-on-a-road-painted-with-fire-retardant-during-news-photo/1006863216">Josh Edelson/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Autumn is here, and that means the risk of hitting deer on rural roads and highways is rising, especially around dusk and during a full moon.</p>
<p>Deer cause over 1 million motor vehicle accidents in the U.S. each year, <a href="https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art15/">resulting in more than US$1 billion</a> in property damage, about 200 human deaths and 29,000 serious injuries. Property damage insurance claims average around $2,600 per accident, and the overall average cost, including severe injuries or death, is over $6,000.</p>
<p>While avoiding deer – as well as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10041059.x">moose, elk and other hoofed animals, known as ungulates</a> – can seem impossible if you’re driving in rural areas, there are certain times and places that are most hazardous, and so warrant extra caution.</p>
<p>Transportation agencies, working with scientists, have been developing ways to predict where deer and other ungulates enter roads so they can post warning signs or install fencing or wildlife passages under or over the roadway. Just as important is knowing when these accidents occur.</p>
<p>My former students <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=lwT82GcAAAAJ&hl=en">Victor Colino-Rabanal</a>, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wijesooriya-Arachchilage-Abeyrathna">Nimanthi Abeyrathna</a> and I have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-017-1458-x">analyzed over 86,000</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112774">deer-vehicle collisions</a> involving white-tailed deer in New York state using police records over a three-year period. Here’s what our research and other studies show about timing and risk:</p>
<h2>Time of day, month and year matters</h2>
<p>The risk of hitting a deer varies by time of day, day of the week, the monthly lunar cycle and seasons of the year. </p>
<p>These accident cycles are partly a function of driver behavior – they are highest when traffic is heavy, drivers are least alert and driving conditions are poorest for spotting animals. They are also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2019.105365">affected by deer behavior</a>. Not infrequently, deer-vehicle accidents involve multiple vehicles, as startled drivers swerve to miss a deer and collide with a vehicle in another lane, or they slam on the brakes and are rear-ended by the vehicle behind.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Car on road during the start of leaf colors with road sign reading: Caution: High Hit Area" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422438/original/file-20210921-19-1dprmmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422438/original/file-20210921-19-1dprmmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422438/original/file-20210921-19-1dprmmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422438/original/file-20210921-19-1dprmmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422438/original/file-20210921-19-1dprmmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422438/original/file-20210921-19-1dprmmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422438/original/file-20210921-19-1dprmmr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A sign warns of deer traffic on Route 16 in Franklin County, Maine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/fall-foliage-route-16-deer-crossing-franklin-county-maine-news-photo/629562975">Education Images/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In analyzing thousands of deer-vehicle collisions, we found that these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-017-1458-x">accidents occur most frequently</a> at dusk and dawn, when deer are most active and drivers’ ability to spot them is poorest. Only about 20% of accidents occur during daylight hours. Deer-vehicle accidents are eight times more frequent per hour of dusk than daylight, and four times more frequent at dusk than after nightfall.</p>
<p>During the week, accidents occur most frequently on days that have the most drivers on the road at dawn or dusk, so they are associated with work commuter driving patterns and social factors such as Friday “date night” traffic.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-017-1458-x">Over the span</a> of a month, the most deer-vehicle accidents occur during the full moon, and at the time of night that the moon is brightest. Deer move greater distances from cover and are more likely to enter roadways when there is more illumination at night. The pattern holds for deer and other ungulates in both North America and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10041059.x">Europe</a>.</p>
<p><iframe id="Emy0i" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/Emy0i/5/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Over a year, by far the highest numbers of deer-vehicle accidents are in autumn, and particularly during the rut, when bucks search and compete to mate with does. In New York state, the peak number of deer-vehicle accidents occurs in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112774">last week of October and first weeks of November</a>. There are over four times as many deer-vehicle accidents during that period than during spring. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2019.105365">Moose-vehicle accidents show a similar pattern</a>.</p>
