tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/conservation-land-41156/articlesConservation land – The Conversation2023-07-31T04:21:28Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2100662023-07-31T04:21:28Z2023-07-31T04:21:28ZFire in northern Australia’s tropical savanna is a threat to endangered fairy-wrens<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538943/original/file-20230724-29-6y7d1c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=209%2C383%2C2977%2C1685&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Niki Teunissen/AWC</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Wildfire threatens the survival of endangered <a href="https://ebird.org/species/pucfai2?siteLanguage=en_AU">purple-crowned fairy-wrens</a> living along the rivers and creeks of northern Australia, our new research has found.</p>
<p>For <a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/15-years-of-research-reveals-secrets-of-rare-purple-crowned-fairywrens/">almost two decades</a>, we studied the fairy-wrens at a <a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/where-we-work/mornington-marion-downs/">wildlife sanctuary</a> in the far north of Western Australia. </p>
<p>Over this time, one low-intensity fire and one high-intensity fire burnt through our study site. Both occurred late in the wet season, when fires generally burn at lower intensity. But drought and weather conditions meant the second fire unexpectedly burnt at high intensity instead. </p>
<p>We wanted to find out what happened to the birds before, during and after each fire. We found even low-intensity burns reduced population density. As this species is a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2011.02331.x">biological indicator</a> of ecosystem health, our <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.14463">new research</a>
can help fine-tune fire management practices, to reduce the extent and intensity of fires along waterways. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540082/original/file-20230731-234595-iw5lzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A male purple-crowned fairy-wren with food in his beak, among plants on the river bank." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540082/original/file-20230731-234595-iw5lzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/540082/original/file-20230731-234595-iw5lzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540082/original/file-20230731-234595-iw5lzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540082/original/file-20230731-234595-iw5lzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540082/original/file-20230731-234595-iw5lzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540082/original/file-20230731-234595-iw5lzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/540082/original/file-20230731-234595-iw5lzt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Purple-crowned fairy-wrens indicate habitat health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Niki Teunissen/AWC</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/savanna-burning-carbon-pays-for-conservation-in-northern-australia-12185">Savanna burning: carbon pays for conservation in northern Australia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Fire in the tropics</h2>
<p>Fire is particularly <a href="https://fireecology.springeropen.com/articles/10.4996/fireecology.0301048">common</a> in tropical monsoonal savanna. The vegetation thrives during the wet season, then dries out over the dry season. This creates plenty of fuel late in the dry season, leading to frequent fires. </p>
<p>Deliberately introducing fire in the early dry season, when fires generally burn at low intensity, can reduce large intense wildfires later in the year. So fire management is often used for <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ddi.13198">conservation</a> and <a href="https://www.icin.org.au/">carbon farming</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538944/original/file-20230724-29-yla81f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A creek with plants growing on the bank" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538944/original/file-20230724-29-yla81f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538944/original/file-20230724-29-yla81f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538944/original/file-20230724-29-yla81f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538944/original/file-20230724-29-yla81f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538944/original/file-20230724-29-yla81f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538944/original/file-20230724-29-yla81f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538944/original/file-20230724-29-yla81f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Riparian zones provide vital habitat and support a range of species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Niki Teunissen/AWC</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But approaches to fire management that best protect “riparian” communities are relatively poorly understood. Riparian zones are the strips of vegetation along creeks and rivers. They play an important role in tropical savanna landscapes. They support a highly <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00439.x">diverse range of species</a>, provide corridors for animals to move through the landscape, and form a <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0205156">cool refuge</a> from heat and drought. </p>
<p>Unfortunately they are also particularly <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.13794">sensitive to fire</a>, making it ever more urgent to better protect these key places. </p>
<p>Understanding how riparian fire affects the species that depend on waterway vegetation for their entire life cycle is a good place to start. </p>
<h2>Fairy-wrens and fire</h2>
<p>We study a population of 200-300 <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=64442">purple-crowned fairy-wrens</a> (<em>Malurus coronatus coronatus</em>) along 15km of waterways. </p>
<p>Each bird in this population has been tagged with a unique small coloured leg band. This enables us to recognise individuals and follow them throughout their life. </p>
<p>We gather detailed information on bird survival, movement and reproduction. This is key to quantifying how – and to what extent – fire impacts populations.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538969/original/file-20230724-29-2q5eep.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Landscape after fire" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538969/original/file-20230724-29-2q5eep.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538969/original/file-20230724-29-2q5eep.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538969/original/file-20230724-29-2q5eep.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538969/original/file-20230724-29-2q5eep.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538969/original/file-20230724-29-2q5eep.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538969/original/file-20230724-29-2q5eep.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538969/original/file-20230724-29-2q5eep.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">High-intensity fire greatly reduced the quality of riparian habitat.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Michael Roast/AWC</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our study we found both low-intensity and high-intensity fire reduced the number of fairy-wrens in the burnt areas for at least two and a half years. The effect of high-intensity fire was much stronger, reducing the number of fairy-wrens by half.</p>
