tag:theconversation.com,2011:/fr/topics/snowboarding-8806/articlesSnowboarding – The Conversation2024-01-11T13:26:43Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2209432024-01-11T13:26:43Z2024-01-11T13:26:43ZTahoe avalanches: What causes innocent-looking snow slopes to collapse? A physicist and skier explains, with tips for surviving<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568796/original/file-20240111-19-upafl3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C2438%2C3304%2C2022&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A skier at Palisades Tahoe, home of the 1960 Winter Olympics and site of a small but deadly avalanche in 2024.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SnowboundSierra/fa093ab6ef4849ad990f949d64a2887a/photo">AP Photo/Rich Pedroncelli</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>An avalanche <a href="https://www.kcra.com/article/avalanche-palisades-tahoe-resort-palisades-side/46342439/">swept up skiers</a> at Lake Tahoe’s largest ski resort on Jan. 10, 2024, as a 150-foot-wide sheet of snow slid down a mountain slope into a pile 10 feet deep. One person died in the avalanche and three others were rescued, according to the <a href="https://www.kcra.com/article/avalanche-palisades-tahoe-resort-palisades-side/46342439">Placer County, California, Sheriff’s Office</a>. The slide happened in steep terrain near the <a href="https://snowbrains.com/kt-22-palisades-tahoe-best-chairlift-north-america/">KT-22 chairlift</a>, which had just opened for the season that morning. A <a href="https://www.kcra.com/article/palisades-tahoe-resort-second-avalanche-reported/46356367">second unplanned avalanche</a> hit the same ski resort the next day, but no one was injured.</em> </p>
<p><em>Avalanche deaths are <a href="https://avalanche.state.co.us/accidents/us">rare inbounds</a> at ski resorts like Palisades Tahoe, but the risk rises in the backcountry – 30 backcountry avalanche deaths were reported in the U.S. during the 2022-2023 season. <a href="https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=bWUANQMAAAAJ&hl=en">Nathalie Vriend</a>, a skier and physicist at the University of Colorado Boulder who studies avalanches, explains what happens in an avalanche and techniques for surviving one.</em></p>
<h2>What causes avalanches?</h2>
<p>The behavior of an avalanche depends on the structure of the snowpack, but that’s only one ingredient. An avalanche requires all the wrong conditions at the wrong time.</p>
<p>The angle of the mountain slope is important. Slopes between <a href="https://avalanche.ca/glossary/terms/slope-angle">25 and 40 degrees</a> run the greatest risk of avalanches. Those are also ideal for skiing, of course. If the slope is less than 25 degrees, there might be little slips, but the snow won’t pick up speed. If it’s over 40 degrees, the snow typically cannot accumulate, clearing away the avalanche risk.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Avalanche awareness for backcountry skiers.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Then there needs to be a trigger. A snowpack may be seemingly stable until a snowmobile or skier disturbs it enough that the snow starts to move. Strong winds or rock falls may also cause an avalanche. Blowing snow can create wind loading and <a href="https://avalanche.org/avalanche-encyclopedia/avalanche/avalanche-problems/avalanche-problem-type/cornice-fall/">build up into cornices</a>, creating an overhang that can eventually fall and trigger an avalanche below.</p>
<h2>What happens inside the snowpack during an avalanche?</h2>
<p>Mountain snowpack isn’t uniform. Because it builds up over time, it is a snapshot of recent weather conditions and has both stable and weak layers.</p>
<p>When snow falls, it’s a fluffy crystal structure. But when the temperature rises and the snow starts to melt and then refreezes, it <a href="https://avalanche.org/avalanche-encyclopedia/snowpack/weak-layer/persistent-weak-layers/depth-hoar-basal-facets/">turns more granular</a>.</p>
<p>That granular, icier snow is a <a href="https://avalanche.ca/glossary/terms/persistent-weak-layer">weak layer</a>. When a new snowfall dumps on top of it, the grains in the weak layer can shear, creating a surface for an avalanche to slide on. The weight of new snowpack can cause the entire face of a mountain to fall away almost instantaneously. As the avalanche picks up speed, more snow and debris are incorporated in the avalanche and it can become really big and violent.</p>
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<img alt="A domed mountain with snow clearly slid down the full width of one side." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568793/original/file-20240111-23-axxbv4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=565&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">An avalanche takes down the side of a mountain near Winter Park, Colo., in 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Rockies-AvalancheDanger/ebc1137f30c54ec29eace5443635401f/photo">Colorado Avalanche Information Center via AP</a></span>
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<p>In <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/mechanical/nathalie-m-vriend">my lab</a> at the University of Colorado at Boulder, I study small-scale laboratory avalanches. We use a technique called <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/book/mono/978-0-7503-2472-4/chapter/bk978-0-7503-2472-4ch1">photoelasticity</a> and create thin avalanches to reveal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.100.012902">what’s going on inside the avalanche</a>. We track photoelastic particles with a high-speed camera and can observe that particles bounce and collide really fast, within 1/1,000th of a second.</p>
<p>In a real avalanche, those violent collisions create a lot of heat through friction, which causes more melting. As the avalanche comes to a rest, this liquid can quickly refreeze again, locking the snowpack in place like concrete. People say “<a href="https://www.getprepared.gc.ca/cnt/hzd/vlchs-drng-en.aspx">swim to the surface</a>” in an avalanche, but you may not know whether the surface is up or down. If the avalanche is still moving and the granules haven’t frozen solid again, you might be able to move slightly, but it is really hard.</p>
<h2>What can skiers do if they’re in an avalanche?</h2>
<p>I’ve done fieldwork on real snow avalanches triggered intentionally in Switzerland. We were in a bunker in a valley, and they dropped explosives at the top of the mountain. Using radar, we could look inside the avalanche as it came toward us. It was easily going more than <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50134">110 miles per hour (50 meters per second)</a>.</p>
<p>Even if the avalanche is small, you can’t outski or outrun it easily. The big danger is when the snow is deep – you could be buried under several feet of snow. Basically, as the avalanche slows down, new snow keeps piling on top of you. People report this as being trapped in concrete without an ability to even move a limb. It must be a very frightening experience.</p>
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<img alt="A yellow dog pulls on a tug held by a man in ski patrol outfit and goggles who is buried up to his waist in snow." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568870/original/file-20240111-19-oh7pq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">An avalanche rescue dog tugs on a ski patrol member during avalanche training at Copper Mountain in Colorado.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/mason-pulls-on-a-tug-held-by-ski-patroller-matt-urich-as-news-photo/1131269864">AAron Ontiveroz/MediaNews Group/The Denver Post via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Backcountry skiers carry <a href="https://catamounttrail.org/bc-zones/safety-in-the-backcountry/">tools that can increase their chances of survival</a>. Your best bet, though, is your peers – particularly in the backcountry, where emergency crews will take hours to arrive.</p>
<p>There are a few things you can do. First, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nnHXLVA2FcE">carry a transceiver</a>, which transmits a signal identifying your location. When you are caught in an avalanche, you are transmitting a signal. Your friends can switch their transceivers to the “receiving” mode and try to locate your beacon. It’s also important to have an avalanche probe and a shovel in the backcountry for when your friends do locate your position: The snow is like concrete, and it will be hard to extract you.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOE9b60TsT4">Avalanche air bags</a> can also help – James Bond <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MQQLqRYm4vg">used an elaborate concept of one</a> in “The World Is Not Enough.” With modern avalanche air bags, you pull a toggle on your back, and the air bag inflates behind your head, <a href="https://youtu.be/h7QFRXc0R8M?feature=shared">turning you into a bigger particle</a>. Bigger particles tend to stay at the surface, making you easier to locate.</p>
<h2>How is avalanche risk changing as winter temperatures rise?</h2>
<p>It’s an important question, and it’s not as simple as warming temperatures mean less snow, so fewer avalanches. Instead, if mountains have more variation in temperatures, they may have more melting and refreezing phases during the winter, creating weaker snowpacks compared with historical records.</p>
<p>The historical conditions that communities have grown up around can change. In 2017, there was a big <a href="https://www.gq.com/story/the-avalanche-that-ate-hotel-rigopiano">avalanche in Italy</a> that took out an entire hotel. It was in an area where people didn’t expect an avalanche, based on historical data.</p>
<p>There are computer models that can calculate where avalanches are likely to occur. But when temperatures, snowfall and precipitation patterns change, you may not be able to truly understand cause and effect on natural hazards like snow avalanches. </p>
<p><em>This article was updated with a second avalanche on Jan. 11, 2024.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220943/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nathalie Vriend receives funding from the Moore Foundation, and in the past from the Royal Society and NERC among others. </span></em></p>A deadly avalanche at Palisades Tahoe, home of the 1960 Winter Olympics, shows the risk as snow layers melt and new snow falls.Nathalie Vriend, Associate Professor of Thermo Fluid Sciences, University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2142482023-09-26T23:45:04Z2023-09-26T23:45:04ZRuapehu has had a great ski season – but we need to reimagine the future of NZ’s iconic volcano<p>As a former competitive snowboarder and instructor, and later a <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9780230305571">researcher of snow sports</a>, I’ve been lucky to enjoy ski resorts around the world. But nothing compares to Mount Ruapehu on a good day.</p>
<p>Holidaying with my family last week, we fell in love with the natural terrain of both the Whakapapa and Tūroa fields – the latter enjoying the biggest snow base in the world at the time.</p>
<p>We were not alone. A <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/whanganui-chronicle/news/snow-records-fall-on-mt-ruapehu-best-season-in-years/KP6KXKI4OZDAHGV72QHSXHWGRI/">strong winter season</a> has seen many thousands making the most of the great conditions: 5,614 guests on Whakapapa’s busiest day of July 15, and 3,500 at Tūroa on July 28.</p>
<p>But this apparently positive picture makes it easy to overlook the fact that both ski fields on the North Island volcano have faced huge economic uncertainty over the past year. And one great season does not necessarily mean long-term recovery.</p>
<h2>Sustainability amid uncertainty</h2>
<p>After difficult pandemic years and a poor 2022 snow season, Ruapehu Alpine Lifts (RAL), which operates both Tūroa and Whakapapa, went into receivership. Ski resorts everywhere are <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13683500.2017.1410110?src=recsys">facing an uncertain future</a>, with climate change making seasons hard to predict.</p>
<p>After months of <a href="https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/new-zealand/2023/06/mt-ruapehu-ski-fields-face-worst-case-scenario-after-controversial-vote.html">uncertainty and debate</a> about its future, the government eventually offered a <a href="https://www.saminfo.com/news/sam-headline-news/10350-new-zealand-s-central-government-loans-5-million-to-bail-out-ski-season">NZ$5 million lifeline</a> for the 2023 winter season. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ruapehus-slippery-slopes-the-uncertain-future-of-snow-sports-in-a-climate-emergency-193004">Ruapehu's slippery slopes: the uncertain future of snow sports in a climate emergency</a>
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<p>Despite various longer-term rescue proposals, including a (now dropped) <a href="https://www.teaonews.co.nz/2023/09/07/ngati-tuwharetoa-drops-bid-for-ruapehu-alpine-lifts-reserves-stance-under-its-treaty-claim-settlement/">buyout bid by Ngāti Tūwharetoa</a> (one of several iwi shareholders), the future of skiing and snowboarding on Mt Ruapehu remains uncertain.</p>
<p>Understandably, this is causing anxiety among those whose livelihoods – and favourite sporting and leisure pursuits – are at risk. Beyond those immediate concerns, however, lies the place of the maunga (mountain) itself in the historical and cultural fabric of Aotearoa New Zealand.</p>
<h2>Cultural and geological significance</h2>
<p>Ruapehu is much more than a place for leisure tourism. Located in the heart of the 80,000-hectare Tongariro National Park, one of three world heritage sites in New Zealand, it is a unique and special place. </p>
<p>In fact, Tongariro has <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/parks-and-recreation/places-to-go/central-north-island/places/tongariro-national-park/about-tongariro-national-park/world-heritage-site/">dual world heritage status</a> for its important Māori cultural and spiritual associations, as well as its distinctive volcanic features.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-research-detects-pre-eruption-warning-signals-at-whakaari-white-island-and-other-active-volcanoes-181090">New research detects pre-eruption warning signals at Whakaari White Island and other active volcanoes</a>
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<p>Ruapehu is particularly significant to Māori, being part of the <a href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/kahu/the-battle-of-the-mountains-the-love-story-that-shaped-our-lands/ODTCQWVB77NBW6JOVOHQFOLXDM/">origin story</a> of te Ika-a-Māui (the North Island). And the ski fields are bound up in the unresolved Treaty of Waitangi <a href="https://www.newsroom.co.nz/give-mountain-a-chance-to-recover-ruapehu-iwi">claim to Tongariro National Park</a>.</p>
<p>The scale of that claim, which involves cultural redress more than the return of land, puts the future of the ski fields in <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/ilj3&div=9&id=&page=">a much wider perspective</a>. Added to that is the question of environmental sustainability, with ski resorts increasingly <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-023-01770-w">reliant on snow-making</a> for their survival. </p>
<p>Behind the human activity, of course, sits Ruapehu’s great geological significance. As my nine-year-old son proudly explained upon arrival, it is a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00288306.2021.1909080">stratovolcano</a> (also called a composite cone volcano), built up by successive layers of andesite lava and ash deposits.</p>
<p>Rising impressively from the ancient native forest on one side and the beautiful tussock on the other, the maunga is a striking presence in the landscape. Light and clouds constantly change its appearance as they dance off its jagged peaks.</p>
<p>Ruapehu is also New Zealand’s <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00288306.2020.1824999">largest active volcano</a>. There are frequent minor eruptions and more significant events every 20 to 30 years. This makes it an unusual skiing experience, to say the least, with a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10346-009-0180-5">lahar alarm and warning system</a> in place, and signs everywhere reminding skiers and snowboarders of the lively nature of this powerful mountain.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/rising-costs-of-climate-change-threaten-to-make-skiing-a-less-diverse-even-more-exclusive-sport-177027">Rising costs of climate change threaten to make skiing a less diverse, even more exclusive sport</a>
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<h2>The people’s mountain</h2>
<p>Over my many years researching snow sport cultures around the world, I’ve witnessed their <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1743043052000316632">unique social dynamics</a>. Unlike many sports that separate people based on gender, ability and age, the slopes offer a space for shared experiences. And they can be a wonderful place for families.</p>
<p>But skiing and snowboarding have long been <a href="https://kansaspress.ku.edu/9780700613410/">highly privileged activities</a>. Often they are available only to those with the free time and disposable income. Travel, accommodation, lift tickets and equipment are expensive. </p>
<p>Perhaps unsurprisingly, the clientele of ski resorts in New Zealand and <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3640297">around the world</a> have been described as “<a href="https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/historyofskiing/2022/05/03/white-as-snow-an-examination-of-race-within-skiing/">white as the snow</a>”.</p>
<p>And yet I am struck by the diversity on Ruapehu. At $84 for an adult mid-week day pass, and $54 for a child day pass, it’s much more accessible than the more expensive South Island experience ($160 for an adult day pass at the Remarkables or Cardrona).</p>
<p>RAL also offers heavily discounted or free season passes and day passes to local iwi, schools, defence force staff and emergency services, among other groups.
