tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/astronauts-2792/articlesAstronauts – The Conversation2024-03-06T17:45:13Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243872024-03-06T17:45:13Z2024-03-06T17:45:13ZSpacesuits need a major upgrade for the next phase of exploration<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579865/original/file-20240305-18-mik4ri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C0%2C3822%2C2160&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-taps-axiom-space-for-first-artemis-moonwalking-spacesuits/">NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Humans have long dreamed of setting foot on the Moon and other planetary bodies such as Mars. Since the 1960s, space travellers have donned suits designed to protect them from the vacuum of space and stepped out into the unknown.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://spacenews.com/polaris-dawn-private-astronaut-mission-slips-to-mid-2024/">the Polaris Dawn mission</a>, which is to include the first spacewalk organised by a private company, has been delayed. This is due to complications with the design and development of a suitable spacesuit. </p>
<p>Moon suits are also one of the key elements of Nasa’s Artemis lunar programme that have yet to be delivered. A report released in November 2023 said that the contractor making the suits is having <a href="https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-24-106256#:%7E:text=To%20develop%20Artemis%20space%20suits,report%20examining%20the%20Artemis%20enterprise.">to revisit aspects of the design provided by Nasa</a>, which could introduce delays.</p>
<p>Yet <a href="https://time.com/5802128/alexei-leonov-spacewalk-obstacles/">the first spacewalk</a>, by the Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, took place in 1965. Later, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/the-apollo-program/">12 Nasa astronauts would walk on the lunar surface</a>, between 1969 and 1972, using technology that would be eclipsed by today’s smartphones. So it’s not unreasonable to ask why it can still be difficult to design and build spacesuits to do the same thing.</p>
<p>Much has changed since the Apollo missions planted flags on the Moon. The <a href="https://www.cnbc.com/video/2024/01/20/us-china-india-japan-and-others-are-rushing-back-to-the-moon.html">geopolitics driving space travel have shifted</a>, and spacesuits are no longer expected to be just a form of protection. Instead, they are a critical way to improve the productivity of astronauts. This involves a rethink of not just the suits themselves, but the technology that supports them.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Crew Dragon approaching the ISS" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579872/original/file-20240305-30-sdnkjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The Polaris Dawn mission uses modified version of the Crew Dragon spacecraft to perform the first commercial spacewalk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/view-of-spacex-crew-dragon-endeavour-approaching-station/">Nasa</a></span>
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<p>An array of powerful telecommunications technologies to connect astronauts with space stations and ground control sits alongside multisensory cameras, temperature readers and proximity sensors in present-day spacesuits.</p>
<p>Situational awareness – understanding key elements in the environment, such as the health of an astronaut – is a core tenet for modern spacesuit design and critical for the operator’s safety. The ability of a suit to track heart rate and other vital signs is important in a vacuum, where levels of oxygen need constant monitoring. </p>
<p>Expectations around the risks astronauts take have changed for the better. And the level of investment it takes to produce a spacesuit necessitates that it can be used for future tasks that may include lunar settlement in the next few decades.</p>
<p>The trade off that engineers must make when incorporating wearable technology like those already mentioned is weight. Will greater situational awareness result in a spacesuit that is too heavy to move in effectively? </p>
<p>When Elon Musk first hinted at challenges with the extravehicular activity spacesuit for Polaris Dawn <a href="https://twitter.com/SpaceX/status/1745941814165815717">in a presentation to SpaceX employees in January</a>, it was not difficulties with connected technology that he discussed, but of redesigning “the suit so that you actually move around in it”.</p>
<h2>Situational awareness</h2>
<p>However, when talking about mobility in a spacesuit, you need to consider the tasks that you want that mobility to support. </p>
<p>Before the advent of modern spacesuits, Apollo astronauts struggled to carry out missions. When drilling into the surface of the Moon with a hand drill to collect samples, astronauts found it difficult to provide enough downwards force to counteract the Moon’s weaker gravity. It was not until the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0094576522002879">invention of a zero-gravity drill</a>, decades later, that this problem would be addressed.</p>
<p>The current exploration of <a href="https://digital-library.theiet.org/content/books/ce/pbce131e">pneumatic exoskeletons</a>, providing the support necessary for movement in low gravity could be part of a solution. However, newer spacesuits may also need to interface with hardware, like robotic drills that exist outside the suit. This will also necessitate more mobility in spacesuits. </p>
<h2>Working with robots</h2>
<p>Offloading tasks, previously carried out by humans, to robots will be part of the future of space exploration. It’s a primary way that engineers will also be able to enhance the mobility of astronauts in spacesuits.</p>
<p>For example, when an astronaut goes on a spacewalk to inspect the condition of part of a space station and make any possible repairs, they are supported by a robotic arm that ensures they don’t float off into space. While jointed, this arm is rigid and can limit an astronaut’s movement.</p>
<p>An approach currently being explored to extend this range of movement is a climbing robot, that is attached to both the astronaut and the space station, that an individual can control through their spacesuit. This would allow the astronaut to move around the space station faster and with a greater range of movement than before, allowing them to reach and repair hard-to-access areas like corners.</p>
<p>While the eventual hope is that robots themselves can assess any damage to the space station and repair it, due to possible disruptions in normal operations, humans must be ready to step in. Possible disruptions could be natural, like a small meteor shower damaging the robot, or human-made, like hacking carried by a hostile group or state.</p>
<p>For the types of activities we want to accomplish in the future, this human-robot collaboration will be instrumental. Building a base on the Moon, as both <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/four-things-weve-learned-about-nasas-planned-base-camp-on-the-moon-180980589/">the US</a> and <a href="https://spacenews.com/china-attracts-moon-base-partners-outlines-project-timelines/">China</a> plan to do, will involve construction work and drilling, which humans will not be able to accomplish alone. Modern spacesuits will need to provide an interface to work with this new technology, and we can expect the suits to evolve in step with robotics.</p>
<p>The relationship between humans and robots is changing. It will go beyond spacewalks and robots’ previous uses as limited tools, to a situation where they are cooperative partners in space. The objectives of ten or 20 years from now, like building lunar settlements, exploring mineral deposits on the Moon and efficiently repairing space station modules can only be achieved using robotics. </p>
<p>Modern spacesuits will be a key foundation of this collaborative relationship, forming the interface where astronauts and robots can work together to achieve shared goals. So when we do once again leave our footprints on other worlds, we will no longer be alone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224387/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Yang Gao has received funding from UKRI, UKSA and ESA on conducting space related research. </span></em></p>The next generation of spacesuit needs to do more than simply protect an astronaut from the vacuum of space.Yang Gao, Professor of Robotics, Head of Centre for Robotics Research, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2219602024-02-21T13:18:55Z2024-02-21T13:18:55ZI’ve been studying astronaut psychology since Apollo − a long voyage to Mars in a confined space could raise stress levels and make the journey more challenging<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573911/original/file-20240206-24-4temqb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C33%2C5551%2C3667&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Crew members in space will spend lots of time together during future missions to Mars. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SpaceXCrewReturn/41b0e682eeec43f6aac091d3c00d4cb2/photo?Query=astronauts%20in%20orbit&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=656&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=28&vs=true&vs=true">NASA via AP</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Within the next few decades, NASA aims to land humans on the Moon, set up a lunar colony and use the lessons learned to send people to Mars as part of its <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis program</a>.</p>
<p>While researchers know that space travel can stress space crew members both physically and mentally and test their ability to work together in close quarters, missions to Mars will amplify these challenges. Mars is far away – <a href="https://www.space.com/16875-how-far-away-is-mars.html">millions of miles from Earth</a> – and a mission to the red planet will take two to two and a half years, between travel time and the Mars surface exploration itself.</p>
<p><a href="https://nickkanas.com/home/">As a psychiatrist</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17571662/">who has studied</a> space <a href="https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.2430.2009">crew member interactions</a> in orbit, I’m interested in the stressors that will occur during a Mars mission and how to mitigate them for the benefit of future space travelers.</p>
<h2>Delayed communications</h2>
<p>Given the great distance to Mars, <a href="https://blogs.esa.int/mex/2012/08/05/time-delay-between-mars-and-earth/">two-way communication between crew members and Earth</a> will take about 25 minutes round trip. This delayed contact with home won’t just hurt crew member morale. It will likely mean space crews won’t get as much real-time help from Mission Control during onboard emergencies. </p>
<p>Because these communications travel at the speed of light and can’t go any faster, experts are coming up with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16723-2">ways to improve communication efficiency</a> under time-delayed conditions. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18869-0">These solutions might include</a> texting, periodically summarizing topics and encouraging participants to ask questions at the end of each message, which the responder can answer during the next message.</p>
<h2>Autonomous conditions</h2>
<p>Space crew members <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16723-2">won’t be able to communicate</a> with Mission Control in real time to plan their schedules and activities, so they’ll need to conduct their work <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18869-0">more autonomously</a> than astronauts working on orbit on the International Space Station.</p>
<p>Although studies during space simulations on Earth have suggested that crew members can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16723-2">still accomplish mission goals</a> under highly autonomous conditions, researchers need to learn more about how these conditions affect crew member interactions and their relationship with Mission Control. </p>
<p>For example, Mission Control personnel usually advise crew members on how to deal with problems or emergencies in real time. That won’t be an option during a Mars mission.</p>
<p>To study this challenge back on Earth, scientists could run a series of simulations where crew members have varying degrees of contact with Mission Control. They could then see what happens to the interactions between crew members and their ability to get along and conduct their duties productively.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/nM_fmLxzqhQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Simulations, like the Mars500 mission, could help researchers learn about the effects of isolation and autonomy astronauts will deal with during a Mars mission.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Crew member tension</h2>
<p>Being <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16723-2">confined with a small group of people</a> for a long period of time can lead to <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-18869-0">tension and interpersonal strife</a>. </p>
<p>In my research team’s <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-16723-2">studies of on-orbit crews</a>, <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-18869-0">we found that</a> when experiencing interpersonal stress in space, crew members might <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17571662/">displace this tension</a> by blaming Mission Control for scheduling problems or not offering enough support. This can lead to crew-ground misunderstandings and hurt feelings.</p>
<p>One way to deal with interpersonal tension on board would be to schedule time each week for the crew members to discuss interpersonal conflicts during planned “bull sessions.” <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17571662/">We have found</a> that commanders who are supportive can improve crew cohesion. A supportive commander, or someone trained in anger management, could facilitate these sessions to help crew members understand their interpersonal conflicts before their feelings fester and harm the mission.</p>
<h2>Time away from home</h2>
<p>Spending <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16723-2">long periods of time</a> away from home can <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-18869-0">weigh on crew members’ morale</a> in space. Astronauts miss their families and report being concerned about the well-being of their family members back on Earth, especially when someone is sick or in a crisis.</p>
<p>Mission duration can also affect astronauts. A Mars mission will have three phases: the outbound trip, the stay on the Martian surface and the return home. Each of these phases <a href="https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.5857.2021">may affect crew members differently</a>. For example, the excitement of being on Mars might boost morale, while boredom during the return may sink it.</p>
<h2>The disappearing-Earth phenomenon</h2>
<p>For astronauts in orbit, seeing the Earth from space <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2018.08.004">serves as a reminder</a> that their home, family and friends aren’t too far away. But for crew members traveling to Mars, watching <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16723-2">as the Earth shrinks</a> to an insignificant dot in the heavens could result in a <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-18869-0">profound sense of isolation and homesickness</a>.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573914/original/file-20240206-22-v522cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Earth, shown from space, against a dark background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573914/original/file-20240206-22-v522cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573914/original/file-20240206-22-v522cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=313&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573914/original/file-20240206-22-v522cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=313&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573914/original/file-20240206-22-v522cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=313&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573914/original/file-20240206-22-v522cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573914/original/file-20240206-22-v522cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/573914/original/file-20240206-22-v522cp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Seeing Earth disappear could make crew members feel isolated.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/Apollo8/59f63a61bbc043a5905411daa45d9dba/photo?Query=earth%20from%20space&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=457&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=4&vs=true&vs=true">AP Photo</a></span>
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<p>Having telescopes on board that will allow the crew members to see Earth as a beautiful ball in space, or giving them access to virtual reality images of trees, lakes and family members, could help mitigate any disappearing-Earth effects. But these countermeasures could just as easily lead to deeper depression as the crew members reflect on what they’re missing.</p>
<h2>Planning for a Mars mission</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1134/S1019331614020063">Researchers studied</a> some of these issues during the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Mars500/Mars500_study_overview">Mars500 program</a>, a collaboration between the Russian and other space agencies. During Mars500, six men were isolated for 520 days in a space simulator in Moscow. They underwent periods of delayed communication and autonomy, and they simulated a landing on Mars. </p>
<p>Scientists learned a lot from that simulation. But many features of a real Mars mission, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/for-kids-and-students/what-is-microgravity-grades-5-8/">such as microgravity</a>, and some dangers of space – meteoroid impacts, the disappearing-Earth phenomenon – aren’t easy to simulate. </p>
<p>Planned missions under the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis program</a> will allow researchers to learn more about the pressures astronauts will face during the journey to Mars.</p>
<p>For example, NASA is planning a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway/">space station called Gateway</a>, which will orbit the Moon and serve as a relay station for lunar landings and a mission to Mars. Researchers could simulate the outbound and return phases of a Mars mission by sending astronauts to Gateway for six-month periods, where they could introduce Mars-like delayed communication, autonomy and views of a receding Earth. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">NASA’s planned Gateway space station will orbit the Moon.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Researchers could simulate a Mars exploration on the Moon by having astronauts conduct tasks similar to those anticipated for Mars. This way, crew members could better prepare for the psychological and interpersonal pressures that come with a real Mars mission. These simulations could improve the chances of a successful mission and contribute to astronaut well-being as they venture into space.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221960/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nick Kanas received research funding as a Principal Investigator from NASA and the National Space Biomedical Research Institute from 1995 to 2010.</span></em></p>Can astronauts spend prolonged time in close quarters millions of miles from Earth without killing each other?Nick Kanas, Professor Emeritus of Psychiatry, University of California, San FranciscoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2163552024-01-16T19:15:14Z2024-01-16T19:15:14ZSpace travel taxes astronauts’ brains. But microbes on the menu could help in unexpected ways<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565638/original/file-20231213-27-4xr8mj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5991%2C3000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/smiling-man-astronaut-presents-shawarma-kebab-1128088580">studiostoks/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Feeding astronauts on a long mission to Mars goes well beyond ensuring they have enough nutrients and calories to survive their multi-year journey.</p>
<p>Providing astronauts with the right diet is also paramount in supporting their <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncir.2023.1170395/full?trk=public_post_comment-text">mental and cognitive health</a>, in a way unlike previous missions.</p>
<p>So we need to radically rethink how we feed astronauts not only on a challenging mission to Mars, which could be on the cards in the late 2030s or early 2040s, but to prepare for possible settlement on the red planet. </p>
<p>That includes acknowledging the role of microbes in mental health and wellbeing, and providing astronauts with the right foods and conditions for a variety of these beneficial microbes to grow. Our research aims to do just that.</p>
<p>Here’s why a healthy balance of microbes is important under such challenging conditions, and how we could put microbes on the menu.</p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/was-going-to-space-a-good-idea-218235">Was going to space a good idea?</a>
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</em>
</p>
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<h2>Why are missions to Mars so challenging?</h2>
<p>Deep space missions will expose humans to immense physical and psychological challenges. These include prolonged isolation from loved ones, extreme space and resource constraints, and the difficulties of microgravity. </p>
<p>Disruption to astronauts’ circadian rhythms, prolonged radiation exposure and dietary changes can also lower their cognitive performance and wellbeing. </p>
<p>The hazardous conditions, combined with the psychological toll of potential spacecraft failures, can all contribute to mental health problems.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-live-in-space-what-weve-learned-from-20-years-of-the-international-space-station-144851">How to live in space: what we've learned from 20 years of the International Space Station</a>
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</em>
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<h2>Why is diet important for mental health?</h2>
<p>We already know the quality of people’s diet not only influences their physical health, but also their mental and brain health. </p>
<p>Diet quality is <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-018-0237-8">consistently and independently linked</a> to the risk of depression or anxiety. Clinical trials <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35441666/">show</a> improving diet quality <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30720698">can lead to</a> profound improvements in depression and anxiety symptoms. </p>
<p>Diet also affects the size and function of a specific brain region – the hippocampus – that is crucial to learning and memory, as well as for maintaining <a href="https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-015-0461-x?report=reader">mental health</a>. When even young healthy adults eat “junk” foods, aspects of cognition linked to the hippocampus quickly <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rsos.191338">decline</a>.</p>
<p>On the other hand, research shows a diet containing more and varied plant foods and seafood (which are rich in components called long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and flavonoids) leads to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-21927-5">better cognitive performance</a>. This study was conducted in a closed chamber for 45 days, designed to mimic conditions in space.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565649/original/file-20231213-23-owo81l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Plate of salmon on bed of green salad, with lemon slices, on blue wood table" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565649/original/file-20231213-23-owo81l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565649/original/file-20231213-23-owo81l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565649/original/file-20231213-23-owo81l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565649/original/file-20231213-23-owo81l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565649/original/file-20231213-23-owo81l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565649/original/file-20231213-23-owo81l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565649/original/file-20231213-23-owo81l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A diet rich in plant food and seafood might help your brain, but how do you turn that into space food that will go the distance?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/grilled-salmon-vegetables-366852431">Jacek Chabraszewski/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Diet can have such consequences by <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33144709">altering</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li>immune function</li>
<li>the size and functioning of the hippocampus </li>
<li>chemical messenger (neurotransmitter) systems</li>
<li>how our bodies respond to stress.</li>
</ul>
<p>Diet can also influence the many ways microbes in the gut affect the brain, a link known as the <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00018.2018?rfr_dat=cr_pub">microbiota gut-brain axis</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/essays-on-health-microbes-arent-the-enemy-theyre-a-big-part-of-who-we-are-79116">Essays on health: microbes aren't the enemy, they're a big part of who we are</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Not all foods make the grade</h2>
<p>Space foods need to appeal to a diverse crew and stay nutritious for an extremely long time (likely a three- to five-year mission). They also need to be lightweight and compact enough to fit on the spacecraft.</p>
<p>Once on Mars, challenges include growing fresh food and culturing protein sources. Beyond providing nutrients, we also need to consider providing more recently identified factors including phytonutrients (such as polyphenols), fermentation products and microbes. These will likely be crucial to sustain health and, indeed, life on deep space missions.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/humans-are-going-back-to-the-moon-and-beyond-but-how-will-we-feed-them-189794">Humans are going back to the Moon, and beyond – but how will we feed them?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why are microbes so important?</h2>
<p>If you’ve seen the film <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-martian-review-science-fiction-that-respects-science-fact-48373">The Martian</a>, you’ll know microbes are a crucial aspect of growing food, and are essential for keeping humans alive and functioning. </p>
<p>We have co-evolved with, and are hosts to, trillions of different microbes that live on our skin and in all our niches and cavities. This includes our mouths, nose, vagina, lungs and – crucially – our gut.</p>
<p>Most of these microbes are bacteria. The largest number are in the gut, where they influence our digestion, metabolism, and immune, endocrine (hormone) and nervous systems.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YB-8JEo_0bI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">What is the human microbiome?</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The relationship between gut microbes and <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00018.2018?rfr_dat=cr_pub">mental health and behaviour</a> goes both ways. Gut microbes influence our mental health and behaviour, and these, in turn, influence our gut microbes. </p>
<p>Other components of our microbiomes – viruses, fungi and even parasites – and the oral and lung microbiome are also linked to mental and <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00018.2018?rfr_dat=cr_pub">brain health</a>. </p>
<p>Importantly, we <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05620-1">share microbes</a> with others, including via the exchange of air, which is highly relevant in closed-environment systems such as inside spacecrafts.</p>
<p>So ensuring all astronauts have the healthiest and most diverse of microbes for the whole of the mission is vital.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-do-some-farts-smell-and-some-dont-and-why-do-some-farts-feel-hot-215064">Curious Kids: why do some farts smell and some don’t? And why do some farts feel hot?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>How could we encourage healthy microbes?</h2>
<p>It’s not just the food itself we have to think about. We also need to think about how we grow the food if we are to support healthy microbiomes. </p>
<p>Indeed, microbes play an essential role in the nutrient and phytochemical content of plants, and the microbes in soil, plants and humans are interconnected. Research published in 2023 confirms bacteria on vegetables and other plant foods find a home in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19490976.2023.2258565">human gut</a>, enhancing microbe diversity. </p>
<p>But current ways of growing foods on spacecraft don’t use natural soil. Standard “vertical farming” methods grow plants in an alternative growth medium – imagine a next-generation hydroponics system. So we may need to add an optimised microbial cocktail to these systems to enhance the health properties of the foods astronauts grow and eat.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565654/original/file-20231213-19-kwbbo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Growing tending plants in a vertical farm" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565654/original/file-20231213-19-kwbbo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565654/original/file-20231213-19-kwbbo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565654/original/file-20231213-19-kwbbo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565654/original/file-20231213-19-kwbbo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=421&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565654/original/file-20231213-19-kwbbo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565654/original/file-20231213-19-kwbbo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565654/original/file-20231213-19-kwbbo1.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=529&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This closed chamber mimics how astronauts will grow fresh crops in space.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/technology/tech-transfer-spinoffs/nasa-research-launches-a-new-generation-of-indoor-farming/">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(22)01515-X?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS009286742201515X%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Fermented protein</a> from microbes can be quickly produced in a bioreactor on board the spacecraft, even from food waste. Some types have a meat-like flavour and texture, and can provide all the amino acids humans need as well as useful byproducts from the microbes themselves. </p>
<p>Fermentation itself creates thousands of different bioactive molecules, including some vitamins, that have diverse <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1028415X.2018.1544332">beneficial effects on health</a>, including possible benefits to mental health.</p>
<p>While we don’t yet know what types of fermented foods are possible in space, we could include fermented foods, such as kimchi and sauerkraut, in astronauts’ diets on Earth.</p>
<p>Probiotics and prebiotics as supplements may also be essential. Probiotics are live microbes that have demonstrated health benefits and prebiotics are food for these healthy microbes.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-kombucha-and-how-do-the-health-claims-stack-up-87180">What is kombucha and how do the health claims stack up?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Benefits on Earth too</h2>
<p>We’re only at the start of learning how to optimise microbes to keep space crews healthy, which is crucial for long space flights and for possible settlement on other planets. </p>
