tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/e-waste-recycling-97040/articlesE-waste recycling – The Conversation2022-07-21T16:03:22Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1873972022-07-21T16:03:22Z2022-07-21T16:03:22ZCan electric vehicle batteries be recycled?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/475127/original/file-20220720-20-alntg7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C31%2C5239%2C2493&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The electric car makes it possible to partially decarbonize transportation, but the fate of the batteries after their use remains an open problem.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/HjV_hEECgcM">Michael Marais/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Between 2000 and 2018, the number of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) manufactured was multiplied by 80. In 2018, <a href="http://www.avicenne.com/reports_energy.php">66% of them</a> were used in electric vehicles (EVs). The planned development of electric mobility will increase demand for batteries, with the International Energy Agency estimating that between 2019 and 2030, battery demand <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2020">will grow 17-fold</a>.</p>
<p>This situation raises many questions related to the materials used to manufacture these batteries: what resources are involved? What are the environmental impacts of extracting them? Can they be recycled?</p>
<p>When looking into the materials in the LIBs that are currently used in the vast majority of EVs, the first thing to know is that there are multiple kinds of battery technology. While all contain lithium, the other components vary: batteries in telephones or computers contain cobalt, whereas those for vehicles may contain cobalt with nickel or manganese, or none at all in the case of iron-phosphate technologies.</p>
<p>The exact chemical composition of these storage components is difficult to identify, as it is a trade secret. Furthermore, improvements are regularly made to batteries to increase their performance, so their chemical composition evolves over time. In any case, the main materials involved in manufacturing LIBs are lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese and graphite. These have all been identified as materials presenting <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352152X19307315">supply and environmental risks</a>.</p>
<p>The question of supply for these materials is a complex one: on the one hand, the value of reserves is subject to geopolitical considerations and evolutions in extraction techniques; on the other, needs for materials are very sensitive to hypothetical forecasts (number of EVs and battery size).</p>
<h2>What are the environmental impacts?</h2>
<p>The question of the environmental impacts of battery manufacturing is perhaps even more important. Even if there are enough materials, the impacts of their use must be seriously considered.</p>
<p>Studies show that battery manufacturing can have <a href="https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/electric-vehicles-from-life-cycle">serious impacts in terms of human toxicity or ecosystem pollution</a>. On top of this is the need to monitor <a href="https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/object/boreal:213422">labour conditions in certain countries</a>. Furthermore, analysing environmental impacts requires full knowledge of battery composition and manufacturing processes, but this information is <a href="https://www.ivl.se/download/18.14d7b12e16e3c5c36271070/1574923989017/C444.pdf">difficult to obtain</a> for obvious reasons related to industrial property.</p>
<h2>Could recycling the materials provide solutions to limit these risks and impacts?</h2>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1682-5.pdf">two main families of battery recycling processes</a>, used separately or in combination.</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>Pyrometallurgy</strong>, which destroys the organic and plastic components by exposing them to high temperatures and leaves only the metal components (nickel, cobalt, copper, etc.). These are then separated by chemical processes.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Hydrometallurgy</strong>, which does not include the high-temperature stage. Instead, it separates the components only by different baths of solutions that are chemically adapted to the materials to be recovered.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>In both cases, the batteries must first be ground to a powder. The two processes currently operate on an industrial scale in recycling LIBs for telephones and laptops to recover the cobalt they contain. This material is so precious that recovering it ensures the economic profitability of the current LIB recycling sector.</p>
<p>But as the LIB technologies used for EVs do not all contain cobalt, the question of the economic model for recycling them remains unresolved, and there is still no real industrial sector for recycling these batteries. The main reason is the lack of a sufficient volume of batteries to be processed: the widespread roll-out of EVs is relatively recent and their batteries are not yet at the end of their life.</p>
<p>Furthermore, the definition of this end of life is in itself subject to discussion. For example, “traction” batteries (which allow EVs to run) are considered unfit for service when they have lost 20 or 30% of their capacity – which corresponds to an equivalent loss in the vehicle’s autonomy.</p>
<h2>Can EV batteries have a second life?</h2>
<p>There is a debate around a potential “second life” for these batteries, which would make it possible to extend their use and thereby reduce their environmental impacts. The first issues for this relate to the reconfiguration needed for batteries and their electric monitoring mechanism. Next, applications must be identified for these batteries with “reduced” capacity. They could be used for energy storage connected to the electricity network, as <a href="https://www.ecoco2.com/blog/la-seconde-vie-des-batteries/">many experiments have been run</a> in this area.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420205/original/file-20210909-25-160pnpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1198%2C759&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420205/original/file-20210909-25-160pnpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420205/original/file-20210909-25-160pnpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420205/original/file-20210909-25-160pnpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420205/original/file-20210909-25-160pnpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420205/original/file-20210909-25-160pnpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420205/original/file-20210909-25-160pnpr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=478&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Certain EV batteries could be reused in solar farms for example – an economic and environmental model that has been widely discussed. Here, the battery of an eMini.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/irisheyes/4512083339/">Underway in Ireland/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, a major player such as RTE, the operator and manager of France’s electricity transmission network, believes that <a href="https://www.rte-france.com/actualites/developpement-du-vehicule-electrique-et-systeme-electrique-une-faisabilite-sereine-et">this application is ill-suited</a>, functionally and economically, and recommends recycling EV batteries at the end of their first life instead.</p>
