tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/early-childhood-development-35387/articlesEarly childhood development – The Conversation2024-03-24T08:45:39Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2244152024-03-24T08:45:39Z2024-03-24T08:45:39ZParents who believe their children can have a better future are more likely to read and play with them – South African study<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581072/original/file-20240311-30-um21gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C330%2C3020%2C2319&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Both children and parents benefit from daily play and reading activities.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">iThemba Projects</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every day, a small group of women make their way through the community of Sweetwaters, near the South African city of Pietermaritzburg, with bags of toys and books. They work as home mentors supporting families who signed up for an early childhood development intervention. They swap puzzles and stories and provide resourceful activities for children and caregivers. Even the older siblings often sit and join the stories and games.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.unicef.org/southafrica/press-releases/more-40-cent-households-surveyed-have-no-books-home">An estimated 40% of homes</a> in South Africa do not have children’s books, according to Unicef data. In Sweetwaters, my research team has found (and reports in a forthcoming academic article), that number gets up to 83%.</p>
<p>Two decades ago a non-profit organisation, <a href="https://ithembaprojects.com/">iThemba</a> Projects, was established to partner with the community of Sweetwaters to provide opportunities for education and mentoring. (The word <em>ithemba</em> means “hope” in the predominant local language, isiZulu.) </p>
<p>The organisation’s child development intervention focuses on getting parents to read to, play with and talk to their children, whether newborn or already in school. The organisation believes that if it could change parents’ beliefs about children’s potential, this would instil hope in a community with the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7498647/">highest HIV</a> infection rates in the world, <a href="https://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0211/Presentation%20QLFS%20Q2%202023.pdf">high unemployment</a>, and <a href="https://ilifalabantwana.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/SA-ECR_2019_12_09_2019_online_pages.pdf">low access</a> to early childhood education. </p>
<p>iThemba’s approach is in line with what’s long been established by developmental psychology researchers: that playing and reading time <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20150183">in early childhood</a> has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjac036">long-lasting</a> positive effects. </p>
<p>In a recent <a href="https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1007/s10826-022-02334-w?sharing_token=ElJRvEtUkzhqY_-TM1069_e4RwlQNchNByi7wbcMAY7InKGn6fXK64EbylCyxWRnGZzkr3-N2HoxUUB3Zku3fdZZFZegNXjJckpI494qGEo2LonQRaxOZWFh7kQ4EOMbgbQ5MaaaMrqzZejVjipnxpkpG0NieK7WL7D9wEOjDOc%3D">collaborative paper</a> involving my research team from the US and iThemba, we set out to understand how parental beliefs and behaviours changed throughout the intervention and what best explained their progress. </p>
<p>We know that playing and reading are parenting practices that positively influence children throughout their lives. But how can non-profits support parents in high adversity contexts? How long does it take to change parenting habits? And what are the necessary preconditions? </p>
<p>We used programme data from between 2019 and 2021 to answer these questions. We found that length of time in the programme before the pandemic influenced how much reading and playing happened during the 2020 COVID lockdown. We also found that parents who believed their children could have a better future than them were more likely to read and play with them. </p>
<h2>What the research found</h2>
<p>As part of iThemba’s programme, 157 homes were visited every two weeks by mentors – most of whom live in the community – for up to two years. The mentors tracked caregivers’ reading and playing behaviours on every visit and parents reported on their support system and beliefs about children every six months. The programme encourages parents to engage in some reading and play behaviours every day.</p>
<p>The best predictors for parental reading and playing were the amount of time people spent in the programme, whether they had friends they could depend on, and how hopeful they were about their child’s future.</p>
<p>South Africa had <a href="https://www.news24.com/citypress/news/timeline-a-look-back-at-the-past-two-years-of-lockdown-20220323">several strict lockdowns</a> during the pandemic. The programme paused from March 2020 until November that year, then home visits resumed with masks and outside. </p>
<p>The pandemic disrupted the rhythms of most households and was especially stressful for those with young children. But the families who had been in the programme for at least a year before the onset of COVID were most likely to continue reading and playing with their children during the pandemic. Moreover, the parents who reported having people they could count on to help with childcare were more likely to read and play.</p>
<p>When the programme restarted in November those same families were more hopeful than those who had not had much time in the programme before the first lockdown. As a psychology researcher who studies <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36532158/">virtuous hope</a>, I found this aspect especially striking. </p>
<p>Virtuous hope is morally driven. It is the desire for a better future that serves a common good, rather than hope for personal success or fame; it often involves personal sacrifice and long-term thinking. Even after accounting for programme engagement and support systems, parents who believed – and hoped – their children could have a better future were more likely to read and play even when their daily lives were altered by something as disruptive as a global pandemic.</p>
<h2>Slow but sustainable</h2>
<p>However, neither hopefulness nor childhood development can occur in a vacuum. The work of iThemba Projects in Sweetwaters suggests that a relationally-driven home visitation programme is a necessary catalyst. Unlike many other interventions, this one is focused on relationship building. It expects change to happen over two years rather than over the course of a weekend-long seminar. It recognises that parents and caregivers need support, not just information.</p>
<p>The parenting changes being measured are slow, yet sustainable. Caregivers slowly built habits of playing and reading with their children and reported higher beliefs that these practices were important for child development. Most <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/public-health/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2021.671988/full">existing parenting</a> interventions in low and middle income countries are less than 12 sessions. Psychology is filled with micro-interventions, focusing efforts on brief workshops. However, we typically saw stable family improvements only after six months to one year (25 sessions). This should not be surprising. Forming new habits, establishing a support system, and building hope take time.</p>
<p>Hope cannot be studied in a vacuum. Nor can it be divorced from the human drive for the betterment of one’s community. This kind of hope cannot be quickly cultivated. It is sown through repeated visits, long-term family-community partnerships, and colourful children’s books.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224415/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kendra Thomas receives funding from the John Templeton Foundation.</span></em></p>Neither hopefulness nor childhood development can occur in a vacuum. Strong relational bonds matter, too.Kendra Thomas, Associate Professor of Psychology, Hope CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2232342024-03-07T08:44:06Z2024-03-07T08:44:06ZSouth Africa: women play a key role in early childhood learning and care – but they need help accessing university<p>In South Africa, the <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201610/national-integrated-ecd-policy-web-version-final-01-08-2016a.pdf">early childhood development sector</a> is <a href="https://womensreport.africa/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/WomensReport_2021.pdf">dominated by women</a> who build creches from the ground up. These women offer services to communities that go far beyond childcare. They teach, feed and nurture children and keep them safe. They also build sustainable businesses and provide employment opportunities to members of their communities.</p>
<p>Previously managed under the Department of Social Development and currently under the Department of Basic Education, the early childhood development sector runs on an entrepreneurship model. Some individuals in the sector opt to set up and run childcare businesses; there are also many not-for-profit early childhood development centres. It’s a model that lends itself to informal sector economic practices.</p>
<p>Like most women in the informal sector in developing countries, these early childhood development practitioners work long hours for very little money. This reality echoes the findings of <a href="https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/115591468211805723/pdf/825200WP0Women00Box379865B00PUBLIC0.pdf">a World Bank report</a> which showed that women who trade in any part of the informal sector in African countries are prone to economic exploitation.</p>
<p>Most of the women who run these facilities have certificates and diplomas from vocational colleges. But they are unable to get accepted at universities so they cannot pursue degrees. This limits their earning ability and their ability to formalise their businesses.</p>
<p>Having taught in vocational colleges, I set out to better understand the obstacles faced by women early childhood development practitioners who wanted to further their studies by going to university. I <a href="https://journals.co.za/doi/full/10.14426/jovacet.v6i1.317">conducted research</a> for my doctoral studies on practitioners and their learning journeys, as well as a focus on what’s known as recognition of prior learning. </p>
<p>This concept assumes that people learn through experience; it then provides access to qualifications based on that experience. In some cases, people can also gain university credits through recognition of prior learning. This can then be used towards the completion of a higher education qualification.</p>
<p>I interviewed 11 women, aged between 33 and 46, based in Cape Town. </p>
<p><a href="https://journals.co.za/doi/full/10.14426/jovacet.v6i1.317">My findings</a> suggest two potential changes to the existing system. One, there should be a standard policy across all South African universities related to recognition of prior learning as a criterion for entrance. And two, universities should accept women early childhood development practitioners who have successfully completed early childhood development qualifications at vocational colleges. </p>
<p>The benefits would be twofold. It would benefit the women, who could build better lives for themselves and their families. And it would benefit <a href="https://theelders.org/news/empowered-women-create-empowered-societies">society</a>. <a href="https://www.unicef.org/early-childhood-development">Research has shown</a> that early childhood development is critical to children’s lives.</p>
<h2>Women’s own stories</h2>
<p>All the women in my study held early childhood development qualifications from technical and vocational education and training colleges. These qualifications train women to work in centres with babies and children between the ages of 0 and 9. They completed their qualifications while working as teachers, principals and owners of early childhood development centres. </p>
<p>The women wanted to further their education by going to university and continue training as teachers and find better employment. They applied at different universities but were rejected, primarily because their matric results – the final secondary school exam – had not qualified them for university entrance and partly because of their ages.</p>
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<p>In some cases they were unsuccessful because universities didn’t recognise their existing vocational college early childhood development qualifications. </p>
<p>The only route of access was therefore through recognition of prior learning. However, this programme is not offered at all higher education institutions for access into the faculty of education. </p>
<p>Jenna (not her real name) found out from a friend about one university’s recognition of prior learning programme. The application process was arduous and costly – Jenna paid R2,750 (about US$145) overall. She submitted her work history, certificates, a motivational letter, and letters of support from the principal of the early childhood development centre where she worked and from a mentor. She also submitted lesson plans and a portfolio reflecting her teaching philosophy. </p>
<p>Her application was successful. However, at the close of my study, because of ineffective administration from the university’s side, Jenna had not yet entered into the first year of her degree programme.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.saqa.org.za/">South African Qualifications Authority</a> allows only 10% of entrants into any undergraduate and postgraduate university programme via recognition of prior learning. Some of my participants also applied at a different university, located in the Western Cape, where Cape Town is, for this alternative route. They were advised that, even if they successfully completed the recognition of prior learning process, there was no guarantee they’d be accepted into their desired programme, because of the 10% rule. </p>
<p>In my study, different institutions managed recognition of prior learning very differently, which caused a lot of confusion for my participants – and, by extension, the many people hoping to access it. Some institutions do not consider recognition of prior learning at all. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/economies-grow-when-early-childhood-development-is-a-priority-69660">Economies grow when early childhood development is a priority</a>
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<h2>Answers</h2>
<p>I argue for a number of steps to be taken.</p>
<p>Firstly, universities should provide access to early childhood development teachers who have successfully completed vocational qualifications. They can do this by recognising these qualifications.</p>
<p>Secondly, universities should recognise prior learning and standardise recognition of prior learning processes in their access criteria. </p>
<p>Thirdly, they should make the process more affordable and easier to navigate. </p>
<p>This would help early childhood development teachers to keep learning, no matter their age. And that would be good for South Africa more broadly: when women learn, children and communities learn and grow as well.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223234/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kaylianne Aploon-Zokufa receives funding from The European Union (EU) Department of Higher Education and Training’s Teaching and Learning Development Capacity Improvement Programme (TLDCIP).</span></em></p>There should be a standard policy across all South African universities related to recognition of prior learning as a criterion for entrance.Kaylianne Aploon-Zokufa, Lecturer, University of the Western CapeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2098662023-07-18T20:02:43Z2023-07-18T20:02:43ZMore children than ever are struggling with developmental concerns. We need to help families connect and thrive<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537932/original/file-20230718-23-91tugk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C24%2C5447%2C3612&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1491440305722-061438e1cdc8?ixlib=rb-4.0.3&ixid=M3wxMjA3fDB8MHxwaG90by1wYWdlfHx8fGVufDB8fHx8fA%3D%3D&auto=format&fit=crop&w=1470&q=80">Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Early childhood has received a great deal of attention in recent weeks, as Australia has sought to understand ways to relieve the cost pressures on the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS).</p>