In contrast to the often international <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369183X.2016.1190638">staff of most ski resorts</a>, RAL workers are predominantly local, with 53% identifying as New Zealand European and 16% Māori.</p>
<h2>Reimagining Ruapehu</h2>
<p>While more can be done to ensure ski resorts are <a href="https://www.afar.com/magazine/these-groups-are-making-skiing-more-inclusive-accessible">more inclusive and accessible</a> for all, the various innovations by RAL to respond to the pandemic, seasonal disruption and ongoing economic uncertainty are a good start.</p>
<p>But its great cultural, social and geological significance makes Ruapehu a taonga (treasure) for all New Zealanders. Personally, I hope to enjoy riding with my family on Ruapehu for many years to come, but the issue is bigger than that.</p>
<p>With or without skiing, Ruapehu offers New Zealanders an opportunity to know mountain places as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09669580408667248">culturally significant landscapes</a>, to learn about their histories and to reimagine their collective futures.</p>
<p>There is untapped potential in using the existing resort facilities as educational spaces for future generations to learn about the cultural and geographical significance of this special place. </p>
<p>And while relationships with the mountain (and views on its future) will vary based on people’s different cultural, social and economic perspectives, acknowledging Ruapehu’s place in the Māori experience of <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/mountain-research-and-development/volume-42/issue-4/mrd.2022.00016/Rethinking-the-Role-of-Indigenous-Knowledge-in-Sustainable-Mountain-Development/10.1659/mrd.2022.00016.full">colonisation and dispossession</a> must be central too.</p>
<p>As the economic modelling continues, and various parties seek financial sustainability for the ski fields, it’s important we don’t lose sight of this bigger picture of a remarkable maunga in the heart of te Ika-a-Māui.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/214248/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Holly Thorpe does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>This winter’s bumper snowfall notwithstanding, the future of Ruapehu’s famous ski fields is highly uncertain. But the mountain itself will remain important in other ways.Holly Thorpe, Professor in Sociology of Sport and Gender, University of WaikatoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1770272022-02-17T20:08:14Z2022-02-17T20:08:14ZRising costs of climate change threaten to make skiing a less diverse, even more exclusive sport<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447098/original/file-20220217-9608-qkwoe3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=850%2C183%2C4259%2C2980&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some resorts have launched diversity efforts to try to appeal to a wider community.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/portrait-of-skier-royalty-free-image/97534255">Johannes Kroemer via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Watching skiers compete <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/02/13/1080446506/weather-snow-disrupts-events-at-the-beijing-olympics">almost entirely</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/olympic-skiers-and-snowboarders-are-competing-on-100-fake-snow-the-science-of-how-its-made-and-how-it-affects-performance-176339">on artificially made snow</a> at the 2022 Winter Olympics, we found it hard not to think about climate change and what it will mean for the future of the winter sports industry – and who will be able to participate.</p>
<p>Ski areas are increasingly reliant on extensive snowmaking operations to keep their slopes open as the planet warms. A few degrees of warming can mean more days of <a href="https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/2/">rain instead of snow</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2017.1410110">shorter seasons</a>. That reduces the operators’ revenue and raises their costs.</p>
<p>Those costs, passed along to visitors in higher lift ticket and resort prices, directly affect who can afford to spend a day on the slopes skiing or snowboarding. </p>
<p>As resorts’ costs rise, these already expensive sports risk becoming more exclusive and less diverse.</p>
<p><a href="https://ahs.illinois.edu/warwick">Our</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=yEcX-t0AAAAJ&hl=en">research</a> involves what’s known as <a href="https://www.intersectionalenvironmentalist.com/topic-identity-leaders">intersectional sustainability</a> in sports – looking at how to ensure they are both inclusive and environmentally sustainable. For ski resorts, intersectional sustainability means acknowledging that climate change may result in the unintended consequence of further entrenching the sports’ lack of diversity, and proactively seeking to prevent that. </p>
<h2>Adaptation is necessary, and expensive</h2>
<p>Creating artificial snow to adapt to climate change doesn’t come cheap.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.holidayvalley.com/winter/snowmaking-grooming/">Holiday Valley</a>, a small resort in Ellicottville, New York, has invested over $13 million in snowmaking equipment in the past 40 years. On top of that are the costs of energy, labor and piping in <a href="https://blog.steamboat.com/the-most-modern-and-energy-efficient-way-to-create-the-early-season-fluff/">thousands of gallons of water a minute</a> to run snowmaking machines. Even as snowmaking machines become more efficient, the <a href="https://files.danfoss.com/download/Drives/ITDDPC400A102_TechnoAlpin_LR.pdf">overall cost is still significant</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Skiers on a lift with a snowmaking machine running below" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447097/original/file-20220217-25-1u5rm27.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Snowmaking machines, like this one at Breckenridge Ski Resort in Colorado, use a lot of water and are often expensive to run.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/snowboarder-and-a-skier-ride-the-rips-ride-lift-while-a-news-photo/1190523571">Andy Cross/MediaNews Group/The Denver Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>An <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2017.1401984">analysis of the outlook for Blue Mountain</a>, a ski resort in Ontario, Canada, offers a glimpse of the future. </p>
<p>In a best-case scenario, if the world achieves the <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement">Paris climate agreement</a> goal of limiting warming to under 2 degrees Celsius (3.6 F), Blue Mountain’s ski season is to likely shorten by 8% and its snowmaking efforts would have to almost double by 2050. The window of ideal weather for snowmaking would also reduce by 22%, meaning the resort would be making snow under less efficient conditions, which further drives up the cost. Those extra costs likely will show up in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.01.009">higher lift ticket and resort prices</a>.</p>
<p>Smaller resorts may be forced to take on debt to finance snowmaking equipment. High leverage ratios have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2020.1770683">shown to reduce profitability</a> for ski resorts. Some smaller ski areas have <a href="https://nsaa.org/webdocs/Media_Public/IndustryStats/ski_areas_per_season_thru_2021.pdf">shut down</a>, leaving fewer nearby options for skiing and snowboarding in some areas and reducing competition that could help keep prices in check.</p>
<h2>Resorts already struggle with diversity</h2>
<p>Alpine skiing and snowboarding resorts already draw criticism for their lack of diversity. </p>
<p>In 2019-20, 69% of visitors who described themselves as skiers and 61% as snowboarders identified as Caucasian or white, according to <a href="https://members.snowsports.org/research-center/">Snowsports Industries of America</a>. The organization found the most frequent participants are even less diverse. </p>
<p>A separate survey by the <a href="https://www.nsaa.org/NSAA/Resources/Industry_Stats/NSAA/Media/Industry_Stats.aspx?hkey=8247ed3b-e20e-46d2-9c5d-36b92782c297">National Ski Area Association</a> found a wider difference: 87.5% of U.S. visits that season were individuals identifying as Caucasian or white, and only 1.5% were people identifying as Black or African American. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://members.snowsports.org/research-center/">Snowsports Industries of America</a> survey also found a wealth gap. More than 63% of skiers and 55% of snowboarders had an income over $75,000, almost double the <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2021/demo/p60-273.html">median earnings</a> of Americans. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A family with young children on skis" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/447096/original/file-20220217-15-z0erz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">As costs rise, family ski trips can get expensive. Smaller ski areas, like this one in Quebec, Canada, offer opportunities, but their costs are rising, too.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/multi-ethnic-family-with-their-friends-skying-royalty-free-image/1043765830">Manonallard via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some resort corporations, including <a href="https://www.aspensnowmass.com/discover/who-we-are/racial-justice">Aspen Snowmass</a> and <a href="https://www.powdr.com/play-forever">Powdr</a>, have committed to increasing diversity and inclusion at their resorts. Powdr, for example, has community initiatives in its “Play Forever” campaign that include awarding scholarships to help people attend their camps and a partnership with <a href="https://www.stoked.org/">STOKED</a>, a nonprofit that mentors young people from underserved communities who are interested in board sports.</p>
<p>But among several other <a href="https://www.nsaa.org/NSAA/Media/Who_Owns_Which_Mountain_Resorts.aspx">corporate-owned ski resorts</a>, there is a noticeable lack of diversity efforts on their corporate websites. Eight resort companies included either no mention of diversity and inclusion or provided no evidence of initiatives supporting these efforts on their corporate websites.</p>
<p>The results suggest to us that the rising costs of climate adaptation will leave many would-be skiers and snowboarders unable to enjoy the sports.</p>
<h2>Three tactics to improve diversity for the future</h2>
<p>As the climate changes, management practices can also change to keep the slopes accessible.</p>
<p>One effective strategy is engaging and partnering with community organizations that focus on diversity and inclusion. By working with organizations engaged in the community, Powdr can connect with disadvantaged youth and introduce them to snowboarding and skiing, for example.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 150,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-150ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>Ski resorts can also engage directly with nonprofits like the <a href="https://nbs1973.clubexpress.com/">National Brotherhood of Skiers</a>, whose mission is to develop and support athletes of color in winter sports, and communities that are underrepresented on the mountain to understand how decisions related to climate adaptation may have the unintended consequence of further entrenching inequalities.</p>
<p>Resort corporations can also improve their connections with diverse communities by increasing the diversity of leadership and creating senior leadership positions in charge of diversity, equity and inclusion initiatives. </p>
<p>By including diverse communities in the climate adaptation discussion, ski resorts have a better chance of achieving a future where snow sports are more accessible for everyone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177027/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian P. McCullough is also the Co-Director of the Sport Ecology Group. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lance Warwick does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As temperatures warm, ski and snowboard resorts are investing more in snowmaking and seeing their seasons shrink. Those costs roll down to customers in an already expensive sport.Brian P. McCullough, Associate Professor of Sport Management and Director of the Laboratory for Sustainability in Sport, Texas A&M UniversityLance Warwick, Graduate student, University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1768822022-02-11T03:02:42Z2022-02-11T03:02:42ZOld gold: how action sports athletes are challenging age stereotypes and redefining lifelong physical activity<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445818/original/file-20220210-45987-3ubefp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=21%2C0%2C7076%2C4724&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Veteran snowboarder Shaun White in action at the Beijing Winter Olympics.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">GettyImages</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The stereotype of action sports as the domain of the young and the cool is long out of date. The demographics of these sports – surfing, skateboarding, snowboarding, climbing, mountain biking – have been expanding to include more <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/978-1-137-45797-4">girls and women</a>, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1103308820945100?casa_token=s-i3HD10rOEAAAAA%3AQg9W8k-zByGkD20n_YhVv4isa8vnB_RfuLkqAbg4WxyPDUPua1sn4s7k9u8Ti4Z6WWBomI0DI0rcfQk">queer and non-binary people</a> and <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0038038518776886?casa_token=H4YxM51ZT6wAAAAA%3AUc3bPLzXrRkonCbgMZjSJBzqboE8QcQNcyhOqoy50s0IRjz22jsCe3c3KQZbJoJb1gmZqWwjbHIspvw">older participants</a>. </p>
<p>These demographic and cultural shifts have been highlighted recently by the remarkable achievements and career highlights of some of these sports’ greatest exponents. </p>
<p>In the past week, we’ve seen legendary American surfer Kelly Slater <a href="https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/sports/slater-wins-pipeline-30-years-after-his-first-triumph-2022-02-06/">win the prestigious Pipeline</a> contest in Hawaii, just a few days shy of his 50th birthday, beating 24-year-old Hawaiian local Seth Moniz. </p>
<p>This was Slater’s 56th career victory, on top of 11 world titles won over three decades of elite-level surfing. Having claimed his first world title at 20, he routinely competes against athletes three decades his junior.</p>
<p>A few days later, US snowboarder Lindsey Jacobellis – at her fourth Winter Olympics – won the snowboard cross gold medal at the age of 36. Jacobellis was publicly criticised at the 2006 Winter Olympics for falling and losing the lead after a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1612197X.2009.9671915">celebratory manoeuvre</a> on the penultimate jump in a speed event – infamously known as the “<a href="https://www.adn.com/sports/national-sports/2022/02/09/snowboarder-lindsey-jacobellis-earns-first-us-gold-medal-in-2022-winter-games/">Lindsey Leap</a>”.</p>
<p>Gold continued to elude her at subsequent Olympics, but Jacobellis overcame a series of <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/14/sports/olympics/lindsey-jacobellis-olympics-snowboard.html">psychological challenges</a> to make the comeback of her career in Beijing.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-snowboarding-became-a-marquee-event-at-the-winter-olympics-but-lost-some-of-its-cool-factor-in-the-process-175053">How snowboarding became a marquee event at the Winter Olympics – but lost some of its cool factor in the process</a>
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<p>Meanwhile, the world’s most famous snowboarder, Shaun White, competed in the Beijing halfpipe finals at the age of 35 at his fifth Olympics. He won his first Olympic gold aged 19 in Torino in 2006, and again in Vancouver in 2010 and PyeongChang in 2018. More than 15 years after his first Olympic appearance, White finished just outside the medals but wowed audiences with his huge airs and timeless style.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445825/original/file-20220210-25-4jm5yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445825/original/file-20220210-25-4jm5yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445825/original/file-20220210-25-4jm5yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445825/original/file-20220210-25-4jm5yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445825/original/file-20220210-25-4jm5yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445825/original/file-20220210-25-4jm5yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445825/original/file-20220210-25-4jm5yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445825/original/file-20220210-25-4jm5yr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kelly Slater on his way to winning the Banzai Pipeline in Hawaii, February 5.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">GettyImages</span></span>
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</figure>
<h2>The greying of action sports</h2>
<p>Longevity in elite sporting careers can be attributed to advances in training techniques, nutrition and sport science. But the unique cultures and communities of action sports are also important factors.</p>
<p>The action sports industry began noting a trend towards “greying” participants over a decade ago. Those who took up action sports as teenagers in the 1970s and 1980s are still active today. Many have taught their children and grandchildren, sharing these sporting cultures with their families. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/alt-goes-mainstream-how-surfing-skateboarding-bmx-and-sport-climbing-became-olympic-events-164158">Alt goes mainstream: how surfing, skateboarding, BMX and sport climbing became Olympic events</a>
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<p>Researchers have referred to these activities as “<a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Cultural-Politics-of-Lifestyle-Sports/Wheaton/p/book/9780415478588">lifestyle sports</a>” because of their central organising role in people’s lives; their jobs, holidays and consumption revolve around their passion for these sports. The rise of the “<a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1012690217722522?casa_token=2XKz-x4WnHcAAAAA%3AjiyiZYOUi-2G7xLlGfwidRGm6P8FssKpMi2-FZZQbuPgIqqUmt67PflSfnZ-3v5WXtqNl1D9dSvuLtc">silver surfer</a>”, <a href="https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/103038">middle-aged snowboarder</a> and <a href="https://books.google.co.nz/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Li5AEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT89&dq=skateboarders+older&ots=VhrBxrk9p6&sig=Vaa-7z0Yk5Vd515PfOSwgwk6UHs&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=skateboarders%20older&f=false">older skateboarder</a> is well documented.</p>
<p>With older participants identified as a new niche market, new product lines were developed to target their needs. Many action sport brands proudly include “legends” and “veterans” in their professional teams. </p>
<p>Cultural commitment is highly valued, demonstrating a lifetime of dedication to the sport. Many older action sport participants also give back to the community in a range of ways, from organising events and fundraising to creating <a href="https://www.skateistan.org/a-new-chapter">nonprofits</a> to expand opportunities for others.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445820/original/file-20220210-1970-acu7q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445820/original/file-20220210-1970-acu7q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445820/original/file-20220210-1970-acu7q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445820/original/file-20220210-1970-acu7q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445820/original/file-20220210-1970-acu7q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445820/original/file-20220210-1970-acu7q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445820/original/file-20220210-1970-acu7q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445820/original/file-20220210-1970-acu7q9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lindsey Jacobellis celebrates winning gold in the the women’s snowboard cross at the Beijing Winter Olympics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">GettyImages</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Replacing retirement blues with lifelong passion</h2>
<p>In many traditional organised sports, elite athletes are dropped from teams when they’re injured or simply considered too old. Research has consistently shown the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10413200801998564?casa_token=i-VOZvHkdC8AAAAA%3A5tXEb3gV5wWER3E7BfOEMTaFu94rsIJUFnQWwucwLOVeGndHemTwacmhfhbt2UDveDsiW2_X6a-GGc8">psychological challenges</a> experienced by athletes retiring from competitive sports. </p>
<p>They can experience “<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10811449708414411?casa_token=7RuGCFvfLOQAAAAA:T7T-VAZjhjiz0_GBWw2dMgLKVzblq0gbYY4BGhNQtZshSMgqsGGwNpWe0amms_HScvU1H1P7krCqQ38">identity loss</a>”, as well as physical changes, which can lead to depression, anxiety and even <a href="https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/i-did-not-have-an-identity-olympic-hopeful-brittany-georges-heartbreaking-words-before-tragic-death/news-story/4dac9a677bc1342137c3ebae4ebefd5e">suicide</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-high-speed-physics-of-how-bobsled-luge-and-skeleton-send-humans-hurtling-faster-than-a-car-on-the-highway-175985">The high-speed physics of how bobsled, luge and skeleton send humans hurtling faster than a car on the highway</a>