<h2>Setting up a recycling sector that can adapt alongside evolving technologies</h2>
<p>Establishing a recycling sector will also require an economic model capable of adapting to the range of battery technologies, without having to use a large number of different recycling processes.</p>
<p>Lastly, it must be noted that these environmental impact and recycling issues are not simple to tackle, as the technologies have not yet reached maturity and their long-term sustainability is not yet guaranteed. LIBs evolve very quickly – with lithium-metal battery technologies now being designed, for example – and we are even seeing the arrival of competing technologies without lithium, such as <a href="https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/fondamental/materiaux/mise-au-point-d-une-batterie-sodium-ion-aussi-performante-qu-une-batterie-lithium-ion_144853">sodium-ion</a>.</p>
<p>For all these reasons, the environmental, economic and social impacts of manufacturing and recycling EV batteries and their materials must continue to be studied. It is essential to keep applying grassroots and <a href="https://www.actu-environnement.com/ae/news/batteries-materiaux-normes-fabrication-collecte-recyclage-europe-36682.php4">legislative pressure</a> to obtain transparency around manufacturing processes, so that we can quantify their impacts and identify ways to limit them. Forthcoming European research programmes are also positioned in this area, including the <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/france/news/20210126/autorisation_aide_publique_projet_recherche_innovation_batteries_fr">environmental dimension of new battery development</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420207/original/file-20210909-17-zj6bew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/420207/original/file-20210909-17-zj6bew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420207/original/file-20210909-17-zj6bew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420207/original/file-20210909-17-zj6bew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=366&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420207/original/file-20210909-17-zj6bew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420207/original/file-20210909-17-zj6bew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/420207/original/file-20210909-17-zj6bew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The way to limit the use of electric batteries is to limit the size and power of motor vehicles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/0hJL8lBl0qQ">Filip Mroz/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, we should not just sit around waiting for some miraculous, clean, high-performing and cheap battery technology, which is more like a pipe dream. It is important that we slow down the growth in EV battery size, and therefore limit the power, mass and autonomy of the vehicles themselves.</p>
<p>This means we will need to rethink how we get around – leaving the car-based model – rather than seeking to replace one kind of technology (the combustion motor) with another (the electric motor).</p>
<hr>
<p><em>This translation was created by the Université Gustave-Eiffel.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/187397/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Serge Pelissier ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Between reuse and recycling, what happens to the batteries of electric vehicles?Serge Pelissier, Chercheur sur le stockage de l’énergie dans les transports, Université Gustave EiffelLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1635372021-07-04T08:26:23Z2021-07-04T08:26:23ZNigeria’s electronic waste is a public health problem and needs urgent attention<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/409112/original/file-20210630-3600-1u89pir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Electronic waste should be properly dismantled and recycled </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/alaba-international-market-a-young-man-is-fixing-and-news-photo/536200408?adppopup=true">In Pictures Ltd./Corbis via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>A new <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/15-06-2021-soaring-e-waste-affects-the-health-of-millions-of-children-who-warns">World Health Organisation report</a> warns that pregnant women’s exposure to electronic waste raises the risk of stillbirth and premature births. Environmental contamination researcher Okunola Alabi spoke to The Conversation Africa’s Wale Fatade about the problem of electronic waste in Nigeria.</em></p>
<h2>How serious is the exposure of women and children to electronic waste in Nigeria?</h2>
<p>Human exposure to electronic waste is on the <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/cjel/3/2/article-p141_2.xml">increase</a> in Nigeria. This is because of the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02772248.2011.561949">indiscriminate disposal</a> and <a href="http://www.basel.int/Portals/4/Basel%20Convention/docs/eWaste/E-waste_Africa_Project_Nigeria.pdf">crude informal recycling methods</a> in the country. To compound the problem, many electronic markets and informal dumpsites are located in residential areas. This <a href="https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/nigeria-has-become-an-e-waste-dumpsite-for-europe-us-and-asia-24197">exposes</a> children and women to the toxic constituents of electronic wastes. These are constantly set ablaze, releasing toxic fumes into the atmosphere and contaminating underground drinking water. </p>
<p>This has damaged the health and welfare of individuals exposed to these hazardous constituents. In 2020, we <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12011-019-01745-z">reported</a> on bioaccumulation of heavy metals in the blood of children exposed to e-waste, accompanied by significant DNA damage. </p>