<p>The NDIS independent review has released its <a href="https://www.ndisreview.gov.au/resources/reports/what-we-have-heard-report#:%7E:text=We%20have%20heard%20how%20much,and%20economic%20benefits%20for%20Australia.">interim report</a>, which noted many more young children with developmental concerns were entering the scheme than was ever anticipated when it <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-decade-on-the-ndis-has-had-triumphs-challenges-and-controversies-where-to-from-here-208463">began ten years ago</a>.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/schools-mental-health-system-need-to-improve-disability-support-shorten-20230330-p5cwow.html">common explanation</a> is the lack of services available to children with developmental concerns outside of the NDIS, making the scheme the “only lifeboat in the ocean”. This is accurate, and there is near universal recognition that families need accessible options broader than just the NDIS to seek support for their child.</p>
<p>However, less attention has been paid to another possibility: that there are actually more children than ever before who are struggling with developmental difficulties. </p>
<h2>Early childhood development in Australia</h2>
<p>Early childhood is generally considered to be the period from birth to entry into primary school – typically around five years of age in Australia.</p>
<p>Early childhood is a critical period of rapid growth and development in a child’s life. The skills and security that children are provided in these years lay the foundations for health and wellbeing that impact their whole life. </p>
<p>Recent data shows signs Australian children may be experiencing developmental concerns at a greater rate than before.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.aedc.gov.au/early-childhood/findings-from-the-aedc">Australian Early Development Census</a> of more than 300,000 children entering primary school found slightly fewer children were “developmentally on track” in all areas of development – down from 55.4% in 2018 to 54.8% in 2021. At a time when Australia has never been wealthier, any backward shift in child development is a cause for concern.</p>
<p>It is also not just the NDIS that is receiving increased referrals for child developmental concerns. Health systems in states and territories have recently experienced unprecedented demand for child development services, leading to <a href="https://theconversation.com/autism-and-adhd-assessment-waits-are-up-to-2-years-long-what-can-families-do-in-the-meantime-203232">wait lists</a> up to two years long. </p>
<p>While interpreting population-wide trends is an inherently complex task, this is clear circumstantial evidence Australian children are struggling more than ever before.</p>
<p>Decades of research has identified <a href="https://www.aracy.org.au/publications-resources/command/download_file/id/309/filename/ARACY-Report-Review-of-key-risk-protective-factors-for-child-development-and-wellbeing-17-April-2014.pdf">ingredients</a> that can help promote optimal child development. These “protective” factors provide a roadmap for how we can support children and families during the early years. </p>
<p>Society has experienced significant change over past decades, and there is evidence these environmental changes have weakened some of the protective factors that support children during early development. <a href="https://www.parentingrc.org.au/news/parents-are-under-pressure-and-we-cant-just-blame-the-pandemic/">Parents are under pressure</a>, and they need help. </p>
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<h2>Weakening of protective factors in early childhood</h2>
<p>Children learn best in the early years through a combination of <a href="https://www.aap.org/en/patient-care/early-childhood/early-childhood-health-and-development/power-of-play/#:%7E:text=Play%20builds%20skills%20such%20as,skills%20such%20as%20spatial%20concepts.">play</a>, <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-10812-000">exploration</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1878929310000046">social interaction</a>. Critically, the conditions that enable this learning are created by the relationship between the child and the community around them, primarily parents and carers. </p>
<p>In supporting children’s development, parents’ most valuable commodities are time, attention and energy. But these commodities are also finite – if they are spent in one place, then they must be taken away from somewhere else. </p>
<p>The changes we have experienced as a society over the previous decades have put <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7326370/">particular pressure</a> on these commodities.</p>
<p>While parents are spending <a href="https://www.aedc.gov.au/early-childhood/findings-from-the-aedc">more time than ever</a> with their children, they are spending <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/sites/default/files/4_fathers_and_work_1909_0.pdf">no less time</a> in paid employment. The creation of increasingly busy households negatively impacts parents’ <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/media/conflict-between-work-and-family-affects-fathers-and-childrens-mental-health">stress</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0193397318301321">mood</a>, which can change the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00127-020-01944-3">family environment</a> and the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277953617306238#:%7E:text=Children's%20mental%20health%20deteriorated%20when,changes%20in%20children's%20relational%20environments.">quality of parent-child interactions</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537931/original/file-20230718-21-x4aibp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="woman holds young child, both laughing" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537931/original/file-20230718-21-x4aibp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/537931/original/file-20230718-21-x4aibp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537931/original/file-20230718-21-x4aibp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537931/original/file-20230718-21-x4aibp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537931/original/file-20230718-21-x4aibp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537931/original/file-20230718-21-x4aibp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/537931/original/file-20230718-21-x4aibp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">These days, it can be hard to find quality time to parent and play.</span>
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<p>Further impacting this is the rise of digital technology, such as smart phones. The now ubiquitous use of smartphones means that when parents are engaged with their child – for example, play, mealtimes and bedtime routines – they are also often expected (or feel compelled) to be <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/hbe2.139">available</a> to friends and work colleagues.</p>
<p>The divided attention this creates has been found to decrease the quality of, and time for, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/imhj.21908">parent-child interaction</a>, with potential flow-on effects on child <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.569920/full">language development</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5681450/">behaviour</a>. </p>
<p>Connectedness to community is one other protective factor for families, linking families to broader support as well as a sense of belonging. This is particularly true for families experiencing <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/nur.22189">social disadvantage</a> or who have a child with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0738399119302964">developmental disabilities</a>. However, there is increasing evidence <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-07-17/social-media-work-hours-cost-of-living-rising-loneliness/102563666">within Australia</a>, as with <a href="https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-social-connection-advisory.pdf">other Western nations</a>, that social contact between people is declining, which weakens the power of this protective factor.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/autism-and-adhd-assessment-waits-are-up-to-2-years-long-what-can-families-do-in-the-meantime-203232">Autism and ADHD assessment waits are up to 2 years' long. What can families do in the meantime?</a>
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<h2>Rebuilding protective factors</h2>
<p>In the short-term, we are unlikely to reverse trends in parental employment or digital technology use. There is also an argument that we shouldn’t seek to do so.</p>
<p>Work can provide families with increased financial security, and parents with a sense of purpose and belonging outside of the demands of parenting. Digital technology has also created significant benefits to the community, including social connectedness through an online environment.</p>
<p>However, we must also start the process of building back these protective factors for families. Parents and families are doing <a href="https://aifs.gov.au/research/research-reports/childrens-social-emotional-wellbeing">all they can</a> to create safe harbours within their own home. But we must do more to help parents undertake their most important role in a more supportive ecosystem.</p>
<p>Part of the solution is empowering parents with the knowledge of the importance of play, exploration and social interaction in child development.</p>
<p>Parents want to find every way possible to support their child. Helping parents understand the key ingredients of child development, and their critical role in creating the time and space for those activities, is a vital first step towards this goal.</p>
<p>But we must also build systems that meet the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jomf.12636">modern demands</a> of parenting and child development. These would include employment systems that recognise the importance of the quality of family time, not just the quantity of it. And education systems that build communities from birth, not just from age five. The restructuring of health systems to support families within communities, rather than take families out of them. Finally, economic systems that financially support parents to connect with young children, rather than financially disadvantaging those who do.</p>
<p>Society has changed, and unless we change too, our children will get left behind.</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209866/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Whitehouse receives funding from the NHMRC, the Angela Wright Bennett Foundation and the Autism CRC. </span></em></p>The increase in children with developmental concerns may flow from the erosion of protective factors that support children during early development.Andrew Whitehouse, Bennett Chair of Autism, Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2066092023-06-23T02:45:44Z2023-06-23T02:45:44ZLots of kids are ‘late talkers’. Here’s when to take action<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531068/original/file-20230609-23-o2hiep.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=25%2C17%2C5725%2C3811&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/vetYLH9Rnmg">Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As a speech pathologist, university lecturer and parent of young children, I often get asked a version of the following: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>My child isn’t talking yet. Is that a problem? And is it my fault? </p>
</blockquote>
<p>There is never a simple “yes” or “no” response, as more information is always needed. But by the end of the conversation, I nearly always end up saying “it’s worth looking into”. </p>
<p>The “wait-and-see” approach for late talkers – those who seem to be lagging behind the spoken communication of their peers – recommended by previous generations has shifted as we learn more about early childhood and how intervention can help. </p>
<h2>Who are late talkers?</h2>
<p><a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-25025-000">Late talkers</a> are children who do not speak by the usual time that others are off and chattering. They do not have a diagnosis or “primary cause” such as autism spectrum disorder, an intellectual disability or hearing loss. </p>
<p>Late talking is not an official diagnosis in the <a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</a> so clinical cut-offs vary. The most common <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031395517301347?via%3Dihub">definition</a> is that late talkers do not have 50 words and/or do not use two-word combinations by two years of age. Others believe this definition is <a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/lle15.3.119">inadequate</a>. </p>
<p>Research tends to divide this population into two categories, those children who only have issues using words (that is, they understand words) and those who have issues with both expression and comprehension. </p>
<p>Late talking is fairly common, with <a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/1092-4388(2007/106)?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">13–20%</a> of two-year-olds meeting the criteria. Children are generally assessed for late talking between two and three years via observation by a speech pathologist and parent reports. Parents are asked to provide details of any speech or language disorders in the family, how their child communicates and checklists of the words they understand or speak. </p>
<p>This information is then compared to a large sample of children, to see if they fall within the “normal range” for the number of words they know and use. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/talking-to-babies-may-contribute-to-brain-development-heres-how-to-do-it-205692">Talking to babies may contribute to brain development – here's how to do it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Will my late talker grow out of it?</h2>
<p>Around <a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/abs/10.1044/1092-4388%282003/044%29">50%</a> of children will “out-grow” their language difficulties. This explains why the “wait-and-see” recommendation has been popular for many years. But there are several problems with this approach. </p>
<p>Firstly, late talkers may not fully catch up. “Late bloomers” have been found to <a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/1092-4388%282008/029%29">underperform</a> in language and literacy measures in the later primary school years and beyond. So, while a late talker may improve, they may face ongoing but perhaps more subtle difficulties at a later age, when language skills are critical to <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/applied-psycholinguistics/article/early-productive-vocabulary-predicts-academic-achievement-10-years-later/7920854715472FBA2FDEB61A6EC21FC8">academic success</a> and socialisation. Seeking early <a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/2022_AJSLP-21-00168?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">treatment</a> may mitigate this risk.</p>
<p>Secondly, late talking can have negative impacts for the child during their toddler years. A child who has few words may seem frustrated, withdrawn or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0193397318303411">aggressive</a>. Such behaviours are more common among late talkers, likely because they lack the words to express feelings or wants. Parents may feel their children’s participation in family life and school or day care is being limited. <a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/2017_JSLHR-L-16-0310?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">Treatment</a> may help the child to catch up to their peers and/or find alternate ways to communicate, which can improve participation. </p>
<p>Lastly, but most importantly, the presence of early language difficulties is a significant risk factor for ongoing language difficulties, often diagnosed as <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-dld-the-most-common-disorder-you-have-never-heard-of-189979">developmental language disorder</a>. </p>