<p>Next, we investigated what mechanism caused these declines. We showed birds did not move out of burnt habitat, probably because they live in such well-defined territories year-round. </p>
<p>Instead, we found the low-intensity fire reduced breeding success by 80% during and shortly after the fire. </p>
<p>The high-intensity fire caused a decline in wrens through a different mechanism. We found birds in the fire-affected area were no more likely to die during the fire itself than birds in adjacent unburnt areas. Yet, they were 30% more likely to die over the next two to eight months after the fire. </p>
<p>This is probably because the quality of the riparian habitat was greatly reduced by this fire, which may have made it harder for the birds to find food, cover from predators, or find protection from the heat in subsequent months. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538999/original/file-20230724-19-yf2s2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A purple-crowned fairy-wren and nest among plants on the river bank." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538999/original/file-20230724-19-yf2s2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538999/original/file-20230724-19-yf2s2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538999/original/file-20230724-19-yf2s2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538999/original/file-20230724-19-yf2s2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538999/original/file-20230724-19-yf2s2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538999/original/file-20230724-19-yf2s2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538999/original/file-20230724-19-yf2s2a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Low-intensity fire reduces breeding success of purple-crowned fairy-wrens.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Niki Teunissen/AWC</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Protecting riparian zones from fire</h2>
<p>Wildfires are becoming more <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590332221001299">frequent and severe</a> as climate change worsens. These changes are <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abb0355">transforming natural systems</a> and threatening the diversity of life on Earth. We saw this in Australia in 2019-20, when the <a href="https://theconversation.com/200-experts-dissected-the-black-summer-bushfires-in-unprecedented-detail-here-are-6-lessons-to-heed-198989">Black Summer fires</a> pushed many species closer to extinction.</p>
<p>More frequent and severe fire is forecast for riparian zones, for various reasons. For example, extended droughts as well as large flood events (which deposit woody debris as fuel for fire), <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10021-007-9048-5">increase the risk</a> of severe riparian fires. Additionally, riparian strips can become a corridor for fire under certain conditions.</p>
<p>The challenge for land managers is to minimise the impact of fire when it eventually enters the riparian zone. We suggest fire management can be used to reduce the extent and intensity of riparian fires. In particular, we recommend introducing low-intensity burns parallel and perpendicular to riparian zones so they have minimal impact yet create breaks along these riparian corridors, to prevent large sections burning at once.</p>
<p>Our study indicates the high sensitivity of riparian zones to fire, even when fire occurs during the wet season and burns at low intensity. Our findings call for more consideration by fire managers of the effects of fire on riparian habitat, and for further research to enhance our understanding of savanna riparian fire biology.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538945/original/file-20230724-17-2n8a26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A male purple-crowned fairy-wren, among plants on the river bank." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538945/original/file-20230724-17-2n8a26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/538945/original/file-20230724-17-2n8a26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538945/original/file-20230724-17-2n8a26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538945/original/file-20230724-17-2n8a26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538945/original/file-20230724-17-2n8a26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538945/original/file-20230724-17-2n8a26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/538945/original/file-20230724-17-2n8a26.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Individual birds in this study can be recognised by their coloured leg bands.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Niki Teunissen/AWC</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-worlds-best-fire-management-system-is-in-northern-australia-and-its-led-by-indigenous-land-managers-133071">The world's best fire management system is in northern Australia, and it's led by Indigenous land managers</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<hr>
<p><em>Our research was conducted in collaboration with scientists and land managers from Charles Darwin University and the Australian Wildlife Conservancy.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210066/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Niki Teunissen received funding from Monash University and the Australian Research Council, and holds an Adjunct Research Associate position at Monash University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anne Peters receives funding and support from Australian Research Council, Monash University and Australian Wildlife Conservancy.</span></em></p>A study of purple-crowned fairy-wrens offers lessons for fire management along waterways in tropical savanna ecosystems.Niki Teunissen, Postdoctoral researcher, Wageningen UniversityAnne Peters, Professor, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1960312023-01-08T19:00:02Z2023-01-08T19:00:02ZCan customary harvesting of NZ’s native species be sustainable? Archaeology and palaeo-ecology provide some answers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501721/original/file-20221218-12-qnifpf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C79%2C5296%2C2150&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock/Tessa Palmer</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Aotearoa’s wilderness areas are the jewel in our ecotourism crown. But conservation laws may soon be in for a radical shake-up. </p>
<p>Recent <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/our-work/options-development-group/options-development-group-report-march-2022.pdf">proposals</a> would, among other things, allow Māori to resume traditional harvesting practices (mahinga kai) on conservation land. </p>