<p>That high-risk period is also when daylight saving time ends – it happens on Nov. 7, 2021, in the U.S. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112774">Shifting the clock one hour back</a> means more commuters are on the road during the high-risk dusk hours. The result is more cars driving at the peak time of day and during the peak time of the year for deer-vehicle accidents.</p>
<p>Overall, given that most U.S. states and more than 70 countries have <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-014319">seasonal “daylight saving” clock shifts</a>, elevated ungulate-vehicle accident rates caused by clock shift may be a widespread problem. </p>
<p>[<em>Over 100,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletter to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=100Ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>There is a longstanding debate about the benefit of a daylight saving clock shift, given how it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.10.025">disrupts humans’ circadian rhythms, causing short-term stress and fatigue</a>. Risk of deer-vehicle accidents may be another reason to reconsider whether clock shifts are worthwhile. </p>
<h2>Deer still cross roads at any time</h2>
<p>It’s important to remember that deer-vehicle accidents can occur at any time of day or night, on any day of the year – and that deer can show up in urban areas as well as rural ones.</p>
<p><iframe id="V2Hnt" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/V2Hnt/4/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>The insurance company State Farm found that on average, U.S. drivers have a <a href="https://newsroom.statefarm.com/animal-collision/">1 in 116 chance of hitting an animal</a>, with much higher rates in states such as West Virginia, Montana and Pennsylvania. Over the 12 months ending in June 2020, State Farm counted 1.9 million insurance claims for collisions with wildlife nationwide. <a href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/safety/08034/exec.cfm">Around 90% of those involved deer</a>.</p>
<p>Where deer or other ungulates are likely to be present, drivers should always be alert and cautious, especially at dawn, dusk, on bright moonlit nights and during the fall rut.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167489/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Langen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Avoiding hitting deer on the road is as much about when you drive as where. An animal behavior expert explains why.Tom Langen, Professor of Biology, Clarkson UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1673312021-09-20T12:32:57Z2021-09-20T12:32:57ZLouisiana’s coastal cultures are threatened by the very plans meant to save their wetlands and barrier islands<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421875/original/file-20210917-48792-19e1sj9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6182%2C4124&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">"My family has lost everything. We all live in this area, and now it’s all gone," said Fusto Maldonado, whose home in Barataria, Louisiana, flooded during Hurricane Ida.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-maldonado-family-travel-by-boat-to-their-home-after-it-news-photo/1337537259">Brandon Bell/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Waves of disaster have earned Louisiana a reputation as the place to watch for how climate change will impact coastal areas. <a href="https://theconversation.com/hurricane-ida-turned-into-a-monster-thanks-to-a-giant-warm-patch-in-the-gulf-of-mexico-heres-what-happened-167029">Hurricane Ida</a> was merely a punctuation mark in a series of devastating tropical cyclones, tragic inland floods, epic oil spills and deadly epidemics.</p>
<p>Despite these all-too-frequent catastrophes, many residents of Louisiana’s vulnerable coastal areas remain firmly committed to rebuilding after each disaster. The powerful pulls of family, faith, traditional foods, local music, culture and landscapes create a strong attachment.</p>
<p>Native Americans, African Americans, <a href="https://www.nps.gov/jela/learn/historyculture/from-acadian-to-cajun.htm">Acadians</a>, <a href="http://losislenos.org">Isleños</a> and <a href="https://64parishes.org/entry/vietnamese-in-louisiana">Vietnamese</a> populate the coastal region, living in narrow settlements along the bayous and natural levees that stand a few feet above the backwater swamps and marshes. Many come from a history of traumatic displacement from their traditional homelands. They adapted to the local environment, became skilled shrimpers, fishers and oyster farmers and sunk deep roots.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A fisherman in a round hat watches stands on a boat with rigging as bags of shrimp being moved off by a boom arm." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421878/original/file-20210917-23-cpjlrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421878/original/file-20210917-23-cpjlrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421878/original/file-20210917-23-cpjlrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421878/original/file-20210917-23-cpjlrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=415&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421878/original/file-20210917-23-cpjlrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421878/original/file-20210917-23-cpjlrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421878/original/file-20210917-23-cpjlrl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=522&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Vietnamese fishermen hoist bags of shrimp off a boat in Leeville, Louisiana.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/bags-of-shrimp-are-hoisted-off-a-vietnamese-shrimp-boat-news-photo/102445514">Melina Mara/The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In coastal Louisiana, people often live their entire lives near where they were born. Yet <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1115-7">they have also moved</a>, incrementally “up the bayou” – away from the Gulf of Mexico – over the decades in order to survive in a perilous place. Each major storm prompts a few more departures that contribute to a slow trickle of recovery-weary residents.</p>