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<p>By contrast, action sports athletes rarely retire in the conventional sense. Even if they stop competing at the elite level, they typically remain committed to the sport they love because of the pleasure and enjoyment it brings. </p>
<p>Furthermore, the sense of community and identity these sports offer remains important throughout the lives of many passionate participants.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445824/original/file-20220210-40669-rj4j22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445824/original/file-20220210-40669-rj4j22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445824/original/file-20220210-40669-rj4j22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445824/original/file-20220210-40669-rj4j22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445824/original/file-20220210-40669-rj4j22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445824/original/file-20220210-40669-rj4j22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445824/original/file-20220210-40669-rj4j22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445824/original/file-20220210-40669-rj4j22.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Competition and community: Zoi Sadowski-Synnott (NZ) celebrates winning the snowboard slopestyle final with silver and bronze winners Julia Marino (USA) and Tess Coady (Australia).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">GettyImages</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Community, progression and fun</h2>
<p>This obvious camaraderie has intrigued Olympic audiences. Witness the women in the park skateboarding event at the Tokyo Olympics singing, dancing and hugging one another throughout the competition. Or fellow competitors mobbing and hugging Zoi Sadowski-Synnott after she won gold in the women’s slopestyle final last week.</p>
<p>These displays of collegiality and shared joy stand in start contrast to most Olympic sports, which pit nation against nation. Within action sport subcultures, however, the behaviour is accepted as normal. To see a peer persevering and progressing is worthy of celebration.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/your-guide-to-the-best-figure-skating-at-the-beijing-winter-olympics-through-the-eyes-of-a-dancer-176229">Your guide to the best figure skating at the Beijing Winter Olympics – through the eyes of a dancer</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9780230390744">transnational community</a> in action sports distinguishes them from many traditional organised sports, which tend to be nationally based and focused on defeating the opponent, another country. </p>
<p>While action sports have become <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17430437.2018.1440715">increasingly professionalised</a> and the athletes are serious about their careers, they are also part of a community that values progression, self-expression and friendship. Individual and national competitive values are relatively new, driven by such things as <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Action-Sports-and-the-Olympic-Games-Past-Present-Future/Wheaton-Thorpe/p/book/9781138492851">inclusion in the Olympics</a>.</p>
<p>These underpinning values of community, friendship and fun help explain why athletes like Slater, Jacobellis and White continue to train and compete. They’re still there decades later because they love it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445823/original/file-20220210-63440-fmuglv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445823/original/file-20220210-63440-fmuglv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/445823/original/file-20220210-63440-fmuglv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445823/original/file-20220210-63440-fmuglv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445823/original/file-20220210-63440-fmuglv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445823/original/file-20220210-63440-fmuglv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445823/original/file-20220210-63440-fmuglv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/445823/original/file-20220210-63440-fmuglv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Still nifty at 50: Tony Hawk showing the style that’s made him the world’s most famous skateboarder.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">GettyImages</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Lessons to be learned</h2>
<p>Outside structured competition, middle-aged action sport athletes continue to defy expectations. </p>
<p>In 2018, professional skateboarder Tony Hawk, perhaps the most recognised skateboarder of all time, celebrated his 50th birthday by releasing his “50 tricks at age 50” video. At 57, Steve Caballero continues a professional skateboard career, having overcome a recent broken femur (sustained in a motocross accident in 2019). </p>
<p>As pioneers of the sport, they continue to influence and reshape expectations of what is possible and inspire others to continue, regardless of age.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspor.2021.608593/full">sport</a>, <a href="https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272722/9789241514187-eng.pdf">health</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0261436042000231637?src=recsys">educational</a> organisations around the world seek new strategies and policies to encourage lifelong physical activity, much can be learned from these inter-generational action sports communities, where fun and friendship continue to inspire participants throughout their lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176882/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As the Winter Olympics are showing, the unique cultures of action sports seem to support long careers among the top athletes – something other sports and society in general could learn from.Holly Thorpe, Professor in Sociology of Sport and Physical Culture, University of WaikatoBelinda Wheaton, Professor, School of Sport, Health and Human Performance, University of WaikatoNick Maitland, Lecturer | Pūkenga in Sports Management and Marketing, University of CanterburyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1763392022-02-08T17:14:28Z2022-02-08T17:14:28ZOlympic skiers and snowboarders are competing on 100% fake snow – the science of how it’s made and how it affects performance<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444596/original/file-20220204-25-1wqc0jo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=14%2C74%2C4910%2C3136&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Snowmaking machines blow cold water, which freezes before it hits the ground.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/snow-cannon-in-winter-mountains-snow-gun-spraying-royalty-free-image/1337370791?adppopup=true">Alexander Uhrin/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The winter Olympics conjure up images of snowy mountain ranges, frozen ice rinks and athletes in cold-weather gear. And for good reason. Winter Olympic venues have often been in places that receive an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-19-0007.1">average snowfall of 300 inches per year</a> or more.</p>
<p>However, barring some extremely anomalous weather patterns, the mountains surrounding the snow events for the Beijing Winter Olympics will be tones of brown and green and nearly devoid of snow. The region typically receives only <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangjiakou">a few inches of snowfall</a> in each winter month. This means that basically all of the snow the athletes will be competing on will be human-made.</p>
<p>I am an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=f8naRg0AAAAJ">atmospheric scientist</a> who specializes in mountain weather and snow. I am also the co-founder of a snowmaking startup and an avid skier. There are distinct differences between natural and artificial snow, and it will be interesting to see if these differences have any effect on competition.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/GE8KpPzU_rQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Snowmaking guns spray tiny droplets of cooled water into the air.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How to make fake snow</h2>
<p>Though artificial snow and natural snow are both frozen water, most skiers and snowboarders are able to immediately recognize that the two are very different.</p>
<p>Traditional snowmaking uses <a href="https://www.technoalpin.com/en-us/snow-guns/fan-guns/tr10">high pressure water, compressed air and specialized nozzles</a> to blow tiny liquid droplets into the air that then freeze as they fall to the ground. But snowmaking is not as simple as just making sure the air is sufficiently cold. </p>
<p>Pure water does not freeze until it is cooled to nearly -40 F (-40 C). It is only the presence of microscopic suspended particles in water that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710444024">allow it to freeze at the familiar 32 F (0 C)</a>. These particles, known as ice nuclei, act as a sort of scaffolding to help ice crystals form.</p>
<p>Without these particles, water struggles to turn into ice. Different particles can raise or lower freezing temperatures depending on their specific molecular configuration. </p>
<p>Two of the best ice nuclei are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-18-0341.1">silver iodide</a> and a protein produced by the bacteria <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC186742/"><em>Pseudomonas syringae</em></a>. Most snowmaking systems add a <a href="https://www.snomax.com/product.html">commercial form of the bacterial protein</a> to water to ensure most of the tiny droplets freeze before they hit the ground.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman making a tight turn on skis around a red gate." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=391&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444589/original/file-20220204-25-eejikp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=491&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Skiers and snowboarders in downhill racing events, like U.S. Olympian Mikaela Shiffrin, often prefer the harder, faster artificial snow over natural snow.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/USWorldCupAlpineSkiing/891980327fe34d159be71c729d6ff316/photo?Query=mikaela%20shiffrin&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=2741&currentItemNo=8">AP Photo/Charles Krupa</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Sliding on human-made snow</h2>
<p>Natural snow starts as a tiny ice crystal on an ice nucleus in a cloud. As the crystal falls through the air, it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-9112/27/8/028">slowly grows into the classic six-sided snowflake</a>. </p>
<p>By comparison, human-made snow freezes quickly from a single droplet of water. The resulting snow consists of billions of tiny spherical balls of ice. It may resemble natural snow to the naked eye on a ski run, but the natural and artificial snow “feel” very different.</p>
<p>Due to the fact that the tiny ice balls pack together quite densely – and that some of them may have not frozen until they touched the ground – artificial snow often feels hard and icy. Fresh natural “powder” snow, on the other hand, provides skiers and snowboarders an almost weightless feeling as they soar down the mountainside. This is largely because the natural snow crystals stack very loosely – a fresh layer of powder is as much as <a href="https://upcolorado.com/utah-state-university-press/item/2390-secrets-of-the-greatest-snow-on-earth">95% or more air</a>. </p>
<p>While fresh powder is what most recreational skiers dream of, Olympic skiers have different tastes. Racers want to be able to glide as fast as possible and use their sharp edges to make powerful, tight turns. The dense, icy conditions of artificial snow are actually better in these regards. In fact, race organizers often <a href="https://mountaintimes.info/elite-ski-racers-carve-water-injected-icy-course/">add liquid water to race courses of natural snow</a> which will freeze and ensure a durable, consistent surface for racers.</p>
<p>Another consideration is the fact that natural snowstorms produce dull, flat lighting and low visibility – hard conditions to race or jump in. Heavy natural snowfall will often cancel ski races, as <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/sports/1998/02/09/mens-downhill-delayed-again-due-to-weather/cb89f1d0-5ae2-4b13-9c90-43257b4e9970/">happened during the snowy 1998 Nagano Games</a>. For racers, clear skies and artificial snow provide the advantage there, too.</p>
<p>But hard human-made snow does have its downsides. Freestyle skiers and snowboarders who are flying off jumps or sliding on rails high above the ground seem to <a href="https://www.sportecology.org/_files/ugd/a700be_9aa3ec697a39446eb11b8330aec19e30.pdf">prefer the softer surface of natural snow</a> for safety reasons. This is also true of Nordic skiers, who recently flagged the <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/science/environment/climate-warms-athletes-flag-dangers-manmade-snow-rcna11915">dangers of artificial snow in the event of crashes</a> as icy, hard surfaces can lead to more injuries. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A zoomed in photo of a complex six-sided snowflake." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444593/original/file-20220204-21-1vmybgg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Natural snowflakes grow slowly into six-sided crystals that are full of air when they pile up on the ground.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Snowflake_macro_photography_1.jpg#/media/File:Snowflake_macro_photography_1.jpg">Alexey Kljatov via WikimediaCommons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Mimicking nature</h2>
<p>While Olympic athletes have mixed needs for their snow, for the vast majority of recreational skiers, natural snow is far better. Due to the air-filled crystals, it is much softer and more enjoyable to ski or snowboard on. </p>
<p>Scientists have been trying for decades to create more natural snow on demand. The first way that people tried to make “real” snow was by seeding natural clouds with silver iodide. The goal was to facilitate moisture in clouds turning into falling snow crystals. If you could make this process – called the <a href="https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Bergeron-findeisen_process">Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen</a> process – occur more easily, it would theoretically increase the snowfall rate.</p>
<p>In practice, it has historically been difficult to prove the efficacy of seeding. However, recent work using large, meticulously deployed sets of atmospheric instruments has shown that – for a fraction of storms with the proper conditions – seeding clouds with silver iodide does indeed yield modest <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1917204117">increases in the total amount of snowfall</a>. </p>
<p>[<em>Over 140,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>Another option – which doesn’t require storm clouds to seed in the first place – is to create snowmaking machines that can grow fluffy natural snow crystals. Scientists have been growing snowflakes in laboratories for many decades, but the process is delicate, and typically researchers only <a href="http://hdl.handle.net/2115/34465">produce a few flakes at a time</a>. Because ice crystals typically grow slowly, it has been tricky for researchers to scale the process up by the many orders of magnitude needed to grow enough snow for skiing. But in a quest to produce fluffy powder for skiers and snowboarders, my colleague Trey Alvey and I developed a process that can produce snowflakes in larger quantities using a technique that mimics the natural crystal formation process. We’re commercializing it through our company called <a href="https://www.quantum-snow.com">Quantum Snow</a>.</p>
<p>The dry, barren mountains hosting the 2022 Winter Olympic venues are not exactly a skiing destination. But thanks to snowmaking science, the athletes will have reliable, if icy, runs to compete on. And sports fans can all be thankful for the technology that allows them to enjoy the high-speed spectacle put on by the brave souls who compete in the skiing and snowboarding events.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176339/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peter Veals works for, consults for and owns shares in Quantum Snow LLC. He receives funding from The National Science Foundation, U.S. Department of Energy, NASA, and NOAA. </span></em></p>Snowmaking machines can produce enough snow to cover a run, but artificial snow is very different from natural flakes that fall from the sky.Peter Veals, Professor of Atmospheric Science, University of UtahLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1759762022-02-03T19:47:19Z2022-02-03T19:47:19ZBeijing’s scant snow offers a glimpse at the uncertainty — and risks — of future Winter Olympics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444152/original/file-20220202-23996-fsfnyj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=103%2C39%2C5221%2C3512&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The alpine skiing course at the 2022 Winter Olympics, on Feb. 2, 2022, in the Yanqing district of Beijing. All the snow at this year's Olympic venues is machine-made.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Robert F. Bukaty)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The postcards and posters from most Winter Olympics call attention to the thick powder and ice-covered mountains we expect from winter mountain sports. But this year will be a little different. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444135/original/file-20220202-23-n91bt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A poster of the Olympic bobsled run in Lake Placid." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444135/original/file-20220202-23-n91bt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444135/original/file-20220202-23-n91bt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=887&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444135/original/file-20220202-23-n91bt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=887&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444135/original/file-20220202-23-n91bt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=887&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444135/original/file-20220202-23-n91bt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1115&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444135/original/file-20220202-23-n91bt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1115&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444135/original/file-20220202-23-n91bt0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1115&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Most Winter Olympics call to mind snow-covered mountains and forests.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3k00003/">(Library of Congress)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CZUQxmEu0Tx">Social media posts from some of the athletes</a> training at the Yanqing zone, about 75 kilometres northwest of Beijing, show a thin ribbon of white snow surrounded by brown mountains. Yanqing and Zhangjiakou, the two sites chosen for the skiing, snowboarding, bobsledding and luge events (among others), lack natural snowfall, making Beijing 2022 the <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2022-01-22/beijing-winter-olympics-first-to-rely-on-artificial-snow">first Winter Olympics to be held entirely on machine-made snow</a>.</p>
<p>But as temperatures continue to rise globally, it’s also a glimpse at what future Winter Olympics might look like. Climate change is an ongoing challenge for all contemporary winter sports. </p>
<p>Popular summer training venues, such as <a href="https://snowbrains.com/horstman-glacier-end-summer-skiing/">Whistler’s Horstman glacier</a> , are rapidly melting away, and World Cup ski competitions, including a <a href="https://www.eagletribune.com/dangerous-snow-surface-forces-world-cup-ski-race-to-stop/article_0cee4edf-812b-5644-85dd-c70dda4fb2be.html">recent slalom event in Zagreb, Croatia</a>, are being cancelled due to unusually warm temperatures and unsafe snow conditions. </p>
<p>As a climate scientist and former elite ski racer, I’m not only interested in which venues will have enough snow to host races in the future, but whether they will be safe for competitions. Some athletes may skip races they deem too dangerous, but the Winter Olympics, considered by many to be the pinnacle of sport, is where athletes put themselves on the line in hopes of winning a gold medal. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2021.2023480">As one participant in our study noted</a>, “Who’s going to qualify for the Games and then sit it out?” </p>
<h2>Unreliable winters</h2>