<p>However, this research could have many other applications. We can use what we learn to help create self-sustaining and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/technology/tech-transfer-spinoffs/nasa-research-launches-a-new-generation-of-indoor-farming/">sustainable food systems</a> on Earth to improve the environment and human health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216355/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Felice N Jacka is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council investigator grant (#1194982). She has received: (1) competitive grant/research support from the Brain and Behaviour Research Institute, the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australian Rotary Health, the Geelong Medical Research Foundation, the Ian Potter Foundation, The University of Melbourne; (2) industry support for research from Meat and Livestock Australia, Woolworths Limited, the A2 Milk Company, Be Fit Foods, Bega Cheese; (3) philanthropic support from the Fernwood Foundation, Wilson Foundation, the JTM Foundation, the Serp Hills Foundation, the Roberts Family Foundation, the Waterloo Foundation and; (4) travel support and speakers honoraria from Sanofi-Synthelabo, Janssen Cilag, Servier, Pfizer, Network Nutrition, Angelini Farmaceutica, Eli Lilly, Metagenics, and The Beauty Chef. She is on the Scientific Advisory Board of the Dauten Family Centre for Bipolar Treatment Innovation and Zoe Limited. Felice Jacka has written two books for commercial publication.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dorit Donoviel is Executive Director, NASA-Funded Translational (moving products from lab-bench to practice) Research Institute for Space Health at Baylor College of Medicine. Dorit receives funding from NASA through Cooperative Agreement NNX16AO69A and disburses this funding to research groups and companies performing work to safeguard the health of humans in deep space.</span></em></p>Here’s why a healthy balance of microbes is important for astronauts when they travel to Mars and beyond.Felice Jacka, Alfred Deakin Professor, Deakin UniversityDorit Donoviel, Executive Director/Associate Professor, Baylor College of Medicine Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2208302024-01-12T22:02:50Z2024-01-12T22:02:50ZWhat delays to the Artemis II and III missions mean for Canada<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569136/original/file-20240112-27-y8h866.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1920%2C1279&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Artemis I Space Launch System and Orion spacecraft. The successful Artemis I mission was the first in an increasingly complex planned series of missions, which have now been delayed.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/details/KSC-20220614-PH-CSH01_0043">(NASA/Cory Huston)</a></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/what-delays-to-the-artemis-ii-and-iii-missions-mean-for-canada" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>On Jan. 9, NASA <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-shares-progress-toward-early-artemis-moon-missions-with-crew/">announced</a> it would be shifting the launch of Artemis II to September 2025. Artemis III — the first mission to land humans on the surface of the moon since 1972 — was moved to September 2026. </p>
<p>What do these delays mean for Canada’s plans to explore the moon?</p>
<p>I am a professor, an explorer and a planetary geologist. For the past decade, I have been helping to <a href="https://www.spacerocks.ca/">train Canadian and U.S. astronauts</a> in geology. I am also the principal investigator for Canada’s first ever <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp">rover mission</a>, and a member of the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-selects-geology-team-for-the-first-crewed-artemis-lunar-landing/">Artemis III Geology Team</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/canadas-space-technology-and-innovations-are-a-crucial-contribution-to-the-artemis-missions-196328">Canada's space technology and innovations are a crucial contribution to the Artemis missions</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/PAvJ550dlc0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Global News reports on NASA’s announcement to delay Artemis II and III missions.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The Artemis program</h2>
<p>It has been 52 years since humans last walked on the surface of the moon. Since then, humanity has not ventured beyond <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2020/03/Low_Earth_orbit">low Earth orbit</a>, about the distance from Halifax to Fredericton, or Toronto to Ottawa. </p>
<p>In Greek mythology, Artemis was the daughter of Zeus and the twin sister of Apollo — a fitting name for the program that will take humans back to the moon. Unlike Apollo, the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis program</a> also has the explicit goals of establishing the first long-term presence on the moon — similar to Antarctica <a href="https://oceanwide-expeditions.com/blog/a-look-into-the-international-research-stations-of-antarctica">research outposts</a> — and sending the first astronauts to Mars. </p>
<p>The Artemis missions are ambitious to say the least, and represent the next major collaborative international effort, building on the success of the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/">International Space Station</a>. </p>
<p>Indeed, with the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasa-welcomes-angola-as-newest-artemis-accords-signatory/">addition of Angola in November</a>, 33 nations have now signed the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/">Artemis Accords</a>. The Accords lay out a common set of principles for the exploration and use of outer space. Canada was one of the <a href="https://www.space.com/artemis-accords-explained">original eight countries</a> to sign these accords. </p>
<p>A core principle of the Artemis Accords is to enhance peaceful relationships between nations, which is needed now, perhaps more than ever since the Cold War.</p>
<h2>Failure is not an option</h2>
<p>After the success of the <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/artemis-missions.asp#artemis-i">Artemis I</a> mission in late 2022, most people probably thought there would be a quick succession of missions and we would be back on the lunar surface in no time. While the originally planned two years between Artemis I and II may sound a long time, it is in terms of space exploration, where the development of missions is often measured in decades.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/canadas-space-technology-and-innovations-are-a-crucial-contribution-to-the-artemis-missions-196328">Canada's space technology and innovations are a crucial contribution to the Artemis missions</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The major reason for this is that space is incredibly unforgiving. From withstanding the huge G-forces and vibrations as the rocket accelerates to over 40,000 kilometres an hour during launch — the velocity needed to escape Earth’s gravity — to the extremes of temperature, designing technologies for space is hard and costly. </p>
<p>Every piece of the Artemis infrastructure must be tested and tested again to make sure it can withstand the rigours of space. The environment of the moon is a particularly challenging thermal environment, with a staggering 300 C temperature difference between the lunar day and night. </p>
<p>Some of this testing can be done in a laboratory; however, once a certain scale is reached, this becomes impossible. Take SpaceX’s <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/">Starship</a>, the largest and most powerful rocket ever flown and a key part of the architecture for Artemis. </p>
<p>On Nov. 18, its second launch, the Starship exploded after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-023-03624-z">reaching its goal of entering space</a>. SpaceX engineers gathered a wealth of data to improve the design of Starship. However, this test made it clear that this rocket, which will be used to land the Artemis III crew on the surface of the moon, simply wasn’t going to be ready for a 2025 launch. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Qc_MnzaYjNY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The second test flight of Starship from Starbase in Boca Chica, Texas, on Nov. 18, 2023.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The astronauts’ long wait</h2>
<p>The stakes could not be higher for the Artemis II mission as onboard, for the first time, will be four astronauts, including Canadian <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp">Jeremy Hansen</a>. </p>
<p>While not scheduled to land on the surface of the moon, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-ii/">Artemis II</a> is still an incredibly challenging mission that carries with it an element of risk that comes with any “first.” Indeed, this will be the first time humans will fly in NASA’s Orion spacecraft and the first mission to take humans beyond low Earth orbit since <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/apollo-17/">Apollo 17 in 1972</a>. </p>
<p>If this mission is successful, these four astronauts will have boldly gone farther from our home planet than any other humans, ever. So it makes sense to take time, especially considering some of the obstacles still facing Artemis II.</p>
<p>On the plus side, the Artemis II crew will have more time for training. Having been involved in providing <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/blog/2023/09/19/15-photos-of-lunar-geology-training-in-canada.asp">geology training</a> to two of the Artemis II crew last September — Hansen and Christina Koch — having an additional few months for training will definitely not go to waste. </p>
<p>This delay will also give Canadian astronaut <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jenni-gibbons.asp">Jenni Gibbons</a> time to come up to speed with training as part of the back-up crew for Artemis 2 — a job she was only assigned in November.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="three people study a rock outcrop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=335&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569133/original/file-20240112-25-l4b6nh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=420&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Canadian Space Agency astronauts Jeremy Hansen and Jenni Gibbons with Gordon Osinski at the Kamestastin Lake impact structure, Labrador.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/multimedia/search/image/18645">(Canadian Space Agency)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Robots to the moon</h2>
<p>On the same day that NASA announced the delays to the Artemis program, the U.S. company Astrobotic announced that its Peregrine lunar lander suffered a “<a href="https://www.space.com/astrobotic-peregrine-moon-lander-propulsion-failure">critical loss of propellent</a>” not long after launch. This means there is no chance of it being able to land successfully on the moon.</p>
<p>The lander has been gathering valuable data while its fuel supplies lasted, so all is not lost. This is also the first launch as part of NASA’s new <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/commercial-lunar-payload-services/">Commercial Lunar Payload Services</a> (CLPS) initiative. </p>
<p>Despite the failures and setbacks in the Artemis and CLPS programs, 2024 promises to be the most exciting year for lunar exploration in decades. Astrobotic is planning two more launches, including NASA’s ambitious <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viper/">Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover</a> (VIPER). </p>
<p>Two other U.S. companies, <a href="https://www.intuitivemachines.com/">Intuitive Machines</a> and <a href="https://fireflyspace.com/">Firefly Aerospace</a>, are also scheduled to launch their first lunar missions. And even sooner, the Japanese space agency <a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/">JAXA</a> has scheduled the landing of its <a href="https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2023/12/20231205-1_e.html">Smart Lander for Investigating Moon</a> (SLIM) on Jan. 19 — if successful, this would make Japan only the fifth country to do so.</p>
<p>I will be watching these upcoming CLPS missions closely, as one of these companies will take the <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp">Canadian Lunar Rover</a> to the moon no earlier than 2026. Even before this mission, thanks to the Canadian Space Agency’s <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap/">Lunar Exploration Accelerator Program</a>, Canadian companies such as <a href="https://missioncontrolspace.com/">Mission Control Space Services</a> and <a href="https://www.canadensys.com/">Canadensys</a> are working on software and hardware to contribute to various CLPS missions.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C2044%2C1293&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a cube-like robot on a grey surface" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C6%2C2044%2C1293&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569135/original/file-20240112-19-uphqeq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Artist’s rendition of Astrobotic’s Peregrine lander on the surface of the moon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Astrobiotic)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Canadarm3 and the Lunar Gateway</h2>
<p>Almost lost in the details of NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-shares-progress-toward-early-artemis-moon-missions-with-crew/">announcement about Artemis II and III</a> was the statement that Artemis IV remains on track to launch in September 2028. In addition to landing two astronauts on the lunar surface, a major objective for Artemis IV will be the continued assembly of the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/gateway/">Lunar Gateway</a>. </p>
<p>The Gateway is a small space station that will act as an outpost orbiting the moon, providing support for lunar surface missions and, in the longer term, as a staging point for further deep space exploration. The Gateway will be the home for Canada’s biggest financial contribution to Artemis: <a href="https://mda.space/en/canadarm3/">Canadarm3</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a robotic arm in space" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569137/original/file-20240112-23-wj99xl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An artist’s concept of Canadarm3 located on the exterior of the Gateway.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/multimedia/search/image/12642">(Canadian Space Agency, NASA)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Currently being built by <a href="https://mda.space/en/">Canadian company MDA Space</a> with the support of dozens of Canadian partners and suppliers, Canadarm3 represents the next generation of space robotics. In contrast to the ISS, astronauts will not always be present on the Gateway, so Canadarm3 is being built with advanced AI-enabled sensors to enable autonomous operations.</p>
<p>Just like what <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/canadarm/about.asp">Canadarm</a> did for the Space Shuttle Program and <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/iss/canadarm2/history-of-canadarm2.asp">Canadarm2</a> did for the International Space Station, Canadarm3 will be an iconic reminder of Canada’s international status as a spacefaring nation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220830/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gordon Osinski receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and the Canadian Space Agency. He is affiliated with the Earth and Planetary Institute of Canada (EPIC). </span></em></p>NASA announced that the next two Artemis missions — Artemis II and III — will be delayed for safety reasons. However, Artemis IV remains on schedule.Gordon Osinski, Professor in Earth and Planetary Science, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2160332023-11-27T17:08:16Z2023-11-27T17:08:16ZUltratrails, deep dives, outer space: how extraordinary personalities adapt to extreme conditions<p>`Kilian Jornet won the 2022 Ultra-Trail du Mont Blanc (distance 170 kilometres, elevation gain 10,000 metres) in 19 hours 49 minutes and 30 seconds. Stéphanie Gicquel skied 2,045 kilometres in 74 days, crossing Antarctica to reach the South Pole in temperatures as low as -50°. Thomas Pesquet completed a spacewalk lasting 6 hours and 54 minutes, 400 kilometres above the Earth.</p>
<p>These extreme sports athletes deploy excessive efforts to adapt to environmental conditions or exceptional solicitations. Pushing humans beyond their limits is not trivial on a behavioural or psychological level.</p>
<p>So, are these people, who achieve such feats, different from ordinary mortals?</p>
<h2>Environment and extreme performance</h2>
<p>Intense exercise at high altitude, while deep diving, in a polar station, or during a space flight or running an ultra-trail are all extreme activities that are stressful for both the body and the mind.</p>
<p>Indeed, these environments are often characterised by adverse natural conditions (hypoxia, hyperbaria, weightlessness, cold, heat, darkness, etc.), and while environmental factors are the main source of stress, certain situations are also accompanied by social requirements. For example, in Arctic stations or during manned space flights, people live together for several months and are exposed to other forms of “stressors”: prolonged isolation, confinement, boredom, lack of privacy, limited pleasures, interpersonal relationships, and the list goes on. Valery Ryumin, a Russian cosmonaut, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348564933_L%E2%80%99humain_dans_l%E2%80%99espace_defis_psychologiques">described these extreme conditions as</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“All the necessary conditions to perpetrate a murder are met by locking two men in a cabin of 18 by 20 feet… for two months.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Depending on the nature of the environment, people can develop different symptoms. At high altitude, for example, some people develop acute mountain sickness, a symptomatology specific to high altitude, characterised by physiological, psychological, behavioural, cognitive, and emotional disorders induced by the hypoxic environmental conditions. This syndrome is linked to both <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14819979_Effects_of_Altitude_on_Mood_Behaviour_and_Cognitive_Functioning">altitude level and speed of ascent</a> and varies between individuals.</p>
<p>Adapting to these multiple constraints is a challenge, and some people adapt better than others, and sometimes more quickly.</p>
<h2>Influence of personality</h2>
<p>Studies have shown that <a href="https://hal.univ-lorraine.fr/hal-04219768">personality plays an important role in how people adapt to extreme situations</a>.</p>
<p>Moreover, adaptation has been at the heart of the definition of Allport’s personality since the early 20th century. Since the 2000s, personality has even been defined as a characteristic model of adaptation in the habitual way of thinking (cognition), feeling (emotions), and behaving or reacting (behaviour), which tends to remain relatively stable across situations and time.</p>
<p>During a simulated ascent of Everest in a hypobaric chamber, <a href="https://hal.science/hal-04220346">“reserved” and “opportunistic” subjects</a> proved better able to meet the challenge of hypoxia than “open” and “conscientious” subjects.</p>
<p>In professional diving, the assessment of anxiety levels of 16 divers showed that three presented a clinical level of anxiety during the dive. Analysis of their personality showed that they had difficulty controlling themselves and an emotional instability often concomitant with depressive and anxious moods.</p>
<p>The comparison of the personality of a diver who developed <a href="https://api.istex.fr/ark:/67375/WNG-FH738ZLB-J/fulltext.pdf?sid=clickandread">severe anxiety reactions</a>, following the observation of a diver in narcosis, with that of a diver who had no reaction showed that the first was an extrovert with a risk of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatization">somatisation</a>.</p>
<p>In microgravity, the subjects who adapt best to the <a href="https://hal.science/hal-02314127">demanding conditions of a parabolic flight</a> (alternation of hypergravity and microgravity phases) are those who do not like monotony or repetitive or routine tasks. They are more <a href="https://hal.science/hal-03725559">dynamic and proactive in their sensation seeking</a>.</p>
<p>These few studies demonstrate that personality has become a recognised factor which plays a role in adaptation processes in extreme environments.</p>
<h2>Special role of emotional intelligence</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/175407391665049">Emotional intelligence</a> can be viewed as a personality characteristic that provides an interesting framework for assessing individual differences in how individuals identify, express, understand, regulate, and use <a href="https://www.cairn.info/les-interventions-en-psychologie-de-la-sante--9782100587780.htm">their own emotions</a> – and those of others.</p>
<p>Extreme sports offer a particularly relevant situation to <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michel_Nicolas2">examine this personality trait</a>. Mountain ultra-trails, such as the UTMB (Ultra Trail du Mont Blanc) and the Tor des Géants, are listed among the most gruelling races in the world.</p>
<p>We have demonstrated that athletes with higher emotional intelligence scores reported <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362372464_Emotional_Intelligence_in_Ultra-Marathon_Runners_Implications_for_Recovery_Strategy_and_Stress_Responses_during_an_Ultra-Endurance_Race">higher recovery rates than athletes with lower scores</a>. The results confirm the positive role of emotional intelligence on an individual’s <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332359025_Time_courses_of_emotions_experienced_after_a_mountain_ultra-marathon_Does_emotional_intelligence_matter">ability to cope with difficult situations</a> by “recovering” more (resources) to improve their psychological adaptation to these extreme sports. In this perspective, this personality characteristic could protect against stress and improve mental preparation before a competition.</p>
<p>Various studies have suggested that dispositional characteristics, such as the personality of individuals attracted to extreme situations, vary from one environment to another (e.g., Arctic stations, space missions) and can influence adaptation processes. Identifying these personality characteristics could help improve the selection and preparation of individuals to improve their adaptation. By knowing the personality profile, the psychologist can personalise preparation based on the person’s characteristics. For example, some individuals give <a href="https://hal.univ-lorraine.fr/hal-02012277/file/Art%20JP%202%20-%20HAL.pdf">more importance to certain sensory information</a> when choosing how to act. These individuals could be trained to use other sensory modalities to increase their abilities and performance. Another example would be to develop emotional intelligence in extreme sports athletes to help them regulate their emotions and manage their stress in order to maintain or improve performance.</p>
<p>Most studies in extreme environments focus on adjustment disorders and attempt to identify personality characteristics to improve participant selection and training. But from Thomas Pesquet to Kilian Jornet and Stéphanie Gicquel, there is no doubt that extreme sports athletes have exceptional personality characteristics.</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485612/original/file-20220920-3440-4oxruu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485612/original/file-20220920-3440-4oxruu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=250&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485612/original/file-20220920-3440-4oxruu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=250&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485612/original/file-20220920-3440-4oxruu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=250&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485612/original/file-20220920-3440-4oxruu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485612/original/file-20220920-3440-4oxruu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485612/original/file-20220920-3440-4oxruu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=314&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><em>This article has been published for the <a href="https://www.fetedelascience.fr/">Fête de la Science</a> (which took place on 6-16 October 2023 in mainland France and 10-27 November 2023 in overseas France and internationally) organised in partnership with The Conversation France. This year’s event had the theme “sport and science”.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216033/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Benoît Bolmont has received funding from the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michel Nicolas ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Do extreme-sport athletes and explorers have personality traits in common that help them adapt to difficult and surprising conditions?Benoît Bolmont, Professeur en STAPS, Université de LorraineMichel Nicolas, Psychologie, Université de Bourgogne – UBFCLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2177202023-11-17T17:18:15Z2023-11-17T17:18:15ZEarthrise: historian uncovers the true origins of the ‘image of the century’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560179/original/file-20231117-24-a4qtm4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C9%2C2035%2C1523&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The restored image of Earthrise. A high quality black and white image was coloured using hues from the original colour photos.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap181224.html">Image Credit: NASA, Apollo 8 Crew, Bill Anders; Processing and License: Jim Weigang</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The recent <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/nov/10/frank-borman-commander-first-apollo-moon-mission-dies-aged-95">death of Frank Borman</a>, commander of Nasa’s <a href="https://nasa.gov/missions/apollo/apollo-8-mission-details/">Apollo 8 mission in 1968</a>, has focused attention on that incredible first voyage to the Moon. </p>
<p>It took place eight months before <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/apollo-11/">Apollo 11</a>, where Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin explored the lunar surface for the first time. However, the impact of Apollo 8’s “Earthrise” picture – the sight of the Earth from the Moon – now seems even greater than that of the first landing. </p>
<p>For many years, the story behind the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/apollo-8-earthrise/">famous Earthrise photo</a>, was that the crew were caught off-guard by the blue orb rising from behind the Moon. But <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/the-story-behind-apollo-8s-famous-earthrise-photo/">even if they were preoccupied</a>, the astronauts knew it was coming.</p>
<p>Another unforgettable event during the mission was a reading by the crew <a href="https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/318/apollo-8-genesis-reading/">from the Book of Genesis</a>, broadcast to the world at Christmas. Detailed research I’ve conducted in Nasa’s archives has revealed more clearly how much planning lay behind these dramatic moments. The famous Earthrise picture, a wonky snap taken in a hurry, was improvised, but it had been anticipated. </p>
<h2>Earthrise restored</h2>
<p>After entering lunar orbit, they nearly missed seeing the Earth. Only on the fourth orbit, when the capsule flipped round 180 degrees to point forwards, did they notice it. Borman confirmed to me that at that moment they were “taken by surprise – too busy with lunar observation on the first three orbits”.</p>
<p>But the <a href="https://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/oral_histories/UnderwoodRW/underwoodrw.htm">Apollo programme’s director of photography, Dick Underwood</a>, was anxious to set the wider record straight. He explained: “Hours were spent with the lunar crews, including the Apollo 8 crew, in briefing on exactly how to set up the camera, which film to use … these briefings were most comprehensive.” </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="The Apollo 8 crew." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559679/original/file-20231115-21-97wwdu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Apollo 8 crew presenting the Earthrise picture to the governor of Texas, John Connally, in 1969.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nasa</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There were, however, battles within Nasa about what images the astronauts should focus on, with the management insisting on shots of <a href="https://history.nasa.gov/alsj/a410/A08_PressKit.pdf">lunar geology and potential landing sites</a>. Dick Underwood explained: “I argued hard for a shot of Earthrise, and we had impressed upon the astronauts that we definitely wanted it.” </p>
<p>Borman was joined on the mission by two other astronauts: Jim Lovell, who was the command module pilot, and Bill Anders, who had the title of lunar module pilot. Nasa had intended for Apollo 8 to test the lunar module, but it was behind schedule so the mission didn’t take one.</p>
<p>At the pre-launch press conference, Borman had looked forward to getting “good views of the Earth from the Moon” and Lovell to seeing “the Earth set and the Earth rise”. </p>
<p>The official mission plan directed the astronauts to take photos of Earth, but only as the lowest priority. When the key moment came, the astronauts were indeed taken by surprise, but not for long. </p>
<p>Anders was at a side window taking photos of craters using a camera with black and white film when he saw the Earth rise from behind the Moon. “Look at that picture over there! Here’s the Earth coming up,” <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/resource/the-story-behind-apollo-8s-famous-earthrise-photo/">Anders exclaimed</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=486&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=610&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=610&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559678/original/file-20231115-23-nzbbhx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=610&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bill Anders’ first picture of Earthrise.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Anders quickly took a sharp shot of the Earth emerging above the lunar horizon. Then he and Lovell argued briefly over who should have the colour film camera, while Borman tried to calm them down. </p>
<p>It was Anders who took the blurry, hastily framed, overexposed <a href="https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap020127.html">colour shot of Earthrise</a>, later dubbed the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2018/dec/22/behold-blue-plant-photograph-earthrise">image of the century</a>. But in the other camera was a much better shot, long ignored because it was in black and white.</p>
<p>That first mono image was spot-on. A restored “Earthrise” photo, recently coloured by experts using the later shots as a reference, conveys the stunning sight beheld by the astronauts.</p>
<p>This shot, revealing the Earth as a majestic but fragile oasis. As Lovell mused: “The loneliness out here is awe-inspiring … it makes us realise what you have back on Earth.” For Borman too it was “intensely emotional … We said nothing to each other, but maybe we shared another thought I had: ‘This must be what God sees.’”</p>
<h2>The Genesis reading</h2>
<p>In 1968, as now, space travel was viewed as a scientific and technological domain. But the mission was also sent by one of the world’s <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_United_States#:%7E:text=Christianity%20is%20the%20most%20prevalent,is%20Christian%20(210%20million).">most strongly Christianised countries</a>, and the crew was not about to leave its cultural background behind.</p>
<p>It was a point of pride at Nasa that, whereas Soviet cosmonauts were <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210406-how-russias-cosmonauts-trained-for-space">tightly
monitored and controlled</a>, their own astronauts were free to speak their minds. Extraordinary as it now seems, they were left to decide for themselves what to say in their historic live broadcast from lunar orbit.</p>
<p>Borman knew that he had to come up with something special for the Christmas broadcast. A few weeks beforehand, he was told by a press officer: “We figure more people will be listening to your voice (during the broadcast) than that of any man in history. So we want you to say something appropriate.” </p>
<p>While Neil Armstrong’s “one small step” message was <a href="https://time.com/5621999/neil-armstrong-quote/">carefully considered inside Nasa</a>, no one in the agency knew in advance what Borman would say.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Earthrise" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=527&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=662&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=662&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/560186/original/file-20231117-25-yelyw3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=662&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The original Earthrise photo.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nasa</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With only two minutes left before radio contact was lost as the spacecraft passed behind the Moon, Anders said: “The crew of Apollo 8 have a message that we would like to send to you.” </p>