<p>This has <a href="https://northandsouth.co.nz/2022/07/14/the-fate-of-our-national-parks/">elicited heated emotions</a> from some conservationists, who fear that biodiversity protection will be compromised, as well as from proponents of mahinga kai, who have been alienated from their traditional lands and customs for more than 130 years. </p>
<p>What does this all mean for our native species?</p>
<h2>The times are a-changing</h2>
<p>Article Two of <a href="https://waitangitribunal.govt.nz/treaty-of-waitangi/">Te Tiriti o Waitangi</a> guaranteed Māori authority over natural resources. But, with government-administered and <a href="https://www.odt.co.nz/regions/southland/tau-fined-over-wood-pigeons">legally enforced</a> “no take” policies covering most conservation land and native species, it is little wonder that many Māori feel alienated from their traditional lands and practices. </p>
<p>Article Four of the <a href="https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1987/0065/latest/DLM103610.html">Conservation Act 1987</a> states the government must give effect to the principles of Te Tiriti. In 2022, in response to these disparities, the Department of Conservation released a <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/our-work/options-development-group/options-development-group-report-march-2022.pdf">report</a> calling for an overhaul of Aotearoa’s conservation laws to have Māori at their heart. This was a move away from “preservation and protection” to “maintenance, enhancement and sustainable use”. </p>
<p>The report received a lukewarm reception from the government. But it is likely only a matter of time before many of these changes begin to be implemented.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fishing-with-elders-builds-these-childrens-oji-cree-language-cultural-knowledge-and-writing-138915">Fishing with Elders builds these children’s Oji-Cree language, cultural knowledge and writing</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There are many precedents. Indigenous peoples in many countries lawfully practice <a href="https://theconversation.com/traditional-hunting-gets-headlines-but-is-not-the-big-threat-to-turtles-and-dugongs-69038">traditional harvesting</a> of some protected species. <a href="https://www.mpi.govt.nz/fishing-aquaculture/maori-customary-fishing/customary-fisheries-management-areas-rules-and-maps/">Customary management areas</a> in Aotearoa, such as mātaitai reserves and taiāpure, demonstrate that community and Indigenous leadership can be effective at managing resources. </p>
<p>In many instances, communities may be more motivated to support conservation measures if species can also be used as a resource, such as the harvesting of tītī (sooty shearwaters).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A group of people with harvested tītī (sooty shearwaters) hung up to dry." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501826/original/file-20221219-18-vgeae8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501826/original/file-20221219-18-vgeae8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501826/original/file-20221219-18-vgeae8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501826/original/file-20221219-18-vgeae8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501826/original/file-20221219-18-vgeae8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501826/original/file-20221219-18-vgeae8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501826/original/file-20221219-18-vgeae8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=463&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Māori in Foveaux Strait have practiced traditional harvesting of tītī (sooty shearwaters) for hundreds of years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hocken Collection</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>How do we ensure any harvesting is sustainable in this fast-changing world? Mātauranga (knowledge) and tikanga (custom) Māori, developed over centuries, can provide many of these answers. Combined with scientific methods and data, these bodies of knowledge create a powerful base from which managers can make robust and evidence-based decisions about harvest practices. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/indigenous-hunters-are-protecting-animals-land-and-waterways-118652">Indigenous hunters are protecting animals, land and waterways</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The past is the key to the present</h2>
<p>Kia whakatōmuri te haere whakamua – I walk backwards into the future, with my eyes fixed on my past.</p>
<p>Palaeo-ecology, archaeology and matāuranga Māori share the philosophy that we can learn from the past. All three allow us to reconstruct how past ecosystems functioned, how people and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/chapter-epub/10.1002/9781394169764.ch18">species adapted to harvest pressures</a> and climate change, and how we can use this information moving forward.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An archaeological midden with a pile of shells and other animal remains" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500547/original/file-20221212-24-u7oobq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500547/original/file-20221212-24-u7oobq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500547/original/file-20221212-24-u7oobq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500547/original/file-20221212-24-u7oobq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500547/original/file-20221212-24-u7oobq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500547/original/file-20221212-24-u7oobq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500547/original/file-20221212-24-u7oobq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Archaeological middens contain the remains of animals and trace changes in areas of food gathering.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Justin Maxwell</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Palaeo-ecology and archaeology draw on many tools: </p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/ourchangingworld/audio/20171239/waitaha-penguin-out,-yellow-eyed-penguin-in">radiocarbon-dating</a> anchors archaeological and fossil remains in time</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://newzealandecology.org/nzje/3306.pdf">stable dietary isotopes</a> help determine diet and where animals fitted into the food chain</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-did-ancient-moa-survive-the-ice-age-and-what-can-they-teach-us-about-modern-climate-change-183350">ancient DNA</a> is used to determine how and when genetic diversity and population sizes changed through time</p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jbi.14092">statistical modelling</a> can show how abundance and distributions of plants and animals have changed, and may continue to change in the future. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>This information can paint a picture of how past ecosystems responded to human impacts as well as predicting how future impacts may affect species and populations.</p>
<h2>To harvest or not to harvest?</h2>
<p>Globally, waves of human settlement generally correlated with the rapid extinction of local species. Hunting rates that would have been sustainable for closely related species still culminated in the flightless <a href="https://hakaimagazine.com/news/from-healthy-to-extinct-in-350-years/">great auk’s extinction</a>. </p>