<p>Women account for about <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12011-019-01745-z">40%</a> of all informal recycling workers and people who extract value from electronic waste in Nigeria. </p>
<p>Studies of the effect of electronic waste on women and children are limited in Nigeria. But we have done some research in the area. In one study we asked workers and residents in Lagos about their perceptions of this risk. Our <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/tzool/article/view/142147">research</a> showed that spontaneous abortion and cancer were reported by women working in and living close to the two largest electronic markets in Lagos. Spontaneous abortion and cancer accounted for 5.3% and 6%, respectively, of the health problems reported in this study. </p>
<p>Many of the chemicals in electronic waste have been <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214109X13701013">shown</a> to have the potential to cause DNA damage in both mothers and foetuses. Indiscriminate disposal and informal recycling is a serious public health risk to pregnant women and women of reproductive age. </p>
<h2>How does Nigeria dispose of its electronic waste and what are the inherent dangers?</h2>
<p>The country lacks official recycling activity and effective management policies. Electronic waste materials are disposed of with municipal solid waste, dumped informally or left in homes, offices and warehouses. Large volumes are burnt outdoors and crudely recycled. This <a href="https://www.ban.org/">pollutes</a> the environment and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40201-021-00654-5">endangers</a> the health of workers on the sites and nearby residents. Burning electronic waste <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs40201-021-00654-5">increases</a> the rate at which underground water is contaminated with toxic chemicals. Underground water is the reservoir of drinking water. Drinking contaminated water has been <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/tzool/article/view/142147">linked</a> with various infections and diseases.</p>
<p>Electronic waste components are toxic and are not biodegradable. When e-wastes are improperly dismantled and recycled, toxic metals and pollutants are released into the environment. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/15-06-2021-soaring-e-waste-affects-the-health-of-millions-of-children-who-warns">WHO</a> estimates that Nigeria generated N64.2 billion worth of electronic waste in 2019 and ranks second in Africa after Egypt.</p>
<p>This should be of serious concern in Nigeria, with a population of <a href="https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/nigeria-population/">above 200 million people</a>. The waste generated in Nigeria coupled with what’s imported is <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333547382_Hazardous_Waste_Management_and_Challenges_in_Nigeria">contaminating</a> the environment with hazardous chemicals. There is an urgent need for governments at all levels to take the disposal and treatment of electronic waste seriously, to safeguard the environment and public health. </p>
<p>Our government can also take advantage of the potential for income generation if many of the components in electronic waste can be safely recovered and recycled. Examples include steel, aluminium, gold, copper, and printed circuit boards. If they were recovered using <a href="https://www.epa.gov/recycle/recycling-basics">standard acceptable recycling practices</a>, Nigeria could be generating income. </p>
<h2>What should citizens and the government do?</h2>
<p>The burden of contaminants on human health has not been well studied in Nigeria. This should be given priority considering the high level of contaminants <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22414496/">previously seen</a> in soil, well water and edible plants.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://trade.gov.ng/nesrea/">National Environmental Standards Regulations Enforcement Agency</a> should check the indiscriminate disposal of waste. This would reduce open dumping and burning.</p>
<p>The government should remediate the contaminated soil and water at dumpsites.</p>
<p>The federal government needs to separate residential areas from electronic markets to prevent exposure of residents to contaminants.</p>
<p>People need to be informed about the hazards of electronic waste and how to dispose of it. </p>
<p>Workers in the electronic markets need to wear protective gear. Legislation is needed to protect these workers.</p>
<p>There is an urgent need for legislation dealing specifically with electronic wastes in Nigeria. Established rules such as <a href="https://www.dw.com/en/the-eu-declares-war-on-e-waste/a-51108790">European Union directives</a> and draft legislation of China’s <a href="https://en.ndrc.gov.cn/">National Development and Reform Commission</a> should be guidelines.</p>
<p>Other steps include adequate funding for waste management; support for recycling and disposal enterprises; and development of management technology. The European Union has <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/environment/topics/waste-and-recycling/rohs-directive_en">guidelines</a> for the use of safe substances and recyclable materials in manufacturing. Producers, importers and retailers should be made responsible for collection, recycling and disposal of electrical and electronic equipment. The country also needs a standards and certification system for second-hand appliances.</p>
<p>Citizens should choose responsibly when buying electronic equipment. They should check whether it contains toxic substances and whether it can be recycled.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/163537/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Okunola Alabi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There is an urgent need for legislation dealing specifically with electronic waste in Nigeria.Okunola Alabi, Lecturer, Federal University of Technology, AkureLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1626232021-06-17T11:37:28Z2021-06-17T11:37:28ZBacteria can recover precious metals from electric vehicle batteries – here’s how<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406765/original/file-20210616-3721-d7kuuk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2890%2C1799&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/ev-electric-car-silhouette-low-battery-1418790563">Paul Craft/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There are more than 1.4 billion cars in the world today, and that number could <a href="https://www.carsguide.com.au/car-advice/how-many-cars-are-there-in-the-world-70629">double by 2036</a>. If all those cars burn petrol or diesel, the climate consequences will be dire. Electric cars emit <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/electricvehicles/reducing-pollution-electric-vehicles">fewer air pollutants</a> and if they’re powered by renewable energy, driving one wouldn’t add to the greenhouse gases warming Earth’s atmosphere.</p>