<p>He then <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ToHhQUhdyBY">read from the Book of Genesis</a>: “In the beginning, God created the heaven and the Earth; and the Earth was without form and void.” He continued: “God said, ‘Let there be light,’ and there was light.” </p>
<p>Lovell and Borman took over to read the next verses, and Borman signed off: “Merry Christmas, and God bless all of you – all of you on the good Earth.”</p>
<p>As Apollo 8 dipped out of radio contact, the world was left to absorb the impact. “For those moments I felt the presence of creation and the creator,” Nasa’s <a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/explore/stories/eugene-kranz">chief flight director Gene Kranz</a> later recalled. “Tears were on my cheeks.” </p>
<p>Somehow Borman and his colleagues found the perfect words to convey
their experience. But Borman had thought about the assignment carefully, asking a <a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-archive/apollo-8-and-11-notes-and-letters-bourgin/sova-nasm-1995-0025">publicist friend to help out with the text</a>. </p>
<p>This was Simon Bourgin, science policy officer at the US Information Agency. Bourgin in turn asked a journalist, Joe Laitin, who <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/how-apollo-8-delivered-moment-christmas-eve-peace-and-understanding-world-180976431/">mentioned the task to his wife, Christine</a>. </p>
<p>She looked in the Old Testament and suggested: “Why don’t you begin at the beginning?” She recognised the primeval power of the creation story in the first book of Genesis, with its evocative description of the Earth. </p>
<p>Borman immediately recognised that this was just right, and had it typed up. He had superbly vindicated Nasa’s trust in him. </p>
<p>While inspiration and a degree of freedom were involved in the Earthrise photo and Genesis reading, behind their execution lay careful planning and professionalism.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217720/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Robert Poole does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Borman’s professionalism helped the risky Apollo 8 mission become a success.Robert Poole, Professor of History, University of Central LancashireLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2169502023-11-10T13:25:12Z2023-11-10T13:25:12ZSpecialized training programs using sensory augmentation devices could prevent astronauts from getting disoriented in space<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/558127/original/file-20231107-15-nnyzbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C5%2C1941%2C1075&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Astronauts prepare to leave the International Space Station.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SpaceStation/ab2eaca4b8b84b04a961488995ab42f4/photo?Query=space%20flight&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=570&currentItemNo=NaN&vs=true&vs=true">NASA via AP</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When landing on the surface of the Moon, astronauts can become spatially disoriented, which is when they lose sense of their orientation – they might not be able to tell which way is up. This disorientation can lead to fatal accidents. </p>
<p>Even on Earth, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.3971.2014">between 1993 and 2013</a>, spatial disorientation led to the loss of 65 aircraft, US$2.32 billion of damages and 101 deaths in the U.S.</p>
<p>Could wearable technology augment the senses of astronauts, allowing them to overcome the limitations of their biological sensors? And what type of training could build a deeper bond between the astronaut and the wearable technology, so that astronauts would be able to rely on the technology when they can’t trust their own senses?</p>
<p><a href="https://sites.google.com/view/vivekanandpandeyvimal/research_2/introduction">I am a research scientist</a> in the <a href="https://www.brandeis.edu/graybiel/">Ashton Graybiel Spatial Orientation Lab</a> at <a href="https://www.brandeis.edu/">Brandeis University</a>. With my collaborators, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YmkwkIEAAAAJ&hl=en">Alexander Panic</a>, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=B1INHVwAAAAJ&hl=en">James Lackner</a> and <a href="https://scholarworks.brandeis.edu/esploro/profile/paul_dizio/overview">Paul DiZio</a>, I study sensory augmentation and spatial disorientation, which is when astronauts and pilots lose the sense of which way they are oriented. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/4uTpHzZdDeE?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Spatial disorientation research may help astronauts in the future, and it can have applications for other fields, like vestibular disorders.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2023.1249962">In a paper</a> published in November 2023 in Frontiers in Physiology, we determined whether vibrotactors – small vibrating devices placed on the skin – could enhance the performance of participants put in a disorienting condition that mimicked spaceflight. We also studied what type of training could enhance the connection between the human and the device. </p>
<p>Vibrotactors communicate information through the touch receptors of the somatosensory system instead of the visual system. They have previously helped pilots <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/154193120004400148">flying helicopters</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/51.827409">airplanes</a>.</p>
<p>When pilots are disoriented, their visual system often gets <a href="https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.3048.2011">overwhelmed with information</a>. Vibrotactors can help because they send touch signals rather than visual signals.</p>
<h2>Creating a spaceflight analog condition</h2>
<p>For our first experiment, we wanted to figure out whether using vibrotactors would improve a particpant’s ability to stabilize themselves in a disorienting spaceflight condition. </p>
<p>We strapped participants into a multi-axis rotation device, which is a machine containing a chair that’s programmed to behave like an inverted pendulum. Like a pencil falling left or right as you try to balance it on your fingertip, the multi-axis rotation device tilts to the left or right. Participants used a joystick to try to balance themselves and keep the chair upright. </p>
<p>We blindfolded the participants, because spatial disorientation often occurs when pilots can’t see – like when they <a href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADP013844">fly at night or through clouds</a>. </p>
<p>On Earth, tiny organs in the inner ears <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10792/">called otoliths</a> help people keep their balance by sensing how far the body is tilted away from an upright position, also called the gravitational vertical. In space and especially during gravitational transitions, such as while landing on a planet or the Moon, the gravitational information detected by the otoliths is very different than on Earth. This can cause disorientation. </p>
<p>Additionally, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00476.2019">long-duration spaceflight</a> will change how the brain interprets the signals coming from the otoliths. This can also lead to disorientation when landing. </p>
<p>In our Earth analog condition, which was meant as a control to compare against the spaceflight condition we tested, participants sat in the multi-axis rotation device and used a joystick to stabilize themselves around the balance point. The balance point was at an upright position, or the gravitational vertical. </p>
<p>Because the otoliths can sense tilt from the gravitational vertical, participants always had a good sense of their orientation and the location of the balance point. We called this the Earth analog condition because they could use gravitational cues to do the task. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-017-5068-3">Every participant learned and improved</a> their performance on this over time. </p>
<p>Then, in the spaceflight analog condition, we had the multi-axis rotation device pitch the participants back by 90 degrees. The balance point was still in the center, and the multi-axis rotation device was programmed to tilt to either the left or right while participants were on their back. </p>
<p>In the Earth condition, the balance point was lined up with the upright, so it was easy to use the otoliths to determine how much one was tilted. However, in the spaceflight condition, participants no longer tilted relative to the gravitational vertical, because they were always on their back. So even though the balance point they were trying to find was the same, they could no longer use gravity to determine how much they were tilted from the balance point.</p>
<p>Similarly, astronauts have minimal gravitational cues when initially landing. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-017-5068-3">In our spaceflight condition</a>, the participants showed very poor performance and had high rates of losing control.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557559/original/file-20231103-23-l58q3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two photos, the left labeled 'Vertical roll plane' shows a participant strapped into a chair that's tilted with his head to the right and feet to the left, but oriented upright. The right, lableled 'horizontal roll plane' shows the participant tilted back" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557559/original/file-20231103-23-l58q3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557559/original/file-20231103-23-l58q3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557559/original/file-20231103-23-l58q3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557559/original/file-20231103-23-l58q3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557559/original/file-20231103-23-l58q3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557559/original/file-20231103-23-l58q3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557559/original/file-20231103-23-l58q3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In the Earth analog condition, participants balance in the upright vertical plane, while in the spaceflight analog condition, participants are tilted back and they balance in the horizontal plane. There, they can no longer use gravitational information to figure out where they are.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ashton Graybiel Spatial Orientation Lab</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For each of the 13 participants in the experimental group, we attached four vibrotactors on each arm. The farther a participant titled from the balance point, the more vibrotactors vibrated on the same side. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2023.1249962">We found</a> that vibrotactile feedback helped performance in the disorienting spaceflight condition. But it also led to a feeling of conflict between a participant’s incorrect perception of their orientation and their actual orientation, as indicated by the vibrotactors. </p>
<p>Because of this conflict, the participants’ performance in the spaceflight condition <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2023.1249962">was not as good</a> as it was in the Earth condition.</p>
<p>Surprisingly, even knowing that they were disoriented and reporting high levels of trust in the vibrotactors was not enough to allow people to continue learning and improving their performance. This suggests that cognitive trust, or their self-reported level of trust, may differ than their gut-level trust – and cognitive trust alone <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2023.1249962">does not ensure</a> people will be able to rely on the vibrotactors when disoriented.</p>
<h2>Building a human-device bond</h2>
<p>Previous <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.013">research in sensory substitution</a> has found that allowing participants to freely explore and play around with the device during training builds a bond between the human and the device.</p>
<p>In our first experiment, we provided participants with time to explore how the device works. We gave them 40 minutes to explore the vibrotactile feedback in the Earth condition the day before they were tested in the spaceflight condition. While this helped participants perform better than those who did not have vibrotactors, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2023.1249962">their improvements were modest</a>, and these participants did not show any further improvement in performance after being given 40 minutes in the spaceflight condition. </p>
<p>So, why was this free exploration not enough for our test condition but sufficient for other experiments? One reason could be that the majority of prior studies on sensory augmentation have had the training and testing occur in the same environment. However, astronauts will most likely receive their training on Earth before being in space, where their sensory information will be very different. </p>
<p>To determine whether specialized training could lead to better results, we ran another group of participants <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-019-05631-x">through a training program</a>. </p>
<p>Participants spent the first day in the Earth analog condition, where they had to stabilize themselves while searching for hidden balance points that were different than the upright, or gravitational vertical. In order to find the hidden balance point, they had to disengage from their desire to align with the upright while focusing on the vibrotactors, which indicated the location of the balance point.</p>
<p>When this group was tested on Day 2 in the spaceflight analog condition, they <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2023.1249962">performed significantly better</a> than the group that had the vibrotactors but hadn’t received the training program. Our findings suggest that simple exposure to sensory augmentation devices will be not be enough training for astronauts to rely on the device when they cannot rely upon their own senses. </p>
<p>Also, cognitive trust in the device may not be enough to ensure reliance. Instead, astronauts will need specialized training that requires disengaging from one sense while focusing on feedback from the device.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216950/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vivekanand Vimal receives funding from NASA’s Human Research Program under grant 80NSSC22K0758</span></em></p>When you’re an astronaut landing on the Moon, you can’t rely on the same gravitational cues we have on Earth. But regimented training with sensory devices could one day prevent spatial disorientation.Vivekanand Pandey Vimal, Research Scientist, Brandeis UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2166732023-11-07T16:51:28Z2023-11-07T16:51:28ZBoom in space tourism threatens to boost the amounts of space junk and climate emissions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557780/original/file-20231106-17-5i630m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C0%2C2041%2C1361&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore/sets/72157720187084178/with/51814201476">NASA</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Commercial companies are increasingly becoming involved in transporting astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS), as well as other activities in orbit. Some, such as Houston-based Axiom Space, eventually want to build their <a href="https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-station">own space stations in orbit</a>, where commercial astronauts could make extended stays.</p>
<p>This could also provide more money and opportunities for science to be carried out in low Earth orbit. But it also raises a host of safety concerns, because it will add to the already troublesome issue of space junk. There are also implications for the environment, because rockets produce greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change. </p>
<p>Axiom, which was founded in 2016, was the first company to <a href="https://www.axiomspace.com/ax1">conduct privately funded missions</a> to the ISS. Under <a href="https://www.axiomspace.com/news/access-program-announcement">Axiom’s Space Access Program</a>, it has been offering different countries the opportunity to design customised missions to orbit aboard SpaceX’s Crew Dragon spacecraft. As such, it recently signed an agreement with the UK Space Agency for an <a href="https://theconversation.com/all-uk-astronaut-mission-shows-that-private-enterprise-is-vital-to-the-future-of-space-exploration-216762#:%7E:text=The%20UK%20Space%20Agency%20has,International%20Space%20Station%20(ISS).">all-UK astronaut mission</a> to the ISS.</p>
<p>Nasa is increasingly <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/seven-us-companies-collaborate-with-nasa-to-advance-space-capabilities/">partnering with private companies</a> to accomplish its space missions. However, initiatives such as the one with Axiom to fly multiple tourist missions to the ISS mark a new kind of commercialisation of space.</p>
<p>Axiom’s planned commercial space station will first be built as an add-on to the ISS. It will then be detached so that it becomes independent. Space tourism is a key part of its business model. </p>
<p>Axiom is not alone in its aims. Jeff Bezos’ Blue Origin, aerospace giant Northop Grumman, and smaller companies such as Nanoracks and Sierra Space are all developing their own space station designs. These are aimed at operating in low Earth orbit within the next decade. </p>
<p>Blue Origin, Northrop Grumman and Nanoracks have <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-companies-to-develop-commercial-destinations-in-space/">been awarded US$415 million (£335 million)</a> by Nasa under the agency’s Low Earth Economy strategy to develop their space station concepts. In effect, the Nasa strategy uses public money to enable private companies to bring in commercial money. This private investment then helps provide the infrastructure needed for science and operations in low Earth orbit.</p>
<p>The scientific case for putting humans in space has historically been very weak – though not non-existent. Modern robotics and remote-control systems are now so good that the case is even weaker today than it ever was. </p>
<p>To most scientists, human space missions are vanity projects to do with national prestige. However, most will concede that there are huge benefits in terms of public engagement and inspiration. If they were fully costed, though, it’s unlikely that some experiments would be funded by the peer review panels of the science funding agencies.</p>
<h2>Space junk concerns</h2>
<p>There are also major concerns about risks posed by the increase in the general number of space missions, particularly because space junk is already a major problem in low Earth orbit. In 1978, Nasa scientist Donald J Kessler described the <a href="https://www.spacesafetymagazine.com/space-debris/kessler-syndrome/">“Kessler syndrome”</a> – a potential runaway effect where a collision in space could spark many more debris impacts, leading to the destruction of multiple spacecraft, or even the <a href="https://earthsky.org/human-world/kessler-syndrome-colliding-satellites/">majority of low Earth orbit spacecraft</a>. </p>
<p>Since 1999, the ISS has had to manoeuvre to avoid large pieces of space junk 32 times. Recently, the risk has been raised by a huge increase in the number of craft in low Earth orbit. In particular, since 2019, SpaceX and its competitors, such as OneWeb and Amazon Kuiper have embarked on programmes of launching tens of thousands of satellites into low Earth orbit to <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016/meta">provide internet access</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Space debris" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557781/original/file-20231106-15-mm3i5d.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557781/original/file-20231106-15-mm3i5d.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557781/original/file-20231106-15-mm3i5d.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557781/original/file-20231106-15-mm3i5d.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557781/original/file-20231106-15-mm3i5d.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557781/original/file-20231106-15-mm3i5d.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557781/original/file-20231106-15-mm3i5d.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A representation of space debris around Earth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/photo-gallery/">NASA ODPO</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, less than 0.5% of internet traffic is currently carried by satellite communications. Despite the potential benefits to unconnected people in rural areas, upfront and subscription costs mean that Starlink’s current subscribers, make up less than <a href="https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2023/09/spacex-projected-20-million-starlink-users-by-2022-it-ended-up-with-1-million/#:%7E:text=Starlink%20now%20has%20%22well%20over,to%20a%20CNBC%20article%20today.">0.02% of the global population</a>. They include many <a href="https://www.cruisehive.com/luxury-cruise-yachts-to-receive-starlink-internet-access-in-2023/105364">cruise ships</a>, private <a href="https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/09/06/1034373/starlink-rural-fcc-satellite-internet/">jets and luxury yachts</a>.</p>
<h2>Environmental concerns</h2>
<p>The other area of great concern is the environmental effect of sending more people to space. It would increase the climate impacts of space activities by <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2022.07.034">an order of magnitude</a>. This would exacerbate the problems society is already experiencing.</p>
<p>At present, the richest 1% of humans are emitting about 100 times more CO₂ than the poorest 10%. Internationally, policymakers are increasingly aware of the way that certain populations around the world may be affected more harshly by climate change than others. They are also aware of the pressures and instability generated by mass migration <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-019-02560-0">caused by climate change</a>. Space tourism adds to this inequality.</p>
<p>There are other serious environmental concerns. Launches, particularly with solid rocket boosters, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652620302560">cause stratospheric ozone depletion</a>. There are also worrying levels of atmospheric pollution by metals caused by so many launches and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-89909-7">so much</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0273117720307663?via%3Dihub">re-entering debris</a>.</p>
<p>This is an area that is moving forward with astounding speed. At first sight, it seems that we can harness the excitement and wonder of space travel to fund new opportunities for science and develop technology that’s of great benefit to humankind. </p>
<p>However, it would be wise to take the time to think through the potential consequences carefully. The human, or crewed, element means that the financial model of commercial human spaceflight is vulnerable to just a single failure, as the recent Titan submersible implosion proved. </p>
<p>Even more importantly, activities in low Earth orbit are a hugely valuable, yet vulnerable resource. <a href="https://www.ukspace.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/The-many-uses-of-Earth-Observation-data.pdf">They provide us</a> with environmental and disaster monitoring systems, weather and climate monitoring, vegetation and crop growth measurements, geolocation and navigation (such as GPS) as well as communications.</p>
<p>Despite my previous comments about their main rationale not being scientific, space stations such as the ISS have provided some unique opportunities for working in zero gravity. There have been some remarkable impacts in, for example, <a href="https://www.issnationallab.org/masschallenge-technology-space-prize-angiex/">medical</a> and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/station/iss-research/creating-new-and-better-drugs-with-protein-crystal-growth-experiments/#:%7E:text=One%20of%20these%20studies%20examined,including%20one%20called%20TAS%2D205.">materials</a> research. </p>
<p>We must not destroy the vital resource of low Earth orbit with space junk. And we cannot just ignore the implications for the climate and environmental justice.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216673/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Lockwood receives funding from UKRI/Science and Technology Facilities Council and UKRI/Natural Environment Research Council</span></em></p>Space junk and carbon emissions are just some of the problems with a boom in space travel.Mike Lockwood, Professor of Space Environment Physics, University of ReadingLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2167622023-11-03T13:02:05Z2023-11-03T13:02:05ZAll-UK astronaut mission shows that private enterprise is vital to the future of space exploration<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556873/original/file-20231031-19-rx8uh3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C0%2C2041%2C1361&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tim Peake could come out of retirement to command the mission.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The UK Space Agency <a href="https://www.axiomspace.com/news/ukspaceagency-agreement">has signed an agreement</a> with a US company called Axiom Space to develop a space mission carrying four astronauts from the UK. The flight would most likely use the SpaceX Crew Dragon vehicle and travel to the International Space Station (ISS). </p>
<p>The crew is expected to include reserve and active astronauts recently selected by the European Space Agency (Esa), but they will be funded commercially. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/oct/25/tim-peake-quit-retirement-to-lead-uk-first-astronaut-mission">There are also reports</a> it could be commanded by the recently retired Tim Peake.</p>
<p>By taking this step, the UK is joining other countries on a commercial path to human spaceflight. It’s a very significant one too, because commercial funding is absolutely <a href="https://hbr.org/2021/02/the-commercial-space-age-is-here">crucial to the future of space exploration</a>. As a former Esa director of human spaceflight (at the time Peake was hired), I believe this will position the UK to participate in a growing space economy, help democratise space and inspire new generations of students to study science and engineering. </p>
<p>In 1998, Esa decided it would <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Astronauts/The_European_astronaut_corps">employ and train</a> its own astronauts. Prior to that, few European countries had astronauts flying under their national banner. Esa’s decision was intended to reinforce its role in spaceflight internationally. At the time, the agency had also decided that it wanted to <a href="https://www.issnationallab.org/about/iss-timeline/#:%7E:text=The%20first%20rudimentary%20station%20was,ever%20developed%3A%20the%20American%20shuttles.">strengthen the ISS collaboration</a> and also wanted to get the most out of it. Astronauts were one way to do this.</p>
<p>Prior to 1998, the UK had produced several astronauts and potential astronauts. <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/foale_michael.pdf">Michael Foale</a>, born in Lincolnshire, had dual UK-US nationality and flew to space as a Nasa astronaut. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Sharman">Helen Sharman</a> went to orbit in 1991 as part of an arrangement with the Russian government.</p>
<p>As a result of the European astronaut corps <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Astronauts/The_European_astronaut_corps">being created in 1998</a>, national astronaut corps in Esa member states were dismantled.</p>
<p>In those countries, including the UK, the focus shifted to selecting astronauts through the Esa process. However, while the UK participated enthusiastically in other Esa programmes, it did not show a great deal of interest in the agency’s optional human spaceflight programme.</p>
<h2>Surprise selection</h2>
<p>While UK was not contributing to the Esa human spaceflight programme, other member states were strong supporters. However, selections were open to all European citizens, and correctly so.</p>
<p>Fast forward to May 20, 2009, when I was <a href="https://www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bulletin135/bul135b_dipippo.pdf">Esa’s director of Human Spaceflight</a>. Officials and journalists were crowded into a room on the fourth floor of Esa’s headquarters at Rue Mario Nikis in Paris to hear the announcement of six new astronauts who would join the space agency. I had chaired the committee that had interviewed the group of 22 candidates who remained after a one year long selection process managed by the European Astronaut Center (EAC) in Germany. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Crew Dragon at the ISS." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557298/original/file-20231102-18-3wrr4t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/557298/original/file-20231102-18-3wrr4t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557298/original/file-20231102-18-3wrr4t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557298/original/file-20231102-18-3wrr4t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557298/original/file-20231102-18-3wrr4t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557298/original/file-20231102-18-3wrr4t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/557298/original/file-20231102-18-3wrr4t.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The all-UK mission is likely to use the Crew Dragon vehicle developed by SpaceX.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/spacex-crew-dragon-endeavour/">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As I announced the six new astronauts, the room exploded at one name in particular: <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZjFfp7eJcpk">Tim Peake’s</a>. Considering that the UK was not involved in this optional programme, there were no expectations a British astronaut would be announced. But Peake was an exceptional candidate who deserved his selection. </p>
<p>Immediately afterwards, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Drayson,_Baron_Drayson">UK minister for science and innovation, Lord Drayson</a>, called Esa. As a result of this phone call, I rushed to Gare du Nord, took a train, and arrived in London for an unplanned meeting with the minister. Sometime later, the UK <a href="https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/ESA_astronaut_Timothy_Peake_set_for_ISS_999.html">joined Esa’s human spaceflight programme</a>.</p>
<h2>Rapid changes</h2>
<p>A lot has changed since 2009, however. Innovation in the area of spaceflight is increasing exponentially. Just look at the <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/">Starship programme</a> managed by Elon Musk’s SpaceX, or Jeff Bezos’ <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/">Blue Origin</a>, which is developing new rockets and a new vehicle to land on the Moon. </p>
<p>The ISS’s lifetime has been extended until 2030 – after which it will be decommissioned, re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean. However, commercial companies in the US are developing their own private space stations.</p>
<p>One of those companies is Axiom Space. Based in Houston, Axiom wants to build a space station <a href="https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-station">that will be operational from 2028</a>. In its first phase, it will have two or more modules docked to the ISS. Once they are ready, the Axiom station will be detached so that it can function independently.</p>
<p>In preparation for their space station’s operations phase, Axiom has begun sending commercially funded missions to the ISS using SpaceX’s Crew Dragon vehicle. These have been commanded by ex-Nasa astronauts but carry non-professionals. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax2">recent Ax2 mission</a>, for example, was commanded by ex-Nasa astronaut Peggy Whitson and carried a racing driver and investor, John Schoffner, who paid for his flight, as well as two Saudi Arabian commercial astronauts sponsored by the Saudi Space Commission. An upcoming mission, Ax3, will fly to the ISS in January 2024. </p>
<p>Ax4, expected to take place mid-2024, could be the target for this all-UK crew – although they might have to wait for a later mission.</p>
<h2>Opportunity knocks</h2>