<p>As the state tries to cope with repeat catastrophes, it is figuring out how to manage an ongoing crisis – the slow-motion loss of these southern wetlands and barrier islands. They provide valuable natural storm protection. But the state’s solutions may end up harming the communities that live there and endangering the unique cultures that define the Louisiana coast.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://lsu.edu/ga/people/faculty/craig-e-colten/">historical geographer</a> living in Louisiana, I study these areas and recently published a <a href="https://lsupress.org/books/detail/state-of-disaster/">book on Louisiana’s land-loss crisis</a>. My research documents how these rural areas are being asked to adapt to save cities and industries, and how that’s affecting their cultures. </p>
<h2>The downside to wetlands restoration</h2>
<p>The state’s coastal margins have been disappearing at the rate of about <a href="https://coastal.la.gov/reports/2017-coastal-master-plan/">23 square miles per year</a>. That’s due in part to flood protection levees that redirected water-borne sediment away from the Mississippi River Delta. This sediment once seasonally rejuvenated the river’s floodplain, backswamps and marshes during spring flooding. Now, it’s channeled between high levees, so all that material is carried far offshore.</p>
<p>Without regular replenishment, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaz5512">the delta sinks</a>. Navigation canals dug for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207717">oil and gas development</a> have contributed to saltwater intrusion and erosion, furthering land loss. Pumping oil and gas also <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-337/extraction.html">accelerates the land’s subsidence</a>.</p>
<p>The gradual rise of the water level in the Gulf of Mexico as the climate warms, combined with these other processes, exposes Louisiana to the <a href="https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/sltrends/">highest rates of relative sea level rise</a> in the U.S. That makes the low-lying coastal parishes more susceptible to erosion and storm surge flooding like Ida’s.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421931/original/file-20210917-27-1vymepi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Aerial photo showing homes and covered docks lining the edges of a bayou." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421931/original/file-20210917-27-1vymepi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421931/original/file-20210917-27-1vymepi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421931/original/file-20210917-27-1vymepi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421931/original/file-20210917-27-1vymepi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421931/original/file-20210917-27-1vymepi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421931/original/file-20210917-27-1vymepi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421931/original/file-20210917-27-1vymepi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Near Lafitte, Louisiana, homes are nestled along bayous.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/bayou-lafitte-louisiana-united-states-of-america-news-photo/500638787?adppopup=true">Photo by DeAgostini/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421484/original/file-20210916-19-191h1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A map of southern Louisiana showing expected land loss by 2050." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421484/original/file-20210916-19-191h1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421484/original/file-20210916-19-191h1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=235&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421484/original/file-20210916-19-191h1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=235&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421484/original/file-20210916-19-191h1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=235&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421484/original/file-20210916-19-191h1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421484/original/file-20210916-19-191h1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421484/original/file-20210916-19-191h1r3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=295&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rising seas and sinking land are changing the outline of Louisiana.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://coastal.la.gov/reports/2017-coastal-master-plan/">Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Fixing one problem, creating another</h2>
<p>To offset this slow-moving disaster, the state has launched an ambitious program to fortify the coast and restore wetlands and barrier islands.</p>
<p>The plan includes structures to <a href="https://coastal.la.gov/reports/2017-coastal-master-plan/">divert Mississippi River water and sediment</a> into the marshes again. But those freshwater diversions bring another problem: They can change the water chemistry and add sediment, affecting the oysters, shrimp, crabs and fish that residents depend on.</p>