<hr>
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<p>But producing so many electric vehicles (often abbreviated to EVs) in a decade would cause a surge in demand for metals like lithium, cobalt, nickel and manganese. These metals are essential for making EV batteries, but they’re <a href="https://rmis.jrc.ec.europa.eu/?page=crm-list-2020-e294f6">not found everywhere</a>. Most of the world’s lithium lies under <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-lithium.pdf">the Atacama Desert</a> in South America, where <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/jun/14/electric-cost-lithium-mining-decarbonasation-salt-flats-chile?CMP=Share_AndroidApp_Other">mining threatens</a> local people and ecosystems.</p>
<p>Leading manufacturers of EVs need to keep import costs low and find a reliable source of these raw materials. Mining the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/science-environment-56678976">deep sea</a> is one option, but it <a href="https://theconversation.com/covid-19-made-deep-sea-mining-more-tempting-for-some-pacific-islands-this-could-be-a-problem-158550">could also damage</a> habitats and endanger wildlife. At the same time, waste electronics filled with precious metals are piling up in landfills and in some of the world’s poorest regions – with <a href="https://theconversation.com/global-electronic-waste-up-21-in-five-years-and-recycling-isnt-keeping-up-141997">2.5 million tonnes</a> added to the total each year.</p>
<p>EV batteries themselves only have a <a href="https://www.myev.com/research/ev-101/how-long-should-an-electric-cars-battery-last">shelf life</a> of eight to ten years. Lithium-ion batteries are currently recycled at a meagre rate of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-019-0376-4#ref-CR2">less than 5%</a> in the EU. Instead of mining new sources of these metals, <a href="https://www.scycle.info/urban-mine-platform-online-available-now/">why not reuse</a> what’s already out there?</p>
<h2>The recycling economy</h2>
<p>The largest lithium-ion battery recyclers are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969721009803">based in China</a>. While recycling is often treated as an obligation that companies should be paid to do in North America and Europe, competition is so intense for dead batteries in China that recyclers are willing to pay to get their hands on them. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A pallet filled with rusted car batteries." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406771/original/file-20210616-21-1jyptkv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406771/original/file-20210616-21-1jyptkv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406771/original/file-20210616-21-1jyptkv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406771/original/file-20210616-21-1jyptkv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406771/original/file-20210616-21-1jyptkv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406771/original/file-20210616-21-1jyptkv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406771/original/file-20210616-21-1jyptkv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">EV batteries could become a significant portion of global e-waste as vehicles are electrified.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pallet-holds-several-batteries-awaiting-recycling-132431996">TFoxFoto/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fchem.2020.578044/full">Most of</a> the batteries that do get recycled are melted and their metals extracted. This is often done in large commercial facilities which use lots of energy and so emit lots of carbon. These plants are expensive to build and operate, and require sophisticated equipment to treat the harmful emissions generated by the smelting process. Despite the high costs, these plants rarely recover all valuable battery materials.</p>
<p>The value of the global market for metal recycling is expected to grow from US$52 billion (£37 billion) in 2020 to <a href="https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/PressReleases/metal-recycling.asp">US$76 billion by 2025</a>. Without less energy-intensive recycling methods, this emerging industry will only exacerbate environmental problems. But there is a natural process for extracting precious metals from waste that’s been used for decades.</p>
<h2>Bugs for batteries</h2>
<p>Bioleaching, also called biomining, employs microbes which can oxidise metal as part of their metabolism. It has been widely used in the mining industry, where microorganisms are used to extract valuable metals from ores. More recently, this technique has been <a href="https://theconversation.com/were-using-microbes-to-clean-up-toxic-electronic-waste-heres-how-143654">used to</a> clean up and recover materials from electronic waste, particularly the printed <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-56430-2_20">circuit boards</a> of computers, solar panels, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0273122398002224">contaminated water</a>
and even <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/791/1/012064/meta">uranium dumps</a>. </p>
<p>My colleagues and I in the Bioleaching Research Group at Coventry University have found that all metals present in EV batteries can be recovered using bioleaching. Bacteria like <em>Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans</em> and other non-toxic species target and recover the metals individually without the need for high temperatures or toxic chemicals. These purified metals constitute chemical elements, and so can be recycled indefinitely into multiple supply chains. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A microscope view of rod-shaped bacteria stained purple." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406767/original/file-20210616-15-1nb437e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/406767/original/file-20210616-15-1nb437e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406767/original/file-20210616-15-1nb437e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406767/original/file-20210616-15-1nb437e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406767/original/file-20210616-15-1nb437e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406767/original/file-20210616-15-1nb437e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/406767/original/file-20210616-15-1nb437e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some bacteria can be used to extract metals from their ores.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/bacillus-gram-positive-stain-under-microscope-1622530273">Choksawatdikorn/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Scaling up bioleaching involves growing bacteria in incubators at 37°C, often using carbon dioxide. Not a lot of energy is needed, so the process has a much smaller carbon footprint than typical recycling plants, while also contributing less pollution. While reducing EV battery waste, bioleaching facilities mean manufacturers can recover these precious metals locally, and rely less on the few producer countries. </p>