<p>Many of Aotearoa’s plants and animals are slow to reproduce. Ancient DNA <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/ourchangingworld/audio/201808840/hunted-to-extinction-the-chatham-island-sea-lion">analysis and modelling</a> have shown even very low levels of human harvesting resulted in the rapid decline and extinction of numerous New Zealand sea lion lineages. Less than one sea lion killed per person per year, despite a small human population at the time, was enough to seal their fate. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="New Zealand sea lion on a beach" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500549/original/file-20221212-25-g5huck.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500549/original/file-20221212-25-g5huck.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500549/original/file-20221212-25-g5huck.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500549/original/file-20221212-25-g5huck.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500549/original/file-20221212-25-g5huck.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500549/original/file-20221212-25-g5huck.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500549/original/file-20221212-25-g5huck.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">While sealions have been harvested in the past, modelling shows slow-reproducing species cannot be taken sustainably.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikipedia/Hase</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other charismatic, slow-breeding animals that would be similarly vulnerable to even low levels of harvest, even if we managed to restore their populations to moderately “healthy” levels, include <a href="https://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/kakapo">kākāpō</a>, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790318306274">tawaki</a> (<a href="https://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/fiordland-crested-penguin">Fiordland crested penguin</a>), <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jbi.12991">hoiho</a> (<a href="https://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/yellow-eyed-penguin">yellow-eyed penguin</a>) and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/mec.13338">matapo</a> (<a href="https://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/stewart-island-shag">Otago shag</a>).</p>
<p>Conversely, several locally abundant species, such as <a href="https://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/weka">weka</a>, <a href="https://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/new-zealand-pigeon">kererū</a> and <a href="https://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/black-swan">kakīānau</a> (black swan) could probably be <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/pan3.10196">sustainably harvested</a> in some areas as long as careful guidelines are in place. The archaeological record shows some of these species were regularly hunted for hundreds of years with little evidence of population decline. </p>
<h2>Looking to the future</h2>
<p>No-one is proposing free-for-all harvesting. Poorly managed and unregulated harvest would be a terrible set-back to recent restoration and conservation efforts. But conservation and mahinga kai principles are not mutually exclusive. Both stand to benefit from ecosystem restoration. </p>
<p>Palaeo-ecological tools and insights from archaeology can help inform ecosystem restoration projects by establishing which <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2015.2879">species or lineages</a> were present in a region. They can also facilitate translocations without <a href="https://newzealandecology.org/nzje/3425.pdf">unexpected ecological consequences</a> or failure due to lack of <a href="https://theconversation.com/tuatara-are-returning-to-the-mainland-but-feeding-the-hungry-reptiles-could-be-more-difficult-than-expected-191164">suitable habitat or food</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Weka" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500548/original/file-20221212-338-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500548/original/file-20221212-338-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500548/original/file-20221212-338-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500548/original/file-20221212-338-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500548/original/file-20221212-338-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500548/original/file-20221212-338-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500548/original/file-20221212-338-rbisur.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Weka are an important mahinga kai species. But they are also a predator and can affect other taonga species.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia/Bernard Spragg</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Modern ecosystems in Aotearoa are highly degraded and not comparable to those of centuries ago. They are vulnerable to a range of <a href="https://www.newsroom.co.nz/environment/the-sixth-mass-extinction-is-happening-now-and-it-doesnt-look-good-for-us">old and new threats</a>, including invasive predators, habitat loss or modification, and climate change.</p>
<p>An open-ended ethical question driving much of the controversy is whether endangered species should ever be intentionally killed.</p>
<p>Some endangered species might eventually sustain a harvest of, at most, only one or two individuals per year. Such exceedingly limited harvest may be enough to preserve some of the tikanga and mātauranga associated with mahinga kai.</p>
<p>In Te Tiriti, Māori were guaranteed the right to manage and use natural resources. Integrating traditional management practices with a range of scientific tools could enable communities to make evidence-based decisions around what constitutes “sustainable” harvesting. Mahinga kai, science and conservation need not be at odds with one another: they all have a future in Aotearoa.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196031/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nic Rawlence receives funding from the Royal Society of New Zealand. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Walter receives funding from Royal Society of New Zealand</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kerry Walton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An overhaul of Aotearoa’s conservation laws could allow Māori to resume traditional harvesting practices of some native species.Nic Rawlence, Senior Lecturer in Ancient DNA, University of OtagoKerry Walton, Researcher, University of OtagoRichard Walter, Professor of Archaeology, University of OtagoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1787592022-03-14T03:01:05Z2022-03-14T03:01:05ZHow New Zealand’s review of ecologically important land could open the door to more mining on conservation land<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451764/original/file-20220313-12-102i867.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C63%2C3794%2C2069&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/shot-beautiful-gorge-on-stunning-caples-1297810078">Shutterstock/crbellette</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The government’s <a href="https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/government-speeds-stewardship-land-reclassification">plans</a> to fast-track a long overdue review of large tracts of ecologically important land, known as “stewardship land”, could result in the loss of legal protections for some conservation land. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/ninetonoon/audio/2018828997/doc-s-new-head-outlines-her-challenges-and-priorities">third of all land</a> in Aotearoa New Zealand is managed by the Department of Conservation (<a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/">DOC</a>). When DOC was formed in 1987, it was allocated land that had been carefully assessed for conservation values and then classified into national parks, scenic reserves or similar. But this classification job was only two-thirds completed at the time. </p>