<p>Recent Winter Olympics, including those in Vancouver in 2010 and Sochi in 2014, have been held under temperatures far warmer than those locations experienced throughout the past century. While Games held in the 1920s to 1950s had an average February daytime temperature of 0.4 C, average February temperatures increased to 3.1 C between 1960 and 1990. Since the beginning of the 21st century, host locations, including Beijing, have a current average February temperature of 6.3 C. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A skier angles around a gate" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444408/original/file-20220203-17-19s2ybv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444408/original/file-20220203-17-19s2ybv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444408/original/file-20220203-17-19s2ybv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444408/original/file-20220203-17-19s2ybv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444408/original/file-20220203-17-19s2ybv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444408/original/file-20220203-17-19s2ybv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444408/original/file-20220203-17-19s2ybv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Before author Natalie Knowles became a climate scientist, she competed on Canada’s Alpine Ski Team at the World Junior Championships and World University Games, and raced for the University of Denver.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Natalie Knowles)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These rapidly rising temperatures are making winter increasingly unreliable for sports. Artificial snow-making now joins indoor ice rinks and refrigerated bobsled tracks as an <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003003694-8/winter-sports-climate-change-natalie-knowles-daniel-scott-robert-steiger">essential element</a> of weather risk management for winter sports. </p>
<p>Even with top-of-the-line snow-making systems in place, recent Olympics have had to resort to <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/winter/olympics-climate-change-future-1.6334727">last-minute adaptations</a>, such as helicoptering in snow, building jumps and halfpipes out of plywood and hay bales or cancelling pre-competition training. </p>
<p>These improvisations allow the event to go ahead, but they can put athlete safety and performance at risk. When skiers streak down a mountain at 150 kilometres per hour or a <a href="https://www.aspentimes.com/sports/james-looking-to-keep-up-with-hiranos-triple-cork-in-x-games-superpipe/">snowboarder lands a triple cork in a superpipe</a>, they expect to be competing on consistent, safe and fair conditions. </p>
<p>Cold temperatures allow for a smooth and firm surface, whereas warm temperatures lead to soft and wet snow that degrades throughout the competition and hinders athletes’ performance. Warm conditions can <a href="https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/50/17/1069.short">increase the risk of injuries</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444375/original/file-20220203-17-1oainfr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A graphic showing that the ideal temperatures for competition is -10 C to -1 C." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444375/original/file-20220203-17-1oainfr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444375/original/file-20220203-17-1oainfr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444375/original/file-20220203-17-1oainfr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444375/original/file-20220203-17-1oainfr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444375/original/file-20220203-17-1oainfr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444375/original/file-20220203-17-1oainfr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444375/original/file-20220203-17-1oainfr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ahtlete-coach rating of temperatures for safe and fair competition.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Natalie Knowles)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One downhill skier in our study said, “Heat can just create dangerous conditions. Lots of torn knee ligaments happen in sloppy wet snow.” Freestyle snowboarders noted that “too warm is the worst because it makes the course super slushy, the speed slows down and you get a bunch of <a href="https://www.abc-of-snowboarding.com/snowboarding-dictionary-snowboarding-terms-and-definitions/">bomb holes</a> in the landings, which are unsafe.” Nordic skiers added dehydration and heat stroke as additional risks from hot temperatures. </p>
<p>Warm temperatures can also compromise the integrity of the competition: the first athlete may get a smooth un-tracked surface, while the 30th or 50th competitor must contend with the bumps and ruts carved into the track from the previous participants. </p>
<h2>Gold-medal venue: Sapporo</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2018.1436161">Previous research</a> used climate thresholds, including minimum snow coverage and maximum temperatures, to identify whether it would be feasible to hold a Winter Olympics at a former venue in the future — that is whether a venue could operate under warmer conditions. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444376/original/file-20220203-21-nm4qak.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444376/original/file-20220203-21-nm4qak.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444376/original/file-20220203-21-nm4qak.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444376/original/file-20220203-21-nm4qak.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444376/original/file-20220203-21-nm4qak.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444376/original/file-20220203-21-nm4qak.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444376/original/file-20220203-21-nm4qak.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444376/original/file-20220203-21-nm4qak.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Athlete-coach ratings of conditions that influence competition safety and fairness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Natalie Knowles)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>My colleagues and I went further. We incorporated the perspectives of 339 athletes and coaches from 20 countries to determine whether a venue could hold a safe and fair competition in a warmer world.</p>
<p>Our study included more nuanced and qualitative characteristics of conditions such as wet snow, rain, wind, fog and machine-made snow, as well as common adaptations such as altering course starts, cancelling training or chemically treating the snow surface to try to maintain frozen winter-like conditions. Using the input of athletes and coaches, we modelled these climate thresholds in all the current and former Olympic Winter Games locations to determine which ones would remain viable in the future.</p>
<p>The results are both daunting and encouraging. If greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise under a so-called “business as usual” scenario, only one former Olympic host, Sapporo, Japan, will remain a reliable place to host outdoor winter sports by 2080. </p>
<p>But if we can reduce global emissions to achieve the Paris Agreement target of 2 C by following low-emission pathways, eight of the 21 former Winter Olympic locations will continue to have the cold temperatures and snow quality necessary for elite level snow sports. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Maps of North America, Europe and Asia showing past Olympic sites and whether they are reliable, marginal or unreliable sites under future emissions scenarios." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444373/original/file-20220203-21-1vqueyk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444373/original/file-20220203-21-1vqueyk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444373/original/file-20220203-21-1vqueyk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444373/original/file-20220203-21-1vqueyk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1000&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444373/original/file-20220203-21-1vqueyk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1257&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444373/original/file-20220203-21-1vqueyk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1257&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444373/original/file-20220203-21-1vqueyk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1257&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Climate reliability of Winter Olympic hosts for fair and safe snow sports competitions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Natalie Knowles)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Beacon of hope</h2>
<p>Some sporting events, such as international ski and snowboard championships, only need suitable conditions for one or two sports. They also have a range of adaptation options, such as postponing the event or changing venues at the last minute. But the Olympics are planned years in advance with limited opportunity to delay competitions or alter venues if the weather is poor. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444155/original/file-20220202-5180-1n0tx8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black and white photo of a man skiing." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444155/original/file-20220202-5180-1n0tx8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444155/original/file-20220202-5180-1n0tx8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444155/original/file-20220202-5180-1n0tx8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444155/original/file-20220202-5180-1n0tx8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444155/original/file-20220202-5180-1n0tx8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444155/original/file-20220202-5180-1n0tx8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444155/original/file-20220202-5180-1n0tx8e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mike Lafferty, from the U.S. Olympic Team, trains on the Mt. Eniwa track at the Sapporo 1972 Winter Olympics in Japan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Michel Lipchitz)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The fate of the Winter Olympics may seem low on the list of priorities as climate-related disasters fill the news, but the Olympics have always provided a beacon of hope. The <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/sustainability">International Olympic Committee</a> has shown climate leadership among sporting organizations to achieve carbon neutrality and <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2019/09/Sports_for_Climate_Action_Declaration_and_Framework.pdf">use sport to unify global citizens for climate action</a>. </p>
<p>Yet competing at the Olympics and addressing climate change may have more in common than we might at first think. Both demand incredible feats of strength, endurance and ingenuity to overcome obstacles and to achieve what seems impossible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175976/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Natalie LB Knowles receives funding from SSHRC Joseph Bombardier Scholarship and Sport Participation Research Initiative. Natalie is the research coordinator for Protect Our Winters Canada, a climate advocacy non profit organization. </span></em></p>An analysis of 21 former Winter Olympic venues found that only one of them would be suitable and offer safe racing conditions for athletes if greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise.Natalie L.B. Knowles, PhD candidate, Interdisciplinary Centre on Climate Change, University of WaterlooLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1750532022-02-01T23:32:44Z2022-02-01T23:32:44ZHow snowboarding became a marquee event at the Winter Olympics – but lost some of its cool factor in the process<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443590/original/file-20220131-125001-1pfxbyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=32%2C0%2C5361%2C3598&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">GettyImages</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The mass appeal of creative, youth-oriented events such as <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9780230305571">snowboarding</a> and freestyle skiing at the Winter Olympics is a virtual case study of how the once radical can go mainstream.</p>
<p>And while audiences have come to love these relatively new sports, the story of snowboarding’s inclusion in the Olympics also reveals the unintended consequences of “success” for the image of the sport itself.</p>
<p>When snowboarding first emerged in the late 1960s and ’70s in North America, most of its early pioneers were young people who rejected competitive, organised sport. Inspired by surfing and skateboarding rather than skiing, they were seeking something that offered fun, self-expression and an <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/101269097032002003?casa_token=is4c9XY0kgkAAAAA:eqrpwqODtfwAGMZL8uuumydcYtE1qq6KdEiqh_fCckeS5ZdsZ3tX6OcfWvp4jwaORw5kq_l6thp1fA">alternative identity</a>.</p>
<p>Despite some initial resistance from skiers and resorts, snowboarding’s popularity grew during the 1990s. Television and corporate sponsors identified its huge potential to attract the elusive young male market. Increasingly, <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230390744_2">transnational media corporations and events</a> likes the <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315680521-17/games-holly-thorpe-belinda-wheaton">X-Games</a> and Gravity Games <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17430431003779999?casa_token=xvBiThqP-7MAAAAA%3A_DbAOUto0w9NCOX5NAeRYmtfrcW8IQXoSF_NbRF3tUK1mGUKC_nEyAMavGoitjxDzzBoD_VL8kRUOw">controlled and defined</a> snowboarding. </p>
<p>While some snowboarders initially <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0193723500242005?casa_token=ykEK0M_fiTQAAAAA:ZfEaJjw9XoKMJIShYKOtlh8Ix_HDFwXZWXPr2hWdTFMqzKY0k6zEHxPkp0cPQDT9Oo_bCchTWz52tg">resisted “selling out”</a>, many embraced the opportunities to develop the sport and carve out new careers for themselves as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/10.1080/17430437.2018.1440715">“extreme sport” athletes</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/BiNbR2dlNIA","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<h2>Early resistance</h2>
<p>Meanwhile, the Winter Olympics (always a more niche event compared with its summer counterpart) recognised snowboarding’s potential to attract younger viewers and international sponsors. </p>
<p>The International Olympic Committee (IOC) first included snowboarding in the 1998 Winter Olympics, but under the governance of the International Ski Federation (FIS) rather than the International Snowboard Federation. The loss of autonomy and control <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0038038511413427">infuriated many snowboarders</a>.</p>
<p>The world’s best halfpipe rider at the time, Norwegian Terje Haakonsen, was <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0193723500242005?casa_token=LaLUgSMGGckAAAAA:JlZCJVJninovAyc1gO7nVvs3hRrmJIQQSgGw6pxMFTuFPWZ4t3tkQfbM3AD56uuljK4LemWgzHKoEA">particularly vocal</a>, refusing to be turned into a “uniform-wearing, flag-bearing, walking logo”. Many other snowboarders echoed his sentiments. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-winter-olympics-expanded-and-brought-growing-pains-with-them-90411">How the Winter Olympics expanded – and brought growing pains with them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>And while snowboarding’s <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0038038511413427?casa_token=C4nosGSOEkYAAAAA%3AqX7eAobLwDVn9k-Kl36csVvD9hwTTpYk6cu4fxHf4CG_Otn5HTbhlYqRUR1_2wZfkTbs2DYFW-WCDg">assimilation continued</a>, the four events that debuted in 1998 – men’s and women’s halfpipe and giant slalom – were largely treated as a sideshow. The athletes were perceived and portrayed as interlopers in the Olympic program. As <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/sports/longterm/olympics1998/sport/snowboard/articles/oly8.htm">The Washington Post put it</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Snowboarders are the official curiosity of the Nagano Winter Games. They’re totally new to the Olympics. They look different, they sound different, they are different.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>When Canadian Ross Rebagliati <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02614367.2011.596556">tested positive for marijuana</a> after winning the first snowboarding gold medal, the IOC revoked his medal, only to return it a few days later when Rebagliati’s lawyers found a loophole in the IOC/FIS drug policies. The scandal confirmed the view – of snowboarders as well as mainstream commentators – that snowboarding was not ready to become an Olympic sport. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1488413241235628032"}"></div></p>
<h2>Acceptance and growth</h2>
<p>By the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, however, the packaging of snowboarding had evolved and the sport’s second mainstream outing was deemed a resounding success. Nearly 32% of the US population (92 million people) watched the halfpipe competition in which Americans won gold, silver and bronze in the men’s event and gold in the women’s event. </p>
<p>Official broadcaster NBC reported a 23% ratings increase among 18-to-34-year-olds. For the IOC, the inclusion of snowboarding had become a game-changer, showcasing cool new sports celebrities for Olympic audiences, especially in the lucrative US market. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/get-caught-up-in-the-olympic-spirit-but-keep-your-political-eyes-wide-open-174223">Get caught up in the Olympic spirit, but keep your (political) eyes wide open</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>By the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, snowboarders were front and centre, with Shaun White from the US deemed the most “<a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/more-sports/shaun-white-still-the-man-to-beat-in-halfpipe/article4197158/">recognisable athlete</a>”. </p>
<p>When White won his third gold in the halfpipe at the 2018 Olympics in Pyeongchang it attracted a record 22.6 million viewers in the US alone. Having qualified for his fifth Olympics, White will bring his star power to Beijing this year.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1487828856387956736"}"></div></p>
<h2>Women on board</h2>
<p>Women snowboarders have competed in all Olympic events since 1998, <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/978-1-137-45797-4">expanding opportunities</a> for women in the sport and industry. </p>
<p>Olympic snowboarders such as Kelly Clark, Hannah Tetter, Torah Bright and Chloe Kim build on the efforts of previous generations of female snowboarders, carving out new space for girls and women in the sport.</p>
<p>In the process of wowing audiences, they’ve also <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1743043052000316632?casa_token=KRItkl3TnJ8AAAAA%3AhFcpKn7yNOk80CfSMw9hPfmzoidZNEsdPvE9drAP3B5NY6w916718wrHuWnIT1T_G6HgiZaegMTvHw">inspired the next generation</a> of stars like New Zealand’s Zoi Sadowski-Synnott and Japan’s Ono Mitsuki.</p>
<p>It’s estimated women will make up 45% of the athletes competing in Beijing this year, including in the new mixed team snowboard cross event, added as part of a broader <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0193723518781230?casa_token=-KV69rocC5AAAAAA%3ARQDcfd2xMRPrnBMBlIrmGvhPdKqDPPSMtQHIBFei0cy-eEJe-HAZZhppaq9-ZRmTuYxEw8tPDZQ65g">IOC initiative to achieve gender parity</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Zoi Sadowski-Synnott in the snow" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443581/original/file-20220131-117572-pvafio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/443581/original/file-20220131-117572-pvafio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443581/original/file-20220131-117572-pvafio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443581/original/file-20220131-117572-pvafio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443581/original/file-20220131-117572-pvafio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443581/original/file-20220131-117572-pvafio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/443581/original/file-20220131-117572-pvafio.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Zoi Sadowski-Synnott after her winning final run of the Dew Tour at Copper Mountain, Colorado, in 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">GettyImages</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Victim of its own success?</h2>
<p>While the IOC held the line with certain rules and regulations (no stickers on snowboards, no large corporate logos on clothing or equipment), it has been increasingly willing to accommodate snowboarders’ individuality – allowing more clothing choices and athletes to select their own music for halfpipe runs. </p>
<p>Snowboarding’s success has also helped open up the Winter Olympics to other youth-focused sports, particularly <a href="https://kansaspress.ku.edu/978-0-7006-1341-0.html">free-skiing disciplines</a>, as well as influencing the Summer Olympics’ embrace of BMX, surfing, skateboarding, sport climbing and breaking. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/alt-goes-mainstream-how-surfing-skateboarding-bmx-and-sport-climbing-became-olympic-events-164158">Alt goes mainstream: how surfing, skateboarding, BMX and sport climbing became Olympic events</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>But there’s an irony to snowboarding’s mainstream success, too. While it has become popular with broader audiences, and companies and athletes have done very well from Olympic exposure, it appears to have lost its appeal among younger people.</p>