<p>The state’s <a href="https://coastal.la.gov/">Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority</a>, which is directing this gargantuan effort, is attentive to protecting the major industries and largest cities, restoring critical coastal habitats and ecological functions, and assisting coastal residents. Toward these ends it has <a href="https://coastal.la.gov/reports/2017-coastal-master-plan/">spent millions of dollars</a> studying the geology, hydrology and ecology of the region. And it intends to spend billions on its projects, which would create multiple layers of defense such as restored wetlands and barrier islands, along with levees.</p>
<p>Its regularly updated plans note that local culture matters as well. Yet, it hasn’t measured the social and cultural processes at work or modeled their future. Planners have offered no designs for protecting and restoring cultures that will be disrupted by either land loss or the projects on the drawing boards.</p>
<h2>Cultures at risk</h2>
<p>Distinctive ethnic and culture groups have persisted here despite living amid the waves of calamity that wash over their homes. <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-05047-170305">Our studies</a> explain <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1115-7">how locally based practices</a> have enabled them to rebound, rebuild and recover after hurricanes, river floods, epidemics and oil spills. Social scientists refer to these as inherent or informal resilience.</p>
<p>Long before the arrival of Civil Defense, FEMA or other government-organized response efforts, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-05047-170305">residents deployed these practices</a>, enabling people reeling from a hurricane to begin rescuing, sheltering and feeding neighbors and repairing housing and workplaces. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421923/original/file-20210917-23-1phhpiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Satellite images showing widespread flooding" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421923/original/file-20210917-23-1phhpiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421923/original/file-20210917-23-1phhpiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421923/original/file-20210917-23-1phhpiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421923/original/file-20210917-23-1phhpiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=270&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421923/original/file-20210917-23-1phhpiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421923/original/file-20210917-23-1phhpiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421923/original/file-20210917-23-1phhpiy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Satellite images of Louisiana’s coast on Sept. 19, 2015 (left), and on Sept. 3, 2021 (right), after Hurricane Ida.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148809/a-changed-landscape-in-southern-louisiana-after-hurricane-ida">Joshua Stevens/NASA Earth Observatory</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The state’s restoration plans neglect these fundamental cultural skills.</p>
<p>The plan also allows for “<a href="https://coastal.la.gov/reports/2017-coastal-master-plan/">voluntary acquisition</a>” of homes of those who live beyond the structural protections and wish to depart. Yet, there has been no meaningful discussion, study or planning for assisted resettlement of at-risk communities by the agency in charge of coastal restoration. Another agency has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-021-00682-5">worked for several years to assist</a> the largely Native American community of <a href="https://isledejeancharles.la.gov/">Isle de Jean Charles</a> to begin an inland move. There is no comparable effort for other communities within the master plan.</p>
<p>Buyouts may enable some families to escape a precarious situation. But without community-wide resettlement assistance, it will inevitably contribute to community fragmentation and cultural dissolution as residents drift apart.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421918/original/file-20210917-27-ftkkoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Severely damaged homes and a sign that reads: 'Isle de Jean Charles is not dead. Climate change sucks.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421918/original/file-20210917-27-ftkkoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/421918/original/file-20210917-27-ftkkoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421918/original/file-20210917-27-ftkkoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421918/original/file-20210917-27-ftkkoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421918/original/file-20210917-27-ftkkoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421918/original/file-20210917-27-ftkkoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/421918/original/file-20210917-27-ftkkoq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rising seas had already forced many people out of Isle de Jean Charles, a largely Native American community, by the time Ida hit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/TropicalWeather/aba12712a5074fdeabbee4edd16c24b7/photo">AP Photo/Gerald Herbert</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As cultural communities erode due to departures caused by massive storms and other disasters, the state is abetting, unintentionally, the disintegration of the coastal region’s distinctive and highly valued cultures.</p>
<h2>A warning to other coastal areas</h2>
<p>Louisiana’s landscape offers a preview of what might be expected in other locations facing sea level rise and seeking protection behind fixed dikes or levees.</p>