<p>Academics working on bioleaching to stop once they’ve removed all the precious metals from the electronic waste and they’re floating in solution. This is not enough for industry. We combine bioleaching with electro-chemical methods that can fish out these metals and make them useful for supply chains. Unfortunately, existing methods in metal recycling which involve lots of energy and toxic chemicals have been used for decades. Industries can’t always afford to innovate, so it’s up to the government to mandate changes and invest in cleaner alternatives.</p>
<p>EV batteries are a technology still in their infancy. The reuse of their components should be considered as part of their design. Rather than remaining an afterthought, recycling can become both the beginning and end of an EV battery’s life cycle with bioleaching, producing high-quality raw materials for new batteries at low environmental cost.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162623/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sebastien Farnaud receives funding from Innovate UK. </span></em></p>With an average shelf life of nine years, the coming tsunami of waste EV batteries needs action now.Sebastien Farnaud, Professor of Bio-innovation and Enterprise, Coventry UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1413602021-04-16T01:13:54Z2021-04-16T01:13:54ZDemand for rare-earth metals is skyrocketing, so we’re creating a safer, cleaner way to recover them from old phones and laptops<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381271/original/file-20210129-13-15piy4d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1000%2C666&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rare-earth metals are critical to the high-tech society we live in as an essential component of mobile phones, computers and many other everyday devices. But increasing demand and limited global supply means we must urgently find a way to recover these metals efficiently from discarded products. </p>
<p>Rare-earth metals are currently mined or recovered via traditional e-waste recycling. But there are drawbacks, including high cost, environmental damage, pollution and risks to human safety. This is where our <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c04288">ongoing research</a> comes in. </p>
<p><a href="https://ifm.deakin.edu.au/">Our team</a> in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.tecnalia.com/en/">research centre Tecnalia</a> in Spain has developed a way to use environmentally friendly chemicals to recover rare-earth metals. It involves a process called “electrodeposition”, in which a low electric current causes the metals to deposit on a desired surface.</p>
<p>This is important because if we roll out our process to scale, we can alleviate the pressure on global supply, and reduce our reliance on mining. </p>
<h2>The increasing demand for rare-earth metals</h2>
<p>Rare-earth metals is the collective name for a group of 17 elements: 15 from the “lanthanides series” in the periodic table, along with the elements scandium and yttrium. These elements have unique catalytic, metallurgical, nuclear, electrical, magnetic and luminescent properties. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/renewables-need-land-and-lots-of-it-that-poses-tricky-questions-for-regional-australia-156031">Renewables need land – and lots of it. That poses tricky questions for regional Australia</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The term “rare” refers to their even, but scarce, distribution around the world, noted after they were <a href="https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/earthelements.html">first discovered</a> in the late 18th century.</p>
<p>These minerals are critical components of electronic devices, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/7/11/203">vital</a> for many green technologies; they’re in magnets for wind power turbines and in batteries for hybrid-electric vehicles. In fact, up to 600 kilograms of rare-earth metals are required <a href="https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/minerals/mineral-resources-and-advice/australian-resource-reviews/rare-earth-elements">to operate</a> just one wind turbine. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381272/original/file-20210129-19-1bom2yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="White electric car plugged into a charger" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381272/original/file-20210129-19-1bom2yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381272/original/file-20210129-19-1bom2yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381272/original/file-20210129-19-1bom2yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381272/original/file-20210129-19-1bom2yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381272/original/file-20210129-19-1bom2yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381272/original/file-20210129-19-1bom2yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381272/original/file-20210129-19-1bom2yw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rare-earth metals are essential components of electric vehicles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The annual demand for rare-earth metals <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/es203518d">doubled</a> to 125,000 tonnes in 15 years, and the demand <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/7/11/203">is projected to reach</a> 315,000 tonnes in 2030, driven by increasing uptake in green technologies and advancing electronics. This is creating enormous pressure on global production.</p>
<h2>Can’t we just mine for more rare metals?</h2>
<p>Rare-earth metals are <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/7/11/203">currently extracted</a> through mining, which comes with a number of downsides.</p>