<p>The remaining third of the land was called “<a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/our-role/managing-conservation/stewardship-land/">stewardship land</a>”, which takes in pristine areas such as the Southern Alps between Mount Aspiring and <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/timaru-herald/news/112757661/aorakimt-cook-national-park-records-a-million-visitors">Aoraki/Mount Cook</a> national parks. </p>
<p>About 2.7 million hectares (9%) of New Zealand’s land area is stewardship land. Officials put stewardship land in a holding pen with the same level of protection as other conservation land to make it relatively easy to add protections and hard to sell or swap.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="Mt Arthur reflected in tarn at dusk, Kahurangi National Park, New Zealand" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451766/original/file-20220313-13-lc6jaa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451766/original/file-20220313-13-lc6jaa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451766/original/file-20220313-13-lc6jaa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451766/original/file-20220313-13-lc6jaa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451766/original/file-20220313-13-lc6jaa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451766/original/file-20220313-13-lc6jaa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451766/original/file-20220313-13-lc6jaa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nearly 65,000 ha of stewardship land was added to Kahurangi National Park in 2019.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/mt-arthur-reflected-tarn-dusk-kahurangi-1352681585">Shutterstock/Hot Pixels Photography</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Only 100,000ha of this has been reclassified since the 1980s, including recent additions to the <a href="https://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/111207411/kahurangi-national-park-to-expand-by-area-half-the-size-of-auckland">Kahurangi National Park</a>, but successive governments have not had the appetite to finish the job. </p>
<p>Last year, the government <a href="https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/443732/law-changes-considered-to-protect-ecologically-significant-land">announced plans</a> to reclassify all remaining stewardship land, but we argue the process is flawed. It opens the door to vested interests, including sale or disposal of public conservation land, in particular for mining.</p>
<h2>Speed versus care</h2>
<p>The government appointed <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/our-role/managing-conservation/stewardship-land/reclassification-national-panels/">national panels</a> to assess the land and make recommendations to the minister. <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/about-doc/role/managing-conservation/stewardship-land-cabinet-paper-redacted.pdf">Cabinet papers</a> show the assessments were supposed to be a “genuine technical assessment” of conservation values. </p>
<p>But the panels are due to report their recommendations on all of Westland by next month, before moving on to other regions at similar speed. The need for speed has never been explained in light of the care required for this once-in-a-generation task.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/new-zealand-is-reviewing-its-outdated-conservation-laws-heres-why-we-must-find-better-ways-of-getting-people-on-board-174055">New Zealand is reviewing its outdated conservation laws. Here's why we must find better ways of getting people on board</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The panels replace the statutory reclassification and advisory functions of conservation boards and the New Zealand Conservation Authority (<a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/statutory-and-advisory-bodies/nz-conservation-authority/">NZCA</a>) – without changing the Conservation Act. The process was never put out for consultation.</p>
<p>The panels’ <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/about-doc/role/managing-conservation/stewardship-land-tor.pdf">terms of reference</a> are loose, with expertise that does not fully overlap with conservation boards or the NZCA. The information the panels used and the stakeholder consultations they have been undertaking have yet to be made public. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Caples River" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451758/original/file-20220313-21-5uut23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451758/original/file-20220313-21-5uut23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451758/original/file-20220313-21-5uut23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451758/original/file-20220313-21-5uut23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=393&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451758/original/file-20220313-21-5uut23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451758/original/file-20220313-21-5uut23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451758/original/file-20220313-21-5uut23.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=494&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The panels are due to report their recommendations for Westland next month.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caples_River.JPG">Sam Genas/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The conservation values the panels should be assessing have not been clarified, despite <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science-and-technical/sfc327entire.pdf">long established guidelines</a>. </p>
<p>Most importantly, buried in the <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/about-doc/role/managing-conservation/stewardship-land-cabinet-paper-redacted.pdf">cabinet paper</a>, the minister has given interim direction that panels must prioritise “the assessment for reclassification of any stewardship land where applications are sought for mining access arrangements”.</p>