<p>These barriers tend to disrupt local environments that resource-based economies such as fishing depend on. They also contribute to a “levee effect” – the creation of a false sense of security that exposes coastal residents to severe impacts when a storm exceeds the levee’s design limits. </p>
<p>With each successive storm, recovery funds will go into repairing damaged rigid coastal protection systems, like the <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/after-a-14-billion-upgrade-new-orleans-levees-are-sinking/">US$14 billion</a> to repair the New Orleans levees after Hurricane Katrina and the untabulated damage to restoration projects caused by Ida. That means less money available to address the needs of threatened cultural communities.</p>
<p>Designing protection systems that incorporate informal resilience, such as community-directed resettlement planning, or that integrate with existing social networks can protect both coastal cultures and inland populations. And when conditions become untenable, as some Louisiana settlements are discovering, the state’s investments may have to go beyond individual buyouts to help communities <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-021-00682-5">plan a safer future together</a>.</p>
<p>[<em>Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybest">Sign up for our weekly newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167331/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Craig E. Colten received funding from the Community and Regional Resilience Institute, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Water Institute of the Gulf</span></em></p>As the state copes with hurricanes and climate disasters, it is figuring out how to manage the slow-motion loss of its coastal land. But its plans could endanger the cultures that define the region.Craig E. Colten, Professor Emeritus of Geography, Louisiana State University Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1657182021-08-06T19:55:49Z2021-08-06T19:55:49Z3 wildfire lessons for forest towns as Dixie Fire destroys historic Greenville, California<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415042/original/file-20210806-15-4onwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C36%2C8111%2C5379&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Dixie Fire devastated rural Greenville, California, a town of 800 residents, on Aug. 4, 2021.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/firefighter-surveys-a-destroyed-downtown-during-the-dixie-news-photo/1234491141?adppopup=true">Josh Edelson/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A wildfire burning in hot, dry mountain forest swept through the Gold Rush town of Greenville, California, on Aug. 4, reducing neighborhoods and the historic downtown to <a href="https://apnews.com/article/fires-environment-and-nature-california-13faa6976260a4a9e10906c70b4ed2d0">charred rubble</a>. Hours earlier, the sheriff had warned Greenville’s remaining residents to <a href="https://www.facebook.com/plumascountysheriff/posts/greenville-if-you-are-still-in-the-greenville-area-you-are-in-imminent-danger-an/4571493709541466/">get out immediately</a> as strong, gusty winds drove the Dixie Fire toward town. At the same time, firefighters were also trying to protect two other communities – all not far from where the deadly <a href="https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2021/02/new-timeline-deadliest-california-wildfire-could-guide-lifesaving-research">Camp Fire</a> destroyed the town of Paradise in 2018.</p>
<p>This kind of trauma is becoming familiar, from loss of homes to the obliteration of entire towns. Fear of what the future holds in a changing climate lends uncertainty to people’s daily lives. They want to know how to protect their homes, their families, their communities. But they also want to protect core values they cherish – good places to raise their children, freedom to choose their lifestyle, a sense of place in nature and belonging.</p>
<p>How can people prepare for a future that’s unlike anything their communities have ever experienced?</p>
<p>The emergence of extreme fires in recent years and the resulting devastation shows that communities need better means to anticipate mounting dangers, and underscores how settlement patterns, land management and lifestyles will have to change to prevent even larger catastrophes. Our research team of <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=HK23BhsAAAAJ&hl=en">landscape</a> <a href="https://dcp.ufl.edu/faculties/hulse-david/">architects</a>, ecologists, social scientists and computer scientists has been exploring and testing strategies to help.</p>
<h2>What might the future hold?</h2>
<p>Because climate change is contributing to unprecedented extreme fire weather, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2016.05.012">we used simulation modeling</a> to explore and test how forest management and rural development could reduce or amplify wildfire risks in coming decades.</p>
<p>To do this, we created a computer version of the rural landscape around Eugene-Springfield, a midsize metropolitan area in Oregon’s Willamette Valley with a rapidly expanding population. Our simulations played out in carefully mapped representations of that landscape beginning in 2007, including its vegetation, property boundaries and the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.11.020">type of landowner</a> managing each parcel, such as farmers, foresters or rural residents who moved to the countryside from the city. </p>