<p>First, it’s costly and inefficient because extracting even a very small amount of rare earth metals requires large areas to be mined.</p>
<p>Second, the process can have enormous environmental impacts. Mining for rare earth minerals generates large volumes of toxic and radioactive material, due to the co-extraction of thorium and uranium — radioactive metals which can cause problems for the environment and human health.</p>
<p>Third, most mining for rare-earth metals occurs in China, which produces <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-19/australian-critical-mineral-supply-to-be-guaranteed-by-us/11716726">more than 70%</a> of global supply. This raises concerns about long-term availability, particularly after China <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-06-06/rare-earth-what-happens-if-china-cuts-global-supplies/11167100">threatened to restrict</a> its supply in 2019 during its trade war with the US. </p>
<h2>E-waste recycling is not the complete answer</h2>
<p>Through e-waste recycling, rare-earth metals can be recovered from electronic products such as mobile phones, laptops and electric vehicles batteries, once they reach the end of their life.</p>
<p>For example, recovering them from electric vehicle batteries involves traditional hydrometallurgical (corrosive media treatment) and pyrometallurgical (heat treatment) processes. But these have several drawbacks. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/clean-energy-the-worlds-demand-for-copper-could-be-catastrophic-for-communities-and-environments-157872">Clean energy? The world’s demand for copper could be catastrophic for communities and environments</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Pyrometallurgy is energy-intensive, involving multiple stages that require high working temperatures, around 1,000°C. It also emits pollutants such as carbon dioxide, dioxins and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furan#:%7E:text=Furan%20is%20a%20heterocyclic%20organic,point%20close%20to%20room%20temperature">furans</a> into the atmosphere. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, hydrometallurgy generates large volumes of corrosive waste, such as highly alkaline or acidic substances like sodium hydroxide or sulfuric acid. </p>
<p>Similar recovery processes are also applied to other energy storage technologies, such as lithium ion batteries. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381275/original/file-20210129-21-xmq4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381275/original/file-20210129-21-xmq4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381275/original/file-20210129-21-xmq4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381275/original/file-20210129-21-xmq4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381275/original/file-20210129-21-xmq4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381275/original/file-20210129-21-xmq4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381275/original/file-20210129-21-xmq4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/381275/original/file-20210129-21-xmq4uj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It’s vital to develop safer, more efficient ways to recycle e-waste and avoid mining, as demand for rare-earth metals increases.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why our research is different</h2>
<p>Given these challenges, we set out to find a sustainable method to recover rare-earth metals, using electrodeposition.</p>
<p>Electrodeposition is already used to recover other metals. In our case, we have designed an environmentally friendly composition based on <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c04288">ionic liquid (salt-based) systems</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/want-more-jobs-in-australia-cut-our-ore-exports-and-make-more-metals-at-home-124592">Want more jobs in Australia? Cut our ore exports and make more metals at home</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We focused on recovering neodymium, an important rare-earth metal due to its outstanding magnetic properties, and in <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/7/11/203">extremely high demand</a> compared to other rare-earth metals. It’s used in electric motors in cars, mobile phones, wind turbines, hard disk drives and audio devices. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nmat2448">Ionic liquids</a> are highly stable, which means it’s possible to recover neodymium without generating side products, which can affect the neodymium purity. </p>
<p>The novelty of our <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jpclett.8b03203">research</a> using ionic liquids for electrodeposition is the presence of water in the mix, which improves the quantity of the final recovered neodymium metal.</p>
<p>Unlike previously reported methods, we can recover neodymium metal without using controlled atmosphere, and at working temperature lower than 100°C. These are key considerations to industrialising such a technology.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/rare-metals-play-a-strategic-and-essential-role-in-health-156358">Rare metals play a strategic and essential role in health</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>At this stage we have proof of concept at lab scale using a solution of ionic liquid with water, recovering neodymium in its most expensive metallic form in a few hours. We are currently looking at scaling up the process.</p>
<h2>An important early step</h2>
<p>In time, our method could avoid the need to mine for rare earth metals and minimises the generation of toxic and harmful waste. It also promises to help increase economic returns from e-waste. </p>
<p>Importantly, this method could be adapted to recover metals in other end-of-life applications, such as lithium ion batteries, as a <a href="https://www.pveurope.eu/energy-storage/lithium-ion-battery-market-expected-grow-strongly-2025">2019 report</a> projected an 11% growth per annum in production in Europe. </p>