<p>Participation has been <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/07/sports/snowboarding-once-a-high-flying-sport-crashes-to-earth.html">declining steadily</a> in recent years – to the point where former pro snowboarder and action sports agent Circe Wallace has said the sport’s <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09523367.2019.1703688?casa_token=6YJKDDvQBpAAAAAA%3AmHDngdV1qeKrY6IYsaTRwNrYN28cjekSwJv7voD8gd9-SobWrAc0b23_VSj377xpUuC67yKO0qKCtA">commodification and institutionalisation</a> have been “the death knell of the unique culture and beauty of snowboarding”.</p>
<p>It’s a familiar story – youth-culture cool incorporated by mainstream businesses and organisations for profit. As the IOC continues to search out the <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Action-Sports-and-the-Olympic-Games-Past-Present-Future/Wheaton-Thorpe/p/book/9781138492851?gclid=Cj0KCQiAosmPBhCPARIsAHOen-N-SmP9K_ulHwUfHt8ERhLTbUn_66Px4yJL6NuC0dYBeLvgUHmnE9YaAsRDEALw_wcB">latest youth-oriented sports</a> to help it stay relevant, bring back younger viewers and attract corporate sponsors, we would do well to ask who, ultimately, are the real winners and the losers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/175053/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The mainstream embrace of snowboarding for its youthful audience and sponsorship riches also dented its once-alternative image – but a new generation of stars could change all that.Holly Thorpe, Professor in Sociology of Sport and Physical Culture, University of WaikatoBelinda Wheaton, Professor, University of WaikatoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1641582021-07-18T20:04:02Z2021-07-18T20:04:02ZAlt goes mainstream: how surfing, skateboarding, BMX and sport climbing became Olympic events<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411345/original/file-20210714-25-1kh5r9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C0%2C1274%2C846&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">US surfer Carissa Moore will be part of a new-look Olympic sports schedule in Tokyo.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Tokyo Olympics will be novel in more ways than one. Aside from the challenges of mounting the games during a pandemic, there will also be a range of <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-executive-board-supports-tokyo-2020-package-of-new-sports-for-ioc-session">new sports</a> competing for fans’ attention.</p>
<p>As well as baseball/softball (being reintroduced after a 12-year hiatus), karate, and <a href="https://fiba3x3.com/en/vision.html">basketball 3x3</a>, four youth-focused action sports will debut: surfing, skateboarding, <a href="https://olympics.com/en/sports/sport-climbing/">sport climbing</a> and <a href="https://olympics.com/en/sports/cycling-bmx-freestyle/">BMX freestyle</a>.</p>
<p>According to the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the inclusion of these new events is “the most comprehensive evolution of the Olympic program in modern history”. </p>
<p>For many fans, however, the addition of action sports raises big questions: are they really Olympic sports, and do they deserve to take the place of more established events? </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Akiyo Noguchi climbing in a competition" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411346/original/file-20210715-19-1umrtg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411346/original/file-20210715-19-1umrtg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411346/original/file-20210715-19-1umrtg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411346/original/file-20210715-19-1umrtg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411346/original/file-20210715-19-1umrtg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411346/original/file-20210715-19-1umrtg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411346/original/file-20210715-19-1umrtg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Akiyo Noguchi of Japan is a star of the sport climbing world.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">GettyImages</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Competition for younger fans</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.routledge.com/Action-Sports-and-the-Olympic-Games-Past-Present-Future/Wheaton-Thorpe/p/book/9781138492851">Our research</a> shows the process and politics behind this decision go back over 20 years, part of the IOC’s big goal of making the Olympics more attractive to younger spectators. </p>
<p>While the Summer Olympics are considered the most-watched sporting spectacle in the world, the numbers of young viewers have been declining for decades. <a href="https://newrepublic.com/article/136096/olympics-lost-millennials">The median age</a> of the US TV audience for the 2016 Rio Games was 53.</p>
<p>Aware of this, the IOC has tried to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0038038511413427">attract younger audiences</a> by incorporating newer action sports in both the summer (windsurfing, mountain biking, BMX racing) and winter (<a href="https://www.ski-cross.it/en/skicross">ski cross</a>, <a href="https://www.powder.com/stories/news/big-air-skiing-will-make-olympic-debut-2022/">big air</a>) Olympic programs. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-the-olympics-in-search-of-the-x-factor-48565">Why are the Olympics in search of the X-factor?</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<p>Since its controversial inclusion in the 1998 Nagano Winter Olympics, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09523367.2020.1828361?casa_token=J6agMqZXTS0AAAAA%3A-FcSwccZWap7aDVQAC-h8Uwmr5c1a3s57da04uMbuAxgCrXpldFKbI75NIyvs5vRQO3MkxDGlLLtVA">snowboarding</a> has become the darling of the winter games. With <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315680521-17/games-holly-thorpe-belinda-wheaton">X Games-inspired</a> presentation and youth cultural icons such as Shaun White and Torah Bright, snowboarding was credited with a 48% increase in 18– to 24-year-old viewers at the 2010 Winter Olympics. </p>
<p>Since then, a new generation of young, cool snowboarders such as Chloe Kim have continued to inspire and attract global audiences.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Olympic champion snowboarder Chloe Kim with US flag" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411350/original/file-20210715-13-njqqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411350/original/file-20210715-13-njqqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411350/original/file-20210715-13-njqqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411350/original/file-20210715-13-njqqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411350/original/file-20210715-13-njqqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411350/original/file-20210715-13-njqqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411350/original/file-20210715-13-njqqhv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Snowboarder Chloe Kim, helping make the Winter Olympics a ratings hit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That success is driving the inclusion of more action sports at the Summer Games. But the IOC has also pursued other <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/-a-glimpse-into-the-future-lausanne-2020-highlights-sustainable-approach-to-games">key initiatives</a>, such as the Youth Olympic Games and an Olympics YouTube channel. </p>
<p>Since 2010, the Youth Olympics have been an important testing ground for new sports, social media innovation and concepts like the Sports Lab in Nanjing in 2014, and the <a href="https://olympics.com/en/news/skateboarding-and-bmx-superstars-to-heat-up-buenos-aires-urban-park">Urban Park</a> in Buenos Aires in 2018. Not everything makes it past the trial stage, but much does.</p>
<h2>Agenda 2020 and the new vision</h2>
<p>The arrival of IOC President Thomas Bach in 2013 and introduction of the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17430437.2015.1119960?casa_token=giA-SI3Azv8AAAAA:ITfpNMvQLADjK6zw17MjChW3-VMMKB9CdT-V31r7Xr5epyPetiHstSEZUoD8Nap9cMuCMQrIr7yIyQ">Agenda 2020 policy</a> accelerated the modernising process. </p>
<p>In 2015, the IOC worked with the Tokyo Organising Committee to <a href="https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-approves-five-new-sports-for-olympic-games-tokyo-2020">shortlist five new sports</a> – karate, baseball/softball, surfing, skateboarding, and sport climbing – for possible inclusion in the 2020 games. When all five were confirmed for Tokyo, Bach proclaimed:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>We want to take sport to the youth […] With the many options that young people have, we cannot expect any more that they will come automatically to us — we have to go to them. </p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/holding-the-tokyo-olympics-without-spectators-during-covid-19-emergency-puts-the-iocs-supreme-authority-on-full-display-163702">Holding the Tokyo Olympics without spectators during COVID-19 emergency puts the IOC’s ‘supreme authority’ on full display</a>
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<p>Following a review to measure the overall performance of all sports, various international federations developed strategies to become more youth-friendly. The International Cycling Union approved <a href="https://olympics.com/en/featured-news/olympic-bmx-freestyle-tokyo-2020-games-2021-five-things-preview">BMX freestyle</a>, and the International Basketball Federation added <a href="https://fiba3x3.com/en/olympics/intro.html">basketball 3x3</a> for Tokyo. </p>
<p>This pressure to attract younger fans has had a knock-on effect, with other sporting bodies wanting to bring new events into the fold. The <a href="https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1073216/parkour-earth-criticise-ioc-for-failing-to-intervene-in-dispute-with-fig">current battle</a> over the possible Olympic inclusion of <a href="https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=freerunning">freerunning</a> (also known as <a href="https://parkour.uk/what-we-do/what-is-parkour/">parkour</a>) is a case in point.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/2gaGEDtHWeA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">BMX freestyle competitors are scored according to difficulty, originality, execution, height and creativity.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Nostalgia and progress</h2>
<p>With the action sport economy plateauing, many in the industry have actively supported Olympic inclusion. But the countercultural heritage of many of these sports has led to tensions.</p>
<p>Many participants view them nostalgically as <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Cultural-Politics-of-Lifestyle-Sports/Wheaton/p/book/9780415478588">alternative lifestyles</a> rather than conventional sports. The associated value systems they celebrate – self-expression, creativity, fun – are often considered at odds with the disciplinary, hierarchical, nationalistic Olympic ethos.</p>
<p>This saw the initial proposals to include <a href="https://www.theinertia.com/surf/opinion-surfing-should-not-be-in-the-olympics/">surfing</a>, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2019/06/15/skateboarders-wonder-whether-olympics-will-change-sports-renegade-image/">skateboarding</a> and <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/10.1080/17430437.2018.1440998">sport climbing</a> in Tokyo
<a href="https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1030894/petition-unveiled-campaigning-against-skateboarding-being-added-to-olympic-programme">hotly contested</a> by many within the wider action sporting cultures, worried about the loss of autonomy and control of “their” sports. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/condoms-vaccines-and-sport-how-the-tokyo-olympics-is-sending-mixed-messages-about-covid-19-safety-163361">Condoms, vaccines and sport: how the Tokyo Olympics is sending mixed messages about COVID-19 safety</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>While the Olympic athletes are enthusiastic ambassadors for their sports (and likely to see significant economic and cultural rewards), there are those within the action sport worlds who view Olympic inclusion as just another money-making stunt — part of a longer process of “selling out” with little benefit for their sports.</p>
<p>Our research shows it has been mostly older male “core” participants who’ve been most opposed to the inclusion of action sports. </p>
<p>However, an <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2167479518780410">international survey</a> showed younger participants and women were much more enthusiastic. Those under 19 were most supportive, with 80% agreeing with the statement: “I think this is a great idea and I would likely watch more of the Olympics”.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/CKJ8aTp9-OY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">British skateboarder Sky Brown will be just 13 when she competes in Tokyo.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A showcase for female athletes</h2>
<p>The new-look games have also had their logistical challenges. Action sports organising bodies have had to <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19406940.2019.1569548">navigate complex new terrain</a>, including determining <a href="https://www.climbing.com/competition/opinion-the-olympic-qualification-process-has-been-one-big-mess/">how athletes will qualify</a>, competition formats, equipment, <a href="https://www.dezeen.com/2020/02/05/nike-designs-first-ever-olympic-skateboarding-uniforms-for-tokyo-2020/">uniforms</a>, <a href="https://www.worldsurfleague.com/posts/397640/wsl-and-isa-reach-landmark-agreement">drug testing</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/may/20/small-and-funky-waves-a-concern-for-surfings-olympics-debut-in-tokyo">venue suitability</a> — all complicated by the pandemic.</p>
<p>But, the inclusion of the new sports (with equal male and female representation) has also helped the Tokyo Olympics come the closest ever to the IOC’s gender equality targets, with female athletes making up 49% of all Olympians. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/banned-from-the-tokyo-olympics-for-pot-let-the-athletes-decide-what-drugs-should-be-allowed-163619">Banned from the Tokyo Olympics for pot? Let the athletes decide what drugs should be allowed</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>For women in action sports, the Olympics are creating more opportunities <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0193723518781230">for athletes and leaders</a> in activities <a href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9781137457967">long dominated by men</a>. </p>
<p>The phenomenal talents of female athletes showcased in Tokyo – including 13-year-old skateboarder <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/jul/01/skateboarder-sky-brown-to-become-youngest-british-summer-olympian">Sky Brown</a> (Great Britain), surfer <a href="https://olympics.com/en/featured-news/carissa-moore-surfing-2021-tokyo-2020-gold-medal-contender">Carissa Moore</a> (US) and climber <a href="https://www.climbing.com/competition/olympics/tokyo-olympics-will-be-akiyo-noguchis-first-last/">Akiyo Noguchi</a> (Japan) – may well see the gender dynamics shifting in these sports post-Olympics.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Breakdancer competing" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411349/original/file-20210715-15-1ex5bi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/411349/original/file-20210715-15-1ex5bi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411349/original/file-20210715-15-1ex5bi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411349/original/file-20210715-15-1ex5bi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411349/original/file-20210715-15-1ex5bi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411349/original/file-20210715-15-1ex5bi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/411349/original/file-20210715-15-1ex5bi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Competitive breakdancing, coming soon to the Olympics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A changing Olympic landscape</h2>
<p>Without spectators, alas, Tokyo won’t be the <a href="https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1084661/tokyo-2020-urban-fest-olympics-relevant">urban festival</a> envisioned pre-COVID, with live music, art and a youth-friendly vibe at the urban and beach locations. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, the action sports central to that concept aren’t going away. Paris in 2024 will see the addition of kiteboarding and breaking/break-dancing, part of a trend that will continue at the Los Angeles games in 2028. </p>
<p>Traditional ideas about which events are (or aren’t) legitimate sports will also shift over coming years as the IOC stakes its claim in an increasingly competitive sports and leisure market.</p>
<p>With the survival of the games so dependent on viewers and sponsorship dollars, the IOC will only fight harder to stay relevant to the next generations of Olympic fans. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/sex-testing-at-the-olympics-should-be-abolished-once-and-for-all-132956">Sex testing at the Olympics should be abolished once and for all</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/164158/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Holly Thorpe received funding from the Advanced Olympic Programme Research Grant 2015/2016.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Belinda Wheaton received funding from the Advanced Olympic Programme Research Grant 2015/2016. </span></em></p>The inclusion of new action sports can offend Olympic traditionalists and outsiders alike. But it’s part of a long-term strategy to keep the games relevant and appealing to younger fans.Holly Thorpe, Professor in Sociology of Sport and Physical Culture, University of WaikatoBelinda Wheaton, Professor, University of WaikatoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1082192018-12-26T10:30:56Z2018-12-26T10:30:56ZWinter skiing holidays: how to get ski fit and avoid an injury<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250017/original/file-20181211-76959-1e3w0w8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>From Vail in the US to Val d’Isere in France, winter sports holidays are all the rage. And with <a href="https://denver.cbslocal.com/2013/11/19/ski-slopes-demographics-change-as-more-senior-skiers-suit-up/">more older people</a> now hitting the slopes, there has been an inevitable rise in <a href="http://www.thetravelmagazine.net/post-office-survey-says-half-of-holidaymakers-injured-while-skiing-were-not-covered-by-travel-insurance.html">snow sport-related injuries</a>. </p>
<p>The knee joint is especially vulnerable – accounting for <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0363546512472045">30% of all skiing injuries</a>. The most common knee injury is to the anterior cruciate ligament – known as the “ACL”. Skiing injury is the <a href="https://bradscholars.brad.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10454/14627/FULL%2520FINAL%2520SUBMISSION%2520ELECTRONIC%2520VERSION.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">third most common cause</a> of an ACL injury in Britain, after football and rugby. Most skiers suffering an ACL injury will require surgery followed by many months of rehabilitation. So the impact of an ACL injury should not be underestimated. </p>
<p><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40279-015-0334-7">The majority of injuries in the novice skier</a> occur as a result of a fall. In the more experienced skier, it’s most likely to happen when landing from a jump. But the good news is there are steps you can take to condition your body in readiness for your winter sports holiday – which will help to reduce your risk of knee injury. </p>
<p>Here’s our guide to getting ski ready. And although strength and conditioning feature heavily, it’s also important to think about cardiovascular fitness before you hit the slopes – as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17457300500480955?needAccess=true&redirect=1">many injuries occur as a result of fatigue</a>.</p>
<h2>Things to do before you go</h2>
<p>You should aim to start these exercises before the trip – ideally at least six weeks prior to skiing. All of the below exercises should be attempted for a minute initially with the aim to increase as you improve. </p>
<p><strong><em>Balance</em></strong></p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251266/original/file-20181218-27770-172p3o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This will help work on your balance.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With any snow sport good balance is essential with particular focus on dynamic balance so the ability to stay upright while on the move. Standing on one leg, reach for the points of an imaginary clock face. Swap legs and do it again. </p>
<p><strong><em>Lateral jumps</em></strong></p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=598&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251268/original/file-20181218-27773-1e20nqr.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=751&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bend your knees as you land to support your joints and aim to land on the balls of your feet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This exercise conditions the body to absorb shock, particularly useful in landing with an emphasis on a lateral direction weight shift. You should bend your knees to lower yourself into a squatting position. Keep your weight evenly distributed through both of your feet. Maintain a straight spine and a flat back. Avoid arching or curving your back and losing form while you jump to the side and then back again.</p>