<p>All of this is happening as Esa’s latest astronaut class, chosen in 2022 and the first since Peake’s intake in 2009, is being prepared for missions to low Earth orbit and later, beyond. In this new class are five career astronauts, 11 reserve astronauts reserve and one astronaut with a disability.</p>
<p>So the rise of the commercial astronaut provides access to space for countries that may not have a longstanding relationship with one of the big space agencies and therefore support the process of democratising space.</p>
<p>The benefits that come from the use of space-based data and infrastructure are increasingly evident, and more attention from the general public helps put space on the map for policy and decision makers in a virtuous circle.</p>
<p>Space is indispensable for <a href="https://www.ukri.org/news-and-events/responding-to-climate-change/topical-stories/how-space-science-can-help-us-combat-climate-change/">tackling climate change</a>, in <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/benefits-of-space/disasters.html">disaster management</a>, <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/psa/globalhealth/index.html">global health</a>, in agriculture, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/ames/what-are-nasas-technology-educational-satellites/">education</a>, <a href="https://digital-world.itu.int/space-for-change-satellites-in-the-service-of-digital-transformation/">digital transformation</a> and the green economy. </p>
<p>Therefore, a commercially funded mission to cost around £200m carrying UK-born commercial astronauts Rosemary Coogan (also selected as an Esa active astronaut), John McFall and Meganne Christian (who are Esa reserve astronauts) could be seen as a good investment. The mission will also undoubtedly produce good outcomes, including scientific results. </p>
<p>Peake will reportedly come out of retirement to lead this first all-UK astronaut mission, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-34991335">following his last flight back in 2015</a>.</p>
<p>The space economy is a blooming flower that we must support in order for it to grow. The pay-off will benefit us all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216762/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simonetta Di Pippo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The agreement should give British astronauts more flights into space.Simonetta Di Pippo, Director of the Space Economy Evolution Lab, Bocconi UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1930712023-07-31T12:23:25Z2023-07-31T12:23:25ZWhat happens if someone dies in space?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516818/original/file-20230321-2335-y7uosd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C0%2C4970%2C3000&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An artist's depiction of two astronauts on Mars. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/astronauts-exploring-mars-royalty-free-image/1318550764?phrase=astronauts%20on%20Mars&adppopup=true">cokada/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=293&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/281719/original/file-20190628-76743-26slbc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>What happens if someone dies in space? – Guillermo, Palm Beach, Florida</strong></p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>There’s no question that sending human beings to space is an extraordinarily difficult and perilous proposition. </p>
<p>Since human space exploration began just over 60 years ago, 20 people have died – 14 in the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/35-years-ago-remembering-challenger-and-her-crew">NASA space shuttle tragedies of 1986</a> and <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/02/01/1153150931/columbia-space-shuttle-disaster-20th-anniversary">2003</a>, three cosmonauts during <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-remembering-the-crew-of-soyuz-11">the 1971 Soyuz 11 mission</a>, and three astronauts in the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/55-years-ago-tragedy-on-the-launch-pad">Apollo 1 launch pad fire in 1967</a>.</p>
<p>Given how complicated human spaceflight is, it’s actually remarkable how few people have lost their lives so far. But NASA plans to send <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii">a crew to the Moon in 2025</a> and astronauts to Mars <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/6_Technologies_NASA_is_Advancing_to_Send_Humans_to_Mars">in the next decade</a>. Commercial spaceflight <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/6_Technologies_NASA_is_Advancing_to_Send_Humans_to_Mars">is becoming routine</a>. As space travel becomes more common, so does the possibility that someone might die along the way. </p>
<p>It brings to mind a gloomy but necessary question to ask: If someone dies in space – what happens to the body?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516825/original/file-20230321-26-l9gw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An artist's concept of an astronaut on Mars, sitting against a rock and gazing at the space colony sitting in the distance on dusty orange flatland." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516825/original/file-20230321-26-l9gw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516825/original/file-20230321-26-l9gw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516825/original/file-20230321-26-l9gw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516825/original/file-20230321-26-l9gw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516825/original/file-20230321-26-l9gw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516825/original/file-20230321-26-l9gw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516825/original/file-20230321-26-l9gw62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In the future, NASA and other space agencies, along with private industry, hope to establish colonies on Mars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/astronaut-on-planet-mars-watching-a-space-station-royalty-free-image/1398989851">janiecbros/E! via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Death on the Moon and Mars</h2>
<p>As <a href="https://www.bcm.edu/people-search/emmanuel-urquieta-ordonez-32141">a space medical doctor</a> who works to find new ways to keep astronauts healthy, I and my team at the <a href="https://www.bcm.edu/academic-centers/space-medicine/translational-research-institute">Translational Research Institute for Space Health</a> want to make sure space explorers are as healthy as they can be for space missions.</p>
<p>Here is how death in space would be handled today: If someone died on a low-Earth-orbit mission – such as aboard the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html">International Space Station</a> – the crew could return the body to Earth in a capsule within a matter of hours. </p>
<p>If it happened on the Moon, the crew could return home with the body in just a few days. NASA already has detailed <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/ochmo-tb-012_mortality_related_to_human_spaceflight.pdf">protocols in place for such events</a>. </p>
<p>Because of that quick return, it’s likely that preservation of the body would not be NASA’s major concern; instead, the No. 1 priority would be making sure the remaining crew returns safely to Earth. </p>
<p>Things would be different if an astronaut died during the <a href="https://nineplanets.org/questions/how-long-does-it-take-to-get-to-mars/">300 million-mile trip to Mars</a>. </p>
<p>In that scenario, the crew probably wouldn’t be able to turn around and go back. Instead, the body would likely return to Earth along with the crew at the end of the mission, which would be a couple of years later. </p>
<p>In the meantime, the crew would presumably preserve the body in a separate chamber <a href="https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.6146.2023">or specialized body bag</a>. The steady temperature and humidity inside the space vehicle would theoretically help preserve the body. </p>
<p>But all those scenarios would apply only if someone died in a pressurized environment, like a space station or a spacecraft. </p>
<p>What would happen if someone stepped outside into space <a href="https://www.livescience.com/human-body-no-spacesuit">without the protection of a spacesuit</a>? </p>
<p>The astronaut would die almost instantly. The loss of pressure and the exposure to the vacuum of space would make it impossible for the astronaut to breathe, and blood and other body fluids would boil. </p>
<p>What would happen if an astronaut stepped out onto the Moon or Mars without a spacesuit? </p>
<p>The Moon has nearly no atmosphere – <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LADEE/news/lunar-atmosphere.html">a very tiny amount</a>. Mars has <a href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/mars/overview/#:%7E">a very thin atmosphere</a>, and almost no oxygen. So the result would be about the same as exposure to open space: suffocation and boiling blood.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/8yU33cguGaY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Radiation exposure, toxic soil and leaky spacesuits are three of the ways to die on Mars.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What about burial?</h2>
<p>Suppose the astronaut died after landing, while on the surface of Mars. </p>
<p>Cremation isn’t desirable; it requires too much energy that the surviving crew needs for other purposes. And burial isn’t a good idea, either. Bacteria and other organisms from the body could <a href="https://theconversation.com/colonizing-mars-means-contaminating-mars-and-never-knowing-for-sure-if-it-had-its-own-native-life-103053">contaminate the Martian surface</a>. Instead, the crew would likely preserve the body in a specialized body bag until it could be returned to Earth. </p>
<p>There are still many unknowns about how explorers would deal with a death. It’s not just the question of what to do with the body. Helping the crew deal with the loss, and helping the grieving families back on Earth, are just as important as handling the remains of the person who died. But to truly colonize other worlds – whether the Moon, Mars or a planet outside our solar system – this grim scenario will require planning and protocols.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emmanuel Urquieta is supported by the Translational Research Institute for Space Health.</span></em></p>If an astronaut were to die on Mars, neither cremation nor burial would be good options.Emmanuel Urquieta, Professor of Space Medicine and Emergency Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2042482023-04-20T19:59:23Z2023-04-20T19:59:23ZSpaceX launches most powerful rocket in history in explosive debut – like many first liftoffs, Starship’s test was a successful failure<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522218/original/file-20230420-1011-46fy37.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6403%2C4204&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Starship, the most powerful rocket ever built, launched from a spaceport in Texas. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SpaceXStarshipTestFlight/1b6cc6f972fc40678d74b21ec7aae320/photo?Query=starship%20spacex%20launch&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=69&currentItemNo=5">AP Photo/Eric Gay)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On April 20, 2023, a new SpaceX rocket called Starship exploded over the Gulf of Mexico three minutes into its first flight ever. SpaceX is calling the test launch a success, despite the fiery end result. As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=PxIOz7cAAAAJ&hl=en">space policy expert</a>, I agree that the “rapid unscheduled disassembly” – the term SpaceX uses when its rockets explode – was a very successful failure.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522219/original/file-20230420-25-atilr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A large rocket standing next to a tower." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522219/original/file-20230420-25-atilr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522219/original/file-20230420-25-atilr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=797&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522219/original/file-20230420-25-atilr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=797&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522219/original/file-20230420-25-atilr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=797&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522219/original/file-20230420-25-atilr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1001&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522219/original/file-20230420-25-atilr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1001&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522219/original/file-20230420-25-atilr4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1001&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The full Starship stack comprises a Starship spacecraft (in black) on top of a rocket dubbed Super Heavy (in silver) and is nearly 400 feet (120 meters) tall.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/195131646@N04/51912424446">Hotel Marmot/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The most powerful rocket ever built</h2>
<p>This launch was the first fully integrated test of SpaceX’s new Starship. Starship is the <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/">most powerful rocket ever developed</a> and is designed to be fully reusable. It is made of two different stages, or sections. The first stage, called Super Heavy, is a collection of 33 individual engines and provides <a href="https://spaceflightnow.com/2023/04/17/how-spacexs-starship-stacks-up-to-other-rockets/">more than twice the thrust</a> of a Saturn V, the rocket that sent astronauts to the Moon in the 1960s and 1970s.</p>
<p>The first stage is designed to get the rocket to about 40 miles (65 kilometers) above Earth. Once Super Heavy’s job is done, it is supposed to separate from the rest of the craft and land safely back on the surface to be used again. At that point the second stage, called the Starship spacecraft, is supposed to ignite its own engines to carry the payload – whether people, satellites or anything else – into orbit.</p>
<h2>An explosive first flight</h2>
<p>While parts of Starship have been <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/04/16/science/spacex-starship-rocket-launch.html">tested previously</a>, the launch on April 20, 2023, was the <a href="https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-rocket-super-heavy-launch-what-time">first fully integrated test</a> with the Starship spacecraft stacked on top of the Super Heavy rocket. If it had been successful, once the first stage was spent, it would have separated from the upper stage and crashed into the Gulf of Mexico. Starship would then have continued on, eventually crashing 155 miles (250 kilometers) off of Hawaii.</p>
<p>During the SpaceX livestream, the team stated that the primary goal of this mission was to get the rocket off the launch pad. It accomplished that goal and more. Starship flew for <a href="https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-first-space-launch">more than three minutes</a>, passing through what engineers call “max Q” – the moment at which a rocket experiences the most physical stress from acceleration and air resistance.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522220/original/file-20230420-1377-gg5xm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A cloud of fire and smoke in the sky with pieces falling Earthward." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522220/original/file-20230420-1377-gg5xm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/522220/original/file-20230420-1377-gg5xm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522220/original/file-20230420-1377-gg5xm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522220/original/file-20230420-1377-gg5xm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=429&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522220/original/file-20230420-1377-gg5xm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522220/original/file-20230420-1377-gg5xm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/522220/original/file-20230420-1377-gg5xm8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=539&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Starship spacecraft and Super Hheavy rocket were unable to separate during the flight, so engineers blew up the full rocket.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SpaceXStarshipTestFlight/d9babe8dbe424e19869d3283a61fc199/photo?Query=starship%20spacex%20launch&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=69&currentItemNo=13">AP Photo/Eric Gay</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to SpaceX, a few things went wrong with the launch. First, <a href="https://twitter.com/wapodavenport/status/1649122093391282197">multiple engines went out</a> sometime before the point at which the Starship spacecraft and the Super Heavy rocket were supposed to separate from each other. The two stages were also unable to separate at the predetermined moment, and with the two stages stuck together, the rocket began to tumble end over end. It is still unclear what specifically caused this failure.</p>
<p>Starship is almost 400 feet (120 meters) tall and weighs 11 million pounds (4.9 million kilograms). An out-of-control rocket full of highly flammable fuel is a very dangerous object, so to prevent any harm, SpaceX engineers triggered the self-destruct mechanism and blew up the entire rocket over the Gulf of Mexico. </p>
<p>All modern rockets have mechanisms built into them that allow engineers to <a href="https://www.patrick.spaceforce.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/2666657/new-flight-termination-system-improves-launch-tempo/">safely destroy the rocket in flight</a> if need be. SpaceX itself has <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K5Vw2ZDe-G0">blown up many of its own rockets</a> during testing. </p>
<h2>Success or failure?</h2>
<p>Getting to space is hard, and it is not at all unusual for new rockets to experience problems. In the past two years, both <a href="https://www.space.com/south-korea-nuri-rocket-launch-failure">South Korea</a> and <a href="https://apnews.com/article/japan-space-rocket-h3-failure-observation-satellite-dc137cb55bb4b72537508f1319989ce1">Japan</a> have attempted to launch new rockets that also failed to reach orbit. Commercial companies such as <a href="https://spacenews.com/virgin-orbit-elaborates-on-potential-cause-of-launcherone-failure/">Virgin Orbit</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/23/science/relativity-space-launch-terran.html">Relativity Space</a> have also lost rockets recently. None of these were crewed missions, and in most of these failed launches, flight engineers purposefully destroyed the rockets after problems arose.</p>
<p>SpaceX’s approach to testing is different from that of other groups. Its company philosophy is to <a href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/02/elon-musk-says-spacex-driving-toward-orbital-starship-flight-in-2020/">fail fast</a>, find problems and fix them with the next rocket. This is different from the more <a href="https://280group.com/product-management-blog/behind-the-product-nasa-sls-vs-spacex-starship/#:%7E:text=SLS%20has%20a%20payload%20capacity,known%20as%20the%20waterfall%20method.">traditional approach</a> taken by organizations such as NASA that spend far more time identifying and planning for possible problems before attempting a launch.</p>
<p>The traditional approach tends to be slow. The development of NASA’s Space Launch System – the rocket that will <a href="https://theconversation.com/meet-the-next-four-people-headed-to-the-moon-how-the-diverse-crew-of-artemis-ii-shows-nasas-plan-for-the-future-of-space-exploration-203214">take astronauts to the Moon</a> as part of the Artemis program – took more than 10 years before its <a href="https://theconversation.com/nasas-artemis-1-mission-to-the-moon-sets-the-stage-for-routine-space-exploration-beyond-earths-orbit-heres-what-to-expect-and-why-its-important-189447">first launch this past November</a>. SpaceX’s method has allowed the company to move much faster but can be costlier because of the time and resources it takes to build new rockets. </p>
<p>SpaceX engineers will look to identify the specific cause of the problem so that they can fix it for the next test launch. With this approach, launches like this first Starship test are successful failures that will help SpaceX reach its eventual goal of sending astronauts to Mars.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204248/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wendy Whitman Cobb is affiliated with the US Air Force School of Advanced Air and Space Studies. Her views are her own and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of Defense or any of its components.</span></em></p>The launch of a new rocket is always an exciting event. SpaceX’s ‘go fast and fail’ approach means that even though the test ended with engineers blowing up the rocket, it was a valuable first flight.Wendy Whitman Cobb, Professor of Strategy and Security Studies, Air UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2037522023-04-13T20:08:42Z2023-04-13T20:08:42ZAstronomers have directly detected a massive exoplanet. The method could transform the search for life beyond Earth<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520725/original/file-20230413-14-kps5s1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C44%2C4877%2C3185&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Finding life on other planets might well be the holy grail of astronomy, but the hunt for suitable host planets that can sustain life is a resource-intensive task.</p>
<p>The search for exoplanets (planets outside our Solar System) involves competing for time on Earth’s biggest telescopes – yet the hit rate of this search can be disappointingly low. </p>
<p>In a <a href="http://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abo6192">new study</a> published today in Science, I and my international team of colleagues have combined different search techniques to discover a new giant planet. It could change the way we try to image planets in the future.</p>
<h2>Imaging planets is no small feat</h2>
<p>To satisfy our curiosity about our place in the universe, astronomers have developed many techniques to search for planets orbiting other stars. Perhaps the simplest of these is called direct imaging. But it’s not easy.</p>
<p>Direct imaging involves attaching a powerful camera to a large telescope and trying to detect light emitted, or reflected, from a planet. Stars are bright, and planets are dim, so it’s akin to searching for fireflies dancing around a spotlight. </p>
<p>It’s no surprise only about 20 planets have been found with this technique to date.</p>
<p>Yet direct imaging is of great value. It helps shed light on a planet’s atmospheric properties, such as its temperature and composition, in a way other detection techniques can’t.</p>
<h2>HIP99770b: a new gas giant</h2>
<p>Our direct imaging of a new planet, named HIP99770b, reveals a hot, giant and moderately cloudy planet. It orbits its star at a distance that falls somewhere between the orbital distances of Saturn and Uranus around our Sun. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=362&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520712/original/file-20230413-26-kg7d4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=455&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The HIP99770 star is almost 14 times brighter than the Sun. But since its planet has an orbit larger than Saturn’s, the planet receives a similar amount of energy as Jupiter does from the Sun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>With about 15 times the mass of Jupiter, HIP99770b is a real giant. However, it’s also more than 1,000°C, so it’s not a good prospect for a habitable world.</p>
<p>What the HIP99770 system does offer is an analogy to our own Solar System. It has a cold “debris disk” of ice and rock far out from the star, akin to a scaled-up version of the Kuiper Belt in our Solar System. </p>
<p>The main difference is that the HIP99770 system is dominated by one high-mass planet, rather than several smaller ones.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=753&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=753&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520697/original/file-20230413-28-yujzdr.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=753&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Images of the HIP99770 system, taken with exoplanet imager SCExAO (Subaru Coronagraphic Extreme Adaptive Optics Project) coupled with data from the CHARIS instrument (Coronagraphic High-Resolution Imager and Spectrograph).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Searching with the light on</h2>
<p>We reached our findings by first detecting hints of a planet via indirect detection methods. We noticed the star was wobbling in space, which hinted at the presence of a planet in the vicinity with a large gravitational pull.</p>
<p>This motivated our direct imaging efforts; we were no longer searching in the dark.</p>
<p>The extra data came from the European Space Agency’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Gaia">Gaia spacecraft</a>, which has been measuring the positions of nearly one billion stars since 2014. Gaia is sensitive enough to detect tiny variations of a star’s motion through space, such as those caused by planets. </p>
<p>We also supplemented these data with measurements from Gaia’s predecessor, Hipparcos. In total, we had 25 years’ worth of “astrometric” (positional) data to work with.</p>
<p>Previously, researchers <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/0004-637X/831/2/136/meta">have used indirect methods</a> to guide imaging that has discovered companion stars, but not planets.</p>
<p>It’s not their fault: massive stars such as HIP99770 – which is almost twice the mass of our Sun – are reluctant to give up their secrets. Otherwise-successful search techniques can rarely reach the levels of precision required to detect planets around such massive stars.</p>
<p>Our detection, which used both direct imaging and astrometry, demonstrates a more efficient way to search for planets. It’s the first time the direct detection of an exoplanet has been guided through initial indirect detection methods.</p>
<p>Gaia is expected to continue observing until at least 2025, and its archive will remain useful for decades to come.</p>
<h2>Mysteries remain</h2>
<p>Astrometry of HIP99770 suggests it belongs to the Argus association of stars – a group of stars that moves together through space. This would suggest the system is rather young, about 40 million years old. That would make it roughly one-hundredth of the age of our Solar System.</p>
<p>However, our analysis of the star’s pulsations, as well as models of the planet’s brightness, suggest an older age of between 120 million and 200 million years. If this is the case, HIP99770 might just be an interloper in the Argus group.</p>
<p>Now that it’s known to host a planet, astronomers will aim to further unravel the mysteries of HIP99770 and its immediate environment.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-next-generation-gamma-ray-observatory-is-underway-to-probe-the-extreme-universe-191772">A 'next-generation' gamma-ray observatory is underway to probe the extreme Universe</a>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203752/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Murphy receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He contributed to this research whilst at the University of Sydney, as well as at the University of Southern Queensland, where he now works as an ARC Future Fellow.</span></em></p>Astronomers are hot on the search for new exoplanets – planets that lie beyond our Solar System – which might show potential for sustaining life.Simon J. Murphy, Senior Lecturer, Astrophysics, University of Southern QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2024892023-04-05T17:22:14Z2023-04-05T17:22:14ZAstronauts are returning to the Moon, but they won’t be repeating the Apollo missions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519231/original/file-20230404-18-aqpufb.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C8%2C5816%2C5834&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">From left to right: Christina Koch, Reid Wiseman (seated), Victor Glover and Jeremy Hansen make up the Artemis II crew.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis">Nasa</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If all goes to plan, sometime in November 2024, NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis">newly announced Artemis II crew</a> – Christina Koch, Victor Glover, Reid Wiseman and Canadian astronaut Jeremy Hansen – will cram themselves into their <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/index.html">Orion space capsule</a> and begin their final checks for launch. </p>
<p>As they sit perched atop the gargantuan <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/fs/sls.html">Space Launch System (SLS) rocket</a> at Kennedy Space Center in Florida, waiting for the inferno beneath them to light, the world will hold its breath. </p>
<p>Should they survive the violence of that ignition and the journey into Earth orbit, an adventure the likes of which we haven’t seen in more than half a century will await them. </p>
<p>The booster stage aboard their ship of exploration will rip them from Earth’s immediate vicinity and inject them onto a trajectory that will carry them to the Moon, hurtling into the void at more than 25,000mph. They will be travelling faster and further than any human since the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo17.html">Apollo 17 mission in 1972</a>. </p>
<p>NASA has drawn from a deep well of past experience and technologies for this mission; employing the same main engines and solid rocket booster technology that powered the space shuttle. </p>
<p>The space agency has made many improvements, learning the hard-won lessons of past catastrophe. SLS and Orion represent evolution rather than revolution. Nevertheless, there will be nothing routine about this flight.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Orion - artist's impression" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519297/original/file-20230404-1331-14454r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519297/original/file-20230404-1331-14454r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519297/original/file-20230404-1331-14454r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519297/original/file-20230404-1331-14454r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519297/original/file-20230404-1331-14454r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519297/original/file-20230404-1331-14454r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519297/original/file-20230404-1331-14454r.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Artemis astronauts will travel in the Orion spacecraft.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/engineers-refine-thermal-protection-system-for-orion-s-next-mission">NASA</a></span>
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<h2>Risk is everywhere</h2>
<p>We know in theory how safe we expect Artemis II to be – all of those probabilities have been calculated carefully. But there is all too often a gulf between expectation and reality.</p>
<p>Life for astronauts aboard the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html">International Space Station</a> is already replete with risk. But for the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-important-step-on-long-term-return-to-the-moon-missions-to">Artemis II</a> crew there will be additional dangers. In the face of an emergency, space station crews orbiting at an altitude of around 250 miles can usually return to Earth in a matter of hours.</p>
<p>Rescue from deep space, possibly hundreds of thousands of miles away from Earth, is a different prospect – as the crew of Apollo 13 <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo13.html">famously demonstrated</a> in 1970. </p>
<p>Radiation is also a substantial hazard. Astronauts operating in low-Earth orbit benefit from Earth’s dense magnetic field, or magnetosphere, which <a href="https://climate.nasa.gov/news/3105/earths-magnetosphere-protecting-our-planet-from-harmful-space-energy/">shields them</a> from harmful solar and cosmic radiation. For lunar missions, crews will venture beyond the protection of the magnetosphere, and will be more vulnerable to radiation exposure.</p>
<p>Solar flares in particular, which see short-lived but intense outpourings of highly energetic, charged particles, represent a powerful potential threat. If such an event should occur while Orion is coasting between the Earth and Moon, Artemis astronauts will <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/scientists-and-engineers-evaluate-orion-radiation-protection-plan">enter a well-protected area at the base of the spacecraft</a>, and wait there until the solar storm abates. </p>