<p>Any disposals for mining will automatically compromise later assessments of conservation values for surrounding land, resulting in weaker classifications. This could pave the way for fragmentation of ecosystems at the margins of conservation land like Kahurangi, Paparoa and Westland/Tai Poutini national parks. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Lake Brunner" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451761/original/file-20220313-26-a0tomd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451761/original/file-20220313-26-a0tomd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451761/original/file-20220313-26-a0tomd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451761/original/file-20220313-26-a0tomd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451761/original/file-20220313-26-a0tomd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451761/original/file-20220313-26-a0tomd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451761/original/file-20220313-26-a0tomd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stewardship land often borders national parks, and if any is opened up to mining it would fragment ecosystems at the margins of conservation land.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Mike Dickison/Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In South Westland, any weak classifications, or disposals for mining within the world heritage area <a href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/551/">Te Wāhipounamu/South-West New Zealand</a> would endanger its very status.</p>
<p>The Environmental Law Initiative (<a href="https://www.eli.org.nz/">ELI</a>), of which we are members, raised these and other concerns <a href="https://www.eli.org.nz/research-legal-cases/stewardship-land-review">directly with DOC</a>. </p>
<p>Our view is that, when combined, these flaws undermine the assessment process and could open the door to vested interests. This may lead to weak classifications, sale or disposal of public conservation land to mining interests. Although stewardship land can only be disposed of if it has low or no conservation values, if there is no genuine assessment, this seems more likely. </p>
<h2>More mining on conservation land</h2>
<p>Our concerns are reinforced by key issues in a <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz/get-involved/have-your-say/all-consultations/2021-consultations/streamlining-the-stewardship-land-reclassification-process/">current DOC consultation</a> on improving the reclassification process and disposing of stewardship land through legislative reform. </p>
<p>This consultation places disposal on the table by proposing to remove a key Conservation Act barrier. This would make it easier to dispose of land before any value assessments have actually been made. </p>
<p>In other proposals, the hand of vested interests is clear. DOC proposes to leave commercial activities, including mining proposals, on reclassified land unaffected. This means if stewardship land were to be designated as a national park, this reclassification would have no effect on existing concessions or mining permits. </p>
<p>In our view, this could undermine the very conservation values the reclassification process is supposed to protect. It would also allow for <a href="https://www.newsroom.co.nz/hold-21-new-mines-on-conservation-land">even more mining on conservation land</a>, decisively ending the 2017 Labour/New Zealand First government’s policy of “no new mines on conservation land”. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/mining-companies-are-required-to-return-quarried-sites-to-their-natural-character-but-is-that-enough-149814">Mining companies are required to return quarried sites to their 'natural character'. But is that enough?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The current proposals would also cement the ouster of conservation boards and the NZCA, and shorten public consultation time frames. The combined effect of these proposals is that the public will have less say on the fate of large swathes of public land. </p>
<p>We call on the government to slow down the reclassification and increase the transparency of the process, particularly with regard to vested interests. Failure to confront these issues is likely to attract years of delay, serious legal challenges and possibly even new mines in pristine areas.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/178759/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Matthew Hall is a Senior Researcher at the Environmental Law Initiative. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Allan Brent is on the executive of Federated Mountain Clubs (FMC) and has been a member of the New Zealand Labour Party. </span></em></p>Efforts to fast-track a review of stewardship land could result in more mining access to conservation land as the governments wants to prioritise land where mining applications have already been made.Matthew Hall, Senior Researcher, Environmental Law Initiative and Visiting Scholar, Faculty of Law, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonAllan Brent, Senior Legal Advisor, Environmental Law Initiative, and Visiting Scholar, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1153142019-04-15T14:59:33Z2019-04-15T14:59:33ZHow Google images helped us pin down the diet of Africa’s largest eagle<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/268965/original/file-20190412-76862-1w70pg9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Google Images have revealed valuable data on what Africa's largest eagle preys on. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Martial eagles are in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/EE0EAE90EAEE0F671EEAA89D0BFF732D/S0959270917000314a.pdf/div-class-title-quantifying-the-decline-of-the-martial-eagle-span-class-italic-polemaetus-bellicosus-span-in-south-africa-div.pdf">rapid decline</a> throughout South Africa and many other parts of their range in sub-Saharan Africa. These declines have been so steep, that this species is now considered <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22696116/129915349">vulnerable</a> to extinction.</p>
<p>But conservationists still don’t have a very good handle on what could be driving these declines across <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320718300934">Africa</a>. Suggestions include: <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-2031-1_17">habitat loss</a>, deliberate and incidental <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/000632079190088Q">poisoning</a>, <a href="https://journals.co.za/docserver/fulltext/wild/5/1/3106.pdf?expires=1552033718&id=id&accname=57709&checksum=8F858EF4E3DEE45009BF11A39EE41CC0">hunting</a> in response to the fear of <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/D65C068988B1F071613CB0809F22EE45/S003060531500068Xa.pdf/financial_compensation_for_damage_to_livestock_by_lions_panthera_leo_on_community_rangelands_in_kenya.pdf">livestock loss</a>, collisions with <a href="http://www.the-eis.com/data/literature/biological%20and%20conservation%20aspects%20of%20bird%20mortality%20caused%20by%20electricity%20power%20lines%20-%20a%20review.pdf">power lines</a> and <a href="https://journals.co.za/content/wild/5/1/AJA03794369_3091;jsessionid=cgepBf6obkrPHvZpJrzi54h3.sabinetlive">pollution</a>. </p>