<p>Our research is an important early step towards establishing a clean and sustainable processing route for rare-earth metals, and alleviating the pressures on these critical elements.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/141360/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Cristina Pozo-Gonzalo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Rare-earth metals are currently mined or recovered via e-waste recycling — methods with drawbacks including high cost, environmental damage, and risks to human safety. This is where we come in.Cristina Pozo-Gonzalo, Senior Research Fellow, Deakin UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1479722021-01-11T13:14:46Z2021-01-11T13:14:46ZConsumer electronics have changed a lot in 20 years – systems for managing e-waste aren’t keeping up<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376831/original/file-20201231-49872-1uzkolc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C11%2C3864%2C2572&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most of the world's electronics are not recycled, posing health and environmental risks. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/abandoned-and-rusted-laptop-lying-on-riverbed-royalty-free-image/108162816">catscandotcom/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s hard to imagine navigating modern life without a <a href="https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/are-cell-phones-becoming-more-popular-toilets">mobile phone</a> in hand. Computers, tablets and smartphones have transformed how we communicate, work, learn, share news and entertain ourselves. They became even more essential when the COVID-19 pandemic moved classes, meetings and social connections online. </p>
<p>But few people realize that our reliance on electronics comes with steep environmental costs, from mining minerals to disposing of used devices. Consumers can’t resist faster products with more storage and better cameras, but constant upgrades have created a <a href="https://time.com/5594380/world-electronic-waste-problem/">growing global waste challenge</a>. In 2019 alone, people discarded <a href="https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Environment/Documents/Toolbox/GEM_2020_def.pdf">53 million metric tons of electronic waste</a>.</p>
<p>In our work as <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=oZyg9b4AAAAJ&hl=en">sustainability researchers</a>, we study how consumer behavior and technological innovations influence the products that people buy, how long they keep them and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=z6q5FZMAAAAJ&hl=en">how these items are reused or recycled</a>. </p>
<p>Our research shows that while e-waste is rising globally, it’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13074">declining in the U.S.</a> But some innovations that are slimming down the e-waste stream are also making products harder to repair and recycle.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376843/original/file-20201231-15-1o0ofkb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sending electronics to junkyards or landfills wastes an opportunity to recycle valuable materials inside them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/junkyard-with-old-computer-and-electronic-parts-ca-news-photo/144074229">Joe Sohm/Visions of America /Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Recycling used electronics</h2>
<p>Thirty years of data show why the volume of e-waste in the U.S. is decreasing. New products are <a href="https://apnews.com/article/bb5ff45b98f64123b3d408dd4a336b59">lighter and more compact than past offerings</a>. Smartphones and laptops have edged out desktop computers. Televisions with thin, flat screens have displaced bulkier <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube">cathode-ray tubes</a>, and streaming services are doing the job that once required standalone MP3, DVD and Blu-ray players. U.S. households now produce about <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13074">10% less electronic waste by weight</a> than they did at their peak in 2015.</p>
<p>The bad news is that <a href="https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling">only about 35% of U.S. e-waste is recycled</a>. Consumers often don’t know where to recycle discarded products. If electronic devices decompose in landfills, hazardous compounds can leach into groundwater, including <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2019.1640807">lead</a> used in older circuit boards, mercury found in early LCD screens and <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/9/30/toxins-in-plastics-blamed-for-health-environment-hazards">flame retardants</a> in plastics. This process poses health risks to people and wildlife. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"809910797182914560"}"></div></p>
<p>There’s a clear need to recycle e-waste, both to protect public health and to recover valuable metals. Electronics contain rare minerals and precious metals mined in socially and ecologically <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/business/batteries/congo-cobalt-mining-for-lithium-ion-battery/">vulnerable parts of the world</a>. Reuse and recycling can reduce demand for “<a href="https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2020/09/companies-struggle-comply-conflict-mineral-reporting-rules/">conflict minerals</a>” and <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/how-a-circular-approach-can-turn-e-waste-into-a-golden-opportunity/">create new jobs and revenue streams</a>. </p>
<p>But it’s not a simple process. Disassembling electronics for repair or material recovery is expensive and labor-intensive. </p>
<p>Some recycling companies have illegally <a href="https://resource-recycling.com/e-scrap/2020/12/03/former-president-of-crt-processor-sentenced-to-prison/">stockpiled</a> or <a href="https://resource-recycling.com/e-scrap/2013/08/23/abandoned-warehouses-full-crts-found-several-states/">abandoned</a> e-waste. One Denver warehouse was called “<a href="https://resource-recycling.com/e-scrap/2013/08/23/abandoned-warehouses-full-crts-found-several-states/">an environmental disaster</a>” when 8,000 tons of lead-filled tubes from old TVs were discovered there in 2013. </p>
<p>The U.S. <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/america-e-waste-gps-tracker-tells-all-earthfix">exports up to 40% of its e-waste</a>. Some goes to regions such as Southeast Asia that have <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/08/world/asia/e-waste-thailand-southeast-asia.html">little environmental oversight and few measures to protect workers</a> who repair or recycle electronics. </p>
<h2>Disassembling products and assembling data</h2>
<p>Health and environmental risks have prompted 25 U.S. states and the District of Columbia to <a href="https://www.ecycleclearinghouse.org/maps.aspx">enact e-waste recycling laws</a>. Some of these measures ban landfilling electronics, while others require manufacturers to support recycling efforts. All of them target large products, like old cathode-ray tube TVs, which contain up to 4 pounds of lead.</p>
<p>We wanted to know whether these laws, adopted from 2003 to 2011, can keep up with the current generation of electronic products. To find out, we needed a better estimate of how much e-waste the U.S. now produces.</p>