<p><strong><em>Parallel rotation jumps</em></strong></p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251270/original/file-20181218-27755-1nnp0ns.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Aim to keep your torso straight and use your arms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This promotes greater trunk strength and control while keeping the lower limb in a position conducive to parallel turns. Start from a squatting position and jump turn from side to side landing on the balls of your feet. Let your knees bend to absorb the shock and ensure that you keep your chest facing forwards throughout. </p>
<p><strong><em>Lunges with rotation</em></strong></p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=725&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=725&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251523/original/file-20181219-45413-r62560.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=725&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Keep your front foot flat and bend into your knee.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This exercise for quadriceps with trunk rotation allows the body to fix in one area while being able to move in another. Starting from standing step straight forwards on one leg letting your knees bend. Once complete twist your upper body to the side and back again before returning to the start position. Repeat on the other leg. </p>
<p><strong><em>Calf stretches</em></strong></p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=602&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/251518/original/file-20181219-45400-1txfccx.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=757&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Use a wall for support and alternate these two stretches.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Flexibility in the calves is important when skiing as it to enables you to lean forward into your boots to keep a downward force on the front of your skis. Lack of flexibility means the ankle’s range of movement is more limited and may lead to excessive weight bearing through the heel – which can lead to a leaning back posture. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51783269_Events_leading_to_anterior_cruciate_ligament_injury_in_World_Cup_Alpine_Skiing_A_systematic_video_analysis_of_20_cases">Leaning backwards is one the main contributors</a> to falls leading to knee ligament injuries. </p>
<p><strong><em>Cardiovascular</em></strong></p>
<p>You should also aim to boost your cardiovascular fitness before you hit the slopes, to help your body deal with all the extra activity. You could use a cross trainer, attend a spinning class or even just start running. Interval training would also prepare you for the slopes as skiing involves bursts of activity over a longer duration of time. </p>
<h2>Things to do on the trip</h2>
<p>Warm up properly every day and wear appropriate clothing to keep you warm. Studies have shown that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21477163">you are more likely to get injured on colder days</a>. It’s also sensible to try and limit your alcohol intake, as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17457300500480955?needAccess=true&redirect=1">studies have shown</a> alcohol increases risk taking behaviour and reduces coordination increasing the likelihood of injury in skiers. And if you do drink, remember you may still be vulnerable the morning after. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/250022/original/file-20181211-76971-m6nz6p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Skiing can be exhilarating, but can also easily cause injury.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s also important to take regular breaks during the day. Take a rest day and make sure you get some sleep. Fatigue is not perceived to be a significant risk factor amongst skiers yet has been <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17457300500480955?needAccess=true&redirect=1">linked to increased injury risk</a>. </p>
<p>Helmets are also a must. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0363546512472045">Head injury is significant risk</a> with any snow sport and is the third most common injury occurring in both skiers and snowboarders – and the consequences can be life changing. </p>
<p>It’s also important to make sure all your gear is fitting properly. Make sure your bindings (which connect your boot to your skis) are set right and regularly checked – and are appropriate for you proficiency level. People with <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5733917/">incorrectly bound skis</a> are more likely to incur a knee injury, so this is a point worth remembering.</p>
<p>Yes, you might be on holidays and yes, skiing is fun, but accidents can and do happen quickly – so it’s worth spending a bit of time before you go getting your body ready for all the different movements it will need to make. This will help you to enjoy your time on the slopes, feel less tired and hopefully come home without any injuries.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/108219/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A few visits to the gym or a short jog around the block in the week before departure isn’t enough preparation.Paul Millington, Lecturer in Physiotherapy, University of BradfordColin Ayre, Lecturer in Physiotherapy, University of BradfordJamie Moseley, Lecturer in Sport Rehabilitation, University of BradfordLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1007912018-08-01T11:46:39Z2018-08-01T11:46:39ZTeam GB star’s death and the pressured world of elite sport<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229975/original/file-20180731-136646-1kthdeo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ellie Soutter, a snowboarder with Team GB, died in France.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.teamgb.com/news/boa-mourns-the-loss-of-ellie-soutter-aged-18">Team GB.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s no denying that being a world class athlete must come with an enormous amount of pressure. And in recent years, there has been a considerable increase in high profile athletes openly discussing their experiences of mental illness and mental disorders – <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9517671/London-2012-It-can-be-dark-and-lonely-at-the-top-says-Victoria-Pendleton.html">Victoria Pendleton</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/football/2018/jun/06/danny-rose-tells-family-not-travel-world-cup-player-racism-fears-abuse-england-football-team">Danny Rose</a>, and <a href="https://www.express.co.uk/sport/rugby-union/935231/Jonny-Wilkinson-Toulon-Dave-Alfred-rugby-union-anxiety-coach-captain">Jonny Wilkinson</a> to name a few. </p>
<p>These accounts have increased awareness of a culture in sport, which places focus on short-term performance at the expense of all else. A culture where the pressures to succeed can have detrimental effects on mental well-being. </p>
<p>In the wake of the <a href="https://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/other-sports/ellie-soutters-family-release-poignant-12998878">recent news</a> of GB snowboarder <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/6884326/snowboarder-ellie-soutter-happy-life-killed-herself-french-woodland/">Ellie Soutter’s death</a>, it is clear that not enough is being done to address this culture of stoicism in which elite sport operates. In a recent interview, <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5996501/Team-GB-star-Ellie-Soutter-one-countrys-coming-snowboarders-dies-suddenly-aged-18.html">Soutter’s uncle described</a> the 17-year-old as in “high-spirits” and that there were no signs she was struggling with her mental well-being. Despite this, he cited the immense pressures of competitive elite sport – including travel, funding and training – “taking their toll”. </p>
<p>In an <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-surrey-45023187?ns_source=twitter&ns_campaign=bbcnews&ns_mchannel=social&ocid=socialflow_twitter">interview with the BBC</a>, Tony Soutter, Ellie’s father also said his daughter’s history of mental health issues combined with <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/jul/31/ellie-soutter-death-father-criticises-demands-on-young-athletes">the pressure of the elite sporting world</a> could have contributed to her ending her life.</p>
<p>This pressurised environment may well make athletes more vulnerable to poor mental health which can in turn reduce the likelihood of them seeking help when it’s most needed. Young athletes might seem alright, but they can be susceptible to poor mental well-being in these highly pressurised environments. </p>
<h2>Mental health and illness</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/">Mental health</a> is a term often used colloquially to encompass everything related to matters of an individual’s mind. It is often used interchangeably with mental illness, or to describe the absence of mental illness. Mental health, as <a href="http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/mental_health/en/">defined by the World Health Organisation is</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A state of well-being in which every individual realises his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stressors of life, can work productively and fruitfully and is able to make a contribution to his or her community. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Mental health is more than just the absence of illness or symptoms of mental disorder(s) and relates closely to an individual’s broader well-being. In essence, the presence of good mental health is just as important as the absence of mental illness. Yet developing good mental health has not yet been conceptualised as a vital component of athlete support. </p>
<h2>Working on well-being</h2>
<p>Although increased awareness of mental illness in elite sport is important, there is often little or no mention of mental health. In the wake of the recent 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, more attention has been paid to <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/feb/20/elise-christie-out-winter-olympics-disqualified-1000m-heat-speed-skating">the emotional well-being</a> of athletes who have suffered painful defeats. </p>
<p>As yet though, these concerns have not been translated into research exploring how mental health can be supported and fostered within elite sport contexts. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229978/original/file-20180731-136670-1u1qbr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229978/original/file-20180731-136670-1u1qbr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229978/original/file-20180731-136670-1u1qbr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229978/original/file-20180731-136670-1u1qbr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=437&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229978/original/file-20180731-136670-1u1qbr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229978/original/file-20180731-136670-1u1qbr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229978/original/file-20180731-136670-1u1qbr5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=549&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">England defender Danny Rose revealed he has had depression, triggered by a combination of injury and family tragedy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is why, despite the marked increase in sensitivities to mental illness and emotional well-being in elite sport, more needs to be done to understand the most effective and realistic ways to support athletes who suffer from mental illness. </p>
<p>This will enable sporting organisations to address the cultures of elite sport that exacerbate poor mental health. This is important because a culture of silence around this issue means that athletes may slip under the radar if they do not present with “classic” symptoms of mental illness.</p>
<p>Moving forward, efforts need to be made to ensure there is more understanding as to what mental health represents to athletes in elite sporting contexts. This will ensure that their mental well-being can be effectively developed alongside the prevention of mental illness. </p>
<p><em>In the UK, <a href="https://www.samaritans.org/how-we-can-help-you/contact-us?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIj7S40uLL3AIV7bftCh2DMw35EAAYASAAEgLI-_D_BwE">Samaritans</a> can be contacted on 116 123 or by email – jo@samaritans.org. Other similar international helplines can be found <a href="https://www.befrienders.org/">here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100791/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>More needs to be done to stop professional athletes reaching crisis point with their mental health.Isobelle Kennedy, PhD Researcher, Northumbria University, NewcastleAndrea Scott-Bell, Senior Lecturer Sociology of Sport/Sport Development, Northumbria University, NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/919272018-02-16T01:32:26Z2018-02-16T01:32:26ZWhat makes a winning snowboard cross athlete like Jarryd Hughes?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206685/original/file-20180215-131003-y3g2ix.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Jarryd Hughes has won Australia's first medal in the snowboard cross event at a Winter Olympics.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP/Dan Himbrechts</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australian Jarryd Hughes won a silver medal in the men’s snowboard cross event at the Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang on Thursday. This is Australia’s third medal at these Games, adding to <a href="http://pyeongchang2018.olympics.com.au/athlete/matt-graham">Matt Graham’s silver</a> in mogul skiing and <a href="http://pyeongchang2018.olympics.com.au/athlete/scotty-james">Scotty James’ bronze</a> in the snowboard halfpipe.</p>
<p>This is the first medal for Australia in this event at a Winter Olympics, despite having been competitive on the world stage for several years. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Highlights of the men’s snowboard cross final from Pyeongchang.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Physical differences between disciplines</h2>
<p>Some of the physical test predictors of a successful snowboarder differ among the snowboarding disciplines (parallel, snowboard cross, and halfpipe) and genders.</p>
<p>For men, the only test that proved to <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2009/08000/Comparison_of_Physical_Characteristics_and.9.aspx">have a strong influence</a> on performance was a countermovement jump for halfpipe. But when looking at overall World Cup points for males (regardless of discipline), greater bench press and bench pull strength were found in athletes with higher point scores.</p>
<p>For women, the <a href="https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2009/08000/Comparison_of_Physical_Characteristics_and.9.aspx">physical influences</a> differ across snowboard disciplines. In parallel snowboarding and overall World Cup points, performance can be associated with leg power on a bicycle ergometry test. Snowboard cross performance is influenced by maximum push-off speed, but halfpipe does not have a link with any particular physical test.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-snow-deprived-aussies-can-win-in-snowboard-cross-and-ski-cross-in-pyeongchang-91568">How snow-deprived Aussies can win in snowboard cross and ski-cross in Pyeongchang</a>
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<h2>Injuries</h2>
<p>Several competitors crashed out of the men’s snowboard cross event in Pyeongchang. Australian Cameron Bolton put in a brave effort and competed with a <a href="https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/winter-olympics/australias-jarryd-hughes-claims-silver-medal-in-winter-olympic-snowboard-cross-final/news-story/b5e03098f873e3b2372b8f1ab9bfc76d">heavily taped wrist</a>.</p>
<p>Hughes has had to <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-02-15/winter-olympics-jarryd-hughes-wins-silver-for-australia/9451338">overcome five knee surgeries</a> throughout his career. Given he is just 22, this only highlights the risk these athletes face every day in their sport.</p>
<p>The snowboard cross has the <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/bjsports/48/7/631.1.full.pdf">highest incidence</a> of injury during competition among snowboarding disciplines, with 11.9 injuries per 1,000 runs. It also has a higher risk of severe injury – those that cause an athlete to miss more than 28 days from training or competition.</p>
<p>Like the snowboard halfpipe, the most common injuries are to <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/40/3/230.short">the knee and spine</a>. However, snowboard cross has a greater shoulder injury rate.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-makes-a-winning-halfpipe-snowboarder-like-scotty-james-91833">What makes a winning halfpipe snowboarder like Scotty James?</a>
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<p>It’s clear that all snowboard disciplines require athletes to overcome fear of serious injury. But what is it that makes snowboard cross one of the riskiest snowboard competitions?</p>
<h2>Racing tactics and anticipation</h2>
<p>The main difference between the snowboard cross and <a href="https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/en/sports/snowboard">other snowboard disciplines</a> is the pack racing element. </p>
<p>Athletes who participate in halfpipe, big air, slopestyle, and parallel giant slalom all compete in their own personal space without the need to anticipate and adapt to their competitors’ movements. </p>
<p>In these sports the athletes can mentally prepare ahead of competition runs as they already know what performances are needed to win. They have the time before a run to work through their performance plan and make any necessary changes.</p>
<p>Snowboard cross athletes also prepare their race tactics, such as the best racing lines to take and managing features of a given course. But they are also required to read fellow competitors’ movements and react and adjust movements accordingly. </p>
<p>This is referred to as <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/47250/1/47250_PUB.pdf">perception-action coupling</a>: an athlete’s ability to use information from their environment and find the most accurate and efficient movement to produce a successful performance – just like a football goalkeeper reading the play in front of them and reacting to block the ball. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Explanation of perception-action coupling in differing contexts.</span></figcaption>
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<p>The same concept applies to snowboard cross. A snowboard cross athlete may have an optimal race line, but different situations can interfere with holding this line. Examples would be: a fellow competitor cutting them off, getting too much air off a jump, hitting a difficult patch of snow and losing some control. As a result they have to constantly react to the changes in their environment. </p>
<p>It is not that other snowboard disciplines don’t use perception-action coupling in their own sports. They just don’t have the stimulus of fellow competitors at close quarters during their performances.</p>
<p>What makes the snowboard cross competitors more susceptible to serious injuries is this ever-changing environment created with their fellow competitors. Athletes are at the mercy of their own ability and their competitors’ ability to react and control high-speed situations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91927/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jade Haycraft receives funding from the Australian Government (Australian Postgraduate Award).</span></em></p>Snowboard cross has the highest incidence of injury during competition among the snowboarding disciplines.Jade Haycraft, PhD Candidate, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/918332018-02-15T03:03:04Z2018-02-15T03:03:04ZWhat makes a winning halfpipe snowboarder like Scotty James?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206339/original/file-20180214-174969-4tur21.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Scotty James became the second Australian in Winter Olympic history to win a medal in the snowboard halfpipe event.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Fazry Ismail</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>On Wednesday, <a href="http://pyeongchang2018.olympics.com.au/athlete/scotty-james">Scotty James</a> won <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-02-14/scotty-james-takes-bronze-on-the-halfpipe-in-pyeongchang/9444852">Australia’s second medal</a> at the Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang – bronze in the men’s snowboard halfpipe competition.</p>
<p>James’ medal adds to those won by fellow Australian <a href="http://corporate.olympics.com.au/sports/snowboard/medals">Torah Bright</a> (gold at the 2010 Vancouver Olympics and silver at Sochi in 2014) in the women’s snowboard halfpipe event. </p>
<h2>What is snowboard halfpipe?</h2>