<p>This disorder occurs in at least one in five late talkers and can have substantial lifelong impacts on everyday functioning. <a href="https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcpp.12009">Academic performance</a> at school, self-esteem, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002199241000081X">mental health</a> and employment opportunities are all negatively associated with a developmental language disorder diagnosis. </p>
<p>The tricky part is we cannot accurately predict which late talkers will go on to develop typical language skills, and which ones will later be diagnosed with <a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/abs/10.1044/2017_JSLHR-L-16-0310">developmental language disorder</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531071/original/file-20230609-29-o8jhd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="boy sits in classroom, viewed from behind" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531071/original/file-20230609-29-o8jhd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531071/original/file-20230609-29-o8jhd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531071/original/file-20230609-29-o8jhd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531071/original/file-20230609-29-o8jhd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531071/original/file-20230609-29-o8jhd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531071/original/file-20230609-29-o8jhd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531071/original/file-20230609-29-o8jhd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kids who turn out to have development language disorder may have ongoing issues with learning and communication.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/4nKOEAQaTgA">Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-dld-the-most-common-disorder-you-have-never-heard-of-189979">What is DLD - the most common disorder you have 'never heard of'?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What are the risk factors for ongoing language problems?</h2>
<p>While is no single predictor that allows us to know for sure which children will face ongoing language problems, potential <a href="https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article-abstract/120/6/e1441/70587/Predicting-Language-at-2-Years-of-Age-A?redirectedFrom=fulltext">factors</a> <a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/abs/10.1044/2017_JSLHR-L-16-0310">include</a> being born male, a family history of language disorders, socioeconomic status, low birth weight and vocabulary size (both speaking and understanding). Disorders of speech and language cluster in families with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627310008251?via%3Dihub">genetic inheritance</a> a significant factor. </p>
<p>Reading disorders such as dyslexia are often <a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/1092-4388(2009/07-0145)?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">associated</a> with language difficulties. Other factors often mentioned by parents, such as a history of <a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/2020_JSLHR-19-00005?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">ear infections</a> or having <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S089142221300471X?via%3Dihub">older siblings</a> (who might “do the talking for them”) do not increase the likelihood of language disorder. </p>
<p>Socioeconomic status and how parents interact with their children are risk factors found in research, but they are difficult to separate from the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0276562407000467">intergenerational impacts</a> of language disorders. Parents with language problems may interact or communicate differently with their children and pass on an increased likelihood of the same traits. In most cases, not all the children in one family will be late talkers, so the environment may be one part of the puzzle. Parents should feel reassured they haven’t “caused” a language delay by speaking too little to their child. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531073/original/file-20230609-22-esj5ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Toddler sat on window sill makes face at female carer" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531073/original/file-20230609-22-esj5ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531073/original/file-20230609-22-esj5ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531073/original/file-20230609-22-esj5ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531073/original/file-20230609-22-esj5ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531073/original/file-20230609-22-esj5ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531073/original/file-20230609-22-esj5ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531073/original/file-20230609-22-esj5ai.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Early intervention can include teaching parents to recognise attempts at communication.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-child-sitting-on-window-talking-1428828602">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-being-bilingual-can-open-doors-for-children-with-developmental-disabilities-not-close-them-196599">Why being bilingual can open doors for children with developmental disabilities, not close them</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Encouraging early talk</h2>
<p>Speech pathologists now take an active but cautious view: intervene rather than watch and wait. </p>
<p><a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/2022_AJSLP-21-00168?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">Intervention</a> can be very helpful, consisting of training for parents. </p>
<p>Techniques can include: </p>
<ul>
<li>recognising and encouraging the other ways a child might be communicating (such as eye gaze, pointing, vocalising)</li>
<li>following the child’s interest during play </li>
<li>pausing more to notice and encourage the child’s communication</li>
<li>reducing frequent questioning (“What’s that?” “Who’s talking?”) </li>
<li>instead, using more language when interacting, such as describing play (“I’ve got the green playdoh. I might make a snail”). </li>
</ul>
<p>Importantly, a <a href="https://pubs.asha.org/doi/abs/10.1044/2022_AJSLP-21-00168">recent systematic review</a> examined the results from 34 different intervention studies and found that 93% of them reported improvements in expressive vocabulary for late talkers.</p>
<p>So, when I am asked if late talking is a problem, I stress there is no evidence parents are the cause of their children’s difficulties and there is help available. If your child isn’t speaking as much as other children of the same age, it’s worth looking into it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/206609/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suzanne Meldrum is a certified practising member of Speech Pathology Australia. </span></em></p>Around half of toddlers who aren’t chattering by age two will catch up later, but we can’t predict which ones.Suzanne Meldrum, Lecturer, Speech Pathology, Edith Cowan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2049132023-05-24T20:10:27Z2023-05-24T20:10:27ZBabies crawl, scoot and shuffle when learning to move. Here’s what to watch for if you’re worried<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527663/original/file-20230523-25-5avkp1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4992%2C3211&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1508883006770-5e013e5e6f73?ixlib=rb-4.0.3&ixid=M3wxMjA3fDB8MHxwaG90by1wYWdlfHx8fGVufDB8fHx8fA%3D%3D&auto=format&fit=crop&w=1738&q=80">Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Early gross motor (or whole body) movements such as crawling and walking are exciting developments and clear markers for parents watching their child’s development. But what happens when a milestone isn’t reached, or the movement itself isn’t what a parent is expecting? </p>
<p>Babies arrive in the world with inborn movements, including <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554606/">reflexes</a>. Other motor skills – such as sitting up or rolling towards a toy on a playmat – are learned as they grow. </p>
<p>Most babies begin moving towards people or objects much further away from them in the second half of their <a href="https://www.who.int/tools/child-growth-standards/standards/motor-development-milestones">first year</a>. This marks a change for parents and carers too, because they can no longer walk away for a moment and come back to find baby in the same spot. Time to think about child proofing your living spaces if you haven’t already! </p>
<p>But how can a parent or carer decide when to worry, when to get professional advice, or when to accept things are moving along just fine? </p>
<h2>Crawling, cruising, walking</h2>
<p>Commonly babies will crawl “on all fours” with bellies above the floor and hands and knees moving forward in a diagonal pattern, where right arm and left leg move together and left arm and right leg move together. This stage can last weeks or months before infants rise up to cruise on their feet while holding on to the furniture. Cruising and walking is usually observed between <a href="https://www.who.int/tools/child-growth-standards/standards/motor-development-milestones">eight and 18 months of age</a>. </p>
<p>Some children, however, move differently, and some seem to skip the crawling stage altogether. Just as there is no specific day in the first year that all babies move off their play mat to explore, there is no one way of moving across the room. </p>
<p>Some babies bottom-shuffle along while keeping their hands off the floor. Others commando crawl on their tummy, like soldiers staying low. Some babies move hands first with their bent knees to follow like they are playing game of leapfrog. Many use combinations of any or all of the above in addition to crawling before they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2023.2190867">turn one</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1636838479991545869"}"></div></p>
<h2>Quality and variety might be significant</h2>
<p>Researchers and child development professionals used to think when traditional movement sequences were not observed, there was a definite problem with the way a child’s brain or body was developing. </p>
<p>While there are some schools of thought that suggest crawling is a critical part of child development, newer theories place more emphasis on the quality and variety of movements individual babies <a href="https://eu-ireland-custom-media-prod.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/UKMEAEU/eSample/12-21/9780323760577.pdf">use to move</a>. Some research has suggested variable crawling patterns can occur in children with, and without, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2023.2190867">later developmental delay</a>. Earlier <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2006.tb02379.x">research</a> found while 90% of children achieved motor milestones by age two following a common sequence, 4.3% did not show hands-and-knees crawling at all.</p>
<p>Differences are not always cause for concern, but tuning in to your child’s movement pattern may be important if you are noticing something unexpected at this stage. Unusual, absent or delayed crawling patterns have been associated with <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fneur.2021.731374/full">cerebral palsy</a>, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/jir.12580">Down syndrome</a>, <a href="https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/cdev.13086">autism</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.809181">developmental coordination disorder</a> and other neurological, learning or developmental disorders. </p>
<p>Children with known <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/apa.16098">neurological or physical issues</a>, or adverse events <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-3733">before or at birth</a> may also experience gross motor difficulties and delays. </p>
<p>For each of these groups, early assessment and intervention are important, as they carry greater potential benefit for children and families, compared with waiting until later to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780444640291000230">address concerns</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527665/original/file-20230523-8471-kxgvc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="baby learning to walk is supported by adult" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527665/original/file-20230523-8471-kxgvc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527665/original/file-20230523-8471-kxgvc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527665/original/file-20230523-8471-kxgvc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527665/original/file-20230523-8471-kxgvc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527665/original/file-20230523-8471-kxgvc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527665/original/file-20230523-8471-kxgvc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527665/original/file-20230523-8471-kxgvc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In the second half of their first year, babies usually start moving towards people or objects.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/crop-african-american-mother-supporting-black-baby-6393175/">Pexels/William Fortunato</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/talking-to-babies-may-contribute-to-brain-development-heres-how-to-do-it-205692">Talking to babies may contribute to brain development – here's how to do it</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>A few things to watch for and investigate</h2>
<p>So, what are the signs that help parents know it is time to seek professional advice? </p>
<p><strong>Not trying to move</strong></p>
<p>By about 9–11 months there should be some regular attempts from babies to move in and out of still positions and explore the room around them. It is common for babies at this stage to use their arms and legs effectively together to direct themselves forward. </p>
<p><strong>Asymmetry</strong></p>
<p>When the left of the body is doing <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2636588">something quite different</a> from the right (or vice versa) it is a sign further assessment may be needed. </p>
<p><strong>Noticeable weakness, stiffness or discomfort</strong></p>
<p>When babies seems to be struggling with <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/dmcn.14252">movement strength or range</a>, particularly in the neck, arms, hands, or legs, this should be explored further by a health professional. Babies showing regular and ongoing signs of discomfort with their movements (such as grimacing or crying) should also be reviewed. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-early-intervention-for-infants-with-signs-of-autism-and-how-valuable-could-it-be-205839">What is 'early intervention' for infants with signs of autism? And how valuable could it be?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Get the right advice</h2>
<p>If parents or carers notice these things, it is important they raise it with a care provider, such as a maternal child and family health nurse or general practitioner. An appointment with one of these providers is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/hsc.12667">usually the first step</a> parents take when there are concerns or they want extra observation or screening. </p>
<p>Some families may already have access to a paediatric occupational therapist, physiotherapist or paediatrician. Each can complete further assessments and offer advice as needed. </p>
<p>In the vast majority of cases, parents have a good sense of <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.734341/full">when to worry</a>. If you are concerned, seek out a healthcare professional who can help answer questions and provide advice. Neither you, nor your baby need to move through this stage alone.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/toilet-training-from-birth-it-is-possible-67064">Toilet training from birth? It is possible</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204913/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charmaine is registered as an Occupational Therapist with the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency.
Charmaine Bernie is a trainer in Occupational Performance Coaching, Cognitive Orientation to daily Occupational Performance, and pathways to autism diagnosis.