<p>For each of 50 simulated years, as climate models generated fire weather and <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/13-0906.1">altered the vegetation</a>, each landowner chose actions such as <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/what-is-hazard-fuel-reduction.htm">removing hazardous fuels</a> like small trees and underbrush, restoring fire-adapted ecosystems, growing crops, building homes or protecting homes with landscaping and building materials recommended by the National Fire Protection Association’s <a href="https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Firewise-USA">Firewise</a> program. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two images: a thinned forest and a tree in grasslands." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415038/original/file-20210806-23-664t4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415038/original/file-20210806-23-664t4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415038/original/file-20210806-23-664t4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415038/original/file-20210806-23-664t4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=232&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415038/original/file-20210806-23-664t4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415038/original/file-20210806-23-664t4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415038/original/file-20210806-23-664t4y.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=291&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Forest thinning (left) and grassland restoration can help reduce wildfire severity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Bart Johnson</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Over time, the simulated landowners could respond to emerging threats while protecting valued crops, amenities, lifestyles and ecosystems.</p>
<p>We tested different strategies under two climate models in 600 simulated futures. Under one climate model, wildfire behavior remained much the same as in the recent past while the number of fires grew because of increased human ignitions as the population increased. Under the other, more extreme climate model, wildfires larger than any experienced in the Willamette Valley’s recent past could erupt without warning, threatening homes even as landowners’ vegetation management reduced the fires’ spread. </p>
<p>It turned out that those worst-case projections were dwarfed by the wildfires in 2020 <a href="https://www.statesmanjournal.com/story/news/2020/10/30/climate-change-oregon-wildfires-2020/6056170002/">just outside our study area</a>.</p>
<h2>Three lessons for surviving the future</h2>
<p>Here are three key lessons we’re learning from our research on how people might reliably reduce their losses in a future that could bring more fires, unpredictable larger fires, or both.</p>
<p>1) Prepare for uncertainty: In a simulated world with extreme, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2021/08/05/dixie-river-fire-california-climate/">unpredictable wildfires</a>, 10 times more homes were threatened in our study area than in identical rural development and forest management scenarios under less extreme climate impacts. In our worst-case scenario – in which rural development expands without constraint and the forests aren’t thinned by people or allowed to burn naturally – over 30 times more homes were threatened than under conditions with less rural population growth and more management.</p>
<p>The good news was that when 30% of the burnable landscape was actively managed to reduce fire risk with forest-thinning techniques and grassland restoration, the threat to homes fell by nearly half in the world of extreme wildfires.</p>
<p>2) Choose treatments wisely: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2433">Reducing forest density</a> by thinning out smaller trees and underbrush effectively reduced the spread and severity of fires in extreme fire weather. In fact, our results suggest <a href="https://www.nps.gov/articles/what-is-hazard-fuel-reduction.htm">these tactics</a> become increasingly effective as fires grow larger and more intense.</p>
<p>In our study area, restoring imperiled native grasslands with scattered trees could do the best job of reducing risk to individual homes by creating “safe” places, where the fire isn’t in the tree canopy and firefighters can battle it, under even extreme wildfire conditions. One such fire exploded out of nowhere under the less-extreme climate model, threatening over 900 homes. Two-thirds of homes in restored grasslands were protected by Firewise practices. Density thinning was only half as effective because of the difficulties of protecting homes in a forest. But the biggest challenge was that the high costs of thinning kept most forest landowners from maintaining treatments over time. As a result, high-severity fire consumed unmanaged forests, threatening 85% of homes there.</p>
<p>Grasslands pose a two-edged sword if not carefully managed – under extreme fire weather they could foster fast-spreading fire corridors that leave homes in nearby forests exposed to greater risk.</p>
<p><iframe id="XGpHB" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/XGpHB/7/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p><img src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/1746/FireAni_3x3Futures_640px_v2.gif?1628292398"></p><figure><figcaption><span class="caption">An animation shows how the same fire spreads in three potential future landscapes in three scenarios under extreme fire weather: with no management, thinning only and thinning accompanied by grassland restoration. Fires move quickly in unmanaged forest canopies and in grasslands with insufficient management. They don’t move as fast in a forest with reduced fuels.