<p>The snowboard halfpipe made its debut at the 1998 Nagano Olympics. <a href="http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2754608-olympic-freestyle-skiing-2018-complete-guide-to-pyeongchang-winter-games">The event</a> takes place on a trough-like feature made of snow, built on a shaped earth base. The Olympic halfpipe is sloped at approximately 17-18°, and is between 150-170 metres long, 19-22m wide, and 6.7m high. </p>
<p>The halfpipe event consists of three runs lasting around 20-30 seconds, and involves between six and eight “hits” of the pipe. A “hit” is an aerial trick (jump, rotation and twist) off the top of the pipe. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/Snowboard/04/21/07/FISSnowboardJudgesbook1314_Final_English.pdf">Six judges score</a> a competitor’s run based on each hit’s height, rotation, technique and degree of difficulty, with a score given out of 100. The highest and lowest scores are removed, and the final score is the average of the four remaining scores. </p>
<p>The best score of the three runs is recorded; the highest scores determine the medals.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.fis-ski.com/mm/Document/documentlibrary/Snowboard/04/21/07/FISSnowboardJudgesbook1314_Final_English.pdf">International Ski Federation’s</a> snowboard judges’ manual specifically outlines the scoring criteria:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>amplitude – with the greater the height of the jump off the top, the riskier the hit, and greater point scores;</p></li>
<li><p>difficulty – more rotations increases the difficulty, but also switch take-offs (opposite side to natural board stance), frontside or backside rotation, take-offs (on heel or toe side), different hand grab placements on board, blind landings (athlete can’t see where they are landing), combinations and sequential hard tricks, different rotational axis (lateral/longitudinal or horizontal), and an alley-oop (spin opposite direction to jump entry (for example, front entry to back spin);</p></li>
<li><p>execution – overall control throughout the run, and for each individual hit. It is also the ability to perform the positions of the intended trick once they have initiated it;</p></li>
<li><p>variety – changing the type of trick for each hit gets a higher score (for example backside then frontside, changed spin axis, different grabs);</p></li>
<li><p>combinations – consecutive difficult hits score higher;</p></li>
<li><p>pipe use – anything performed before an athlete crosses the marked finish line is counted in judging, with hits scoring higher if performed off the top of the pipe;</p></li>
<li><p>progression – introducing new tricks never seen in the sport is highly favoured; and</p></li>
<li><p>risk-taking – pushing to the maximum limit of ability is advantageous.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Judges deduct points for errors in a run based on the following criteria:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>one-to-ten points for small mistakes (hand drag, flat landings, deck landings, and sliding);</p></li>
<li><p>11-20 points for medium mistakes (stop full, longer hand drags, heavy hand touches, slight butt touches, and revert to natural stance on board);</p></li>
<li><p>21-25 points for major mistakes (heavy butt or body landing, complete bailing from hit).</p></li>
</ul>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Highlights of the men’s snowboard halfpipe final from Pyeongchang.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Injuries</h2>
<p>The nature of snowboard halfpipe means most competitors risk serious injury – and <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2089155/Sarah-Burke-death-Skier-dies-brain-damage-9-days-half-pipe-crash.html">possible death</a> – throughout their career. </p>
<p>Halfpipe has the third-highest incidence of injury (behind big air and snowboard cross). There is a <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/40/3/230.short">reported</a> 1.6 injuries reported per 1,000 runs for men, and 2.3 injuries per 1,000 runs for women.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/40/3/230.short">most common injuries</a> are to the lower arm/wrist, spine, and knee. As a result, current training practices focus heavily on giving athletes the physical tools to prevent these injuries.</p>
<p>Specifically, many programs <a href="https://benthamopen.com/ABSTRACT/TOSMJ-5-1">target jumping/landing force</a>, as this is the common factor of injury occurrence for snowboard halfpipe athletes. Training for “crash robustness” requires athletes to build joint strength and soft-tissue support in muscles and ligaments across the entire body. </p>
<p>Core strength to support and tolerate spinal loads during rotations, jumps and landings is also crucial in avoiding spinal injuries. </p>
<h2>Physical demands</h2>
<p>Snowboard halfpipe is an explosive, skill-based sport. While building “crash robustness” is integral, these athletes need to train to perform. They may seem laid-back and relaxed, but they are subjected to high physical load and fatigue induced by training and competition.</p>
<p>An <a href="https://benthamopen.com/ABSTRACT/TOSMJ-5-1">average training day</a> for halfpipe may consist of between ten and 12 runs (each lasting 20-30 seconds), plus hikes to the top of the pipe. This equates between two and four hours of training each day. Managing <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-winter-olympic-athletes-cope-with-the-cold-91575">sub-zero temperatures</a> and the <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.00901.x/full">effects of altitude</a> on physical performance is also a concern.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-how-winter-olympic-athletes-cope-with-the-cold-91575">Explainer: how Winter Olympic athletes cope with the cold</a>
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<p>The northern hemisphere training and competition period can last between four and five months. But athletes like James may also <a href="http://www.fis-ski.com/news-multimedia/news/article=winter-the-southern-hemisphere-multiple-fis-competitions-underway.html">train and compete</a> during the southern hemisphere winters.</p>
<p>Halfpipe snowboarders do not require large muscle mass to compete; they prefer to remain lean to maximise their hit amplitude. Their physical training focuses on neuromuscular adaptations to induce greater muscle fibre recruitment, power/speed, and eccentric (muscle lengthening under tension) force absorption for landings.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Scotty James demonstrates core strength and neuromuscular gym training, and other off-snow training.</span></figcaption>
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<p>A <a href="https://benthamopen.com/ABSTRACT/TOSMJ-5-1">large majority of off-snow training</a> focuses on sport-specific skill development, such as building co-ordination and the smoothness of trick execution. Athletes and coaches use a “gymnastic approach” to off-snow training – via trampolines, foam pits, and diving platforms/pools – to practice aerial skills in a safe landing environment.</p>
<p>So, behind his cool exterior, James has worked as hard as any other elite athlete on all aspects of his training to avoid injury and increase performance. Put together, this enabled him to stand on the podium to receive his bronze medal.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91833/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jade Haycraft receives funding from the Australian Government (Australian Postgraduate Award Scholarship).</span></em></p>Halfpipe snowboarders like Scotty James may seem laid-back and relaxed, but they are subjected to high physical load and fatigue induced by training and competition.Jade Haycraft, PhD Candidate, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/907352018-02-09T12:10:25Z2018-02-09T12:10:25ZHow freestyle skiers and snowboarders learn to pace their fear<p>Imagine a sport that involves the grace of a ballerina, the skills of a gymnast and carries some genuine danger. This is freeskiing and snowboarding, which form a central part of the Winter Olympics. There is <a href="https://www.olympic.org/freestyle-skiing/slopestyle-men">slopestyle</a> – think a skate park on snow with rails and jumps. And <a href="https://www.olympic.org/freestyle-skiing/halfpipe-women">half pipe</a> – a deep trench along which athletes do tumbling tricks in a sequence. And new to the PyeongChang games is <a href="https://www.pyeongchang2018.com/en/sports/snowboard">big air</a>, in which snowboarders take a run at a take-off ramp, then fly through the air, tumbling as they go. </p>
<p>All these events are scored by a judging panel who look for style as much as difficulty. But most of the moves these athletes perform are highly dangerous. And they have to do them over and over in practice, as well as in the high-pressure environment of competition, where looking smooth and in control are part of the judging criteria. </p>
<p>At the PyeongChang Olympics, I have the pleasure of working with New Zealand Ski and Snowboard as a psychologist. Working with any athlete to prepare for a competition is a fascinating challenge. Lots of this work uses conventional mental skills such as imagery or mentally rehearsing the jump, training how to stop negative thoughts and setting goals. </p>
<p>But there are a few extra psychological tools which are particularly relevant to freesking and snowboarding – and one in particular, which I call “emotional periodisation”. </p>
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<h2>Peaking at the right moment</h2>
<p>Periodisation has traditionally been used by physiologists and conditioners when designing training. The workload for an athlete is deliberately varied, or “periodised”, in an attempt to ensure the athlete peaks at specific events. For example, Usain Bolt might start his year with a high volume of training on endurance and strength. As the season approaches, he would then cut down the volume and up the intensity – moving towards shorter bursts of training at higher workload and power. During the season, or just before he needs to reach his peak, Bolt would do relatively few sessions at 100% intensity. Quantity has progressed to quality.</p>
<p>The idea of “emotional periodisation” is doing the same thing – but focusing on the intense emotional effort invested in planning, acquiring and executing new ski or snowboard tricks, which may be dangerous. The effort needed to do this contrasts with the comparatively straightforward need to focus on simpler, well-rehearsed skills. </p>
<p>For physical training, the concept has come in for some recent criticism. Some researchers <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230756715_Periodization_Paradigms_in_the_21st_Century_Evidence-Led_or_Tradition-Driven">have questioned</a> whether the same training programme can really generate predictable outcomes in a range of different athletes. But my ongoing research is showing that emotional periodisation has all sorts of applications to psychological pressures – so long as individual differences between athletes are addressed in designing the programme.</p>
<p>Downtime is important, offering recuperation and ensuring enjoyment. Reflecting this, plans are built around the amount of mental energy an athlete needs across each day, week or month in order to try tricks that could result in serious injury. Knowing yourself and auditing this with others is another important factor. This is because extreme challenge sports carry the risk of what researchers have called “<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306401957_Crust_L_Swann_C_Allen-Collinson_J_2016_The_devil_on_your_shoulder_A_phenomenological_study_of_mental_toughness_and_decision-making_in_elite_high-altitude_mountaineers">costly perseverance</a>” – keeping on keeping on when you aren’t on top form can have very serious consequences.</p>
<h2>Push – drill – play</h2>
<p>But the athlete must also know when to push themselves to do a new trick. However scary and challenging that push is, without it there is no progress. Working out how to pace yourself helps to boost returns from the high challenge moments.</p>
<p>The New Zealand coaches have developed a structure of “push – drill – play” which offers a simple but powerful way of planning, interacting and monitoring the emotional load. </p>
<p>On push days the skier or snowboarder works at maximum intensity to build the skills they need to perform a new trick. Drill days offer a lower intensity but essential phase of <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306018180_The_fourth_dimension_A_motoric_perspective_on_the_anxiety-performance_relationship">what’s called</a> “embedding”. This makes skills more automatic, builds confidence and elaborates the trick with extra “showy bits”, such as grabbing the ski or board with their hands. The play day is a low-level session, maybe just sliding on powder snow, but an activity that offers a mental rest while re-energising the soul.</p>
<p>The emotional challenge of these events can be very high, especially when athletes are taking new tricks onto the snow for the first time. So ensuring sufficient mental recovery time is a big feature of life for these athletes. On a daily basis, for example, coaches and support staff will ensure time away from structured practice and offer activities for athletes to decompress. “Vegging out in the hotel room” is an important element of maintaining quality on the slopes, not a mark of idleness. Regular “anchor sleep” – the big block of sleep a person gets in a 24-hour period – is also important. </p>
<p>Athletes live in a close proximity bubble when training or preparing for a competition, so getting away from the venue – and each other – for a day trip just makes good sense and helps them keep a good balance. It can also help them to refocus on high-risk days.</p>
<p>So, as you watch the amazing performances of the skiers and snowboarders at the Olympics, take time to appreciate the levels of work, physical but largely mental, that have got them there.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90735/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dave Collins is a director of Grey Matters Performance Ltd. who are contracted to provide a performance psychology service to Snow Sports New Zealand.</span></em></p>Flirting with danger with each trick, freeskiers and snowboarders must learn to manage the emotions of such a daredevil sport.Dave Collins, Chair and Director, Institute of Coaching and Performance, University of Central LancashireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/913892018-02-07T05:13:52Z2018-02-07T05:13:52ZSnowboarding and freeskiing got to the Olympics by carving their own path<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205197/original/file-20180207-58169-bt9cen.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Australian gold medalist Torah Bright in action during the Women's Halfpipe Snowboard competition in the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympic Games. </span> </figcaption></figure><p>Some of the most enthralling events at the Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang will involve <a href="https://www.olympic.org/snowboard">snowboarders</a> and <a href="https://www.olympic.org/freestyle-skiing">freeskiiers</a>. Athletes will compete in spectacular events such as Slopestyle, Big Air and Boarder-X and Ski-X events.</p>
<p>In Slopestyle, athletes navigate down a course with obstacles in which they perform jumps, spins and grinds. Big Air is the extreme version, involving a super-ramp propelling the snowboarders and freeskiiers in the air to perform their tricks. And in both Boarder- and Ski-cross, four athletes simultaneously race down a feature-laden course in an attempt to cross the finish line first. </p>
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<p>Relatively new to the Games, these sports are part of the Olympics’ <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-are-the-olympics-in-search-of-the-x-factor-48565">push to win a wider audience</a>. For some time, there has been increasing concern that the Olympic Games has lost some appeal for audiences. A recent study showed that the <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/02/23/nbc-olympics-coverage-news-sochi-bob-costas_n_4843100.html">median age of Olympic Games viewers</a> is around 55 years. In response to these concerns, the International Olympic Committee has taken various actions, such aiming for <a href="https://www.olympic.org/women-in-sport/background/statistics">parity of gender representation</a>. </p>
<p>Probably the most notable change has been the inclusion of “action sports” to the Olympic program. Action sports are activities like BMX, skateboarding, surfing, climbing and snowboarding that come with an element of risk and are particularly popular among the younger generations. </p>
<p>These are different to other sports in that many action sport stars have become elite without traditional training and coaching programs. Instead, athletes have honed their skills and tricks on their own and through their peers, with the help of social media. While these sports are becoming increasingly professionalised, it is this innovation that is the key to their success - and what makes them so exciting to watch. </p>
<h2>Freedom to create</h2>
<p>Many people have been involved in swimming, cricket, football, or tennis training through school or through clubs. But it is difficult to think of someone going to snowboard training after school, and it’s hard to imagine a coach teaching someone how to do a <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/sports/olympics/snowboard/craig-mcmorris-snowboard-1.3866081">backside triple cork</a>. </p>
<p>There are a number of reasons for this. First of all, action sports such as snowboarding and freeskiing have only risen in popularity since the late 1960s.</p>
<p>The participants of action sports have also tended to hold a unique anti-establishment attitude that flies in the face of sports institutions. Most action athletes developed their skills independent of traditional sporting structures. Without rules or boundaries to these activities, creativity was given free reign. As a result, action sportspeople and their sports have developed at rapid speeds, and have now gone Olympic. </p>
<p>Thanks to their sports’ inclusion in the Olympics, snowboarders and freeskiiers now have access to regular coaching and training opportunities to prepare them for competitions such as the <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-x-games-3002053">X Games</a> and World Championships, advancing their professional careers. But often their skills have been honed among their peers. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205199/original/file-20180207-58160-1vb5ll8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205199/original/file-20180207-58160-1vb5ll8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/205199/original/file-20180207-58160-1vb5ll8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205199/original/file-20180207-58160-1vb5ll8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205199/original/file-20180207-58160-1vb5ll8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205199/original/file-20180207-58160-1vb5ll8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205199/original/file-20180207-58160-1vb5ll8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/205199/original/file-20180207-58160-1vb5ll8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Australian Lydia Lassila jumps during qualifying in the women’s freestyle ski aerials at the 2010 Winter Olympics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">JULIAN SMITH</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The social side of learning</h2>
<p>Even more so than their traditional Olympic sport counterparts (who have generally received highly-structured, coach-supervised training from young ages), many action sports athletes have learned their skills through trial and error, and by turning to their peers for support and feedback. </p>
<p>Social media has played a significant role in the rapid advance of action sports athletes. Athletes research, film, analyse, and edit their own performances individually or in small communities. They are then able to share these with their followers through social media platforms such as YouTube, Twitter and Facebook (amongst others). </p>
<p>Now, if someone lands a NBD (“never been done” - slang for a newly created trick), athletes and their audience don’t have to wait for it to be showcased in the next magazine or major competition. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/n0F6hSpxaFc?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>This was the case for some of Australia’s Olympians when snowboarding first debuted at the Olympic Games in 1998. Even as a two-time Olympic qualifier, snowboarder Ben Mates received comparatively <a href="http://www.anarchistathlete.com/publication-list/full-paper-access-2/the-ben-mates-interview">limited support from sporting organisations</a> and only worked with a coach for a limited time leading up to the 2010 Olympic Games.</p>
<h2>Going pro</h2>
<p>With the <a href="https://www.olympic.org/news/snowboarders-from-party-people-to-elite-athletes">increasing professionalisation</a> of snowboarding and freeskiing, and significant investment from federal governments (such as the <a href="http://www.owia.org/">Olympic Winter Institute</a> in Australia), commercial operators (such as Red Bull), and individual athletes, the training and Olympic preparation has now significantly changed for our action athletes. </p>