</span></em></p>Some babies bottom-shuffle along. Others commando crawl on their tummy. Some babies move hands first with their bent knees following along like they are playing game of leapfrog.Charmaine Bernie, Senior Research Fellow, Early Years Research Lab, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1896142022-11-15T13:22:55Z2022-11-15T13:22:55ZHey, new parents – go ahead and ‘spoil’ that baby!<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492648/original/file-20221031-19-qf207o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C5200%2C3448&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How to soothe a crying baby? Try everything.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/woman-handing-crying-baby-boy-bottle-royalty-free-image/100955175?phrase=crying baby parent&adppopup=true">Tripod/Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When an infant cries, parents frequently wonder whether they should soothe the baby or let the baby calm itself down. If they respond to every sob, won’t the baby cry more? Isn’t that spoiling the baby?</p>
<p>I hear these questions a lot as <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=vtfvXqMAAAAJ&hl=en">a professor of child development and family science</a>. The notion of spoiling a baby remains common in the U.S., <a href="https://www.zerotothree.org/resource/help-your-child-develop-self-control/">despite evidence</a> that infants who have parents who respond to their needs are better at <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.16.4.447">calming themselves down later in life</a>.</p>
<p>Many of the students I teach say that their parents resisted calming their cries and that they turned out just fine. Of course, there are <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2008.10.007">individual differences in early childhood development</a>. There is no “<a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12446">one size fits all</a>” for parenting. </p>
<p>That said, for decades now, developmental scientists have studied emotional regulation in children and the caregiver-infant bond. There is an answer to the common question of whether it’s better to comfort a crying baby or let them learn to calm themselves down. Let me explain …</p>
<h2>Emotional regulation during infancy</h2>
<p>Infants are born with a remarkable number of capabilities. Indeed, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619895071">research shows</a> that babies seem to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-39511-9">“know” a lot more about the world we live and grow in</a> than previously believed. For instance, infants <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/358749a0">possess an understanding of numbers</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.23.5.655">object permanence</a> and even <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/09/magazine/09babies-t.html">morality</a>.</p>
<p>However, infants’ abilities are still immature. They rely on their caregivers to fine-tune those skills, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1128727">much like other young mammals</a>. </p>
<p>And one thing newborns cannot do is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK225568/">regulate their own distress</a> – whether that distress comes from feeling <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.009">cold, hunger, pain or any other discomfort</a>. That ability does not develop until approximately 4 months of age. So infants need their parents’ help to calm down. </p>
<p>Since crying is one of the first ways infants communicate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(94)00345-6">their needs to caregivers and others</a>, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.01.001">it is imperative</a> for the infant-parent bond that caregivers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1123">respond to their infant cries</a>.</p>
<p>Moreover, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhv306">research shows</a> that infant cries elicit an apparent psychological need in others to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-6383(80)80020-8">ease their distress</a>. As such, infant cries serve a fundamental purpose for both infant and caregiver.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492649/original/file-20221031-19-p24klo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Gay fathers trying to calm a crying newborn. The group is lying on bed with large window and sunlight in the background." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492649/original/file-20221031-19-p24klo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492649/original/file-20221031-19-p24klo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492649/original/file-20221031-19-p24klo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492649/original/file-20221031-19-p24klo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492649/original/file-20221031-19-p24klo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492649/original/file-20221031-19-p24klo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492649/original/file-20221031-19-p24klo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Caregivers who respond to infant needs show babies that they are worthy of love and care.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/calming-newborn-royalty-free-image/1160661226?phrase=crying%20baby%20parent&adppopup=true">Willie B. Thomas/Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Critically, infants also learn from the responsiveness of their caregivers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1068">what it feels like to calm down</a>. This feeling is similar to the internal changes that adults and older children feel when they regulate their emotions – that is, their heart rate slows and they feel at ease. This repeated experience gives <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01255.x">infants new life skills</a>: Longitudinal research indicates that infants whose caregivers respond to their distress are better able to <a href="http://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579408000023">regulate emotion and behavior as they get older</a>.</p>
<p>For babies, self-soothing likely means sucking on a pacifier or a fist. Later in life, those foundational infant calming skills learned in response to parental care develop into more adultlike habits for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02050.x">regulating distress</a>, like counting to 10 or taking deep breaths.</p>
<h2>Caregiver-infant bonding</h2>
<p>Parental responsiveness to infant cries also affects the infant-caregiver relationship. Caregivers provide the first information for infants about the predictability of the social world, the trustworthiness of others and about their own self-worth. </p>
<p>This lays the foundation for the quality of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000794">lifelong relationship</a> between a caregiver and child. When infants are soothed in times of distress, they learn that their caregiver is trustworthy and reliable. They also learn that they are <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/23093743">worthy</a> of caring, loving relationships, which positively influences their <a href="http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01112.x">future relationships</a>. </p>
<p>Caregiver responsiveness is also associated with a cascade of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000862">well-documented outcomes</a> in infants, children and adolescents, including <a href="http://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-1284">cognitive functioning</a>, <a href="http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.01.002">language development</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.870669">self-esteem</a> and <a href="http://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000579">future sensitivity to infant needs</a>. </p>
<p>The absence of caregiver responsiveness, on the other hand, is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.35.2.569">linked to later behavioral difficulties</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02202.x">developmental challenges</a>. Studies show that neglected children can struggle to bond with their peers and to cope with rejection.</p>
<p>Though one study recently reported that these <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13223">ill effects might not apply</a> at night – as in, when parents let babies “cry it out” to teach them to sleep – the major consensus in the literature is that before 4 months of age babies should not be left to cry. I recommend no earlier than 6 months because of the formation of the attachment bond, and highly encourage caregivers to consider the individual abilities of their child. Indeed, some children are able to self-regulate better than others. In addition, there are <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2019/07/15/730339536/sleep-training-truths-what-science-can-and-cant-tell-us-about-crying-it-out">alternative ways</a> to help babies learn to self-soothe at night that include responding to infant distress.</p>
<p>Fortunately, caregivers are biologically <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-02628-003">primed to care for their infants</a>. Research with animals and humans demonstrates that there are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.02.011">hormones that drive caregiving</a>. </p>
<h2>Go ahead, ‘spoil’ that baby</h2>
<p>My best advice, based on the scientific literature, is that parents should respond promptly and consistently to infant cries through at least 6 months of age. </p>
<p>But take a pragmatic approach. </p>
<p>Caregivers know the idiosyncrasies of their infants: Some may be more placid, while others are more excitable. Likewise, culture drives the goals caregivers set for themselves and their children. So, responsiveness and adaptive caregiver-infant relationships will look different for different families. Parents should act accordingly, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12446">fitting their responsiveness</a> to their infant’s needs and their <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2022.2030132">cultural context</a>. </p>
<p>However you look at it, responding to an infant’s every cry is not “spoiling” the baby. Instead, the act of soothing a crying infant provides the baby with the tools they will use to soothe themselves in the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/189614/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amy Root receives funding from National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.</span></em></p>A professor of child development explains why it’s OK – recommended, in fact – to respond to an infant’s every cry, sob and whimper.Amy Root, Professor of Applied Human Sciences, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1900102022-09-25T05:12:02Z2022-09-25T05:12:02ZBusiness mentoring and support in South Africa: how principals can improve early childhood development centres<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/484574/original/file-20220914-4946-spyrev.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=18%2C0%2C2924%2C2191&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Early learning and play are key to children's development - and their futures.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jessica Ronaasen</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Early childhood development centres, often referred to as crèches, day cares, edu-cares or preschools, are vital spaces for young children. There, they can learn and play, interacting with their peers and receiving care while their parents are at work or looking for work. These centres are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200616300047">crucial building blocks</a> for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272714000899">children’s development</a> – and their futures. </p>
<p>In South Africa, <a href="https://dboh-cmpzourl.maillist-manage.com/click.zc?m=1&mrd=1d364fb2a9769edd&od=3z5b5b23d5faf3ccec30febb087a03d44bb7fa846ad636bcf25de8b0b5d00e5d47&linkDgs=1d364fb2a9769697&repDgs=1d364fb2a9769fe6">1, 660, 3173 children</a> are enrolled in 42, 420 early childhood development programmes. </p>
<p>Early childhood development centres have another role, too, that isn’t often discussed: as employers. This is particularly important in a country like South Africa, which has an <a href="https://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=15685">unemployment rate of 33.9%</a>. Across the country, <a href="https://dboh-cmpzourl.maillist-manage.com/click.zc?m=1&mrd=1d364fb2a9769edd&od=3z5b5b23d5faf3ccec30febb087a03d44bb7fa846ad636bcf25de8b0b5d00e5d47&linkDgs=1d364fb2a9769697&repDgs=1d364fb2a9769fe6">early childhood development centres employ 165, 059 people</a>, most of them women, as “teaching” staff which. That’s a substantial and growing workforce.</p>
<p>Managing employees, children, parents and infrastructure is a tough task. That means early childhood development centre principals are key figures. They are, of course, often a facility’s public face and figurehead. But they are also business people: managers, charged with resource allocation, planning and organisational leadership. </p>
<p>These skills have become even more crucial since <a href="https://www.gov.za/speeches/minister-angie%C2%A0motshekga-ecd-function-shift-handover-1-apr-2022-0000">a shift</a> in April 2022 that means South Africa’s Department of Basic Education governs the early childhood development sector, a role that used to be performed by the Department of Social Development. Principals are called upon to be adaptable and responsive to change as the sector adjusts to the new processes and policies under the Department of Basic Education.</p>
<p>The problem, as <a href="https://scholar.sun.ac.za/handle/10019.1/123647">my recent PhD research</a> shows, is that many early childhood development centre principals don’t have the necessary human resource and programme management skills to turn the governance shift into an opportunity. Nor have they been properly taught how to coordinate the many moving parts involved in running a centre. </p>
<p>That’s despite the importance of these skills being highlighted in the government’s <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201610/national-integrated-ecd-policy-web-version-final-01-08-2016a.pdf#page=108">early childhood development policy</a>. The policy states that, by 2030, all early childhood development practitioners and principals should have adequate knowledge, skills, infrastructure, and materials to support a “comprehensive package” of early learning services. It also <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201610/national-integrated-ecd-policy-web-version-final-01-08-2016a.pdf#page=110">says that</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It is the responsibility of the government departments such as Department of Basic Education to mobilise funding and implement programmes to build the capacity of early childhood development practitioners.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>My research suggests this is an ambitious plan and deadline – but the goal doesn’t have to be unattainable with the right political will and investment in leadership.</p>
<h2>What principals told me</h2>
<p>The aim of my PhD study was to gain an understanding of the essential management competencies of principals in the early childhood development sector to effectively manage centres in South Africa. There were 30 participants; 14 were principals of early childhood development centres and 16 were managers working in the early childhood development sector.</p>
<p>Some of the problems I identified among principals (based on their own assessment and managers’ views) in my research were:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Principals were juggling many tasks without adequate skills and support. </p></li>
<li><p>A lack of financial literacy. Even when centres were generating decent income, principals didn’t always know how to manage money or set budgets. </p></li>
<li><p>Poor administrative skills and incomplete record keeping. </p></li>
<li><p>Poor communication skills. Principals know that these are key to building relationships with parents and staff, but aren’t always confident of their own skills.</p></li>
<li><p>Difficulties in registering centres or collecting the documentation necessary to do so. Principals said they often struggled to access the right information or meet the requirements for receiving government subsidies. This was especially problematic during COVID lockdowns, when extra financial support made the difference between centres surviving the pandemic or having to close their doors.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Principals also told me they lacked the resources, time and support needed for professional development that would benefit themselves and their staff. Principals and teaching staff learn on the job, but continuing education is also crucial.</p>
<p>So, what’s the way forward?</p>
<h2>Recommendations</h2>
<p>Several recommendations emerged from my research. Applying these can help the sector to meet its <a href="https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201610/national-integrated-ecd-policy-web-version-final-01-08-2016a.pdf">policy requirements</a>. </p>
<p>First, all early childhood development centres should create a document that defines a principal’s role and outlines what support they’ll need to fulfil that role. This document could help principals understand their functions and tasks better.</p>
<p>Second, training organisations and the government must prioritise both professional and personal development through forums and workshops for principals. This should be ongoing rather than once-off and requires investment both financial and in human resources.</p>
<p>Among other things, principals should be taught how to manage wages and resources, and to take accountability. Principals also need to be equipped with the necessary business management skills to seek out funding opportunities and cultivate partnerships who understand the nature of the early childhood development sector. </p>
<p>I also recommend that early childhood development centre managers and those working with such centres adopt evidence-based monitoring and evaluation processes for supporting registration and principal management processes.</p>