<h2>A new confidence</h2>
<p>Despite all this, confidence is high. Apollo crews <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/livinginspace/27jan_solarflares.html">faced the same risks</a> when space engineering and technology were in their infancy – in capsules that featured no comparable shelter against radiation. </p>
<p>We know from those audacious missions that the “new ocean of space” – as President John F Kennedy once called it – can be sailed successfully and safely. There is every expectation that one day soon the Artemis II crew might do the same.</p>
<p>Artemis II is a pathfinder mission, set to orbit the Moon without landing. It will pave the way for subsequent expeditions, including the first return to the lunar surface since the 1970s, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis-iii">Artemis III</a>, which is slated for 2025. No one knows if these timelines can be adhered to. This <em>is</em> rocket science and the sheer complexity of the endeavour means that schedules can slip. </p>
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<img alt="Artist's impression of an astronaut on the Moon." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519535/original/file-20230405-18-n713n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/519535/original/file-20230405-18-n713n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519535/original/file-20230405-18-n713n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519535/original/file-20230405-18-n713n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519535/original/file-20230405-18-n713n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519535/original/file-20230405-18-n713n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/519535/original/file-20230405-18-n713n6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Artemis astronauts will eventually explore the surface.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/illustration-of-artemis-astronauts-on-the-moon">NASA</a></span>
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<p>But what will follow is a comprehensive exploration of the lunar surface by astronaut crews, including a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/artemis-iii-science-definition-report-12042020c.pdf">survey of the water ice</a> that’s apparently present in its polar regions. The intent is to do more than get in and out, leaving flags and footprints. </p>
<p>Artemis is about persisting in this environment, in an effort to establish a firmer foothold in the frontier of space. The lunar water ice is a potentially important resource in that regard: it could provide drinking water and – by separating out the hydrogen and oxygen contained in water molecules – the chemical ingredients for rocket propellant. </p>
<p>Artemis II must come first. Despite exhaustive planning, this mission will be something of a leap of faith. After the astronauts leave Earth, all who truly understand the scale of the challenge this crew faces will wait with bated breath until they splash down safely in the Atlantic Ocean. Human spaceflight has always been this way. </p>
<h2>Reflecting change</h2>
<p>When Jim Lovell, Bill Anders and Frank Borman embarked upon their historic journey to become the first humans to orbit the Moon in 1968, <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_8/">aboard Apollo 8</a>, they left a world ravaged by war, a country facing civil unrest and the shadow of the political assassinations of Reverend Martin Luther King and Senator Robert Kennedy. The world has changed a great deal since then – how much it has improved is a matter for historians to debate. </p>
<p>Artemis II represents a feat of exploration and progress in scientific endeavour, and much more besides. Glover will be the first non-white astronaut, Hansen the first non-American and Koch the first female astronaut to depart low-Earth orbit and travel to the Moon. This of course is merely one small step, but the composition of the crew is testament to NASA’s commitment to diversity in this new era. </p>
<p>This aspect is every bit as important as the technical detail. When it comes to journeys into the unknown, NASA has often led the way, showing us what we might be at our best, demonstrating that there might be a place in the future for all of us.</p>
<p>When the crew of Artemis II arrives in lunar orbit, filming the magnificent desolation of the moonscape below, the world will watch in wonder. Those moments will undoubtedly fire the ambitions of a new generation of explorers and scientists, who will see themselves properly reflected in this diverse crew. In that alone, there is something deeply hopeful.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202489/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kevin Fong receives funding from the Wellcome Trust as an Engagement and Innovation Fellow and is chair of Public Engagement and Innovation in the Department of Science, Technology, Engineering and Public Policy at University College London. He works and has worked for a variety of media production companies, creating audio and video content for broadcast. </span></em></p>The crew of Artemis II will face new and old challenges when they return to the Moon.Kevin Fong, Consultant Anaesthetist and Professor of Public Engagement and Innovation, Department of Science, Technology, Engineering and Public Policy, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2016332023-04-03T15:24:30Z2023-04-03T15:24:30ZCanadian astronaut Jeremy Hansen will be among the next humans to fly to the moon<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517674/original/file-20230327-962-ualse4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C0%2C1422%2C803&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An artist's conception of the Artemis spacecraft orbiting the moon.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/missions/mission_artemis.html">(NASA)</a></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/canadian-astronaut-jeremy-hansen-will-be-among-the-next-humans-to-fly-to-the-moon" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>On April 3, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-astronauts-to-next-moon-mission-first-crew-under-artemis">NASA announced the crew for Artemis II</a>, which will see astronauts spending up to three weeks on a flyby trip to the moon in 2024. This mission will be the first time in more than 50 years that humans will visit the moon — or leave low Earth orbit — <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo17.html">since Apollo 17 in 1972</a>. And a Canadian will be onboard this milestone mission: astronaut Jeremy Hansen.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">NASA announces the astronauts on the Artemis II mission.</span></figcaption>
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<p>I am <a href="https://www.spacerocks.ca/">a professor, an explorer and a planetary geologist</a>. For the past decade, I have been helping to train astronauts from Canada and the United States in geology, including Hansen. I am also the principal investigator for the <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp">Canadian Lunar Rover Mission</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/canadas-space-technology-and-innovations-are-a-crucial-contribution-to-the-artemis-missions-196328">Canada's space technology and innovations are a crucial contribution to the Artemis missions</a>
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<h2>Building on the success of Artemis I</h2>
<p>Following the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-i/">success of Artemis I in late 2022</a>, Artemis II is the next mission in the Artemis program — <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-ii">and the precursor to sending humans back to the surface of the moon</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517662/original/file-20230327-20-xofw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1280%2C960&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a rocket in space with the moon and the Earth in the background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517662/original/file-20230327-20-xofw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1280%2C960&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517662/original/file-20230327-20-xofw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517662/original/file-20230327-20-xofw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517662/original/file-20230327-20-xofw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517662/original/file-20230327-20-xofw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517662/original/file-20230327-20-xofw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517662/original/file-20230327-20-xofw3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Orion has travelled farther than any other spacecraft built for humans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/details/art001e000672">(NASA/JSC)</a></span>
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<p>Scheduled to launch in late 2024, Artemis II will achieve several firsts: it will be the first time <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html">humans will fly in NASA’s Orion spacecraft</a> and the first mission to take humans beyond low Earth orbit since <a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/explore/stories/apollo-missions/apollo-17">Apollo 17 in 1972</a>.</p>
<p>After the launch of Artemis II, the four astronauts will spend a few days in a high Earth orbit, <a href="https://www.space.com/16748-international-space-station.html">which is over 30,000 kilometres farther out than the orbit of the International Space Station (ISS)</a>. There, they will check out all the systems before the Orion spacecraft fires its main engine to take it to the moon for a flyby before returning to Earth.</p>
<p>While not identical in design, Artemis II aims to achieve <a href="https://www.npr.org/2018/12/21/679282476/1968-when-apollo-8-first-orbited-the-moon-and-saw-the-earth-rise-in-space">what Apollo 8 did in 1968</a>, which is to make sure everything works in preparation for Artemis III, which will take humans back to the surface of the moon.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The official NASA broadcast of the launch of the uncrewed Orion spacecraft on Nov. 16, 2022.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Canadian circling the moon</h2>
<p>For many of us, the very fact that the Artemis II crew has been announced is exciting enough as it brings us one step closer to the return of humans to the moon. </p>
<p>But for Canada, this will go down as one of the biggest moments in our space program’s history: onboard this mission will be Canadian astronaut, <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/canadian/active/bio-jeremy-hansen.asp">Jeremy Hansen</a>. This will make Canada only the second country in the world, after the U.S., to send a human to deep space.</p>
<p>Col. Hansen was born in London, Ont., and raised on a farm a few kilometres north. After graduating from high school, he attended the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, where he earned a bachelor of science in space science and then a master of science in physics. He then joined the Canadian Armed Forces in 1994 where he became a CF-18 fighter pilot. </p>
<p>In 2009, Hansen was <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/how-to-become-an-astronaut/2009-recruitment-campaign.asp">one of two recruits selected by the Canadian Space Agency (CSA)</a>. The other was David Saint-Jacques, <a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/david-saint-jacques">who spent six months onboard the ISS in 2008-09</a>. </p>
<p>Not only will Hansen be the first ever Canadian to venture into deep space, he will be doing so on his first ever spaceflight!</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The Canadian Space Agency profiles Jeremy Hansen.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Canadian technology</h2>
<p>These are exciting times for Canada in terms of lunar exploration. As announced in November last year, the <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp">Canadian Lunar Rover Mission</a> will be the first ever Canadian-led mission to the surface of another planetary body. </p>
<p>With a launch planned for 2026, <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/moon-exploration/first-canadian-rover-to-explore-the-moon.asp">our team</a> is making significant progress towards finalizing the design of the rover and its scientific instruments. We are also identifying a shortlist of potential landing sites around the South Pole of the moon.</p>
<p>We won’t have to wait three years, however, for the first Canadian technology to reach the lunar surface. </p>
<p>Just last week, <a href="https://ispace-inc.com/m1">the HAKUTO-R Mission 1 spacecraft</a> successfully went into orbit around the moon after 100 days in space. Onboard the lunar lander scheduled for touchdown in late April are two Canadian <a href="https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/rocket/payload.html">payloads</a> funded by the CSA’s <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/funding-programs/programs/leap/">Lunar Exploration Accelerator Program</a>: the MoonNet deep learning software from <a href="https://www.missioncontrolspaceservices.com/">Mission Control Space Services</a> in Ottawa, and an AI-enabled 360-degree camera from <a href="https://www.canadensys.com/">Canadensys Aerospace</a>, based in Bolton, Ont.</p>
<p>In case you missed it, the CSA received funding for the next phase of the Lunar Exploration Accelerator Program in the recent <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-03-29-significant-investments-to-further-propel-canadian-space-exploration.asp">federal budget</a>, ensuring that these opportunities for Canadian companies and universities to send technologies to the moon will continue. </p>
<p>In another budget surprise, the government also committed $1.2 billion over 13 years to develop a <a href="https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/news/articles/2023/2023-03-29-significant-investments-to-further-propel-canadian-space-exploration.asp">lunar utility vehicle</a> to assist astronauts on the moon.</p>
<h2>Lunar research, terrestrial benefits</h2>
<p>As we wait for Artemis II, space agencies are focusing research on how to sustain human presence on the lunar surface. To do so will require innovative solutions to keep astronauts alive and healthy on the lunar surface for up to months at a time. </p>
<p>The surface of the moon is far more extreme than Earth, with no atmosphere and temperatures dropping to a staggering -200 C. However, there are some similarities that remote, isolated communities here on Earth face on a day-to-day basis, particularly in northern Canada.</p>
<p>A major part of keeping astronauts healthy is feeding them. Of course, they could survive on vacuum-sealed meals brought from Earth, but in the long run, this is not sustainable. </p>
<p>Recognizing the similarities of producing food in remote and harsh environments both here on Earth and in space, NASA and the CSA launched the <a href="https://www.deepspacefoodchallenge.org/">Deep Space Food Challenge</a> to develop new innovative food production technologies. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1230930497641029633"}"></div></p>
<p>The hope is that by figuring out how to grow food on the moon, the technologies can also be used here on Earth to address growing food shortages.</p>
<p>Now that the Artemis II crew has been announced, they will be spending every minute of their available time preparing for the mission. For Hansen, this will entail learning the hundreds of different systems on the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/index.html">Orion spacecraft</a>. </p>
<p>Hopefully, it will also include a geology refresher so that he can better understand what he sees as he flies around the moon.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201633/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gordon Osinski receives funding from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and the Canadian Space Agency.</span></em></p>Canadian Jeremy Hansen will be one of the next astronauts on the Artemis II mission. This announcement signals a new era in Canada’s role in space exploration.Gordon Osinski, Professor in Earth and Planetary Science, Western UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1924922023-01-23T19:10:29Z2023-01-23T19:10:29ZThe food systems that will feed Mars are set to transform food on Earth<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504939/original/file-20230117-14-bdarwc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2000%2C1425&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Growing food in space will rely on innovative agricultural technologies.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/students-help-solve-space-farming-challenges">(NASA)</a></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/the-food-systems-that-will-feed-mars-are-set-to-transform-food-on-earth" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>Could we feed a city on Mars? This question is central to the future of space exploration and has serious repercussions on Earth too. To date, a lot of thought has gone into <a href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/what-do-astronauts-eat">how astronauts eat</a>; <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/benefits/so-you-want-to-be-a-space-farmer">however, we are only beginning to produce food in space</a>.</p>
<p>Space launches <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/space-launch-costs-growing-business-industry-rcna23488">are quite expensive</a>. And with the growing desire to establish a human presence in space, we are going to have to consider food production in space. But the challenges are vast, requiring research into how plants respond to a variety of changes including to <a href="https://modernfarmer.com/2022/02/cotton-in-space/">gravity</a> and <a href="https://agrilifetoday.tamu.edu/2022/12/20/exploring-the-impact-of-space-radiation-on-plants/">radiation</a>.</p>
<p>As food and agriculture researchers, we explored this question in our latest book, <a href="https://ecwpress.com/products/dinner-on-mars"><em>Dinner on Mars</em></a>. We believe that a sustainable Martian food system is possible — and that in building it, we’ll change food systems on Earth. However, this will take some out-of-the-box thinking.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/humans-are-going-back-to-the-moon-and-beyond-but-how-will-we-feed-them-189794">Humans are going back to the Moon, and beyond – but how will we feed them?</a>
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<h2>Martian agriculture</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502316/original/file-20221221-13-qemw5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Book cover image showing an astronaut holding a fork and the title DINNER ON MARS" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502316/original/file-20221221-13-qemw5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502316/original/file-20221221-13-qemw5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=927&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502316/original/file-20221221-13-qemw5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=927&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502316/original/file-20221221-13-qemw5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=927&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502316/original/file-20221221-13-qemw5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1165&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502316/original/file-20221221-13-qemw5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1165&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/502316/original/file-20221221-13-qemw5z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1165&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">To explore Mars, we’ll need a sustainable Martian food system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://ecwpress.com/products/dinner-on-mars">(ECW Press)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The basis of food systems on Mars would involve water harvested from the soil (<a href="https://news.asu.edu/20221219-nasas-curiosity-rover-discovers-waterrich-fracture-halos-gale-crater">rovers have shown that there are small but significant amounts of frozen water in the crust</a>) and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria, often referred to as blue-green algae</a>. </p>
<p>On earth, cyanobacteria can be a big problem as it grows in polluted waterways causing <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/eutrophication.html">eutrophication — a nutrient-induced increase in phytoplankton productivity in the water body</a>. </p>
<p>On Mars, however, cyanobacteria can use the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and grow on the sandy inorganic and toxic regolith — <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/mission/status/424/the-robotics-of-sampling-regolith/">the layer of loose rocks and dust covering bedrock</a> — to produce the basic organic molecules on which the rest of the food system will rest. </p>
<p>Cyanobacteria is capable of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.611798">growing in Martian conditions</a>, which has the very real added benefit of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S1473550420000300">neutralizing extremely toxic chemicals called perchlorates</a>. Perchlorates are laced throughout <a href="https://www.space.com/21554-mars-toxic-perchlorate-chemicals.html">the Martian regolith and are toxic to humans in minute quantities</a>, so having cyanobacteria provide a double duty of neutralizing the toxins while producing organic material will be a huge boon to any Martian community.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504788/original/file-20230116-16-u1cjp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="an illustration showing a toxic, arid, reddish landscape including a toxic waste symbol on the left, and a lush, fertile, green landscape on the right with a cross-section of healthy, bacteria-filled soil" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504788/original/file-20230116-16-u1cjp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/504788/original/file-20230116-16-u1cjp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504788/original/file-20230116-16-u1cjp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504788/original/file-20230116-16-u1cjp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504788/original/file-20230116-16-u1cjp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504788/original/file-20230116-16-u1cjp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/504788/original/file-20230116-16-u1cjp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=379&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cyanobacteria can help detoxify the environment on Mars.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/niac/2017_Phase_I_Phase_II/Mars_Soil_Agriculture/">(NASA/Adam Arkin)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Greenhouse technologies</h2>
<p>Once bacteria are happily growing away under a Martian sky, they will provide nutrients needed to support luxurious crops of plants. A Martian city could be imagined as a lush green place, with hydroponics and soil-bound crops filling tunnels, carpeting domed craters and growing away in every unused corner. </p>
<p>Advanced greenhouse technologies — <a href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/what-is-vertical-farming/">like vertical agriculture</a> — that create a <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jordanstrickler/2020/08/28/high-tech-greenhouses-could-be-the-future-of-agriculture/">suitable controlled environment</a> will provide abundant leafy greens, vegetables, fruits and specialty crops such as herbs, coffee and chocolate.</p>
<p><a href="https://modernfarmer.com/2023/01/grain-farming-goes-indoors/">Carbohydrates might be in short supply, however, as they take up large amounts of space</a>. Our grain consumption is likely to be lower on Mars, though legumes and grains will still appear in Martian diets in smaller quantities reflecting what can economically be produced on site. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.digitaltrends.com/web/agriculture-on-mars/">All plants on Mars will also play key roles in oxygen generation, water recycling and the provision of raw organic material for manufacturing</a></p>
<p>These technologies are also valuable on Earth as we attempt to shorten supply chains and improve the availability of healthy fruit and vegetables in the winter months.</p>
<h2>Meat on Mars?</h2>
<p>Animal agriculture is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaq0216">notoriously inefficient</a>. On Earth, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/31/avoiding-meat-and-dairy-is-single-biggest-way-to-reduce-your-impact-on-earth">billions of domestic animals</a> threaten natural biodiversity, contribute to climate change and suffer from needless animal cruelty.</p>
<p>Animal-based systems will not be viable on Mars, but protein could be abundantly produced through cellular agriculture and precision fermentation. <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2023/01/18/understanding-the-cellular-agriculture-industrys-impact-and-growth/?sh=6cc70d02696f">Precision fermentation</a> involves creating proteins by utilizing modified yeasts, fungus and bacteria that consume starches and sugars — on Mars, this will largely come from <a href="https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Article/2022/11/28/watch-next-gen-biomanufacturing-from-lower-cost-feedstocks-for-precision-fermentation-to-cell-free-approaches">food waste</a> — and turn them into desired proteins. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/kTu3X6yy3fQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Start-up companies are already making real dairy products without using cows.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Cellular agriculture <a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211116-how-the-food-industry-might-cut-its-carbon-emissions">involves taking stem cell samples and growing them in the lab to create cuts of meat identical to those from animal agriculture</a>.</p>
<h2>Reducing inefficiencies</h2>
<p>Imagining what agriculture could be like on Mars is a fascinating project, but it’s when we think about how these technologies may affect life on Earth that this topic becomes extremely serious. This is because on Mars — where each gram of organic matter, millilitre of water and photon of solar energy is scarce — there can be no inefficiencies.</p>
<p>The “waste” products of one part of the system need to be deliberately used as inputs into another part, such as using the dead cyanobacteria as a growth medium for later parts of the food system. But more than the technologies themselves, it may be the mindset of building a Martian food system that will change how things are done here on Earth, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-101718-033228">where one-third of all food is thrown away</a>.</p>
<p>Our excitement about food technologies comes through in <em>Dinner on Mars</em>, but we are not techno-optimists. Technology isn’t a panacea. For example, if technologies like vertical farming reduce the need for farmland, then policies are required to ensure that the land will not just be paved over. </p>
<p>We also need to be mindful of the negative impacts of technologies, and be sensitive to how people’s livelihoods may need to change and adapt. Helping manage this transition and minimize disruption is another important area for policy. </p>
<p>The technologies unlocked by Mars, together with equitable policies, could place us on a much more sustainable trajectory on Earth.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192492/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lenore Newman consults with a range of agritech companies and receives funding from Genome BC and SSHRC.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Evan Fraser consults with a range of vertical farming companies and initiatives including the Weston Family Foundation's Home Grown Innovation Challenge and Cubic Farms. He receives funding from a range of governmental and philanthropic sources including the Canada First Research Excellence Fund, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and the Arrell Family Foundation. He is affiliated with the Canadian Food Policy Advisory Council, Protein Industries Canada, Genome Quebec, and the Maple Leaf Centre for Action on Food Security.</span></em></p>Agricultural technologies to grow food on Mars can help address climate change, sustainability and food scarcity challenges.Lenore Newman, Director, Food and Agriculture Institute, University of The Fraser ValleyEvan Fraser, Director of the Arrell Food Institute and Professor in the Dept. of Geography, Environment and Geomatics, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1963242022-12-13T16:14:47Z2022-12-13T16:14:47ZWhat does Mars sound like? Rover microphone has recorded the red planet’s dust devils<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500389/original/file-20221212-104888-p3m533.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=31%2C12%2C2042%2C1362&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A towering dust devil casts a serpentine shadow over the Martian surface.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A dust devil looks a bit like a tornado, but is weaker and rarely lasts more than about a minute. It is a twisting column of warmed air scooting across sun-heated ground, made visible by the dust that it lofts upwards. Although usually benign, occasionally <a href="https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/3004174/two-children-killed-when-bouncy-castle-swept-air-dust-devil">dust devils can kill</a>.</p>
<p>Dust devils have been known to appear on Mars since the 1970s. They have been observed both from the ground and <a href="https://www.uahirise.org/ESP_026051_2160">from orbit</a>. The more dust in the Martian atmosphere, the warmer and more agitated it becomes, and this can escalate into a <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/news/1854/the-fact-and-fiction-of-martian-dust-storms/">global dust storm</a>. When the dust settles, it can coat and <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/news/9292/nasa-prepares-to-say-farewell-to-insight-spacecraft/">disable the solar panels</a> that are essential for many of the instruments we’ve landed on the planet. </p>
<p>There’s a lot we don’t know about how these devils function. But new research, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-35100-z">published this week in Nature Communications</a>, has recorded what dust devils sound like – giving fresh insights into how they operate. But it also raises questions about how future astronauts would detect and interpret sounds on the red planet.</p>
<p>There has been a vast amount of erosion on Mars since the last rivers and lakes vanished, including at the landing sites of both Nasa’s current rovers <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/news/9281/curiosity-mars-rover-reaches-long-awaited-salty-region/">Curiosity</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/perseverances-first-major-successes-on-mars-an-update-from-mission-scientists-168730">Perseverance</a>. Although the erosive power of an individual dust devil is tiny, a billion years worth of dust devils could potentially have worn away kilometres of rock.</p>
<p>There are thus many reasons for wanting to better understand how dust devils function. And we now know what a Martian dust devil sounds like thanks to the new study led by <a href="https://pagespro.isae-supaero.fr/naomi-murdoch/?lang=fr">Naomi Murdoch</a> of Toulouse University in France.</p>
<p>Many passing dust devils have been imaged by cameras on Mars landers and rovers, but Murdoch and her team report a dust devil that luckily passed exactly over the Perseverance rover on September 27, 2021, which was on the <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/mission/where-is-the-rover/">floor of Jezero crater</a>. The rover’s masthead camera, named SuperCam, includes a microphone, and this recorded the sound of the wind rising and falling as the dust devil passed over. </p>
<p>In detail, the wind noise rose when the leading wall of the vortex arrived, followed by a lull representing the calm air in the eye of the vortex, before a second episode of wind noise as the trailing wall of the vortex passed over. This took less than ten seconds, and you can hear the sound recording below (turn your volume to max).</p>
<p><audio preload="metadata" controls="controls" data-duration="11" data-image="" data-title="Sound recording from Mars" data-size="183069" data-source="NASA/JPL-Caltech/LANL/CNES/CNRS/ISAE-SUPAERO" data-source-url="" data-license="" data-license-url="">
<source src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/audio/2713/thesoundofamartiandustdevil-1.m4a" type="audio/mp4">
</audio>
<div class="audio-player-caption">
Sound recording from Mars.