<p>We mapped sales of electronic products from the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/04/a-terminal-condition/361313/">1950s</a> to the present, using data from industry reports, government sources and consumer surveys. Then we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-020-0573-9">disassembled almost 100 devices</a>, from obsolete VCRs to today’s smartphones and fitness trackers, to weigh and measure the materials they contained.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=197&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374938/original/file-20201214-18-e30oa9.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=248&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A researcher takes apart a smartphone to find out what materials are inside.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shahana Althaf</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=382&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/374942/original/file-20201214-21-1eto45i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This dissected tablet shows the components inside, each of which were logged, weighed and measured by researchers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Callie Babbitt</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We created a <a href="https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3986969">computer model to analyze the data</a>, producing one of the most detailed accounts of U.S. electronic product consumption and discards currently available.</p>
<h2>E-waste is leaner, but not necessarily greener</h2>
<p>The big surprise from our research was that U.S. households are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13074">producing less e-waste</a>, thanks to compact product designs and digital innovation. For example, a smartphone serves as an all-in-one phone, camera, MP3 player and portable navigation system. Flat-panel TVs are about 50% lighter than <a href="https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/gwire/2009/06/15/15greenwire-some-see-e-waste-crisis-trailing-switch-to-dig-81110.html">large-tube TVs</a> and don’t contain any lead. </p>
<p>But not all innovations have been beneficial. To make lightweight products, manufacturers miniaturized components and glued parts together, making it harder to repair devices and more expensive to recycle them. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-020-01890-3">Lithium-ion batteries</a> pose another problem: They are hard to detect and remove, and they can spark <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/28/21156477/recycling-plants-fire-batteries-rechargeable-smartphone-lithium-ion">disastrous fires</a> during transportation or recycling.</p>
<p>Popular features that consumers love – speed, sharp images, responsive touch screens and long battery life – rely on metals like cobalt, indium and <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-rare-earths-crucial-elements-in-modern-technology-4-questions-answered-101364">rare-earth elements</a> that require immense energy and expense to mine. Commercial recycling technology cannot yet recover them profitably, although innovations are starting to emerge. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376830/original/file-20201231-49513-1tf9ypc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Apple’s new robot, Daisy, can disassemble nine different iPhone models to recover valuable materials that traditional recyclers cannot.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2018/04/apple-adds-earth-day-donations-to-trade-in-and-recycling-program/">Apple</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reenvisioning waste as a resource</h2>
<p>We believe solving these challenges requires a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.05.038">proactive approach</a> that treats digital discards as resources, not waste. Gold, silver, palladium and other valuable materials are now more concentrated in e-waste than in natural ores in the ground. </p>
<p>“<a href="https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200407-urban-mining-how-your-home-may-be-a-gold-mine">Urban mining</a>,” in the form of recycling e-waste, could replace the need to dig up scarce metals, reducing environmental damage. It would also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105248">reduce U.S. dependence</a> on <a href="https://www.cato.org/blog/chinas-critical-minerals-national-security-meaning-supply-chain-interdependence">minerals imported from other countries</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=245&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/376714/original/file-20201228-17-1yhxq7y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=308&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Concentration of hazardous (left) and valuable (right) materials within the U.S. e-waste stream.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Althaf et al. 2020</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Government, industry and consumers all have roles to play. Progress will require designing products that are <a href="https://www.ifixit.com/">easier to repair</a> and reuse, and persuading consumers to <a href="https://earth911.com/eco-tech/ways-to-reuse-old-laptop/">keep their devices longer</a>. </p>
<p>We also see a need for responsive e-waste laws in place of today’s dated patchwork of state regulations. Establishing <a href="https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/how-u-s-laws-do-and-dont-support-e-recycling-and-reuse/">convenient</a>, <a href="https://sustainableelectronics.org/recyclers">certified</a> <a href="https://e-stewards.org/">recycling locations</a> can keep more electronics out of landfills. With retooled operations, recyclers can recover more valuable materials from the e-waste stream. Steps like these can help balance our reliance on electronic devices with systems that better protect human health and the environment. </p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/147972/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Callie Babbitt receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the Consumer Technology Association, and the Staples Sustainable Innovation Lab.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shahana Althaf received funding from the National Science Foundation, the Consumer Technology Association, and the Staples Sustainable Innovation Lab.</span></em></p>Technical advances are reducing the volume of e-waste generated in the US as lighter, more compact products enter the market. But those goods can be harder to reuse and recycle.Callie Babbitt, Associate Professor of Sustainability, Rochester Institute of TechnologyShahana Althaf, Postdoctoral associate, Yale UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.