<p>Training and mentorship could help principals to develop their management and business skills. Establishing management competencies for principals can only improve the outcomes of South Africa’s youngest citizens. As one participant told me: “Leadership is a process, not a position. There is no organisational learning without individual learning.”</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190010/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica received funding for her Phd Research from the Oppenheimer Memorial Trust. Jessica consulted for The Do More Foundation.</span></em></p>Early childhood development principals aren’t just educators: they’re also managers and business people, and those skills are critical.Jessica Ronaasen, Postdoctoral fellow, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1864382022-07-27T14:56:22Z2022-07-27T14:56:22ZFood security ‘experts’ don’t have all the answers: community knowledge is key<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/474682/original/file-20220718-71797-y2eczw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Professor Julian May examining food supplies in the home of Brenda Siko, who runs an unregistered early childhood development centre in Worcester's Mandela Square informal settlement.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ashraf Hendricks</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>South Africa is in the grips of a food system paradox. It’s a country known for its agricultural production and has a sophisticated policy framework. Yet, millions of its residents <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cb7496en/cb7496en.pdf">are malnourished</a>. Nearly <a href="https://www.fao.org/3/cb7496en/cb7496en.pdf">one in four children are stunted</a> as a result of their mother’s poor nutrition during pregnancy and their own malnutrition in early life. </p>
<p>It is a complex crisis. And responding to it is being made even harder as climate change increasingly hits food production. <a href="http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/handle/10204/10066">Evidence suggests</a> that wildfires, irregular rainfall, heat and droughts will increasingly endanger agricultural production. This will threaten jobs in the agricultural sector. It will also affect the quantity, quality and price of food.</p>
<p>Too often, potential responses or solutions don’t take people’s own daily experiences into account. Researchers fall into the trap of habitual thinking. They make assumptions. But they do not listen to or learn from communities on the front lines of the crisis.</p>
<p>That’s why, in a rural South African town, we <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003021339-12/facilitated-dialogues-scott-drimie-colleen-magner-laura-pereira-lakshmi-charli-joseph-michele-lee-moore-per-olsson-jes%C3%BAs-mario-siqueiros-garcia-olive-zgambo?context=ubx&refId=34081abc-c2f0-46fd-bf85-d25c3a8c0d5e">adopted</a> a “learning journey” approach. This is an <a href="https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-10177-230302">innovative research process</a> whereby a broad and inclusive range of participants literally undertake a journey to explore a complex system and gain firsthand experience of problems. </p>
<p>During several “<a href="https://foodsecurity.ac.za/news/breede-river-municipality-hosts-unique-food-security-learning-journey/">learning journeys</a>”, both we and the research participants gained new perspectives on the complexity of processes related to food. Rather than looking at the issue generally, we were able to home in on place-based challenges – and potential solutions. This breaks with traditional modes of thinking that focus on “one size fits all” solutions. </p>
<p>Participants were empowered to take stock of existing local potential. They identified local assets such as crèches and informal traders that might be used to tackle elements of the food system crisis. The research also reminded us, powerfully, that people don’t live in economic sectors. They live in places.</p>
<h2>Immersing into Worcester</h2>
<p>Worcester is about 110 kilometres from Cape Town in South Africa’s Western Cape province and has a population of nearly 128,000. </p>
<p>It is typical of many rural towns in South Africa with a stark reality: a <a href="https://www.groundup.org.za/media/uploads/documents/gg-worcester-report-26.4.21.pdf#page=8">quarter of its children under five are malnourished</a>. Many adults subsist on nutritionally poor diets, resulting in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34466875/">poor health outcomes</a> like obesity.</p>
<p>Our research group has conducted three learning journeys in Worcester since late 2021. Participants include community members, local and provincial government officials, academics, activists, food advocacy groups and early childhood development practitioners. Together we have visited sites where residents procure both monthly staples and fresh fruit and vegetables and where early childhood development facilities are concentrated. It’s in these places that many Worcester residents purchase food and young children receive both care and food.</p>
<p>Immersing into these places, hosted by people affected by the food system, revealed how different systems overlap to shape dietary health.</p>
<p>The “learning journeys” offered valuable insights. For instance, it emerged that crime is a problem for food retailers as much as for consumers. Without adequate safety, people are vulnerable to crime. Another issue is that a great deal of the fresh produce sold by retailers in Worcester is sourced in Cape Town, rather than locally. This transportation of food, particularly fresh vegetables – when the same produce is grown locally – raises costs and is bad for the environment. </p>
<p>Street traders and spaza shops – small, informal food retailers that are often home-based – did much better in this regard. They offered reasonably priced and diverse fruit and vegetables sourced from local farms. </p>
<p>It also became clear that early childhood development centres play a potentially crucial role in providing nutrition to young children. But school principals complained that it was difficult to officially register their institutions. This prevented them from getting government subsidies to help feed children and from accessing land which they wished to use for food gardens. </p>
<p>After each “learning journey”, participants gathered for “learning labs”. There, people shared their experiences and insights. This is a way for everyone to share their knowledge – and to recognise that “experts” don’t have all the answers. A ward councillor reflected that when programmes don’t address food explicitly, they too often have a negative effect and perpetuate the ills in the food system.</p>
<h2>Consolidating learning, committing to action</h2>
<p>In the final session, representatives from the provincial and local governments and from civil society organisations identified new opportunities for collaboration and implementation.</p>
<p>First, the lessons of this research will be complemented with detailed urban food system mapping data using household surveys. This will be paired with spatial modelling approaches, enabling town planners to predict the likely effect of external shocks to the food system, such as those caused by climate change. They can then take local, targeted mitigating actions. </p>
<p>Work will also be conducted to help local government use food systems management to try to offset the negative impacts of climate change. The Breede Valley Municipality, of which Worcester is part, will be a critical partner throughout this process. </p>
<p>If a climate-resilient food system is to emerge in Worcester, or in similar towns throughout South Africa, it is clear that it will only do so through local cooperation, knowledge co-production, collective action, and the creation of a shared vision of what a socially just and sustainable food system looks like. We believe that our work in Worcester is an important early step in this process.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/186438/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Scott Drimie is affiliated with the Southern Africa Food Lab. In a partnership involving the DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Food Security at the University of the Western Cape, the Southern Africa Food Lab at Stellenbosch University, the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, and the Western Cape Economic Development Partnership, and with the full cooperation of the local Breede Valley Municipality (BVM), ‘learning journeys’ have taken place in the Western Cape town of Worcester. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michelle Eichinger works for the Institute for Environmental Studies at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Some of this work was part of A Long term EU- Africa research and innovation Partnership on food and nutrition security and sustainable Agriculture (LEAP-Agri) and ERA-NET cofund FOSC, research and innovation programmes funded by European Union’s Horizon 2020 under grant agreement No 727715 and grant agreement No 862555.</span></em></p>A ‘learning journey’ research process exposed a broad group of participants to local realities of the food system and childcare in a small town.Scott Drimie, Adjunct Professor, Stellenbosch UniversityMichelle Eichinger, Researcher at the Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit AmsterdamLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1715782022-01-04T13:05:57Z2022-01-04T13:05:57ZHow changing parental beliefs can build stronger vocabulary and math skills for young children<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/435937/original/file-20211206-21-mf53rq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C0%2C2110%2C1412&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Parents nurture their child's development when they tell stories and have conversations with them.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/father-playing-with-baby-son-at-home-royalty-free-image/1321335426">FG Trade/E+ Collection via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>The Research Brief is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p>
<h2>The big idea</h2>
<p>The key to improving young children’s vocabulary and math skills may lie in changing their parents’ beliefs. We describe these findings in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-25964-y">an article</a> published in October 2021 in the peer-reviewed scientific journal Nature Communications.</p>
<p>When we measured parental beliefs about child development among 479 parents of newborns living in the Chicago area, a striking pattern emerged: Better educated parents were significantly more likely than parents with lower levels of education to believe that activities such as telling stories to their children, playing with them and spending time having conversations with them affect child development. We call such activities “parental investments”.</p>
<p>To understand how socioeconomic differences in these beliefs may drive inequality in children’s skills, we designed two interventions among low-income families in the Chicago area. Both intervention programs promote <a href="https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/serve-and-return/">language-rich interactions</a> between caregivers and children. </p>
<p>Our first intervention consisted of a series of short educational videos that provided tips and information about babies’ capabilities. Parents watched the videos when they visited their pediatrician for their child’s immunizations in the first six months after birth.</p>
<p>The second intervention was more intensive. Families with a child 24 to 30 months old received home visits by specifically trained members of our research team every other week for six months. During the 12 visits, the home visitors showed an educational video to the parents and then did an activity that demonstrated how to put the concepts covered in the video into practice. These demonstrations included, for example, how to use descriptive language with their child or incorporate math into everyday routines. Finally, the home visitors gave feedback and set goals for the next visit.</p>
<p>At the end of both experiments, parents were more likely to believe that parental investments affect child development than parents that did not get the interventions.</p>
<p>But we also found that parents in the more intensive program had significantly more interactions with their children than parents that did not get the intervention. The less intensive program had a similar but smaller effect on parent-child interactions. </p>
<p>Importantly, our results also indicate that the children whose parents received the home visits developed higher vocabulary and math skills – as well as improved socio-emotional health – immediately after the intervention and six months later, compared to those that did not get the interventions. As these are indicators of school readiness, it means that kids who got the treatment were better prepared for school. The first intervention, on the other hand, did not improve children’s vocabulary, which was the main outcome of interest for that program.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Research shows that socioeconomic inequalities in child development <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1155/2011/343016">begin well before school starts</a>. Investing in the early years of a child’s development can improve a variety of outcomes later in life, such as employment, <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1126/science.1251178">earnings</a> and <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1126/science.1248429">physical health</a>. </p>
<p>During the first years of life, <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1257/aer.20150183">parental investments are critical</a> for the healthy development of children. Yet socioeconomic differences in parental investments, which have been consistently observed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08308-7_5">over time</a> and <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1121241109">across countries</a>, exacerbate the educational and income inequalities that are often seen in modern economies.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>The fact that only our more intensive intervention succeeded in making kids better prepared for school suggests that simply providing families with more information on child development and parenting is insufficient.</p>
<p>Our future work will address how to personalize support for families. We are developing a computer-adaptive version of the survey we used to elicit parental beliefs. This will tailor to each parent’s specific knowledge and needs and help us identify the most appropriate programs for each family.</p>
<p>[<em>Too busy to read another daily email?</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-toobusy">Get one of The Conversation’s curated weekly newsletters</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171578/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Demonstrating for parents how to talk with their babies and toddlers can improve kids’ vocabulary and math skills, new research finds.Julie Pernaudet, Research Associate in Economics, University of ChicagoDana Suskind, Professor of Surgery and Pediatrics, University of ChicagoJohn List, Professor of Economics, University of ChicagoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1708512021-11-16T13:13:06Z2021-11-16T13:13:06ZHow getting kids to make grocery lists and set the table can improve their vocabulary and willingness to learn<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/430097/original/file-20211103-18-1lx7jae.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children can help make grocery lists and confirm the parent has bought everything on the list. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/helping-my-mom-to-do-grocery-shopping-royalty-free-image/1322934880">Antonio Diaz/iStock/Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Reading, writing and math are often thought of as subjects that children learn in school. But as a <a href="http://psychology.pitt.edu/people/diana-leyva-phd">psychologist who researches</a> how families can help <a href="http://foodforthought.pitt.edu/index.html">support learning at home</a>, I have found that children can also learn those skills through everyday tasks and chores. One of these chores is preparing a meal – everything from grocery shopping and cooking to setting the table and enjoying the meal. </p>
<p>Our research shows this is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/703104">especially true for Latino families</a> living in the U.S., many of whom are new to school systems in the U.S. but for whom family dinners are a central part of the day.</p>
<p>Our study included 248 Latino parents with kids in kindergarten. Some parents were given a set of tips – described below – on how to support children’s language, literacy and math at home while selecting, preparing and eating food. Parents were asked to use these tips for at least a month. Other parents were not given these tips. </p>
<p>Our study found that the children whose parents were given these tips had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13698">larger vocabularies and more motivation to learn</a> both one month after using the tips and even five months later. These children were also better storytellers and were better able to control their behavior and pay better attention compared with children whose parents were not given these tips. </p>
<p>Busy parents in particular <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.07.001">loved these tips</a> because they were easy to follow and to fit into their regular schedules and did not require extra work or special materials. </p>
<h2>1. Make grocery lists</h2>
<p>Parents can ask their children to write out the grocery list before they go food shopping. While older children can use letters and numbers – for example, “2 cereal boxes, 10 bananas,” younger children might be encouraged to draw pictures of the items their parents want to buy or to use a combination of letters, numbers and pictures.</p>
<p>A 2017 study found that the more parents let their children try out writing and reading letters and numbers on their own while making grocery lists, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200617300042">better the children’s reading and math skills</a> are later.</p>