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/JPL-Caltech/LANL/CNES/CNRS/ISAE-SUPAERO</span><span class="download"><span>179 KB</span> <a target="_blank" href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/audio/2713/thesoundofamartiandustdevil-1.m4a">(download)</a></span></span>
</div></p>
<p>Other sensors gave information too. They showed that the pressure fell to a minimum between the two bursts of wind noise – which to me is consistent with sucking rather than blowing – and also recorded impacts of individual dust grains onto the rover. </p>
<p>The dust devil was about 25 metres in diameter, at least 118 metres tall, and was tracking across the ground at about five metres per second. The maximum wind speed in the rotating vortex was probably just under 11 metres per second, equating to a <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/guides/coast-and-sea/beaufort-scale">“fresh” to “strong” breeze</a> on Earth.</p>
<h2>Did it really sound like that?</h2>
<p>Listening to a recording purporting to be the sound of Martian wind is all very well, but is this really what we would hear if we were there ourselves? The first thing to note is that this does genuinely originate as “real sound”, unlike other data such as images or radio signals turned into sound (a process known as sonification), such as the so-called <a href="https://theconversation.com/scientists-are-turning-data-into-sound-to-listen-to-the-whispers-of-the-universe-and-more-188699">sound of two black holes colliding</a> or <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hGdk49LRB14">radio noise from from Venus’s atmosphere</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500055/original/file-20221209-34972-ktdtu0.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Reddish and brown desert landscape with several plumes of dust rising from it." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500055/original/file-20221209-34972-ktdtu0.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500055/original/file-20221209-34972-ktdtu0.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=105&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500055/original/file-20221209-34972-ktdtu0.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=105&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500055/original/file-20221209-34972-ktdtu0.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=105&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500055/original/file-20221209-34972-ktdtu0.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=132&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500055/original/file-20221209-34972-ktdtu0.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=132&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500055/original/file-20221209-34972-ktdtu0.gif?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=132&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dust devils in Jezero crater 20 July 2021, imaged by the Perseverance rover.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/26783/perseverance-views-dust-devils-swirling-across-jezero-crater/">NASA/JPL-Caltech/SSI</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>The dust devil audio file contains actual sound waves picked up by a microphone on Mars. There the atmosphere is much thinner than on Earth (Martian surface pressure is less than a hundredth of ours), so the high frequency component of sound hardly carries (scientists say it’s “attenuated”). The result is that the wind sounds much lower in pitch than a similar wind on Earth. </p>
<p>The only other planetary body from which we have genuine sound recordings is Venus, where in 1982 two Soviet “Venera” landers recorded <a href="https://twitter.com/i/status/1369788378376531972">wind and lander operation noises</a>.</p>
<p>However, if you were on Mars you could never hear the wind directly with your own ears. If you were foolish enough to expose your ears to Mars’s atmosphere, the low external pressure would cause your eardrums to burst, and you would be instantly deaf as well as having no air to breathe. </p>
<p>If you were to go outside in a pressurised spacesuit (a much more sensible idea), what you would hear would depend on how well the sound waves were transmitted through the solid shell of your helmet, and then on how these were turned back into sound waves in the air inside your helmet. </p>
<p>In other words, you would hear a distorted version of what an external microphone would pick up. Imagine walking round on Earth with your head inside a goldfish bowl and you’ll get part of the idea.</p>
<p>If future human explorers on Mars want to hear what’s going on in the external environment, I suspect they will rely on a suit-mounted microphone feeding to wireless ear buds, although I can’t find any evidence that that this has yet been factored into <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasas-perseverance-rover-will-carry-first-spacesuit-materials-to-mars">Mars suit design</a>.</p>
<p>This all boils down to a recording from external microphone being the best way to represent sounds on Mars, or indeed any other planet that has an atmosphere. If you want to hear some more sounds from Mars, Nasa has a collection of audio recordings <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/multimedia/audio/">you can listen to.</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-doorway-on-mars-how-we-see-things-in-space-that-arent-there-183562">A 'doorway' on Mars? How we see things in space that aren't there</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Rothery is Professor of Planetary Geosciences at the Open University. He is co-leader of the European Space Agency's Mercury Surface and Composition Working Group, and a Co-Investigator on MIXS (Mercury Imaging X-ray Spectrometer) that is now on its way to Mercury on board the European Space Agency's Mercury orbiter BepiColombo. He has received funding from the UK Space Agency and the Science & Technology Facilities Council for work related to Mercury and BepiColombo, and from the European Commission under its Horizon 2020 programme for work on planetary geological mapping (776276 Planmap). He is author of Planet Mercury - from Pale Pink Dot to Dynamic World (Springer, 2015), Moons: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2015) and Planets: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2010). He is Educator on the Open University's free learning Badged Open Course (BOC) on Moons and its equivalent FutureLearn Moons MOOC, and chair of the Open University's level 2 course on Planetary Science and the Search for Life.</span></em></p>The first ever sound recording of a dust devil on Mars reminds us that there is a lot to learn about how they sculpt the landscape.David Rothery, Professor of Planetary Geosciences, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1955662022-12-01T23:04:24Z2022-12-01T23:04:24ZThe world finally has its first ‘parastronaut’. Can we expect anyone to be able to go to space one day?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498420/original/file-20221201-18-1k07g3.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C11%2C1862%2C1238&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">NASA astronaut Winston E. Scott on an EVA in 1996.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.nasa.gov/details-STS072-393-022">NASA JSC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The European Space Agency made history last week with the announcement of the first “parastronaut”, 41-year-old UK citizen John McFall.</p>
<p>He is the first candidate selected for the Parastronaut Feasibility project, <a href="https://www.esa.int/About_Us/Careers_at_ESA/ESA_Astronaut_Selection/Parastronaut_feasibility_project">described by ESA as</a> a “serious, dedicated and honest attempt to clear the path to space for a professional astronaut with a physical disability”.</p>
<p>McFall, a former Paralympic sprinter, had his right leg amputated after a motorcycle accident at age 19. </p>
<p>Most of us are familiar with images of gruelling astronaut selection tests and training from movies such as The Right Stuff. ESA seeks to answer the practical question of what changes to training and equipment need to be made for a physically disabled person to travel to space. </p>
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<h2>How are astronauts selected?</h2>
<p>NASA first selected astronauts, <a href="https://www.life.com/history/mercury-seven-photos-of-nasa-astronauts-in-training/">the Mercury Seven</a>, in 1959. Recruitment was limited to male military test pilots less than 40 years old, in excellent physical and mental health, and less than 1.8m tall (the Mercury capsule was tiny).</p>
<p>Today, NASA uses a similar basic eligibility screening. Applicants must have 20/20 vision (corrective lenses and laser eye surgery are okay) with blood pressure under 140/90 when seated and a height between 1.49 and 1.93m (to fit <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-does-it-take-to-do-a-spacewalk-skill-courage-and-being-able-to-wear-a-mens-size-medium-163256">available spacesuits</a>). </p>
<p>However, this is the easy part. Candidates endure several rounds of interviews and testing, and if lucky enough to be selected will need to pass the long-duration flight astronaut physical. It’s a gruelling week-long test of physical abilities necessary for space, such as agility and hand-eye coordination, as well as tolerance of extreme pressure and inertial (rotating) environments.</p>
<p>This is followed by a two-year training period mastering complex space hardware and software, performing simulated EVAs (spacewalks) in Houston’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/167748main_FS_NBL508c.pdf">Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory</a>, and experiencing weightlessness during <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/analogs/parabolic-flight">parabolic flight</a>.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-just-flew-its-own-vomit-comet-its-a-big-deal-for-zero-gravity-space-research-185601">Australia just flew its own 'vomit comet'. It's a big deal for zero-gravity space research</a>
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</p>
<hr>
<p>Although I have described the NASA process here, similar programs are used across space agencies. Determining what adaptations to training are required to allow participation by physically disabled candidates will be one outcome of the parastronaut project.</p>
<h2>Astronaut diversity is improving</h2>
<p>Culturally, astronaut selection criteria have slowly evolved since the first all-male, all-military cohorts. The first female (and civilian) in space, Soviet cosmonaut <a href="https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/tereshkova.html">Valentina Tereshkova</a>, flew on the Vostok 6 capsule in 1963.</p>
<p>It was another 15 years before NASA selected female astronauts, and a further five before <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/sally-ride-first-american-woman-in-space/">Sally Ride</a> became the first US woman in space aboard the shuttle Challenger in 1983. The first NASA astronaut of colour, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/subject/11054/guy-bluford/">Guion “Guy” Bluford</a>, flew in the same year.</p>
<p>The 2021 NASA astronaut class of ten candidates, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-astronaut-recruits-to-train-for-future-missions">Group 23</a>, included four women and several candidates from culturally diverse backgrounds. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498415/original/file-20221201-22-z07hr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A group of ten diverse people in dark blue jumpsuits standing outdoors on a sunny day" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498415/original/file-20221201-22-z07hr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498415/original/file-20221201-22-z07hr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498415/original/file-20221201-22-z07hr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498415/original/file-20221201-22-z07hr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498415/original/file-20221201-22-z07hr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498415/original/file-20221201-22-z07hr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498415/original/file-20221201-22-z07hr6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NASA’s 2021 astronaut candidate class.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-new-astronaut-recruits-to-train-for-future-missions">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It would appear that diversity in astronaut selection has lagged behind society, and ESA has made a bold step with the parastronaut project. </p>
<h2>Levelling the playing field</h2>
<p>ESA has initially focused on candidates with a lower-limb disability. Astronauts primarily use their upper body to get around in weightlessness, and a lower-limb disability is unlikely to impair movement. In this respect, zero-g presents a level playing field. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498417/original/file-20221201-24-isootg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Portrait of a smiling white man in a black and white polo shirt looking at the camera" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498417/original/file-20221201-24-isootg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/498417/original/file-20221201-24-isootg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498417/original/file-20221201-24-isootg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498417/original/file-20221201-24-isootg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498417/original/file-20221201-24-isootg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1132&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498417/original/file-20221201-24-isootg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1132&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/498417/original/file-20221201-24-isootg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1132&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">British doctor and Paralympian John McFall is a member of the ESA Astronaut Class of 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Astronauts/John_McFall">ESA - P. Sebirot</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Issues are likely to arise when operating existing space hardware. The parastronaut study aims to determine what modifications to launch vehicles, spacesuits and other space systems would be necessary to allow a physically disabled astronaut to live and work in space. </p>
<p>There is precedent for an astronaut with a progressively disabling condition flying in space. NASA astronaut <a href="https://spacecenter.org/remembering-nasa-astronaut-rich-clifford/">Rich Clifford</a> was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease in 1994 after noticing a lack of movement in his right arm when walking, shortly before his third scheduled shuttle flight.</p>
<p>NASA not only allowed him to launch aboard Atlantis in 1996 for his final mission, but scheduled Clifford for a six-hour EVA on the exterior of the Mir space station.</p>
<p>Although his experience was largely positive, Clifford did note he had difficulty donning his spacesuit due to limited motion of his right arm. The human-machine interface may present the biggest challenge for future parastronauts.</p>
<h2>Space is still risky and extreme</h2>
<p>In November 2021 we passed the milestone of <a href="https://www.npr.org/2021/11/10/1054575533/spacex-launch">600 humans having gone to space</a>. Compare that to the 674 <em>million</em> passengers who flew on US airlines in 2021 alone.</p>
<p>If we could travel back in time to when only 600 people had flown in aeroplanes, we would find the risk of flying considerably higher than today. This is where we are with spaceflight.</p>
<p>It remains a high-risk venture to an extreme environment with significant physical and mental challenges. We are still a long way from anyone being able to travel to space, although hopefully we won’t have to wait until billions of people have launched to reach a level of safety comparable to modern commercial aviation. </p>
<p>Our knowledge of the physical, mental and operational risks associated with spaceflight is still incomplete. Of the 600+ space travellers to date, only 70 have been female, and an understanding of gender difference in space health is only just beginning to emerge.</p>
<p>How would a physical disability affect an astronaut’s performance in space? We don’t know, but ESA is taking the first step in finding out. It would appear that space truly is the last frontier.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195566/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Steven Moore has received research funding from NASA and ESA. </span></em></p>The European Space Agency has recruited the world’s first-ever disabled astronaut. But we’re still a long way from space being accessible to all.Steven Moore, Professor, School of Engineering and Technology, CQUniversity AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1950652022-11-23T17:19:13Z2022-11-23T17:19:13ZArtemis: why it may be the last mission for Nasa astronauts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496775/original/file-20221122-26-fvn041.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4000%2C2994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A camera mounted on the tip of one of the Orion capsule’s solar array wings captured this footage of the spacecraft and the Moon </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Neil Armstrong <a href="https://theconversation.com/anthill-presents-to-the-moon-and-beyond-119435">took his historic “one small step”</a> on the Moon in 1969. And just three years later, the last Apollo astronauts left our celestial neighbour. Since then, hundreds of astronauts have been launched into space but mainly to the Earth-orbiting <a href="https://theconversation.com/international-space-station-how-nasa-plans-to-destroy-it-and-the-dangers-involved-177374">International Space Station</a>. None has, in fact, ventured more than a few hundred kilometres from Earth.</p>
<p>The US-led Artemis programme, however, aims to return humans to the Moon this decade – with <a href="https://theconversation.com/artemis-1-maiden-flight-of-spacecraft-set-to-take-humans-back-to-the-moon-heres-what-needs-to-go-right-189081">Artemis 1</a> on its way back to Earth as part of its first test flight, going around the Moon. </p>
<p>The most relevant differences between the Apollo era and the mid-2020s are an amazing improvement in computer power and robotics. Moreover, superpower rivalry can no longer justify massive expenditure, as in the Cold War competition with the Soviet Union. In our recent book “<a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674257726">The End of Astronauts</a>”, <a href="https://www.planetary.org/profiles/donald-goldsmith">Donald Goldsmith</a> and I argue that these changes weaken the case for the project.</p>
<p>The Artemis mission is using Nasa’s brand new <a href="https://theconversation.com/spacex-vs-nasa-who-will-get-us-to-the-moon-first-heres-how-their-latest-rockets-compare-154199">Space Launch System</a>, which is the most powerful rocket ever – similar in design to the Saturn V rockets that sent a dozen Apollo astronauts to the Moon. Like its predecessors, the Artemis booster combines liquid hydrogen and oxygen to create enormous lifting power before falling into the ocean, never to be used again. Each launch therefore carries an estimated cost of between $2 billion (£1.7 billion) and $4 billion. </p>
<p>This is unlike its SpaceX competitor “<a href="https://theconversation.com/spacex-starship-prototype-exploded-but-its-still-a-giant-leap-towards-mars-152022">Starship</a>”, which enables the company to recover and the reuse the first stage.</p>
<h2>The benefits of robotics</h2>
<p>Advances in robotic exploration are exemplified by the suite of rovers on Mars, where <a href="https://theconversation.com/mars-perseverance-rover-set-for-nail-biting-landing-heres-the-rocket-science-154886">Perseverance</a>, Nasa’s latest prospector, can drive itself through rocky terrain with only limited guidance from Earth. Improvements in sensors and artificial intelligence (AI) will further enable the robots themselves to identify particularly interesting sites, from which to gather samples for return to Earth.</p>
<p>Within the next one or two decades, robotic exploration of the Martian surface could be almost entirely autonomous, with human presence offering little advantage. Similarly, engineering projects – such as astronomers’ dream of constructing a large radio telescope on the far side of the Moon, which is free of interference from Earth – no longer require human intervention. Such projects can be entirely constructed by robots.</p>
<p>Instead of astronauts, who need a well equipped place to live if they’re required for construction purposes, robots can remain permanently at their work site. Likewise, if mining of lunar soil or asteroids for rare materials became economically viable, this also could be done more cheaply and safely with robots.</p>
<p>Robots could also explore Jupiter, Saturn and their fascinatingly diverse moons with little additional expense, since journeys of several years present little more challenge to a robot than the six-month voyage to Mars. Some of these moons <a href="https://theconversation.com/nasa-considers-sending-swimming-robots-to-habitable-ocean-worlds-of-the-solar-system-186228">could in fact harbour life</a> in their sub-surface oceans. </p>
<p>Even if we could send humans there, it might be a bad idea as they could contaminate these worlds with microbes form Earth. </p>
<h2>Managing risks</h2>
<p>The Apollo astronauts were heroes. They accepted high risks and pushed technology to the limit. In comparison, short trips to the Moon in the 2020s, despite the $90-billion cost of the Artemis programme, will seem almost routine. </p>
<p>Something more ambitious, such as a Mars landing, will be required to elicit Apollo-scale public enthusiasm. But such a mission, including provisions and the rocketry for a return trip, could well cost Nasa a trillion dollars – questionable spending when we’re dealing with a climate crisis and poverty on Earth. The steep price tag is a result of a “safety culture” developed by Nasa in recent years in response to public attitudes.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Image from Artemis-1 launch." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496777/original/file-20221122-25-upk150.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/496777/original/file-20221122-25-upk150.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496777/original/file-20221122-25-upk150.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496777/original/file-20221122-25-upk150.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=222&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496777/original/file-20221122-25-upk150.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496777/original/file-20221122-25-upk150.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/496777/original/file-20221122-25-upk150.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=279&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Artemis -1 launch.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This reflects the trauma and consequent programme delays that followed the <a href="https://theconversation.com/thirty-years-on-what-the-challenger-disaster-meant-for-our-race-into-space-53194">Space Shuttle disasters</a> in 1986 and 2003, each of which killed the seven civilians on board. That said, the shuttle, which had 135 launches altogether, achieved a failure rate below two percent. It would be unrealistic to expect a rate as low as this for the failure of a return trip to Mars – the mission would after all last two whole years. </p>
<p>Astronauts simply also need far more “maintenance” than robots – their journeys and surface operations require air, water, food, living space and protection against harmful radiation, especially from solar storms. </p>
<p>Already substantial for a trip to the Moon, the cost differences between human and robotic journeys would grow much larger for any long-term stay. A voyage to Mars, hundreds of times further than the Moon, would not only expose astronauts to far greater risks, but also make emergency support far less feasible. Even astronaut enthusiasts accept that almost two decades may elapse before the first crewed trip to Mars. </p>
<p>There will certainly be thrill-seekers and adventurers who would willingly accept far higher risks – some <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jonathanocallaghan/2019/02/11/goodbye-mars-one-the-fake-mission-to-mars-that-fooled-the-world/?sh=2ba08e852af5">have even signed up</a> for a proposed one-way trip in the past. </p>
<p>This signals a key difference between the Apollo era and today: the emergence of a strong, private space-technology sector, which now embraces human spaceflight. Private-sector companies are now competitive with Nasa, so high-risk, cut-price trips to Mars, bankrolled by billionaires and private sponsors, cold be crewed by willing volunteers. Ultimately, the public could cheer these brave adventurers without paying for them.</p>
<p>Given that human spaceflight beyond low orbit is highly likely to entirely transfer to privately-funded missions prepared to accept high risks, it is questionable whether Nasa’s multi-billion-dollar Artemis project is a good way to spend the government’s money. Artemis is ultimately more likely to be a swansong than the launch of a new Apollo era.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/195065/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Martin Rees does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Artemis-1 is on its way back to Earth, successfully completing its maiden flight.Martin Rees, Emeritus Professor of Cosmology and Astrophysics, University of CambridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1897942022-11-15T19:08:19Z2022-11-15T19:08:19ZHumans are going back to the Moon, and beyond – but how will we feed them?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482438/original/file-20220902-25-fyqpfc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=208%2C9%2C1707%2C1348&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://twitter.com/Astro_Megan/status/1454190385190907912/photo/2">NASA JSC/Meghan McArthur</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-1">NASA’s Artemis I</a> launch is a major step forward in humans going deeper and spending longer in space than ever before.</p>
<p>Future Artemis missions plan to take crew to the Moon and eventually Mars, which is likely to be a three-year round-trip.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1592302969390759936"}"></div></p>
<p>But what will the astronauts eat? There are only so many protein bars and vitamins one can tolerate and survive on for years on end.</p>
<p>Plants are the basis of life on Earth with their amazing ability to convert light, water and carbon dioxide (CO₂) into food, and are the logical solution to support humans in space.</p>
<h2>The challenges of a space garden</h2>
<p>Astronauts have already eaten space radish, chilli peppers and lettuce grown on the International Space Station, and having freshly grown veggies in microgravity can support health and wellbeing. But there are a number of challenges in growing a flourishing space garden.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1454190385190907912"}"></div></p>
<p>Space environments are CO₂-rich, lack soil microbes, have altered gravity, are exposed to potentially harmful solar radiation, and need to use recycled, high-salt water. For plants to thrive in space and offer the full range of nutrients for human health, they need a redesign. </p>
<p>After months of freeze-dried or prepackaged <a href="https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/what-do-astronauts-eat-space">space food</a>, imagine going to your space garden, picking a ripe juicy tomato and spicy chilli to add to your tacos. Adding fresh produce has been a good way to improve astronaut wellbeing, supply essential vitamins and minerals, and add variety and flavour, especially as low-gravity environments <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/03/does-food-taste-the-same-in-space/273927/">affect our taste and smell</a>.</p>
<p>A renewable source of fresh food is essential to future long-term space missions, to avoid astronauts experiencing “food fatigue”, malnutrition and weight loss. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man looking at bright red chilies growing in a rectangular opening in the wall of a space capsule" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482342/original/file-20220901-14-vky5ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482342/original/file-20220901-14-vky5ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482342/original/file-20220901-14-vky5ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482342/original/file-20220901-14-vky5ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482342/original/file-20220901-14-vky5ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482342/original/file-20220901-14-vky5ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482342/original/file-20220901-14-vky5ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chilies have been successfully grown on the ISS, and astronauts have consumed some of them in tacos.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore/51730013558">NASA Johnson</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Space plants are currently grown in closed boxes with low energy LED lights, porous clay “soil” with water, nutrients and oxygen supplied to roots; high-tech sensors and cameras monitor plant health. Plants did not evolve to grow in a box and use energy and resources in readiness for changes in light, temperature and disease, limiting full growth potential. </p>