</span></figcaption></figure><p></p>
<p>3) Manage rural development. Dealing with the often-divisive issue of where and how people build new homes is crucial when it comes to wildfire risk. Oregon is renowned for <a href="https://www.oregon.gov/lcd/OP/Pages/index.aspx">statewide policies</a> that constrain urban sprawl.</p>
<p>When we tested scenarios with more relaxed rules, we found that adding many new rural homes increased the average risk per home. Under these relaxed policies, sites in less risky areas were quickly developed and housing shifted to steeper, forested terrain at greater risk of severe fires. That can compound risk by putting more homes in harm’s way and increasing the potential for vehicles and power lines to ignite fires.</p>
<p>An advantage of simulation modeling is that it allows scientists, policymakers and citizens to investigate things we can’t easily test in the real world. We can explore prospective solutions, identify new problems they create and address them and run the simulations again.</p>
<p>In the real world, there is only one chance to get it right. People need to be able to identify reliable, adaptive approaches that can be implemented in sufficient time and in the right places before catastrophes happen. As carpenters say, “Measure twice, cut once.”</p>
<h2>So what should people in fire-prone areas do?</h2>
<p>Western wildfires are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL089858">getting more extreme</a>, but in many cases landowners and communities may be able to dramatically reduce the damage.</p>
<p>Our worst-case scenario – high climate impacts, large numbers of new rural homes and no fuels management – led to an order of magnitude greater risk to homes in our study area over the next 50 years. But by consolidating new development in cities and clustered rural housing, the risk dropped by half. And combining compact development with management of burnable vegetation reduced it by nearly 75%.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Four illustrations of a landscape after fire in 2020, 2025 and 2050" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415061/original/file-20210806-17-1dj3ete.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/415061/original/file-20210806-17-1dj3ete.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1181&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415061/original/file-20210806-17-1dj3ete.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1181&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415061/original/file-20210806-17-1dj3ete.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1181&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415061/original/file-20210806-17-1dj3ete.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1484&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415061/original/file-20210806-17-1dj3ete.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/415061/original/file-20210806-17-1dj3ete.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1484&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">University of Oregon landscape architecture students worked with landowners whose homes were destroyed in the 2020 Holiday Farm Fire to help them develop greater resilience to future wildfires.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cameron Dunstan and Eyrie Horton</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>On a smaller scale, everyone can take <a href="https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Preparing-homes-for-wildfire">basic steps to help protect their homes</a>. Here are a few tips: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>Keep roofs and gutters repaired and clear of dead leaves and conifer needles that a flying ember could ignite. </p></li>
<li><p>Keep burnable material, including flammable plants and leaves, away from houses and especially from under porches. </p></li>
<li><p>Keep tree canopies at least 10 feet from the home and prune branches up 6-10 feet from the ground within 30 feet of the house. </p></li>
<li><p>Thin trees as much as 100-200 feet from the house to allow space between them so it’s harder for fire to move from one tree to the next.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The results of our simulations emphasize the power and consequences of today’s decisions on tomorrow’s risk.</p>
<p><em>This article was updated Aug. 11, 2021, with an additional chart showing affects of grasslands and forests on fire threat to homes.</em></p>
<p>[<em>Get our best science, health and technology stories.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/science-editors-picks-71/?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=science-best">Sign up for The Conversation’s science newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165718/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bart Johnson receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the State of Oregon for research focused on wildfire risk mitigation and restoration of fire-adapted ecosystems.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Hulse receives funding from the National Science Foundation and the University of Florida.</span></em></p>Hundreds of computer simulations point to a few best strategies for keeping homes safe from fire in a warming climate.Bart Johnson, Professor of Landscape Architecture, University of OregonDavid Hulse, Professor of Landscape Architecture, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1654792021-08-06T07:40:33Z2021-08-06T07:40:33ZWhy thieves using e-scooters are targeting farms to steal £3,000 quad bikes, and what farmers can do to prevent it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414777/original/file-20210805-27-1kbxomj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Quad bikes and GPS systems are being stolen from farms.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Garner/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Farm vehicles have long been considered an easy target for thieves because of poor security measures, such as universal keys that can be used to start any tractor and the failure to use immobilisers. </p>