<p>Once back from the store, parents can ask children to use their grocery list to check whether the parents bought everything on the list. This is a great way for children to practice writing, reading and math. </p>
<h2>2. Cooking and setting the table</h2>
<p>Gathering and mixing the ingredients for cooking or setting the table are opportunities for kids to <a href="https://dreme.stanford.edu/news/family-math-research-and-practice-where-do-we-go-here">practice math</a> in a playful and familiar way. We found that practicing math with children during these household chores can also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13698">increase kids’ motivation to learn math</a>. </p>
<p>Ask your child questions such as: Can you get five apples from the fridge? I added 4 cups of milk plus one more – how many are there in total? How many plates and forks do we need today?</p>
<h2>3. Tell stories at mealtime</h2>
<p>Parents can use family dinner and other meals to encourage children to tell stories about their day. Telling stories about past or future events is a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13034">great way to build skills like vocabulary and story comprehension</a> that are needed to read. </p>
<p>To get children to talk, parents should use lots of questions that require children to come up with their own answer rather than simply responding with a “yes” or a “no.” For example: Who came with you to the party? Where did you go with Grandma? Why were you scared? </p>
<p>Talking about topics that the child cares about can also help parents get children to talk. To keep the child engaged in the conversation, parents can ask follow-up questions like “And then what happened?” They can also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2010.481552">repeat back what the child says</a>. For example, if the child says “We went to the park,” the parent might respond “That’s right, we went to the park!” and use phrases such as “Uh-huh,” “Oh,” “I didn’t know that” and “Really?” to keep the conversation going.</p>
<h2>4. Use the language that’s most comfortable</h2>
<p>Parents should feel free to talk in the language they know best. Many parents might feel pressured to speak in one language - such as English – at home because this is the language used in school. However, when parents speak in the language they are most familiar with, they are better able to express their thoughts and feelings while also preserving their culture. Speaking a native language at home is not detrimental to children’s learning. When children have strong foundations in one language – such as Spanish – they can use that knowledge as a <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED595539">building block for learning a second language</a> – such as English. </p>
<p>Our research is based primarily on Latino families, who place particular value on family meals. Latino families tend to eat together <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7445606/">more often</a> than families from other ethnicities. They are also more likely to cook at home and involve children in kitchen chores. </p>
<p>However, these tips apply to all families who regularly cook, eat and shop for food together. And they can help busy parents support their young children’s learning without much added burden or spending.</p>
<p>[<em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-newsletter-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/170851/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Diana Leyva received funding from the Brady Education Foundation. Diana Leyva is an Associate Professor of Psychology and a Research Scientist at the Learning Research and Development Center (LRDC) at University of Pittsburgh</span></em></p>Grocery shopping and family meals are prime opportunities to build reading and math skills – particularly for young Latino children, a new study finds.Diana Leyva, Associate Professor of Psychology, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1518172021-01-05T13:09:24Z2021-01-05T13:09:24ZFewer kids are enrolled in public kindergarten – that will have a lasting impact on schools and equity<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375706/original/file-20201217-19-14zuo5k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=71%2C5%2C3922%2C2628&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A kindergarten student practices social distancing in the playground of her private school.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/kindergarten-student-scarlett-bates-on-the-playground-news-photo/1229580824?adppopup=true">Al Seib/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377051/original/file-20210104-13-lxsx4t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/377051/original/file-20210104-13-lxsx4t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377051/original/file-20210104-13-lxsx4t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377051/original/file-20210104-13-lxsx4t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377051/original/file-20210104-13-lxsx4t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377051/original/file-20210104-13-lxsx4t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/377051/original/file-20210104-13-lxsx4t.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=321&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="attribution"><a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>Public school <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/10/09/920316481/enrollment-is-dropping-in-public-schools-around-the-country">enrollment is down</a> across the country. For example, enrollment is down by <a href="https://news.wttw.com/2020/10/16/cps-enrollment-drops-15k-students-amid-pandemic-remote-learning">15,000</a> in Chicago public schools and by more than <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/dc-says-20000-students-started-the-enrollment-process-but-did-not-complete-it/2020/09/11/2aca8a66-f448-11ea-999c-67ff7bf6a9d2_story.html">20,000</a> in the District of Columbia’s public schools. The trend is particularly acute among pre-K and kindergarten students. In an NPR survey of 60 U.S. districts in 20 states, public kindergarten enrollment was <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/10/09/920316481/enrollment-is-dropping-in-public-schools-around-the-country">down 16% on average</a>.</p>
<p>Delaying children’s kindergarten entry is not new, but the pandemic has broadened its scope. And that has the potential to exacerbate already wide educational inequities. As a <a href="https://www.american.edu/spa/faculty/morrisse.cfm">child and family policy researcher</a> and a parent of two children under 7, I believe the new trend is concerning.</p>
<h2>Why enrollment dropped</h2>
<p>In a typical year, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373713482764">about 5%</a> of kindergarten-age children are “redshirted” – their entry to school delayed. The phrase originally <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/redshirt">referred to college athletes</a> who were held back from competing on varsity teams. Parents might <a href="https://www.educationnext.org/is-your-child-ready-kindergarten-redshirting-may-do-more-harm-than-good/">delay kindergarten</a> until their children are more socially, emotionally and physically mature.</p>
<p>Research suggests that this extra year before entering school may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1806828">improve children’s attention</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3638">self-regulation</a>. But the academic benefits of redshirting <a href="https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.44.3.641">seem to decline</a> as children <a href="https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/full/10.1162/EDFP_a_00191">age into middle and high school</a>. </p>
<p>The reasons for kindergarten delay this past year, however, are unique to the pandemic. </p>
<p>Many families have <a href="https://medium.com/rapid-ec-project/somethings-gotta-give-6766c5a88d18">no in-person school option</a> and may be understandably <a href="https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2020/10/29/most-parents-of-k-12-students-learning-online-worry-about-them-falling-behind/">wary of the effectiveness of online learning</a>, especially for younger children. Parents have long heard from the <a href="https://www.healthychildren.org/English/family-life/Media/Pages/Where-We-Stand-TV-Viewing-Time.aspx">American Academy of Pediatrics</a>, the <a href="https://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/newsletter/2019/05/media-use-childhood">American Psychological Association</a> and other groups about the harms of too much screen time, and so some may have opted to avoid it for their children’s schooling.</p>
<p>And, virtual learning simply can’t offer the interactions with toys, physical games, peers and teachers that young children need to build <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-not-just-abcs-preschool-parents-worry-their-kids-are-missing-out-on-critical-social-skills-during-the-pandemic-150434">foundational skills</a> like compromise.</p>
<p>Many parents are also <a href="https://medium.com/rapid-ec-project/somethings-gotta-give-6766c5a88d18">incredibly stressed</a> as they try to balance work and family demands – now 10 months into the pandemic. Managing children’s Zoom schedules, organizing learning materials and overseeing at-home assignments adds to an already overflowing plate. The problem is worse for parents who cannot work from home and are left with <a href="https://www.urban.org/research/publication/meeting-school-age-child-care-needs-working-parents-facing-covid-19-distance-learning">few child care options</a>.</p>
<p>For families with in-person or hybrid schooling options, public health measures like masks and social distancing make kindergarten a less welcoming environment. And, of course, health concerns about <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/on-parenting/back-to-school-in-a-pandemic-a-guide-to-all-the-factors-keeping-parents-and-educators-up-at-night/2020/08/05/479542b4-d740-11ea-aff6-220dd3a14741_story.html">catching the coronavirus</a> have led more families to <a href="https://ihpi.umich.edu/news/ihpi-briefs/plans-school-attendance-and-support-covid-19-risk-mitigation-measures-among-parents-and-guardians">keep their children home</a> this year. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Young girl raises hand in classroom" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375725/original/file-20201217-15-77hlzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/375725/original/file-20201217-15-77hlzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375725/original/file-20201217-15-77hlzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375725/original/file-20201217-15-77hlzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375725/original/file-20201217-15-77hlzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375725/original/file-20201217-15-77hlzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/375725/original/file-20201217-15-77hlzo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">When schools return to in-person learning full time, teachers will have to teach to a wider range of skills and needs among their students.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/kindergarten-students-in-the-classroom-of-teacher-ursula-news-photo/1229580600">Al Seib/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>Impact on learning and equity</h2>
<p>In a typical year, boys, white children and children from high-income families are <a href="https://www.educationnext.org/is-your-child-ready-kindergarten-redshirting-may-do-more-harm-than-good/">most likely</a> to be held back. However, this year school enrollment is down disproportionately among <a href="https://news.wttw.com/2020/10/16/cps-enrollment-drops-15k-students-amid-pandemic-remote-learning">Latino</a> and <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/20/nyregion/nyc-schools-reopening-coronavirus.html">Black</a> children. This compounds the inequitable access to in-person schooling. </p>
<p>One <a href="https://medium.com/rapid-ec-project/somethings-gotta-give-6766c5a88d18">survey found</a> that half of Latino, Black and single-parent families had fully remote schools compared to a third of white families. Moreover, limited internet and device access also contributes to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-remote-learning-is-making-educational-inequities-worse-150709">inequities in remote learning</a>. </p>
<p>What widespread delays in kindergarten enrollment means for children’s learning depends on how they are spending their time when they are not in public school. Some children, especially those from high-income families, are <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/09/your-money/private-schools-wealthy-parents.html">attending private schools</a>, which are more likely to offer in-person schooling. An increasing number of families are <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2020/09/homschooling-boom-pandemic/616303/">choosing to home-school</a>. </p>
<p>But for some children, economic insecurity, <a href="https://aspe.hhs.gov/execsum/measures-material-hardship">material hardship</a> and increased stress at home can <a href="https://bfi.uchicago.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/BFI_WP_2020143.pdf">change family dynamics</a> and lead to <a href="https://medium.com/@TulsaSEED/parents-teachers-and-distance-learning-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-a-snapshot-from-tulsa-ok-5b5fdb54ea18">fewer opportunities for learning</a>. </p>
<p>These pressures are even higher for the families – <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/health-equity/race-ethnicity.html">disproportionately those of color</a> – who face personal or family illness, unemployment or smaller paychecks. A recent report by the Urban Institute found that in September 2020, <a href="https://www.urban.org/research/publication/forty-percent-black-and-hispanic-parents-school-age-children-are-food-insecure">four in 10</a> Latino and Black families reported food insecurity, compared to 15% of white families – all historically high figures. </p>
<p>Inequities in children’s kindergarten experiences compound <a href="https://www.russellsage.org/publications/cradle-kindergarten">inequities in early childhood experiences</a>. Research consistently shows the <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/duke_prekstudy_final_4-4-17_hires.pdf">benefits of early childhood education</a> for children’s development. But access to early learning opportunities has become <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/early-childhood/reports/2020/06/22/486433/coronavirus-will-make-child-care-deserts-worse-exacerbate-inequality/">even more inequitable</a> in the pandemic, according to a report from the Center for American Progress.</p>
<p>These inequities exacerbate the already wide racial, ethnic and socioeconomic achievement gaps. For example, recent evidence suggests that children’s <a href="https://tracktherecovery.org/">progress in math</a> is down, and more so among children in low-income communities. Many <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/education/2020/12/03/covid-daycare-online-preschool-kindergarten/3787766001/">young children</a> are not meeting the benchmarks for early literacy and numeracy skills, which puts them at risk for <a href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/fact-sheets/2005/06/15/why-all-children-benefit-from-prek">long-term academic problems</a>. </p>
<h2>Impact on schools</h2>
<p>When schools eventually reopen full-time, teachers will have to teach to a wider range of skills and needs among their students as a result of these widening achievement gaps. And, it’s likely that the kindergarten class of 2021-2022 will be larger than normal, creating hassles around class sizes, space and staff needs.</p>
<p>For now, the lower enrollment hurts public school budgets. </p>
<p>Schools typically receive public funds based on a per-child allotment that depends on child enrollment and attendance. With enrollment and state and local revenues down, spending on K-12 schools is estimated to <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/research/education/school-officials-await-potential-covid-19-related-budget-cuts-magazine2020.aspx">decrease as much as 10%</a> in the 2021 fiscal year. In the long term, public schools may face permanent decreases in enrollment as some families opt to remain in private school or keep homeschooling.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Decreased funds come at a time when <a href="https://www.ewa.org/blog-educated-reporter/school-budget-cuts-amid-covid-19-eight-areas-watch">schools’ costs are up</a>. Schools have had to train teachers in virtual learning and expand health and safety measures, like upgrading ventilation systems and hiring more staff for smaller classrooms. </p>
<p>Public schools will need <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/10/23/926815076/americas-school-funding-crisis-budget-cuts-rising-costs-and-no-help-in-sight">more financial relief</a> to recover. The <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2020/12/20/politics/second-covid-stimulus-package-details/index.html">December 2020 COVID-19 relief package</a> includes <a href="https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-health-care-reform-legislation-immigration-coronavirus-pandemic-554c5afcf6bac1ac995b294167a36ff6">US$54 billion</a> for K-12 public education, although it might not be enough to fully repair the damage from the pandemic.</p>