<p>So there is great opportunity to adapt plant genetics to produce faster-growing “pick and eat” food crops such as tomato, carrot, spinach and strawberry designed to reach their maximum potential in closed, controlled environments. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A black tray of small green leafy plants laid out in a grid" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482346/original/file-20220901-15-juw7pn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482346/original/file-20220901-15-juw7pn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482346/original/file-20220901-15-juw7pn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482346/original/file-20220901-15-juw7pn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482346/original/file-20220901-15-juw7pn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482346/original/file-20220901-15-juw7pn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482346/original/file-20220901-15-juw7pn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Astronauts have also successfully grown radishes on the ISS, providing further data on space gardening experiments.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasa2explore/50618080052">NASA Johnson</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A sustainable space plant future</h2>
<p>Future plant growth systems for space will need to be entirely sustainable. That means working alongside all the other systems on a space station or a lunar/Martian base, recycling water and nutrients.</p>
<p>All plant parts will need to be food, compost or converted into useful products such as fuels and plastics. Human waste, including urine, offers a nutrient source for plants, yet they also need to be able to cope with this salty water supply. However, there’s one plant that could be particularly suited to the task.</p>
<p><a href="https://phys.org/news/2019-08-duckweed-world.html">Duckweed</a> may not be available at your local supermarket, but this very fast-growing plant could be in all space gardens thanks to its ability to thrive in recycled water and be zero waste, with the whole plant being eaten.</p>
<p>Duckweed doubles its weight in just two days, is harvested continually, and is high in protein, nutrients, antioxidants and vitamins. Only a few essential elements (such as vitamin B12/D) are missing that could make it a reliable base source for complete human nutrition.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/duckweed-is-an-incredible-radiation-fighting-astronaut-food-and-by-changing-how-it-is-grown-we-made-it-better-140535">Duckweed is an incredible, radiation-fighting astronaut food – and by changing how it is grown, we made it better</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Recent technical advances in genome editing, gene regulation, and methods to analyse nutrients can be harnessed to adapt duckweed and other plants for optimal growth, minimal waste and complete nutrition.</p>
<p>New plants developed in this way can contain proteins perfectly balanced for human digestion and use, healthy plant oils for an energy boost, and soluble fibre for better gut and cardiovascular health.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Specks of round green leaves on a dark background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482647/original/file-20220905-17-c4qywy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/482647/original/file-20220905-17-c4qywy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482647/original/file-20220905-17-c4qywy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482647/original/file-20220905-17-c4qywy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482647/original/file-20220905-17-c4qywy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482647/original/file-20220905-17-c4qywy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/482647/original/file-20220905-17-c4qywy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Duckweed, a fast-growing aquatic plant, could be the next space ‘superfood’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Onushi/Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Striving to explore space has brought us <a href="https://spinoff.nasa.gov">thousands of innovations we use in everyday life</a>. We can expect that inventions we come up with to support humans thriving in space will deliver multiple and essential sustainability benefits to Earth, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2021.08.018">especially to on-demand supply of nutrition and biomaterials</a>. Experts across the globe are working together toward these dual goals, including plant biologists, engineers, food chemists, psychologists, sensory experts, nutritionists, ethicists, and legal experts. </p>
<p>A new frontier of human achievement is on the horizon – humans will soon not only be looking up to the night skies in wonder, but also travelling to those destinations beyond our own atmosphere, and in so doing planting seeds of a new way of life on Earth and beyond.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189794/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kim Johnson works for La Trobe University who are conducting work on growing plants in controlled environments. She collaborates with the Victorian Space Science Education Centre and investigator in the ARC Centre of Excellence in Plants for Space.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Harvey Millar works for the University of Western Australia (UWA) conducting research on plant protein composition and modification of plants to suit environments. He is on the Board of the International Space Centre (ISC) at UWA and co-leads its Plants in Space research node. He receives funding from the Australian Research Council and is an investigator in the ARC Centre of Excellence in Plants for Space.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Gilliham works for the University of Adelaide (UoA) who are conducting research into the use of plants to support of space exploration. He is Sustainability Lead for the Andy Thomas Centre for Space Resources at UoA and is on the Technical Advisory Group for Applied Space Medicine and Life Sciences at the Australian Space Agency. He is director of the ARC Centre of Excellence in Plants for Space. </span></em></p>The days of freeze-fried astronaut ice cream are long behind us. What will humans eat on Moon colonies in the future? Carefully engineered space gardens could be the answer.Kim Johnson, Senior lecturer, La Trobe UniversityHarvey Millar, Professor and ARC Australian Laureate Fellow, The University of Western AustraliaMatthew Gilliham, Professor in Plant Molecular Physiology, University of AdelaideLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1935042022-11-14T13:27:22Z2022-11-14T13:27:22ZArtemis launch delay is the latest of many NASA scrubs and comes from hard lessons on crew safety<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494754/original/file-20221110-19-3rys3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=22%2C49%2C2479%2C1778&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The space shuttle Atlantis was one of the last major launches aboard a NASA rocket.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://mediaarchive.ksc.nasa.gov/detail.cfm?mediaid=47195">NASA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I love a good space launch, and I have been eagerly awaiting NASA’s powerful new <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/index.html">Space Launch System</a> rocket to take off as the first part of NASA’s ambitious Artemis Mission to put U.S. astronauts back on the Moon. But this launch has already been <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/">pushed back four times this year</a> – twice due to <a href="https://www.space.com/artemis-1-launch-scrub-hydrogen-leak">technical issues</a> and once apiece for a <a href="https://www.gpb.org/news/2022/09/24/nasa-delays-the-artemis-1-moon-mission-for-third-time-tropical-storm-approaches">tropical storm</a> and <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/artemis-launch-delay-nasa-tropical-storm-hurricane-nicole-florida/">a hurricane</a>.</p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://und.edu/directory/michael.s.dodge">professor of space studies</a> who teaches courses in space law and history. One lesson I’ve learned is that as successful as the U.S. and other nations have been at launching rockets into space over the decades, a huge number of launches get delayed due to weather or safety concerns. Of <a href="https://sma.nasa.gov/SignificantIncidents/assets/space-shuttle-missions-summary.pdf">NASA’s 135 Space Shuttle missions</a>, only about <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/for-space-shuttle-delays-are-typical/">40% launched on time</a>. </p>
<p>While Artemis 1 is continuing the long tradition of delayed NASA launches, there are good reasons for the high level of caution that underlies these delays. But as private space launch activities continue to grow, the odds of watching an on-time launch are slowly improving.</p>
<h2>Delays, scrubs and safety</h2>
<p>Launches that don’t go off on time are classified as either postponements, scrubs or delays. Postponements refer to pushing a planned launch date back to a later date. <a href="https://sma.nasa.gov/SignificantIncidents/assets/space-shuttle-missions-summary.pdf">Scrubs</a> are when a mission is halted on the day the launch is supposed to occur and rescheduled for a later date. Scrubs are usually a last-minute decision triggered by bad weather or mechanical issues causing safety concerns. A delay is when a <a href="https://sma.nasa.gov/SignificantIncidents/assets/space-shuttle-missions-summary.pdf">launch occurs later in a day</a> than originally planned, but does happen in the same day.</p>
<p>The ill-fated launch of the space shuttle Challenger in January 1986 experienced all of these hold-ups. First, the mission experienced two postponements for a total of three days to accommodate the landing of the space shuttle Columbia. The launch was also scrubbed twice due to weather and technical problems, and finally the mission experienced two delays on the day of the actual launch. Sadly, the shuttle and astronauts aboard were <a href="https://time.com/3685686/1986-challenger-disaster/">lost in an explosion 74 seconds after launch</a>. </p>
<p>This first Artemis launch has experienced both postponements and scrubs, but part of the reason there have been such long stretches of time between launch attempts is due to the concept of <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/What_is_a_launch_window">launch windows</a>. Due to the rotation of the Earth and position of the Moon, launching a rocket at certain times requires substantially less fuel than launching at other times. If a launch misses its window, you usually can’t simply launch again the next day.</p>
<p>While the repeated postponements and scrubs of Artemis 1 are disheartening, these delays are for good reason. NASA wants to ensure a safe and successful mission.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Bz-meWefjk4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Artemis 1 launch scheduled for Sept. 3, 2022, was scrubbed after the team spotted a hydrogen leak while fueling the rocket on the launch pad.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A culture of safety</h2>
<p>Postponements, scrubs and delays tend to occur due to bad weather conditions, mechanical issues or health concerns of the crew – any of which could threaten the safety of the craft and the people aboard. NASA has learned the hard way to be cautious of these scenarios. </p>
<p>The first lesson came in January 1967, during a test for the Apollo 1 mission. The rocket in question was meant to go on an early test flight for the first U.S. missions to the Moon. Astronauts Ed White, Roger Chaffee and Gus Grissom were all killed when a <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo1info.html">fire started in the crew cabin</a> during a launch pad test. After the tragedy, NASA created its <a href="https://history.nasa.gov/Apollo204/response.html">Office of Flight Safety</a>.</p>
<p>Most of NASA’s launches went well after the Challenger disaster. But the <a href="https://www.space.com/19436-columbia-disaster.html">breakup of shuttle Columbia after entering the Earth’s atmosphere</a> in February 2003 was a notable exception that killed all seven astronauts onboard. That disaster in particular caused NASA to pause operations and take stock of its launch strategies. In a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/columbia/home/CAIB_Vol1.html">truly stinging report</a> from an internal investigation, NASA highlighted its own “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/2003/08/27/nasas-broken-safety-culture/2befb939-3e22-41e8-9376-b548f685a821/">broken safety culture</a>” and a failure to learn from the mistakes of the Challenger disaster. </p>
<p>In the years since, NASA has demonstrated a concerted effort to learn from the mistakes of the past. It’s not surprising that it will delay launches if there is a need to check on the safety of craft or crew. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494753/original/file-20221110-13-nbypli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two rockets on launch pads in the distance." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494753/original/file-20221110-13-nbypli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494753/original/file-20221110-13-nbypli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494753/original/file-20221110-13-nbypli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494753/original/file-20221110-13-nbypli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=373&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494753/original/file-20221110-13-nbypli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494753/original/file-20221110-13-nbypli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494753/original/file-20221110-13-nbypli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=469&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">NASA’s Space Launch System in the distance and a SpaceX Falcon9 in the foreground represent two sides of modern spaceflight: a large, long-term project and a small, efficient, reusable workhorse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasahqphoto/51986745354/">NASA/Joel Kowsky</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Contemporary trends</h2>
<p>Space launches are happening more frequently every year. This increase is mostly driven by the rise of private space companies like SpaceX serving as <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-awards-spacex-more-crew-flights-to-space-station/">re-suppliers for the International Space Station</a> and <a href="https://www.spacex.com/launches/sl4-31/">carrying satellites into orbit</a>. All signs suggest that the <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/technology/587630-2021-more-space-launches-than-any-year-in-history-since-sputnik/">upward trend in launches will continue</a>.</p>
<p>Unlike government agencies, private launch companies have a strong profit motive to launch frequently. While specific data on private industry’s launch schedules is hard to come by, it does seem that, more often than not, SpaceX launches, for example, go off on time. This may be due to the fact that the high volume of launches using the Falcon9 rocket – around <a href="https://nextspaceflight.com/launches/details/7017">50 this year alone</a> – has given the company’s engineers plenty of time to iron out mechanical issues. While other companies trail SpaceX in volume, they are catching up. Blue Origin, for example, completed its <a href="https://www.blueorigin.com/news/ns-22-mission-updates/">22nd mission to space in August 2022, carrying six passengers</a>.</p>
<p>Despite their general success, private companies are not immune to technical issues, weather or health concerns that can lead to postponements, scrubs or delays. In early October 2022, SpaceX scrubbed a launch of one of its Falcon9 rockets <a href="https://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2022/10/06/spacex-scrubs-falcon-9-liftoff-after-automatic-abort/8137920001/">to allow for additional vehicle inspections</a>. SpaceX also postponed a launch due to the same hurricane that has <a href="https://spaceflightnow.com/2022/11/07/subtropical-storm-nicole-delays-spacex-launch-artemis-1-moon-rocket-stays-on-launch-pad/">pushed back Artemis again</a>. And in 2021, a launch was delayed when a <a href="https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/nasa-delays-launch-spacex-mission-citing-medical-issue-with-1-4-crew-members-2021-11-01/">medical issue came up with one of the NASA astronauts</a> that was bound for the International Space Station.</p>
<p>As more rockets get lined up for both governmental and private needs, delays and scrubs for launches will continue to be a fact of life for anyone launching rockets to space. The feeling of tension, frustration and excitement that I feel when waiting to see that brilliant flash of ignition and a rocket headed to the heavens is a feeling many have endured. During the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mercury/missions/freedom7.html">long delay for the 1961 Freedom 7 Mercury mission</a>, astronaut Alan Shepard was strapped in his capsule with little to do but wait for several hours. Eventually he got fed up and told NASA to “fix your little problem and light this candle.” After a while, NASA gave the go-ahead, and <a href="https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/alan-shepard-freedom-7">Shepard became the first American to fly to space</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193504/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Dodge does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>After its fourth delay, the Artemis 1 launch is now scheduled for Nov. 16, 2022. NASA has a history of missing launch deadlines, but the private sector is slowly making launches more reliable.Michael Dodge, Associate Professor of Space Studies, University of North DakotaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1897622022-10-02T11:38:23Z2022-10-02T11:38:23ZStudying yeast DNA in space may help protect astronauts from cosmic radiation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487384/original/file-20220929-18-qzo2y7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C55%2C4096%2C4034&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The atmosphere protects life on Earth from the effects of the Sun's radiation, but space travel is a different matter.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/holiday-lights-on-the-sun-imagery-of-a-solar-flare">(NASA/SDO)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://phys.org/news/2015-12-sun-energy.html">Nuclear fusion reactions in the sun</a> are the source of heat and light we receive on Earth. These reactions release a massive amount of cosmic radiation — including x-rays and gamma rays — and charged particles that can be harmful for any living organisms. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.epa.gov/radtown/cosmic-radiation">Life on Earth has been protected</a> thanks to a magnetic field that forces charged particles to bounce from pole to pole as well as an atmosphere that filters harmful radiation. </p>
<p>During space travel, however, it is a different situation. To find out what happens in a cell when travelling in outer space, scientists are sending <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/Micro_4.html">baker’s yeast to the moon as part of NASA’s Artemis 1 mission</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/artemis-1-how-this-2022-lunar-mission-will-pave-the-way-for-a-human-return-to-the-moon-173130">Artemis 1: how this 2022 lunar mission will pave the way for a human return to the Moon</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Cosmic damage</h2>
<p>Cosmic radiation can damage cell DNA, significantly increasing human risk of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphy.2020.00362">neurodegenerative disorders</a> and fatal diseases, like cancer. Because the International Space Station (ISS) is located in one of two of Earth’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Van-Allen-radiation-belt">Van Allen radiation belts</a> — which provides a safe zone — astronauts are not exposed too much. Astronauts in the ISS experience microgravity, however, which is another stress that can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau8650">dramatically change cell physiology</a>. </p>
<p>As NASA is planning to send astronauts to the moon, and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/moon-investments-prepare-us-for-mars.pdf">later on to Mars</a>, these environmental stresses become more challenging. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/twins-in-space-how-space-travel-affects-gene-expression-107936">Twins in space: How space travel affects gene expression</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The most common strategy to protect astronauts from the negative effects of cosmic rays is <a href="https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2019/04/08/shielding-astronauts-from-space-radiation-on-the-way-to-the-moon/">to physically shield them using state-of-the-art materials</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487382/original/file-20220929-14-wf0mco.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="two astronauts suiting up" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487382/original/file-20220929-14-wf0mco.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487382/original/file-20220929-14-wf0mco.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487382/original/file-20220929-14-wf0mco.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487382/original/file-20220929-14-wf0mco.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487382/original/file-20220929-14-wf0mco.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487382/original/file-20220929-14-wf0mco.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487382/original/file-20220929-14-wf0mco.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Technicians practice putting on Self-Contained Atmospheric Protective Ensemble (SCAPE) suits, which are designed to shield them from environmental stressors in space.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/scape-operators-prepare-for-artemis-1">(NASA/Isaac Watson)</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Lessons from hibernation</h2>
<p>Several studies show that hibernators <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6488-0_10">are more resistant to high doses of radiation</a>, and some scholars have suggested the use of “<a href="https://www.euronews.com/next/2021/06/08/sleeping-with-the-fishes-how-hibernating-zebrafish-could-help-you-survive-the-journey-to-m">synthetic or induced torpor</a>” during space missions to protect astronauts. </p>
<p>Another way to protect life from cosmic rays is studying extremophiles — <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00780">organisms that can remarkably tolerate environmental stresses</a>. Tardigrades, for instance, are micro-animals that have shown an astonishing resistance to a number of stresses, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/27576">harmful radiation</a>. This unusual sturdiness stems from a class of proteins known as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2017.02.018">tardigrade-specific proteins</a>.”</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ggcnlab.com/">Under the supervision of molecular biologist Corey Nislow</a>, I use baker’s yeast, <em>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</em>, to study cosmic DNA damage stress. We are participating in NASA’s Artemis 1 mission, where our collection of yeast cells will travel to the moon and back in the Orion spacecraft for 42 days.</p>
<p>This collection contains about 6,000 bar-coded strains of yeast, where in each strain, one gene is deleted. When exposed to the environment in space, those strains would begin to lag if deletion of a specific gene affects cell growth and replication.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487380/original/file-20220929-24-ontc5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a slide image of a tardigrade, a micro-animal with six legs and mouth parts" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487380/original/file-20220929-24-ontc5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487380/original/file-20220929-24-ontc5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487380/original/file-20220929-24-ontc5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487380/original/file-20220929-24-ontc5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=367&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487380/original/file-20220929-24-ontc5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487380/original/file-20220929-24-ontc5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487380/original/file-20220929-24-ontc5y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tardigrade DNA may help increase resilience for other organisms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>My primary project at Nislow lab is genetically engineering yeast cells to make them express tardigrade-specific proteins. We can then study how those proteins can alter the physiology of cells and their resistance to environmental stresses — most importantly radiation — with the hope that such information would come in handy when scientists try to engineer mammals with these proteins. </p>
<p>When the mission is completed and we receive our samples back, using the barcodes, the number of each strain could be counted to identify genes and gene pathways essential for surviving damage induced by cosmic radiation. </p>
<h2>A model organism</h2>
<p>Yeast has long served as a “model organism” in DNA damage studies, which means there is solid background knowledge about the mechanisms in yeast that respond to DNA-damaging agents. Most of the yeast genes playing roles in DNA damage response have been well studied. </p>
<p>Despite the differences in genetic complexity between yeast and humans, the function of most genes involved in DNA replication and DNA damage response have remained so conserved between the two that we can obtain a great deal of information about human cells’ DNA damage response by studying yeast. </p>
<p>Furthermore, the simplicity of yeast cells compared to human cells (yeast has 6,000 genes while we have more than 20,000 genes) allows us to draw more solid conclusions. </p>
<p>And in yeast studies, it is possible to automate the whole process of feeding the cells and stopping their growth in an electronic apparatus the size of a shoe box, whereas culturing mammalian cells requires more room in the spacecraft and far more complex machinery. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1558921292228747264"}"></div></p>
<p>Such studies are essential to understand how astronauts’ bodies can cope with long-term space missions, and to develop effective countermeasures. Once we identify the genes playing key roles in surviving cosmic radiation and microgravity, we’d be able to look for drugs or treatments that could help boost the cells’ durability to withstand such stresses. </p>
<p>We could then test them in other models (such as mice) before actually applying them to astronauts. This knowledge might also be potentially useful for <a href="https://www.freethink.com/space/cosmic-radiation">growing plants beyond Earth</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189762/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hamid Kian Gaikani does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>As the potential for space travel increases, it is necessary to develop methods to protect astronauts from environmental stresses in space. Studying the DNA of baker’s yeast may provide some clues.Hamid Kian Gaikani, PhD Candidate, Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1915342022-09-29T16:12:59Z2022-09-29T16:12:59ZVenus: the trouble with sending people there<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487253/original/file-20220929-25-a6bvkz.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4096%2C4071&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/JPL</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Venus, often called <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2019/05/Earth_s_evil_twin">Earth’s “evil twin” planet</a>, formed closer to the Sun and has since evolved quite differently from our own planet. It has a <a href="https://www.space.com/venus-runaway-greenhouse-effect-earth-next.html">“runaway” greenhouse effect</a> (meaning heat is completely trapped), a thick carbon-dioxide-rich atmosphere, no magnetic field and a surface hot enough to melt lead. </p>
<p>Several uncrewed scientific missions will study how and why that happened in the next decade. But now some scientists <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/sep/25/target-venus-not-mars-for-first-crewed-mission-to-another-planet-experts-say">want to send a crewed mission</a> there as well for a flyby. Is that a good idea?</p>
<p>With a slightly smaller diameter than Earth, Venus orbits closer to the Sun. This means that any water on the surface would have evaporated shortly after its formation, starting its greenhouse effect. Early and sustained volcanic eruptions created lava plains and increased the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere – starting the runaway greenhouse effect, which increased the temperature from just a little higher than Earth’s to its current high value of 475°C. </p>
<p>While the Venus year is shorter than ours (225 days), its rotation is very slow (243 days) and “retrograde” – the other way round to Earth. The slow rotation is related to a lack of magnetic field, resulting in a continuing loss of atmosphere.