<p>A recent concern is a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2006.00531.x">reduction in available prey</a>. Unfortunately, our knowledge of what this species preys on is relatively poor. We only really have <a href="https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/sabinet/wild/1990/00000020/00000002/art00015">two South African studies</a> from the <a href="https://journals.co.za/content/ATM_Monographs/3/1/AJA090799001_91">1980’s</a>.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://academic.oup.com/condor/article/121/1/duy015/5318747">research</a> sought to overcome some of these limitations. We explored some alternative options for identifying important prey eaten by this species. </p>
<p>As martial eagles are beautiful, people love to take photographs of them and post these online. We realised that hundreds of photographers, amateurs to professionals, have been collecting data. To help answer some conservation questions we tapped into this resource of photographs taken at multiple locations across the continent over many years. </p>
<h2>What they eat</h2>
<p>Scientists use a range of methods to understand what raptors – birds that feed on smaller animals – eat. These include collecting and identifying <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/jav.00944">prey remains</a> from nest sites, inspecting <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Davorin_Tome/publication/28313071_Changes_in_the_diet_of_long-eared_owl_Asio_otus_seasonal_patterns_of_dependence_on_vole_abundance/links/55129ce70cf20bfdad51941d/Changes-in-the-diet-of-long-eared-owl-Asio-otus-seasonal-patterns-of-dependence-on-vole-abundance.pdf">pellets</a>, which are regurgitated balls of indigestible prey parts, watching from <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00890.x">hides</a> set up at nests, or using remote technology such as placing <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11252-015-0500-6">camera traps</a> at nests. Scientists can now even analyse the chemical properties, like <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/ibi.12095">stable isotopes</a> in feathers to describe the types of prey eaten. </p>
<p>These approaches are incredibly valuable in assessing diet. Unfortunately, they present some limitations. Almost all are nest based. This limits them to the breeding season and prey that is brought to – and remains at – the nest. Martial Eagles also nest at really <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0173956">low densities</a>. To get diet data from nests, researchers visit multiple sites in remote places and many times per season. This makes these studies challenging and expensive.</p>
<h2>The research</h2>
<p><a href="https://academic.oup.com/condor/article/121/1/duy015/5318747">Our study</a> used the free web app <a href="https://morphs.io/#/sign-in">MORPHIC</a>, developed at the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/2041-210X.12562">University of Cape Town</a> to search Google Images and catalogue photographs of martial eagles with prey. Our sources included websites, social media and photography platforms. </p>
<p>We trawled through 4,872 photos and found 254 images of the species with prey, and recorded data on eagle location, age, feeding position and type of prey. The photos came from many different countries across southern and eastern Africa, including South Africa, Kenya, Namibia, Botswana and Tanzania. </p>
<p>These images revealed that reptiles, birds and mammals each made up about a third of Martial Eagle diet. Prey type proportions varied broadly between different regions. Mammals dominated in eastern Africa but reptiles were more important prey across southern Africa. This was the first research to explore Martial Eagle diet in any detail beyond the borders of South Africa.</p>
<p>Another limitation of previous approaches, was their inability to explore the prey of non-breeding individuals in the population. Unlike adults, non-breeding sub-adults don’t have a central place, like a nest, where prey remains accumulate. Using web-based photographs however, we were able to examine the diet of sub-adult martial eagles and test whether it differed from adults. </p>
<p>We found that sub-adults fed less frequently on bird prey. Birds are agile, so sub-adult eagles may need time to acquire the skills and technique required to tackle this type of prey. To our knowledge, this is the first study describing the prey composition of non-breeding sub-adults for any raptor species. We hope our novel method will allows researchers to undertake similar studies for other raptor species in the future. Differences in diet across ages, populations and raptor species may allow for the implementation of more targeted conservation measures.</p>
<h2>What next</h2>
<p>Our research contributes to conservation by providing key information on the ecological requirements of this threatened species. Our approach might also help inform conservation efforts for other predatory species under threat. Our approach can be used on any species, from raptors to big cats, as long as they are photographed widely enough across their range. </p>
<p>Anyone can tap into this online resource at minimal cost or effort and contribute substantially to global conservation. This powerful take on citizen science could help shape many aspects of future conservation research.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/115314/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vincent Naude receives funding from Panthera and the National Research Foundation - South Africa. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Arjun Amar receives funding from the National Research Foundation - South Africa. </span></em></p>Scientists now have a better understanding of what martial eagles eat. This is valuable for the conservation of this endangered species.Vincent Naude, PhD student, University of Cape TownArjun Amar, Associate Professor , Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/811992017-07-26T20:14:32Z2017-07-26T20:14:32ZSupreme Court ruling on NZ’s largest irrigation dam proposal respects conservation law and protected land<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179608/original/file-20170725-5139-auwmjj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">This aerial view shows the catchment of the Makaroro river, in the Ruahine Forest Park. The river was to be dammed for the Ruataniwha irrigation scheme.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.abovehawkesbay.co.nz/">Peter Scott</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Earlier this month, New Zealand’s Supreme Court <a href="http://www.radionz.co.nz/news/national/334558/conservation-land-can-t-be-destroyed-for-dam-supreme-court">rejected a proposed land swap</a> that would have flooded conservation land for the construction of the country’s largest irrigation dam.</p>
<p>The court was considering whether the Hawke’s Bay Regional Council’s investment arm could build a dam on 22 hectares of the protected Ruahine Forest Park in exchange for 170 hectares of private farm land. The proposed dam is part of the $900 million <a href="http://www.hbrc.govt.nz/hawkes-bay/projects/ruataniwha-water-storage-scheme/">Ruataniwha water storage and irrigation scheme</a>.</p>
<p>The New Zealand government’s response to the ruling was to consider a law change to make land swaps easier. Such a move flies in the face of good governance. </p>
<h2>Natural capital vs development</h2>