<p>Given the pressures on families, combined with hopeful news about vaccines, it’s not surprising that parents are choosing to wait until next year to send their children to school. While we won’t know the full impact on children’s learning or school budgets for years, fewer children in kindergarten now is likely to have long-term, cascading consequences for everyone.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/151817/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Taryn Morrissey has received funding from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Bainum Family Foundation, the Perigee Fund, the Gates Foundation, the Peter G. Peterson Foundation, the Ford Foundation, and Advocates for Children of New Jersey. In 2020, Dr. Morrissey is a Senior Fellow at the Center for American Progress. </span></em></p>Kindergarten enrollment dropped 16% this year, according to an NPR survey of 60 school districts across 20 states.Taryn Morrissey, Associate Professor of Public Administration and Policy, American University School of Public AffairsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1295002020-01-22T13:37:48Z2020-01-22T13:37:48ZIs secondhand screen time the new secondhand smoking?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309496/original/file-20200110-97149-11gg9fc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=543%2C860%2C4489%2C2489&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Babies need to make eye contact with people, not phones.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/father-lures-his-child-along-with-an-iphone-during-warmups-news-photo/814600922?adppopup=true">AFP via Getty</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Environmental Protection Agency first warned of <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/secondhand_smoke/index.htm">secondhand smoke</a> in <a href="http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/tid/tok46e00">1991</a>, some <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/jun/02/thisweekssciencequestions.cancer">30 years</a> after scientists determined that smoking cigarettes causes cancer. Today, a <a href="https://psychcentral.com/lib/the-effects-of-screen-time-on-children/">growing body of research</a> points toward a new indirect health hazard.</p>
<p>Just as frequently being around other people while they smoke <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/in-depth/secondhand-smoke/art-20043914">can cause cancer, heart disease, lung disease</a> and other ailments, what I call “secondhand screen time” could be <a href="https://time.com/4168688/cell-phone-distracted-parenting-can-have-long-term-consequences-study/">endangering children</a>.</p>
<p>By not limiting their own phone use, parents and other caregivers may be unwittingly setting kids up to be addicted to screens.</p>
<h2>An addiction</h2>
<p>A decade ago, the unwillingness – or perhaps the inability – of the college students in my <a href="http://www.joellerenstrom.com/">writing classes</a> to stay off their phones for 50 minutes at a stretch catalyzed <a href="https://aeon.co/essays/can-students-who-are-constantly-on-their-devices-actually-learn">my interest</a> in screen use. And my students have only grown more unwilling to put down their phones, a trend that has also gotten worse <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/08/22/how-teens-and-parents-navigate-screen-time-and-device-distractions/">outside of my classroom</a>.</p>
<p>Curious about my students’ phone use, I began researching screen addiction and conducting my own surveys. Roughly <a href="https://aeon.co/ideas/what-happened-when-i-made-my-students-turn-off-their-phones">20% of my students</a> have used the word “addiction” when describing their phone habits, and many more have expressed misgivings about their phone use.</p>
<p>While I encourage them to examine their habits, I blame students less for their tech addiction than I did a decade ago. They’ve learned this behavior from adults – in many cases since the moment they were born. </p>
<p>Checking Twitter in front of kids is not the same as blowing smoke in their faces. Smartphones and cigarettes do, however, have some things in common. Both are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182239">addictive</a> and both became wildly popular before researchers learned about their addictive properties and health dangers.</p>
<p>On average, American adults touch their phones <a href="https://blog.dscout.com/hubfs/downloads/dscout_mobile_touches_study_2016.pdf">over 2,500 times</a> a day. According to the <a href="https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/addiction/what-is-addiction">American Psychiatric Association</a>, that fits the definition of addiction: “a condition in which a person engages in the use of a substance or in a behavior for which the rewarding effects provide a compelling incentive to repeatedly pursue the behavior despite detrimental consequences.” While researchers continue to study the effects and extent of phone use, the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5076301/">scientific consensus</a> is that phone addiction is real.</p>
<h2>Desiring objects</h2>
<p>What’s a parent to do while nursing or when an infant falls asleep on one’s chest?</p>
<p>Perhaps they’ll read the news, check email, text friends or scan social media parenting groups. A phone or tablet can be a portal to the rest of the world – after all, caring for small children can be isolating.</p>
<p>But kids, even <a href="https://www.webmd.com/parenting/baby/baby-development-3-months#2">babies</a>, notice these habits. They see parents reach again and again for a seemingly magical object that glints and flashes, makes sounds and shows moving images.</p>
<p>Who wouldn’t want such a wonderful plaything? Trouble is, if the desire for a phone builds in infancy, it can become second nature.</p>
<h2>Troubling research</h2>
<p>Some researchers have already found links between excessive screen time, particularly phone use, and <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.3176?">attention deficits</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4111611/">behavioral issues</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17974734/">sleep problems</a>, <a href="https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/excessive-screen-time-may-hurt-a-child-s-ability-to-understand-emotions-study-1.1972211">impaired social skills</a>, <a href="https://www.floridatechonline.com/blog/psychology/how-smartphones-are-contributing-to-the-loneliness-epidemic/">loneliness</a>, <a href="https://www.anxiety.org/smartphone-use-and-its-relationship-to-anxiety-and-depression">anxiety</a> and <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/09/has-the-smartphone-destroyed-a-generation/534198/">depression</a>. </p>
<p>Researchers from Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and Israel’s Educational Neuroimaging Center recently published a study in
<a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.3869">JAMA Pediatrics</a> that focused on cognitive-behavioral risks of exposing preschool-aged kids to screen-based media. That includes video games, TV, websites and apps. Phones are particularly problematic, the study found, because they provide mobile access to all of this media. They found that screen exposure impedes the formation of nerve systems involved in language development, expression and reading skills.</p>
<p>These findings point to yet another consequence of excessive screen time, especially for younger kids. Since <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/mobile/">96%</a> of Americans have phones, many babies are exposed to screens soon after they’re born and the stakes of such exposure are becoming better understood. </p>
<p>To be sure, it’s hard if not impossible to assess how much time Americans are spending looking at screens given the countless different ways that people use their devices. And because not all screen time is equally good or bad for you, some <a href="https://theconversation.com/screen-time-conclusions-about-the-effects-of-digital-media-are-often-incomplete-irrelevant-or-wrong-129960">experts are calling</a> for a “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00032-5">Human Screenome Project</a>” to assess what we’re doing on our screens and to figure out what the consequences might be.</p>
<h2>Developing brains</h2>
<p>When <a href="https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/addiction/adolescent/">younger kids</a> are exposed to <a href="https://bangordailynews.com/2016/03/05/the-point/why-drugs-are-so-much-more-dangerous-for-young-people-than-adults/">harmful, habit-forming behaviors</a>, such as smoking cigarettes or <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/nov/22/gambling-children-hooked-public-health">gambling</a>, they’re more likely to become <a href="https://www.ohelfamily.org/?q=mental_health/addiction_children_and_adolescents">addicted</a> to those same substances or behaviors. Exposure to secondhand smoke itself also can make kids <a href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/moderate-levels-secondhand-smoke-deliver-nicotine-brain">prone to cigarette addiction</a>.</p>
<p>While scientists don’t yet know for sure if that happens to kids who observe their parents’ phone use, there’s ample evidence that <a href="https://psychcentral.com/news/2018/05/27/modeling-behavior-for-children-has-long-lasting-effects/14139.html">kids learn from and mimic their parents’ behaviors</a>. If children see their parents do something they’re not allowed to do, that behavior doesn’t seem bad or wrong, and they may desire the “<a href="https://theconversation.com/forbidden-fruit-are-children-tricked-into-wanting-alcohol-12457">forbidden fruit</a>” all the more.</p>
<p>My mom, a lifelong smoker, had her first cigarette when she was 12. After dinner one night, her parents, both of whom smoked multiple packs of unfiltered cigarettes each day, lit up and her dad handed her the pack. This was in the 1950s, before people knew the effects of smoking.</p>
<p>When she took a drag, instead of coughing, she felt like she’d “died and gone to heaven.” My mom’s parents smoked so often in front of her that she both wanted to do it and knew exactly how.</p>
<p>When I see toddlers navigate smartphones as though they were born using them, this story springs to mind.</p>
<p>I’ve seen parents hand over iPhones to 2-year-olds to placate them in restaurants, just as mine sometimes plopped me down in front of the TV to keep me occupied. The difference is that I couldn’t bring the TV to the dinner table, or anywhere else.</p>
<p>John Hutton, a pediatrician who researches the effects of phone use, <a href="https://whnt.com/2019/11/06/mris-show-screen-time-linked-to-lower-brain-development-in-preschoolers/">has found that</a> roughly 90% of U.S. babies are exposed to screen time before their first birthday, and that it’s not uncommon for 2- or 3-month-olds to watch phones. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309486/original/file-20200110-97171-2o29t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309486/original/file-20200110-97171-2o29t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/309486/original/file-20200110-97171-2o29t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309486/original/file-20200110-97171-2o29t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309486/original/file-20200110-97171-2o29t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309486/original/file-20200110-97171-2o29t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309486/original/file-20200110-97171-2o29t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/309486/original/file-20200110-97171-2o29t9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Addiction to mobile devices is widespread.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/people-sitting-on-bench-in-a-shopping-mall-are-texting-on-news-photo/543685807?adppopup=true">Jiangang Wang/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Breaking old habits</h2>
<p>The human brain continues developing until we’re <a href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=141164708">roughly 25 years old</a>, so teenage behavior can have a significant and lasting impact. Research indicates that the <a href="https://www.rollinghillshospital.org/brains-teens-young-adults-prone-addiction-deadly-consequences/">adolescent brain</a> is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2892678/">particularly prone</a> to risk-taking, peer-seeking and lack of impulse control.</p>
<p>Between that and a lifetime of fetishizing screens, is it any wonder that so many teenagers <a href="https://www.pewinternet.org/2018/05/31/teens-social-media-technology-2018/">won’t put their phones down</a>?</p>
<p>My college students describe the disconcerting and disappointing quiet that sets in when they’re at a table in the dining hall or in someone’s dorm room and everyone’s deep into a phone. Phones facilitate an incalculable amount of <a href="http://www.doi.org/10.1145/2145204.2145322">important interactions</a> for them, especially with friends and family back home.</p>
<p>But by the time they’re in college, they can recognize and articulate at least some of what they’re missing when they spend so much time staring at screens. They can assess their own habits and implement some changes if they so choose, but it makes sense that they, having been raised with this techno-magic, would never think of giving it up.</p>
<p>A 2-month-old or a 2-year-old, however, <a href="https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/Pages/American-Academy-of-Pediatrics-Announces-New-Recommendations-for-Childrens-Media-Use.aspx">can’t do that</a>. Since the frontal cortex of an <a href="https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/The-Teen-Brain-Behavior-Problem-Solving-and-Decision-Making-095.aspx">adolescent brain is still developing</a>, teenagers aren’t fully able to reason or control impulses. </p>
<p>Perhaps, most adults can’t either. But since it’s up to today’s adults to shape younger generations, we should be aware of the secondhand effects of our own behavior.</p>
<p>[ <em>Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybest">Sign up for our weekly newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129500/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joelle Renstrom does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Parents who use screens excessively in front of their kids may unwittingly sow the seeds of screen addiction and its consequences.Joelle Renstrom, Lecturer of Rhetoric, Boston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1250532019-11-12T19:03:39Z2019-11-12T19:03:39ZIt’s 25 years since we redefined autism – here’s what we’ve learnt<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/300582/original/file-20191107-12521-1pg5b01.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The frequency and intensity of repetitive behaviours vary between mild and severe, which is why it's called a spectrum.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/boy-headphones-looking-out-window-airport-219436822?src=4360f59d-f1ce-4544-ab94-e99b723f70cc-2-6">Dubova/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s 25 years since the fourth edition of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-the-dsm-14127">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual</a> (DSM-IV) was published. The manual is the clinical “bible” that defines the criteria for the diagnosis of psychiatric and neurodevelopmental conditions, and was a landmark document for autism spectrum disorder.</p>
<p>The first mention of autism came in the third edition of the DSM in 1980, with the introduction of the diagnostic category of “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3716967">infantile autism</a>”. This label was generally only applied to children with substantial language impairment and intellectual disabilities.</p>
<p>In 1994, the DSM-IV recognised people could also show the core behaviours of autism without having significant language impairment or any intellectual disability. This change in how we described autism contributed to a <a href="https://theconversation.com/do-more-children-have-autism-now-than-before-4497">surge in diagnoses</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/do-more-children-have-autism-now-than-before-4497">Do more children have autism now than before? </a>
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<p>There was also a surge in autism research, from around <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=(Autism%5BTitle%5D)%20AND%20(%221994%2F01%2F01%22%5BDate%20-%20Publication%5D%20%3A%20%221994%2F12%2F31%22%5BDate%20-%20Publication%5D)">96 studies</a> in 1994, to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=(Autism%5BTitle%5D)+AND+(%222000%2F01%2F01%22%5BDate+-+Publication%5D+%3A+%222000%2F12%2F31%22%5BDate+-+Publication%5D)">207</a> in 2000, and then <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=(Autism%5BTitle%5D)+AND+(%222018%2F01%2F01%22%5BDate+-+Publication%5D+%3A+%222018%2F12%2F31%22%5BDate+-+Publication%5D)">2,789</a> in 2018.</p>
<p>So, 25 years on, what have we learnt about autism?</p>
<h2>The autism concept</h2>
<p>In the 1990s, we viewed autism as one condition, with all children showing similar, severe difficulties with social and communication skills. </p>
<p>We now know the reality is very different.</p>
<p>In its most literal sense, autism is diagnosed when a person displays a set of behaviours typified by difficulties in social interaction and communication, as well as having more restricted interests and repetitive behaviours than we typically expect.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-some-people-with-autism-have-restricted-interests-and-repetitive-movements-94401">Why do some people with autism have restricted interests and repetitive movements?</a>
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</em>
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<p>The severity of the behaviours that characterise autism <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1362361319852831">vary considerably</a> between people. Social interaction and communication difficulties, for example, can range from having no verbal language to highly fluent language. </p>
<p>The frequency and intensity of autism behaviours – such as repetitive play with objects and repeated body movements like rocking and hand flapping – vary between mild and severe. </p>
<p>And intellectual abilities can range from significant disability to a very high IQ.</p>
<p>This variation is the so-called “autism spectrum”, which has also led to the worldwide movement of “<a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1362361318820762">neurodiversity</a>”. This views neurological conditions such as autism as part of the natural spectrum of human diversity, and posits that this diversity should be respected rather than pathologised. </p>
<p>Neurodiversity challenges the medical model of autism as a disorder, instead viewing autism as an inseparable aspect of identity.</p>