<p>High tech training equipment and facilities, dedicated coaches and sports scientists, and specialised technologies to support athlete skill development are all now commonplace in Australian Olympic snow sports. Athletes and teams will also typically have access to a variety of other support personnel such as sports nutritionists, sports psychologists, and sport physicians and physiotherapists.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4957660/Olympic-gold-medal-favourite-reveals-love-snow.html">Alex “Chumpy” Pullin</a>, Australian boarder-X world champion (2011) and three-times Olympic qualifier, for example, trains at least six days a week and has a scheduled training plan that he attends to daily, whether this involves a structured gym session, “flying” down the mountains, or surfing the (ocean) waves.</p>
<p>While snowboarding and freeskiing are becoming increasingly professionalised, we must not forget the sports’ outsider roots, which made them spectacular Olympics events today.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/91389/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Snowboarding and freeskiing are relatively new to the Winter Olympics, coming from highly-skilled amateur backgrounds. Their athletes are often risk-taking individualists, at home on social media.Eva Ellmer, PhD candidate, The University of QueenslandSteven Rynne, Senior Lecturer, Sports Coaching; Affiliate, UQ Poche Centre for Indigenous Health, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/584282016-04-28T20:14:05Z2016-04-28T20:14:05ZWhen is it going to snow? Getting a fix on what can make a good season<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120315/original/image-20160427-30946-m9jt0w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Australia's mountains may be small but each year they deliver enough snow for winter sports. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Andrew Watkins</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Australia’s snow season is notoriously fickle. Some years bring deep cover lasting for nearly six months (such as in 1964). Others barely cover the grass for a few weeks (such as in 2006). </p>
<p>The difference between a good season and a bad one may be a single weather event, such as the so-called <a href="http://www.sott.net/article/281220-Snowmageddon-comes-to-Australian-ski-resorts-more-on-the-way">Snowmageddon in 2014</a>, which dropped around a metre of snow in less than a week.</p>
<p>The high variability of the snow season means the Bureau of Meteorology doesn’t currently produce a seasonal outlook for snow (as we do for temperature and rainfall). However, we know that the same climate drivers that affect Australia’s weather also influence our snowfall.</p>
<h2>El Niño and La Niña</h2>
<p>The best way to see how snowfall varies from year to year is to use <a href="http://www.snowyhydro.com.au/waterenvironment/snow-depths-calculator/">data from Spencers Creek</a> in the New South Wales Snowy Mountains, a pristine site 1,830 metres above sea level. <a href="https://issuu.com/amosadmin/docs/bamos_vol27_no4_august_2014">Past studies</a> show that these data tend to correlate with snow more generally across the mainland alpine regions, but they don’t always match the cover at lower elevations.</p>
<p>First, let’s look at <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/about/?bookmark=enso">El Niño</a>. We are coming out of <a href="https://theconversation.com/hasta-la-vista-el-nino-but-dont-hold-out-for-normal-weather-just-yet-53565">one of the strongest El Niño events on record</a>. During El Niño years, rainfall is typically <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/ninocomp.shtml">below average across eastern Australia during the snow season</a>, and <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/history/ln-2010-12/ENSO-temperature.shtml">temperatures are warmer during the day</a>. The maximum snow depth averages about 35cm less than the all-years average, while the period with more than 100cm is about two weeks shorter.</p>
<p>El Niño’s opposite, La Niña, usually brings above-average rainfall, but this doesn’t necessarily mean more snow. Temperatures can sometimes be too high and hence precipitation may fall as rain even at higher elevations, which can actually decrease snow depths. </p>
<p>This has happened more frequently in recent decades as a result of climate change. Seven of the past eight La Niña years have produced lower maximum snow depths than average.</p>
<p>Historically, neutral years have had more consistent good snow depths than either El Niño or La Niña years.</p>
<p>It is important to consider these drivers as tilting the odds towards a particular outcome, rather than guaranteeing it. While about half the historical El Niño years have had well-below-average snow, three El Niño years had well-above-average snow depths: 1972, 1977 and 1991. That said, no recent El Niño year has produced good snow, with these winters tending to be particularly dry.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120156/original/image-20160426-1341-81102p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120156/original/image-20160426-1341-81102p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120156/original/image-20160426-1341-81102p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=231&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120156/original/image-20160426-1341-81102p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=231&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120156/original/image-20160426-1341-81102p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=231&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120156/original/image-20160426-1341-81102p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120156/original/image-20160426-1341-81102p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120156/original/image-20160426-1341-81102p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Maximum snow depths for all years 1954-2014, segregated by a) ENSO, b) IOD and c) SAM.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Australian Bureau of Meteorology</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120157/original/image-20160426-1327-38yzqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120157/original/image-20160426-1327-38yzqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120157/original/image-20160426-1327-38yzqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=150&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120157/original/image-20160426-1327-38yzqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=150&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120157/original/image-20160426-1327-38yzqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=150&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120157/original/image-20160426-1327-38yzqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=188&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120157/original/image-20160426-1327-38yzqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=188&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120157/original/image-20160426-1327-38yzqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=188&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Average snow depths throughout the season, with 90% confidence interval shaded, segregated by a) ENSO, b) IOD and c) SAM.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Australian Bureau of Meteorology</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The other players</h2>
<p>To make things more complicated, El Niño and La Niña don’t act alone.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/about/?bookmark=iod">Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)</a> may actually be a clearer indicator of snow depth. Similarly to El Niño, positive IOD years tend to be drier than average across southeastern and central Australia, leading to lower snow depths. They are particularly dry over the Australian Alps when El Niño and positive IOD events coincide. </p>
<p>Unsurprisingly, snow depths in late winter and spring are also lower when the IOD is positive. Snow depths are generally higher than average during years with a negative IOD.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/about/?bookmark=sam">Southern Annular Mode (SAM)</a> has the strongest relationship with snowfall. Cold fronts and low pressure systems are the main weather systems that bring our snow, and the SAM indicates whether the westerlies that bring this weather are closer to Australia or the poles.</p>
<p>Negative SAM brings the fronts, rain and snow further north, while during a positive SAM these fronts move further south. The average (mean) maximum snow depth in negative SAM years is a cool 240cm, almost 80cm higher than in positive years. Unfortunately, accurate forecasts for SAM are still only possible for two to three weeks ahead, which means that this measure is more of a diagnostic rather than a forecasting tool.</p>
<p>Of course, climate change also plays a role. Both <a href="https://theconversation.com/winter-is-coming-but-dont-hold-out-for-future-snows-44505">maximum snow depth and total snow accumulation have declined over the past 25 years</a>. The reduction in snow cover is most obvious at lower elevations and at the end of the ski season when warm spring rains can hasten the melt. </p>
<p>However, while it has been a few decades since the last 3-metre year (in 1992), there are still above-average seasons when the weather and climate is right, most recently in 2012.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120158/original/image-20160426-1355-aggnfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120158/original/image-20160426-1355-aggnfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/120158/original/image-20160426-1355-aggnfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120158/original/image-20160426-1355-aggnfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120158/original/image-20160426-1355-aggnfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120158/original/image-20160426-1355-aggnfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120158/original/image-20160426-1355-aggnfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/120158/original/image-20160426-1355-aggnfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Annual maximum snow depth at Spencers Creek, 1954-2015, with a linear trend line shown.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Australian Bureau of Meteorology</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Less moisture? Never fear, snowmaking is here</h2>
<p>El Niño, positive IOD and positive SAM periods all typically lead to less moisture in the air, which partly explains the lower snowfalls. But with less cloud to trap in the heat at night, they also have lower minimum temperatures.</p>
<p>Luckily for snowriders, these are also the ingredients for good snowmaking and can contribute to less snow melting. The ability to harvest snow and move it where needed can also allow ski resorts to moderate the impacts of average or below-average natural snow cover on skiers and snowboarders.</p>
<h2>What’s ahead in 2016?</h2>
<p>While forecasts for the Southern Annular Mode only have skill for a few weeks ahead, and it’s also too early to forecast what may happen in the Indian Ocean, we can look to the Pacific.</p>
<p>The 2015 El Niño is in decline and neutral conditions are expected to prevail by winter. For 2016, the most likely outcomes are either neutral or La Niña conditions, a hopeful early sign for 2016 snowfalls.</p>
<p>Finally, a word of caution. Don’t get too excited by early snowfalls, or indeed sell your skis if winter starts with no cover: two of the best seasons on record – 1956 and 1981 – had no snow at all at the start of June, while two of the poorest seasons – 2006 and 1965 – had 20cm and 60cm, respectively, of snow on the ground before the Queen’s Birthday weekend. Early-season cover isn’t always the guide we might think it is.</p>
<p>While we know the Australian snow season can certainly have large variations in its snow cover, knowing the state of Australia’s climate drivers can give a heads-up on what the season may be like. But remember, there are always exceptions to the rules.</p>
<p><em>For the most up-to-date information on climate drivers, <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/">check out our ENSO Wrap-Up</a>. <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/amm/docs/2015/pepler.pdf">Read further analysis here</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/58428/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Australia’s snow season is notoriously fickle - so what determines whether we’ll get a good fall?Catherine Ganter, Senior Climatologist, Australian Bureau of MeteorologyAcacia Pepler, Climatologist, Australian Bureau of MeteorologyAndrew B. Watkins, Manager of Climate Prediction Services, Australian Bureau of MeteorologyBlair Trewin, Climatologist, National Climate Centre, Australian Bureau of MeteorologyDavid Jones, Scientist, Australian Bureau of MeteorologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/225422014-02-10T19:33:13Z2014-02-10T19:33:13ZWhere athletes look can spell Olympic success or failure<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40375/original/jzf4hbfs-1391385865.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Australian skier Katya Cremer (right) flies through the air in the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">AAP/Julian Smith</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Some of the most exciting moments in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/sochi-2014">Sochi Winter Olympics</a> will be in racing events such as ski and snowboard cross and short track speed skating.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/fAADWfJO2qM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Watch Steven Bradbury’s infamous speed skating gold medal winning performance in 2002 …</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gPCOin3l8OY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">… while Lindsay Jacobellis throws hers away in the snowboard cross in 2006.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While it may seem obvious that vision plays a big role in determining where athletes go and how they keep track of all the things going on around them, it may be less obvious that small differences in how athletes use their eyes to guide themselves around the course can make the difference between a gold medal and finishing off the podium.</p>
<h2>Watch where you’re going!</h2>
<p>The high-speed environments that athletes race through are incredibly demanding regardless of whether an athlete is racing against the clock (such as <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PJdCpHG6V-U">downhill skiing</a> and <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HCr15BAcT-c">speed skating</a>) or against competitors (such as <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ockPK3uczro">ski cross</a>). </p>
<p>Research in <a href="http://www.journalofvision.org/content/10/4/24.long">driving</a> and <a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00221-001-0983-7">walking</a> have generally shown that people look in the direction that they want to go – they look ahead, rather than at their feet. </p>
<p>When going around a bend, which is necessary for many of the racing events at the Olympics, where a person looks can <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20556368">influence the line</a> they take through the bend and looking to the inside of the turn is associated with selecting the quickest path, or racing line (which means faster race times!).</p>
<h2>Taking it to the track</h2>
<p>Sport scientists have begun to apply this knowledge and measure the eye movements of athletes in a variety of sporting events. Using state-of-the-art, mobile eye tracking technology, we can measure the eye movements of athletes as they compete in the real world. </p>
<p>While it’s no easy feat (think cold, snow, and waiting hours on end in the lodge for weather to clear), we have adapted the technology to allow us to record the eye movements of <a href="http://sochi2014.olympics.com.au/sports/freestyle-skiing">Australian ski cross</a> athletes while they perform training runs on the track by fitting the eye tracker into a pair of ski goggles.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40269/original/vpfspsd8-1391138167.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40269/original/vpfspsd8-1391138167.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40269/original/vpfspsd8-1391138167.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40269/original/vpfspsd8-1391138167.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40269/original/vpfspsd8-1391138167.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40269/original/vpfspsd8-1391138167.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40269/original/vpfspsd8-1391138167.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40269/original/vpfspsd8-1391138167.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Eye tracking footage during ski cross racing. The small red circle represents where the skier is looking.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This type of technology provides a look into how athletes use vision to navigate the course. We can judge the importance of different areas by measuring the amount of time spent looking at them. </p>
<p>By recording the gaze of athletes in their natural environment we’re given a rare glimpse into the visual strategies they use to control their actions, how they deal with unexpected events (a competitor suddenly appearing from behind them) and which type of visual strategies lead to faster race times.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40381/original/f4w69t3m-1391387462.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40381/original/f4w69t3m-1391387462.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/40381/original/f4w69t3m-1391387462.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=765&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40381/original/f4w69t3m-1391387462.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=765&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40381/original/f4w69t3m-1391387462.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=765&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40381/original/f4w69t3m-1391387462.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=962&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40381/original/f4w69t3m-1391387462.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=962&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/40381/original/f4w69t3m-1391387462.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=962&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sung Ching-Yang of Taiwan training in the Adler Arena.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Srdjan Suki</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In <a href="http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/825/art%253A10.1007%252Fs10339-006-0087-1.pdf?auth66=1391311196_9ad1c0faef7a37aba227525894d083e8&ext=.pdf">speed skating</a>, my colleague <a href="http://www.ucalgary.ca/hpl/vickers">Joan Vickers</a> had the unique opportunity to measure the gaze behaviour of some of the world’s fastest athletes on ice. </p>
<p>By recording gaze behaviour while athletes raced around the track, she was able to see how focusing on different locations through the turn affected lap times. </p>
<p>Much like the findings from studies on driving, she found that skaters had faster lap times (by almost 2.5 seconds) when they looked at the spot where the inside turn changes direction.</p>
<h2>Training the eyes</h2>
<p>In events such as the Winter Olympics, where athletes are already in peak physical condition, the ability to find other aspects of performance that set them apart is crucial – and eye movements might be one of the keys. </p>
<p>By identifying the critical gaze behaviours that lead to better performance and by comparing differences between expert and developing, or novice, athletes, sport scientists and coaches can develop training strategies to help athletes look at places within the race environment that lead to faster race times. </p>
<p>This emerging area of research has already shown that performance can be improved by teaching novices to use the visual strategies of experts in a number of areas including basketball, <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2012.01379.x/full">golf putting</a>, <a href="http://www.researchgate.net/publication/51131402_Quiet_eye_training_in_a_visuomotor_control_task/file/e0b49515e981a744f0.pdf">rifle shooting</a> and even <a href="http://sshs.exeter.ac.uk/media/universityofexeter/schoolofsportandhealthsciences/exsell/documents/publicationsmw/Vine_et_al_2012_Surgery-STT.pdf">surgery</a>. </p>
<p>As technology and our understanding of gaze behaviour continue to improve we may be able to identify and train the next Olympic gold medallist by measuring what – and where – they see!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/22542/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Derek Panchuk receives funding from the Australian Institute of Sport High Performance Fund (Winter Olympics).</span></em></p>Some of the most exciting moments in the Sochi Winter Olympics will be in racing events such as ski and snowboard cross and short track speed skating. While it may seem obvious that vision plays a big…Derek Panchuk, Lecturer in Motor Learning, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.