<p>But security is now starting to be upgraded. Some tractors and quad bikes are now being made with a new type of chipped key to make them more secure; however, many vehicles still lag conspicuously behind the modern security standards, leaving farmers unprotected against theft.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, criminals are also embracing new technology. They are increasingly using <a href="https://www.nfumutual.co.uk/farming/ruralcrime/">e-scooters and e-bikes</a> as they are faster than ordinary bikes and quieter than cars to scope out potential farms as targets. They also conduct their search for machinery to steal by trawling <a href="https://www.fwi.co.uk/news/crime/thieves-monitoring-social-media-to-target-farm-machinery">social media</a> and online publications. </p>
<p>It is also increasingly common for criminals to use <a href="https://spark.adobe.com/page/86ylvQg8pRlij/">signal jammers</a> to stop trackers working as thieves escape with a stolen quad bike.</p>
<p>Figures published by insurance company NFU Mutual show the extent of agricultural theft in the UK. The <a href="https://www.nfumutual.co.uk/farming/ruralcrime/">most recent</a> report shows that, after significant increases in both <a href="https://www.nfuonline.com/nfu-online/business/crime/mutual-crime-report/">2018</a> and <a href="https://datatag.co.uk/PDFs/NFU_Mutual_Rural_Crime_Report_2020.pdf">2019</a>, 2020 saw reductions in agricultural vehicle theft. </p>
<p>These figures may not indicate a long-term downward trend as the pandemic reduced the frequency and speed of both national and global transport networks that criminals depend on to move stolen goods. </p>
<p>And they may fall in line with a drop in recorded crime during the pandemic, where crime overall fell <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/crimeinenglandandwales/latest">by 10% and theft by 20%</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414799/original/file-20210805-19-gg09yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tractor moving across a field" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414799/original/file-20210805-19-gg09yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/414799/original/file-20210805-19-gg09yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414799/original/file-20210805-19-gg09yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414799/original/file-20210805-19-gg09yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414799/original/file-20210805-19-gg09yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414799/original/file-20210805-19-gg09yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/414799/original/file-20210805-19-gg09yp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Many farming vehicles have traditionally not had high levels of security.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Valentin Valkov/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Thieves steal quad bikes and all-terrain vehicles because of their high secondhand value (around £3,000-£4,000) and because they are easy to transport, but the latest target is expensive GPS systems that are often fitted to the top of <a href="https://www.nfumutual.co.uk/farming/ruralcrime/">tractors to improve accuracy and efficiency</a>. Farmers use GPS systems to help them fertilise fields more accurately. </p>
<p>The ease with which GPS units can be concealed and transported has helped this form of crime remain viable during the pandemic.</p>
<h2>Families left vulnerable</h2>
<p>Machinery theft often results in significant interruptions to farming as well as financial losses, and sometimes theft is also accompanied by intimidation and violence. </p>
<p>Farmers and their families can also be <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article/51/1/75/344837">left struggling</a> with both the <a href="https://www.nationalruralcrimenetwork.net/research/internal/2018survey/">fear of crime</a> and the experience of being a victim of crime leaving them feeling <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S074301672031250X">vulnerable and afraid</a> of being alone in their own homes.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/crime-is-rife-on-farms-yet-reporting-remains-stubbornly-low-heres-how-new-initiatives-are-making-progress-158421">Crime is rife on farms, yet reporting remains stubbornly low. Here's how new initiatives are making progress</a>
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<p>While some thieves operate locally and are fairly unsophisticated, most rural thieves routinely move across counties, <a href="http://www.righttoride.org.uk/documents/AVCIS-Problem-Profile-Evaluation-of-Vehicles-Stolen-for-Export_unrestricted.pdf">countries</a> and sometimes even <a href="http://www.docme.su/doc/1351995">continents</a>. </p>
<h2>Cross-border policing not working</h2>
<p>Criminals are able to capitalise on the weaknesses in the way <a href="http://ggcpp.nuff.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Police-Effectiveness.pdf">police forces don’t always work well across regional borders</a> using their access to equipment and networks for the theft, transport and sale of machinery across large geographical areas.</p>
<p>Farmers are increasingly uncertain of how best to protect themselves without having to constantly invest in expensive security as a technological arms race takes place between them and criminals. </p>
<p>The new ways criminals are targeting rural communities mean that agricultural vehicle manufacturers must start to include modern security measures in their standard design for tractors and quad bikes as they do with cars, instead of leaving them to be purchased as expensive extras that farmers cannot afford. </p>
<p>In the meantime, my research suggests that using simple, cheap measures such as <a href="https://spark.adobe.com/page/86ylvQg8pRlij/">community WhatsApp groups</a> police officers are able to quickly share information with farmers to help them improve security, warning them of any vulnerabilities, as well as helping farmers feel less isolated.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165479/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kate Tudor does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A technology arms war is escalating as high-tech thieves attempt to steal expensive equipment from farmers.Kate Tudor, Senior lecturer in Criminology, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.