Venus’ atmosphere “super-rotates” faster than the planet itself. Images from many missions show V-shaped patterns of clouds, composed of sulphuric acid droplets. </p>
<p>Despite the harsh conditions, some scientists have speculated that Venus’ clouds might at some altitudes harbour habitable conditions. Recent measurements apparently <a href="https://theconversation.com/venus-could-it-really-harbour-life-new-study-springs-a-surprise-145981">showing phosphine</a> – a potential sign of life as it is continuously produced by microbes on Earth – in Venus’ clouds have been strongly debated. Clearly, we need more measurements and exploration to work out where it comes from.</p>
<h2>Future missions</h2>
<p>What we know about Venus so far has been gathered from several past probes. In 1970-82, for example, the Soviet <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-060A">Venera 7-14 probes</a> were able to land on Venus’ harsh surface, survive for up to two hours and send back images and data. But there are remaining questions about how Venus evolved so differently from Earth, which are also relevant for understanding which planets orbiting other stars may harbour life.</p>
<p>The next decade promises to be a bonanza for Venus scientists. In 2021, Nasa <a href="https://theconversation.com/nasa-has-announced-two-missions-to-venus-by-2030-heres-why-thats-exciting-162133">selected two missions</a>, <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/veritas">Veritas</a> and <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20170002022/downloads/20170002022.pdf">DaVinci+,</a> due for launch in 2028-30. The European Space Agency <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/ESA_selects_revolutionary_Venus_mission_EnVision">selected EnVision</a> for launch in the early 2030s. These are complementary, uncrewed missions which will give us deeper understanding of Venus’ environment and evolution.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487252/original/file-20220929-1555-oz5asc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Image of craters on Venus seen by Venus Nasa's Magellan probe." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487252/original/file-20220929-1555-oz5asc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/487252/original/file-20220929-1555-oz5asc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487252/original/file-20220929-1555-oz5asc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487252/original/file-20220929-1555-oz5asc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487252/original/file-20220929-1555-oz5asc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487252/original/file-20220929-1555-oz5asc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/487252/original/file-20220929-1555-oz5asc.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Craters on Venus seen by Venus Nasa’s Magellan probe.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/JPL</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Veritas will map Venus’ surface to determine the geological history, rock composition and the importance of early water. DaVinci+ includes an orbiter and a small probe that will descend through the atmosphere and measure its composition, study the planet’s formation and evolution and determine whether it ever had an ocean. EnVision will study the planet’s surface, subsurface and atmospheric trace gases. It will use radar to map the surface with better resolution than ever before.</p>
<p>India also plans an uncrewed mission, <a href="https://www.space.com/india-venus-orbiter-shukrayaan-2024-launch">Shukrayaan-1</a>, and Russia has proposed <a href="https://www.esa.int/About_Us/ESA_Permanent_Mission_in_Russia/Venera-D">Venera-D</a>.</p>
<h2>Do we need crewed flybys?</h2>
<p>The idea of a crewed flyby of Venus <a href="http://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/05/apollo-ends-at-venus-1967-proposal-for.html">was suggested in the late 1960s</a>, and involved using an Apollo capsule to fly people around the planet. But this idea ended when Apollo finished. Now, the Artemis project to fly around the Moon, and other ideas of crewed missions, have led to the idea being floated again, most recently in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576520307554">journal papers</a> and at a recent meeting of the <a href="https://www.iafastro.org/">International Astronautical Federation</a>, an advocacy organisation, in September 2022. </p>
<p>The idea would be to fly a crewed spacecraft around Venus and return to Earth. This would allow scientists to test deep-space techniques such as how to operate a crewed mission with significant time delays when communicating with Earth. It could therefore prepare us for a more complex, crewed mission to Mars. However, the crew wouldn’t do any landing or actual atmosphere investigation at Venus – the conditions are way too harsh.</p>
<p>The researchers who back this idea argue that you could also use Venus’ gravity to alter the spacecraft’s course for Mars, which could save time and energy compared with going directly from Earth to Mars. That’s because the latter option would require the orbits of the two planets to be aligned, meaning you’d have to wait for the right moment both on the way there and back. However, as a crewed mission to Mars would be highly complex, going directly from Earth to Mars would keep designs simpler.</p>
<p>Sending humans to a planet that may harbour living organisms also won’t make it easier to find them. It is risky – we may end up contaminating the atmosphere before we discover any life. The best way to look for biochemical signs of life is with uncrewed probes. There would also be significant thermal challenges and higher radiation from solar flares due to closer proximity to the Sun.</p>
<p>And, unfortunately, with a flyby mission like this, only a few hours of data would be possible on the inbound and outbound trajectories. It would be a highly expensive venture, which would no doubt produce some amazing imagery and useful additional data. However, this would add little to the detailed and much longer bespoke studies currently planned. I, therefore, believe the likelihood of a crewed mission to Venus is very unlikely. </p>
<p>There have also been conceptual, more far-fetched studies – including sending <a href="https://theconversation.com/nasa-wants-to-send-humans-to-venus-heres-why-thats-a-brilliant-idea-104961">crewed airships to hover in Venus’ atmosphere</a>, rather than just flying by. This is a nice idea, which may achieve more science than a flyby, but it remains a distant and unrealistic concept for now. </p>
<p>For the moment, we only carry out crewed exploration in low-Earth orbit. The Artemis project, however, aims to fly people around the Moon and build a station, called Gateway, in lunar orbit. This is being designed to do science, enable crewed landings on the Moon and crucially to test deep space techniques such as refuelling and operating in a remote environment that could in the long run help get us to Mars without doing training at Venus.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191534/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Coates receives funding from UKSA and STFC (UK). </span></em></p>Some scientists are keen to send humans to Venus on a flyby.Andrew Coates, Professor of Physics, Deputy Director (Solar System) at the Mullard Space Science Laboratory, UCLLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1894472022-08-26T19:05:48Z2022-08-26T19:05:48ZNASA’s Artemis 1 mission to the Moon sets the stage for routine space exploration beyond Earth’s orbit – here’s what to expect and why it’s important<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/495693/original/file-20221116-24-4yuyjs.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C13%2C4346%2C3591&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">NASA is going back to the Moon.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nasahqphoto/52503608660/">NASA/Bill Ingalls</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>NASA’s Space Launch System rocket <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/2022/11/16/artemis-i-liftoff/">lifted off</a> from the Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida, in the early hours of Nov. 16, 2022. The rocket carried the Orion Crew Capsule as the centerpiece of the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-1">Artemis 1</a> mission. The journey to the Moon and back is a shakedown cruise with no people aboard – it will test how the Orion Crew Capsule holds up in space. The mission is a key step toward returning humans to the Moon after a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo-17">half-century hiatus</a>. The launch was initially scheduled for the morning of Aug. 29, 2022, but was <a href="https://blogs.nasa.gov/artemis/">postponed three times, twice for technical reasons and once for Hurricane Ian</a>.</em> </p>
<p><em>The spacecraft is scheduled to travel to the Moon, deploy some small satellites and then settle into orbit. NASA aims to practice operating the spacecraft, test the conditions crews will experience on and around the Moon, and assure everyone that the spacecraft and any occupants can safely return to Earth.</em></p>
<p><em>The Conversation asked <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/faculty/burns/">Jack Burns</a>, a professor and <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jack-Burns-5">space scientist</a> at the University of Colorado Boulder and former member of the Presidential Transition Team for NASA, to describe the mission, explain what the Artemis program promises to do for space exploration, and reflect on how the space program has changed in the half-century since humans last set foot on the lunar surface.</em></p>
<h2>How does Artemis 1 differ from the other rockets being launched routinely?</h2>
<p>Artemis 1 is the first flight of the new <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/index.html">Space Launch System</a>. This is a “heavy lift” vehicle, as NASA refers to it. It is the most powerful rocket engine ever flown to space, even more powerful than <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-was-the-saturn-v-58.html">Apollo’s Saturn V</a> system that took astronauts to the Moon in the 1960s and ‘70s. </p>
<p>It’s a new type of rocket system, because it has both a combination of liquid oxygen and hydrogen main engines and two strap-on solid rocket boosters derived from the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/main/index.html">space shuttle</a>. It’s really a hybrid between the space shuttle and Apollo’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/nasa-knows/what-was-the-saturn-v-58.html">Saturn V</a> rocket. </p>
<hr>
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<p><em>You can listen to more articles from The Conversation, narrated by Noa, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/audio-narrated-99682">here</a>.</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Testing is very important, because the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html">Orion Crew Capsule</a> is going to be getting a real workout. It will be in the space environment of the Moon, a high-radiation environment, for a month. And, very importantly, it will be testing the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/heat-shield-milestone-complete-for-first-orion-mission-with-crew">heat shield</a>, which protects the capsule and its occupants, when it comes back to the Earth at 25,000 miles per hour. This will be the fastest capsule reentry since Apollo, so it’s very important that the heat shield function well.</p>
<p>This mission is also carrying a series of small satellites that will be placed in orbit of the Moon. Those will do some useful precursor science, everything from looking further into the permanently shadowed craters where scientists think there is water to just doing more measurements of the radiation environment, seeing what the effects will be on humans for long-term exposure.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481324/original/file-20220826-26-zbdpp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A diagram showing the earth, moon and flight path of a spacecraft" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481324/original/file-20220826-26-zbdpp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481324/original/file-20220826-26-zbdpp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481324/original/file-20220826-26-zbdpp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481324/original/file-20220826-26-zbdpp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481324/original/file-20220826-26-zbdpp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481324/original/file-20220826-26-zbdpp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481324/original/file-20220826-26-zbdpp3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The plan is for Artemis 1 to lift off, travel to the Moon, deploy satellites, orbit the Moon, return to Earth, safely enter the atmosphere and splash down in the ocean.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/artemis-i-map">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s the goal of the Artemis project? What’s coming up in the series of launches?</h2>
<p>The mission is a first step toward <a href="https://www.space.com/artemis-3-moon-landing-mission">Artemis 3</a>, which is going to result in the first human missions to the Moon in the 21st century and the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo-17">first since 1972</a>. Artemis 1 is an uncrewed test flight. </p>
<p>Artemis 2, which is scheduled to launch a few years after that, will have astronauts on board. It, too, will be an orbital mission, very much like <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/apollo-8.html">Apollo 8</a>, which circled the Moon and came back home. The astronauts will spend a longer time orbiting the Moon and will test everything with a human crew. </p>
<p>And, finally, that will lead to a journey to the surface of the Moon in which Artemis 3 – sometime middecade – will rendezvous with the <a href="https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/index.html">SpaceX Starship</a> and transfer crew. Orion will remain in orbit, and the lunar Starship will take the astronauts to the surface. They will go to the south pole of the Moon to look at an area scientists haven’t explored before to investigate <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/ice-confirmed-at-the-moon-s-poles">the water ice there</a>.</p>
<h2>Artemis is reminiscent of Apollo. What has changed in the past half-century?</h2>
<p>The reason for Apollo that Kennedy envisioned initially was to <a href="https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/space-missions/jfk-space-race-moon-shot-speech/">beat the Soviet Union to the Moon</a>. The administration didn’t particularly care about space travel, or about the Moon itself, but it represented an audacious goal that would clearly put America first in terms of space and technology. </p>
<p>The downside of doing that is the old saying “You live by the sword, you die by the sword.” When the U.S. got to the Moon, it was basically game over. The United States beat the Russians. So it put some flags down and did some science experiments. But pretty quickly after Apollo 11, within a few more missions, <a href="https://www.wired.com/2013/09/ending-apollo-1968/">Richard Nixon canceled the program</a> because the political objectives had been met.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481319/original/file-20220826-14-lqw3h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a large rocket with two boosters attached to its sides standing between two massive gantries" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481319/original/file-20220826-14-lqw3h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481319/original/file-20220826-14-lqw3h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481319/original/file-20220826-14-lqw3h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481319/original/file-20220826-14-lqw3h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=901&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481319/original/file-20220826-14-lqw3h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1133&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481319/original/file-20220826-14-lqw3h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1133&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481319/original/file-20220826-14-lqw3h3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1133&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">NASA’s new Space Launch System is seen here being moved from the rocket assembly building to a launchpad.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images-assets.nasa.gov/image/KSC-20220816-PH-JBS01_0092/KSC-20220816-PH-JBS01_0092~thumb.jpg">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So fast-forward 50 years. This is a very different environment. The U.S. is not doing this to beat the Russians or the Chinese or anybody else, but to begin a sustainable exploration beyond Earth’s orbit.</p>
<p>The Artemis program is driven by a number of different goals. It includes <a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20190025283/downloads/20190025283.pdf">in situ resource utilization</a>, which means using resources at hand like water ice and lunar soil to produce food, fuel and building materials.</p>
<p>The program is also helping to establish a lunar and space economy, starting with entrepreneurs, because SpaceX is very much part of this first mission to the surface of the Moon. NASA doesn’t own the Starship but is buying seats to allow astronauts to go to the surface. SpaceX will then use the Starship for other purposes – to transport other payloads, private astronauts and astronauts from other countries.</p>
<p>Fifty years of technology development means that going to the Moon now is much less expensive and more technologically feasible, and much more sophisticated experiments are possible when you just figure the computer technology. Those 50 years of technological advancement have been a complete game-changer. Almost anybody with the financial resources can send spacecraft to the Moon now, though not necessarily with humans. </p>
<p>NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/commercial-lunar-payload-services">Commercial Lunar Payload Services</a> contracts private companies to build uncrewed landers to go to the Moon. My colleagues and I have a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3847/PSJ/abdfc3">radio telescope</a> that’s scheduled to go to the Moon on one of the landers in March. That just wouldn’t have been possible even 10 years ago.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/7toE-Cd5S2w?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Artemis is an ambitious program, but technology has advanced tremendously in the 50 years since humans last went to the Moon.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What other changes does Artemis have in store?</h2>
<p>The administration has said that in that first crewed flight, on Artemis 3, there <a href="https://www.space.com/nasa-artemis-astronauts-for-moon-landing-unveiled">will be at least one woman</a> and very likely a person of color. They may be one and the same. There may be several. </p>
<p>I’m looking forward to seeing more of that diversity, because young kids today who are looking up at NASA can say, “Hey, there’s an astronaut who looks like me. I can do this. I can be part of the space program.”</p>
<p><em>This article was updated on Nov. 16, 2022, to indicate that NASA launched the rocket.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189447/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jack Burns receives funding from NASA for science research.</span></em></p>When the Orion Crew Capsule orbits the Moon there will be no one on board. But the mission will mark a key step in bringing humans back to Earth’s dusty sidekick.Jack Burns, Professor of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado BoulderLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1890812022-08-25T12:03:58Z2022-08-25T12:03:58ZArtemis 1: maiden flight of spacecraft set to take humans back to the Moon – here’s what needs to go right<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481066/original/file-20220825-26-d2t917.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C61%2C2048%2C1260&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Artemis-1 on the launch pad at Kennedy Space Centre</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A launch window – the period during which a rocket must be launched to reach its destination – opens on August 29 for the first flight to the Moon since 1972 by a spacecraft designed to carry humans there. If all goes well, the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/">Artemis project</a> will be on track to meet its goal of putting humans back on the Moon in 2025.</p>
<p>Project Artemis, the namesake of the sister of Apollo and daughter of Zeus in ancient Greek mythology, is designed to establish a long-term human presence on our nearest celestial neighbour, and to ultimately explore even further afield. <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-1">Artemis 1</a> is the first of several missions. It consists of Nasa’s new super-heavy rocket, the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/index.html">Space Launch System (SLS)</a>, which has never been launched before, and the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/orion/about/index.html">Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (or Orion MPCV)</a>, which has only flown in space once.</p>
<p>Unlike the <a href="https://moon.nasa.gov/resources/112/apollo-11-command-and-service-modules/">Command Service Modules of the Apollo missions</a>, which were powered by hydrogen fuel cells, the Orion MPCV is a solar-powered craft. Its distinctive X-wing style solar arrays can be swept forward or backward to reduce stress on the probe during high-thrust manoeuvres. It is capable of carrying six astronauts for up to 21 days in space. The imminent, uncrewed <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-1">Artemis 1</a> mission, however, may last as long as 42 days.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/spacex-vs-nasa-who-will-get-us-to-the-moon-first-heres-how-their-latest-rockets-compare-154199">SpaceX vs Nasa: who will get us to the Moon first? Here's how their latest rockets compare</a>
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<p>Also unlike Apollo, Artemis is an international project. The Orion MPCV consists of a US-built capsule for the astronauts and a <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Keywords/System/Orion_MPCV/(result_type)/videos">European-built</a> service module containing supplies of fuel, water, air, solar-arrays and rocket thrusters.</p>
<p>The reliance on the Sun for power places some restrictions on when Artemis-1 can launch as the geometry of the Earth and Moon have to be such that the Orion spacecraft is not in shadow from the Sun for over 90 minutes at any point during the flight. The earliest launch window opens at 08.33 EST on August 29, with further windows on September 2 and 5. </p>
<h2>Pioneering flight</h2>
<p>The SLS will put Orion into Earth orbit, where its core stage will be discarded – dropped into the ocean. Most of the energy required to fly a spacecraft to the Moon is used in this first phase of the flight, just to reach low-Earth orbit. Orion will then be pushed out of Earth orbit and onto a lunar-bound trajectory by the second stage of the SLS, called the interim cryogenic propulsion stage (<a href="https://www.ulalaunch.com/interim-cryogenic-propulsion-stage-(icps)">ICPS</a>). </p>
<p>Orion will then separate from the ICPS and spend the next several days coasting to the Moon. The launch is typically one of the riskiest parts of any spaceflight, especially for a new rocket. If Artemis-1 successfully reaches Earth orbit it will be a significant milestone for the project. </p>
<p>During the mission, Orion will also deploy <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/launching-science-and-technology-on-nasa-s-artemis-i-mission.html">ten mini satellites</a> known as CubeSats. One of these, BioSentinel, will contain yeast to observe how the microgravity and radiation environment on the Moon affect the growth of microorganisms. Another, NEA Scout, will deploy a solar sail and then fly to a nearby asteroid for a close-up examination. Meanwhile, IceCube will orbit the Moon and search for ice deposits on or near the surface, which may be used by future astronauts. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Artist’s concept of Artemis-1 upper stage separation." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481065/original/file-20220825-22-qmhf8y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481065/original/file-20220825-22-qmhf8y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481065/original/file-20220825-22-qmhf8y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481065/original/file-20220825-22-qmhf8y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481065/original/file-20220825-22-qmhf8y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481065/original/file-20220825-22-qmhf8y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481065/original/file-20220825-22-qmhf8y.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Artist’s concept of Artemis-1 upper stage separation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/Liam Yanulis</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Entry into lunar orbit will occur just 60 miles above the lunar surface. Orion will fire its onboard thrusters to slow the spacecraft and allow the Moon’s gravity to capture it into orbit. It will orbit the Moon in an unusual, distant retrograde orbit – in the opposite direction to the Moon’s spin. This particular orbit was originally chosen to flight test Orion as part of a now-cancelled <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/content/what-is-nasa-s-asteroid-redirect-mission">mission to learn to redirect asteroids</a>. </p>
<p>During this phase, Orion will travel up to 70,000 km from the Moon and reach the furthest distance from Earth ever for a human-capable spacecraft. If astronauts were onboard, they would have a grand view of the distant Earth and the Moon. </p>
<p>Orion will spend between six and 23 days in lunar orbit, after which it will fire its onboard thrusters once again to accelerate out of lunar orbit and place itself on a return to Earth trajectory. </p>
<p>The surface of the Moon can reach 120°C during the day and drop to -170°C at night. Such large temperature changes can cause significant thermal expansion and contraction of materials, so the Orion spacecraft had to be built with materials able to withstand significant thermal stress without failing. One goal of the mission is to check this, and crucially, ensure that the breathable atmosphere inside the capsule is maintained throughout.</p>
<p>At the distances of the Moon, astronauts would also be outside of the Earth’s magnetic field, which normally protects us from cosmic radiation. Deep <a href="https://srag.jsc.nasa.gov/SpaceRadiation/What/What.cfm">space radiation</a> is a serious concern for any future human missions to the Moon. The longest Apollo mission (Apollo 17) lasted 12 and a half days – Orion will be in deep space for three to four times as long. Engineers will, therefore, also keep a close eye on the radiation environment inside the capsule.</p>
<p>On returning to Earth, the Orion crew capsule will separate from the service module, which will be discarded, and then enter the atmosphere protected by its heat shield. It will descend and deploy parachutes to land at sea. In fact, this is the most crucial part of the mission: to ensure that the capsule can survive the high re-entry speeds of a spacecraft returning from the Moon and then make a safe landing. To do so, the heat shield must endure temperatures of 2,750°C while Orion decelerates from 24,500 miles per hour – that’s significantly hotter than the temperatures encountered when spacecraft return from low-Earth orbit.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Artist’s impression of Orion at the Moon." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481061/original/file-20220825-12-f99imu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C45%2C3840%2C2109&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/481061/original/file-20220825-12-f99imu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481061/original/file-20220825-12-f99imu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481061/original/file-20220825-12-f99imu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481061/original/file-20220825-12-f99imu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481061/original/file-20220825-12-f99imu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/481061/original/file-20220825-12-f99imu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Artist’s impression of Orion at the Moon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">NASA/Liam Yanulis</span></span>
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<p>Assuming a successful launch on August 29, the splashdown would be on October 10.</p>
<p>Artemis-2, currently slated for launch in 2024, will carry four astronauts on a lunar flyby some 9,000km above the Moon’s surface. The astronauts on Artemis-2 will become the record holders for the greatest distance from Earth ever reached by humans. </p>
<p>Nasa has also just announced a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-identifies-candidate-regions-for-landing-next-americans-on-moon">short list</a> of landing sites near the Moon’s South Pole for the first lunar landing mission, Artemis-3, aiming to land humans there in 2025. Whether they reach that goal will ultimately depend on how things go for Artemis-1.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189081/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gareth Dorrian does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Will humans be back on the Moon by 2025? It depends on how well the imminent launch of Artemis-1 goes.Gareth Dorrian, Post Doctoral Research Fellow in Space Science, University of BirminghamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1766902022-02-15T03:42:22Z2022-02-15T03:42:22ZThe International Space Station is set to come home in a fiery blaze – and Australia will likely have a front row seat<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446192/original/file-20220214-19-z6fu9c.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C17%2C2982%2C1926&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>For more than two decades the International Space Station (ISS) has been the mainstay of human presence and research in space. More than 100 metres long, it’s the largest object ever placed in space, and its construction brought together the space agencies from the United States, Europe, Russia, Japan and Canada.</p>
<p>The ISS has hosted research that could not have been done anywhere else, in the fields of microgravity, space biology, human physiology and fundamental physics. It also provides a base for deep space exploration.</p>
<p>Now, the end of its life has been planned. <a href="https://www.space.com/how-to-destroy-a-space-station-safely">According to NASA</a>, the station is expected to be de-orbited by 2031 (an extension from the original plan to de-orbit by 2020). But if the ISS is so important, why is there an end-of-life plan at all?</p>
<h2>In short, the ISS is getting old</h2>
<p>The first components of the ISS were launched in the 1990s. And although many parts have been updated and replaced, it’s not feasible to replace everything. </p>
<p>In particular, the main structural components can’t be replaced. While they are checked, monitored and repaired, there are limits to this. The ISS was not designed to last forever.</p>
<p>It survives in a harsh environment, travelling at 27,500 kilometres per hour, with a day/night cycle every 90 minutes (the time it takes the ISS to orbit Earth). </p>
<p>The temperature differences experienced during each cycle put a small fatiguing load on the structure. Over a few years, this is not significant. But over the course of decades this can cause fatigue failures in the metal structure.</p>
<p>So there comes a time when the costs and risks of maintaining the ISS become too high, and this has been determined to be in 2030.</p>
<h2>How will the de-orbiting work?</h2>
<p>As with all objects under the influence of gravity, given time the ISS would simply fall down to Earth. This is because, even at the orbital altitude of 400km, there is some drag due to small particles. In fact, the ISS currently requires a regular boost to lift its orbital altitude, which is slowly – but constantly – decreasing.</p>
<p>A natural re-entry would be a completely uncontrolled process, and there would be no way of predicting where this would take place. The responsible (and planned) approach is to use thrusters to slow the ISS down, causing the de-orbit to happen much faster and in a specific location decided in advance.</p>
<p>The slowing down will initially be done using thrusters on the station, and on support vehicles docked to the station. This process may take a few months and will slowly reduce the orbital altitude of the ISS, preparing it for the final re-entry phase. </p>
<p>In the final phase, the deceleration will be much more rapid, and will determine the ISS’s final re-entry trajectory. Although it hasn’t been decided exactly how the ISS will reach its final deceleration, the favoured option is to use three modified Russian Progress spacecraft. </p>
<p>The spacecraft will be docked to the ISS and fire their propulsion systems to achieve the required deceleration – controlling the trajectory of the re-entry and the re-entry location.</p>
<h2>Artificial fireballs</h2>
<p>It will take a couple of minutes for the ISS to pass through the atmosphere. It’s likely the higher-altitude phase of this will take place near or above Australia.</p>
<p>The re-entry will be a visually spectacular event, resembling multiple large shooting stars. An increasing number of space debris breakup events have been observed and videoed over the last few years.</p>
<p>But these re-entries have been small objects, sized in the order of metres, such as the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OhBw5yaR_SU">ATV-1</a> and <a href="http://atv5.seti.org/cygnus/">Cygnus</a> spacecrafts. Meanwhile, the ISS is about the size of a football field, and will be correspondingly more spectacular.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Space debris ablaze as it crashes down to Earth" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446194/original/file-20220214-13-89ti8u.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">The ISS will burn up into many smaller ‘fireballs’ as it passes through the atmosphere – creating a spectacular view.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Crashing at Point Nemo</h2>
<p>Due to the danger of components reaching the surface, it will be important to make sure they fall where there is minimal risk to people or property. Even a controlled re-entry will potentially spread pieces of debris over an area of hundreds, if not thousands, of kilometres. </p>
<p>This is why the ISS re-entry (and most space debris de-orbits) will target an area known as the South Pacific Ocean Uninhabited Area (SPOUA), the centre of which is known as Point Nemo, or the “<a href="https://futurism.com/the-byte/deep-sea-graveyard-dead-spacecraft">Spacecraft Cemetery</a>” .</p>
<p>The SPOUA is used as Earth’s dumping ground for space debris. It’s the largest uninhabited area on Earth, and hence has the lowest risk associated with debris from re-entry.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446198/original/file-20220214-55472-tbyu1a.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=685&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Point Nemo, known as ‘the oceanic pole of inaccessibility’, is a point in the ocean which is the farthest away from any land.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/spacecraft-graveyard/en/#">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The ISS will be travelling at something like 6km per second when it hits the atmosphere. This high speed will cause the air in front of the structure to heat up significantly, reaching temperatures in excess of 10,000°C. </p>
<p>This will cause the structure to break into smaller pieces. Most of it will burn up as it falls, but it’s very likely some small pieces will survive – especially some of the heavier and denser internal components. </p>
<p>Any surviving debris will eventually sink into the ocean and disappear.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/IR2aol0Bna4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Cygnus spacecraft is an uncrewed cargo ship that brings supplies to the ISS and removes unwanted waste. For disposal, the spacecraft and waste burn up upon re-entry.</span></figcaption>
</figure><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176690/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fabian Zander receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p>How will they bring the structure back safely? And where will the surviving components crash?Fabian Zander, Senior Research Fellow in Aerospace Engineering, University of Southern QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.