<p>The Supreme Court ruling has significant implications for the Ruataniwha dam. In addition, it asserts the importance of permanent protection of high-value conservation land. </p>
<p>The ecological value of the Ruahine Forest Park land was never in question. The conservation land includes indigenous forest, a unique braided river and wetlands that would have been destroyed.</p>
<p>The area is home to a dozen plants and animals that are classified as threatened or at risk. The developer’s ecological assessment acknowledged the destruction of ecologically significant land and water bodies. However, it argued that mitigation and offsetting would ensure that any effects of habitat loss were at an acceptable level. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179612/original/file-20170725-5139-1j4hvhp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/179612/original/file-20170725-5139-1j4hvhp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179612/original/file-20170725-5139-1j4hvhp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179612/original/file-20170725-5139-1j4hvhp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179612/original/file-20170725-5139-1j4hvhp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179612/original/file-20170725-5139-1j4hvhp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/179612/original/file-20170725-5139-1j4hvhp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Mohaka River also flows through the Hawke’s Bay.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Christine Cheyne</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Challenge to NZ’s 100% Pure brand</h2>
<p>New Zealand’s environmental legislation states that adverse effects are to be avoided, remedied or mitigated. However, no priority is given to avoiding adverse effects. <a href="http://www.doc.govt.nz/Documents/our-work/biodiversity-offsets/the-guidance.pdf">Government guidance</a> on offsetting does not require outcomes with no net loss. </p>
<p>In <a>Pathways to prosperity</a>, policy analyst Marie Brown argues that offsetting is not always appropriate when the affected biodiversity is vulnerable and irreplaceable. </p>
<p>Recent public concern about declining water quality has provided significant momentum to address pollution and over-allocation to irrigation. Similarly, awareness of New Zealand’s loss of indigenous biodiversity is building. </p>
<p>These issues were highlighted in this year’s <a href="http://www.oecd.org/newzealand/oecd-environmental-performance-reviews-new-zealand-2017-9789264268203-en.htm">OECD Environmental Performance Review</a> and a report by the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment on the parlous state of <a href="http://www.pce.parliament.nz/our-work/news-insights/native-birds-in-desperate-situation-says-environment-commissioner">New Zealand’s native birds</a>. </p>
<p>Both issues damage New Zealand’s 100% Pure branding and pose significant risks to <a href="http://www.tourismexportcouncil.org.nz/tourism-industry-support-stronger-freshwater-regulations/">tourism</a> and the export food sector. Indigenous ecosystems are a huge draw card to surging numbers of international tourists. </p>
<h2>Battle lines in fight for the environment</h2>
<p>Powerful economic arguments have been put forward by business actors, both internationally and in New Zealand. For example, <a href="http://pureadvantage.org/biodiversity/">Pure Advantage</a> supports protection of ecosystems and landscapes. Yet, governance mechanisms are limited. </p>
<p>Since 2009, environmental protection and conservation have increasingly become major battle lines as the National government doggedly pursues its <a href="http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/business/business-growth-agenda/towards-2025">business growth agenda</a>. This favours short-term economic growth over environmental protection. </p>
<p>A key principle behind the Supreme Court decision is that protected conservation land cannot be traded off. It follows a High Court case in which environmental organisations argued unsuccessfully that the transfer of land was unlawful. </p>
<p>However, in August 2016, the Court of Appeal ruled against the Director-General of Conservation’s decision to allow the land transfer. It had been supported on the grounds that there would be a net gain to the conservation estate. The court’s ruling said that the intrinsic values of the protected land had been disregarded. </p>
<p>The Supreme Court has reinforced the importance of the permanent protection status recognised by the Court of Appeal. </p>
<h2>Anticipatory governance</h2>
<p>In response to the court’s decisions, the government argued that land swaps of protected areas should be allowed. It may seek to amend legislation to facilitate such exchanges.</p>
<p>The Supreme Court made reference to section 2 of the <a href="http://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/our-role/legislation/conservation-act/">Conservation Act 1987</a>. It defines conservation as “the preservation and protection of natural and historic resources for the purpose of maintaining their intrinsic values, providing for their appreciation and recreational enjoyment by the public, and safeguarding the options of future generations”. </p>
<p>Section 6 of the act states that the Department of Conservation should “promote the benefits to present and future generations of the conservation of natural and historic resources”. As such, the legislation and the department contribute to what is known as “anticipatory governance”. </p>
<p>Anticipatory governance is fundamental to good governance, as Jonathan Boston argues in his recent publication <a href="http://bwb.co.nz/books/safeguarding-future">Safeguarding the future: governing in an uncertain world</a>. </p>
<p>It requires protecting long-term public interests. Conservation of our unique ecosystems and landscapes protects their intrinsic values and the services they provide. These include tourism benefits and basic needs such as water, soil and the materials that sustain human life. </p>
<p>The department has correctly recognised that conservation promotes prosperity. However, long-term prosperity is quite different from the short-term exploitation associated with the government’s business growth agenda. </p>
<p>This promotes exploitation in the form of mining on conservation land and increased infrastructure for tourism and other industries, such as the proposed Ruataniwha dam. </p>
<p>Amending the Conservation Act to allow land swaps involves a significant discounting of the future in favour of present day citizens. This is disingenuous and an affront to constitutional democracy. It would weaken one of New Zealand’s few anticipatory governance mechanisms at a time when they are needed more than ever.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/81199/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christine Cheyne was a member of the Taranaki-Whanganui Conservation Board for 10 years (2004-2014). </span></em></p>New Zealand’s Supreme Court rejected a proposed land swap that would have seen conservation land used for an irrigation dam, but the government is now considering a retrospective law change.Christine Cheyne, Associate Professor, Massey UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.