<p>Autism is diagnosed by a team of clinicians, through a <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-autism-guidelines-aim-to-improve-diagnostics-and-access-to-services-104929">consistent and rigorous diagnostic process</a>. While the dividing line between “typical” and “atypical” can be blurry, a diagnosis is made when the core behaviours of autism have a functional impact on an individual’s daily life. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301055/original/file-20191111-194665-o65yvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301055/original/file-20191111-194665-o65yvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301055/original/file-20191111-194665-o65yvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301055/original/file-20191111-194665-o65yvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301055/original/file-20191111-194665-o65yvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301055/original/file-20191111-194665-o65yvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301055/original/file-20191111-194665-o65yvq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some people with autism have very high IQs.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">LDprod/Shutterstock</span></span>
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<p>It’s now clear that autism is not one condition in the sense that there is a <a href="https://www.mja.com.au/system/files/issues/whit11667.pdf">common cause</a> shared by all people on the autism spectrum. </p>
<p>Instead, autism is best thought of as an <a href="https://www.rch.org.au/kidsinfo/fact_sheets/Autism_spectrum_disorder/">umbrella term</a> which describes a range of different people, all with relatively similar behaviours, which may or may not be caused by the same biological factors.</p>
<p>Critically, autism is not just a childhood condition. While the behavioural characteristics of autism first emerge during childhood, they almost always persist into adolescence and adulthood, but often present in a different form. </p>
<p>Social difficulties in childhood might be shown through a preference to play alone, for example, while in adulthood this may be reflected by difficulty in maintaining social relationships.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-to-stop-perpetuating-the-myth-that-children-grow-out-of-autism-119540">We need to stop perpetuating the myth that children grow out of autism</a>
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<p>The dramatic refinement of our understanding of autism from a severe childhood condition, to a cluster of complex and variable conditions that endure into adulthood, is a great achievement of scientific research and has driven all other research and policy advances. </p>
<h2>Causes</h2>
<p>In 1994, there was already a good understanding that autism originated from <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/562353">genetic differences</a>.</p>
<p>Advances in genetic research in the late 1990s and 2000s – first by sequencing the human genome, then the dramatic reduction in the cost of this sequencing – led scientists to believe they would soon find the single gene that causes the brain to develop differently.</p>
<p>But after several decades of intensive research, the picture turned out to be far <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-causes-autism-what-we-know-dont-know-and-suspect-53977">more complex</a>. </p>
<p>There is now <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4650984/">consensus</a> that there is no one genetic difference shared by all individuals with autism. And rarely does one person possess a single genetic factor that leads the brain to develop differently. </p>
<p>There is also evidence to suggest other biological factors may play a role in the development of autism, including <a href="https://theconversation.com/bugs-and-allergies-in-pregnancy-linked-to-child-developmental-disorders-like-autism-and-adhd-87358">inflammation</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-male-brain-theory-of-autism-confirmed-in-large-new-study-and-no-it-doesnt-mean-autistic-people-lack-empathy-or-are-more-male-106800">hormonal factors</a>. But the evidence for these factors remains preliminary.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-causes-autism-what-we-know-dont-know-and-suspect-53977">What causes autism? What we know, don’t know and suspect</a>
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<p>We now know a range of conditions, including Fragile X syndrome and tuberous sclerosis, have very clear genetic or chromosomal differences that can lead to autistic behaviours. In total, these conditions account for around <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22089167">10%</a> of all people on the autism spectrum.</p>
<p>Genetic factors are still very likely to underpin autism in the remaining majority of people. But the genetic differences are likely more complex, and require advances in statistical techniques to better understand why the brain develops differently for some children.</p>
<h2>Therapies and treatments</h2>
<p>In the 1990s, behavioural interventions for autism were dominated by applied behaviour analysis (<a href="https://theconversation.com/behavioural-method-is-not-an-attempt-to-cure-autism-19782">ABA</a>), an approach to therapy that helps children learn new skills.</p>
<p>While ABA remains prominent throughout the world, other therapeutic models have emerged, such as those based on <a href="https://raisingchildren.net.au/autism/therapies-guide/teacch">developmental principles</a>, those that target <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4755315/">communication</a> and those that use a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5121131/">combination of approaches</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301054/original/file-20191111-194650-xqkdi3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301054/original/file-20191111-194650-xqkdi3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301054/original/file-20191111-194650-xqkdi3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301054/original/file-20191111-194650-xqkdi3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301054/original/file-20191111-194650-xqkdi3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301054/original/file-20191111-194650-xqkdi3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301054/original/file-20191111-194650-xqkdi3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Therapies have come a long way.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-little-child-during-therapy-school-755297134">Photographee.eu/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>While these therapies help the development of some children with autism, no one therapy model will be effective for all. The great advance of the last 25 years has been to provide families with <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-guide-for-how-to-choose-therapy-for-a-child-with-autism-64729">alternate options</a> if their original choice of therapy isn’t as beneficial as they hoped.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/a-guide-for-how-to-choose-therapy-for-a-child-with-autism-64729">A guide for how to choose therapy for a child with autism</a>
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<p>But pharmacological (drug) treatments have not seen as much progress. Despite substantial research investment, there remains <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0269881117741766">no medication with good evidence</a> for reducing the disability associated with the core social and communication difficulties of autism. </p>
<p>Pharmacological intervention in autism is primarily used to assist with other challenges that can be associated with autism such as anxiety, attention problems, epilepsy and sleeping difficulties.</p>
<h2>Where to next?</h2>
<p>Despite progress over the past 25 years, health and disability challenges remain pervasive for people on the autism spectrum, and our policy responses continue to be fragmented across health, disability and education systems.</p>
<p>Given the ever-marching advance of science, it’s impossible to predict the next 25 years of research. A key challenge for scientists is how we use the knowledge we create to lead to clear and tangible benefits for humanity.</p>
<p>This will likely require meaningful partnerships with autistic people and their families to better understand their priorities for their lives. We need to learn how the knowledge we’ve obtained, and that still to come, can best support each person to discover their own strengths and what they want for their lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125053/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Whitehouse receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council and the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p>It’s been 25 years since autism was redefined and the surge in diagnoses and research began. But while we’ve come along way in our understanding of the spectrum, advances in drug therapies has lagged.Andrew Whitehouse, Bennett Chair of Autism, Telethon Kids Institute, The University of Western AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1157692019-07-03T21:16:00Z2019-07-03T21:16:00ZNew research suggests three profiles of communication delays in early childhood<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/277211/original/file-20190530-69059-1msnh9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Although guidelines suggest that developmental delays, including language delays, are ideally diagnosed by age three, most diagnoses don’t occur until age four or five. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Parenting books, magazines and apps are filled with tools to help parents keep track of their child’s developmental milestones. Parents are often particularly concerned about their child’s language and communication skills. But what does it mean if your child doesn’t meet these early milestones? </p>
<p>New research published in the <em>Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics</em> suggests that <a href="https://journals.lww.com/jrnldbp/Abstract/2019/06000/Heterogeneous_Trajectories_of_Delayed.3.aspx">repeated delays in achieving communication milestones are associated with poorer developmental outcomes at age three</a>.</p>
<p>This research used data from approximately 2,200 mothers and their children from the <a href="https://allourfamiliesstudy.com/">All Our Families study</a> in Calgary. An interdisciplinary team of researchers at the University of Calgary has been collecting data about the participating families in order to examine parental well-being and child and family outcomes.</p>
<p>Mothers completed a developmental screening tool called the <a href="https://agesandstages.com/">Ages and Stages Questionnaire</a> at ages one, two and three years old.</p>
<p>Although current guidelines suggest that <a href="https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/108/1/192">developmental delays, including language delays, be diagnosed by age three,</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1936657408000526">most diagnoses don’t occur until age four</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002234768780238X">or five</a>. At this point, many children are already in preschool or kindergarten, a time when learning disparities in language skills can have long-lasting consequences for <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/pits.10161">social skills</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1469-7610.00052">academics</a>. </p>
<p>Early identification of delays can help reduce these educational disparities, as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/136828299247405">research suggests that early interventions for infants and toddlers with language delays are effective at reducing delays by preschool age</a>.</p>
<h2>Milestones by the ages</h2>
<p>One aspect of the Ages and Stages questionnaire used in this study assesses whether children are meeting six expected milestones related to both verbal and nonverbal communication at each age. </p>
<p>For example, at age one, a child would be expected to be able to say about three simple words, like “mama” or “baba.” At age three, a communication milestone might be saying three- or four-word sentences.</p>
<p>Mothers also completed a 100-word checklist of their child’s vocabulary at age three and reported whether their child had been diagnosed with a developmental delay or referred to a speech and language pathologist. </p>
<p>In all of our analyses, we controlled for factors known to influence language development, including <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-8624.00612">socio-economic status</a>, <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/2600001">gestational age at birth</a>, <a href="https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/136/2/e448.short">child sex and a family history of language delays</a>. </p>
<h2>Late bloomers caught up</h2>
<p>Statistical analyses revealed that 80 per cent of children were considered to be typically developing, meeting all or almost all of the milestones at each age. The other 20 per cent of children fell into three different profiles of delayed communication.</p>
<p>About 13 per cent of children could be classified as “late bloomers,” with low scores at age one that continued to improve over time, matching the “typically developing” group by age three. Although these children were meeting most of the communication milestones at age three, their mothers reported that the children in the “late bloomer” profile only knew on average 52 words on a 100-word checklist, compared to 75 in the typically developing group.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276238/original/file-20190523-187153-xjsyj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/276238/original/file-20190523-187153-xjsyj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276238/original/file-20190523-187153-xjsyj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276238/original/file-20190523-187153-xjsyj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276238/original/file-20190523-187153-xjsyj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276238/original/file-20190523-187153-xjsyj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/276238/original/file-20190523-187153-xjsyj5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">About 13 per cent of children could be classified as ‘late bloomers.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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<p>The next two groups either failed to improve or actually fell further behind their peers over time. These two groups also had the poorest developmental outcomes at 36 months.</p>
<p>About five per cent of children met some, but not all, of the milestones at each age and could be classified as “stagnant” due to their lack of improvement over time. At age three, they only knew about 28 words on the 100-word checklist and had a 25 per cent likelihood of being diagnosed with a developmental delay and a 36 per cent likelihood of being referred to a speech language pathologist.</p>
<p>Finally, about 1.5 per cent of children could be classified as “impaired,” only meeting about half of the expected milestones at one year and then falling further behind at two and three years old. This group of children only knew two words, had a 56 per cent likelihood of being diagnosed with a developmental delay, and an 84 per cent likelihood of being referred to a speech language pathologist by age three.</p>
<h2>How repeated screenings can help</h2>
<p>Importantly, this study shows that the vast majority of children meet age-appropriate communication milestones. Additionally, children who showed initial lags in communication at age one were likely to catch up over time.</p>
<p>However, children who did not improve over time had significantly smaller vocabularies at age three. They were more likely to be diagnosed with a developmental delay and/or have received a referral to a speech and language pathologist. </p>
<p>These findings suggest that repeated screenings would likely be beneficial for children who fail to meet all or almost all expected early communication milestones. A lack of improvement over time could help identify children early on who are most at risk for persistent problems with communication and language.</p>
<p>Further, repeated screenings could be particularly beneficial for those showing “stagnant” scores, as their scores were moderate as opposed to very low at each age. This group of children had lower vocabularies at age three, but their moderate scores could mean they would be less likely to be identified for language problems and receive help at an early age. This group of children also had the lowest average family income of all four groups, which could further impair their ability to access intervention resources.</p>
<p>Language milestones matter not as the final word, but as possible signals about where children might be struggling and how they can be best supported to reach their full potential.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/115769/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rochelle Hentges receives funding from the Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute. She is affiliated with the University of Calgary. </span></em></p>Language milestones matter not as the final word, but as possible signals about where children might be struggling and how they can be best supported to reach their full potential.Rochelle Hentges, Postdoctoral fellow, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1126012019-03-01T11:40:28Z2019-03-01T11:40:28ZWhy Congress needs to make child care more affordable – 5 questions answered<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/261171/original/file-20190227-150688-12i77ea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A new bill to provide affordable child care for working families faces an uphill battle in Congress.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/little-kids-playing-toys-learning-center-1240406644?src=eIbnLXsA5dp8_CMormsK5w-1-2">Rawpixel from www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Editor’s note: Sen. Patty Murray, D-Wash., and U.S. Rep. Bobby Scott, D-Va., recently reintroduced their Child Care for Working Families Act – a bill they say will “ensure affordable, high-quality child care for working middle class families and those living paycheck to paycheck.”</em> </p>
<p><em><a href="https://www.american.edu/spa/faculty/morrisse.cfm">Taryn Morrissey</a>, author of “<a href="http://www.russellsage.org/publications/cradle-kindergarten">Cradle to Kindergarten: A New Plan to Combat Inequality</a>,” and a former senior adviser on early childhood policy during the Obama administration, explains how far the bill would go in achieving that goal – and also whether it has a chance of passing.</em> </p>
<h2>1. How big of a deal is this bill and why?</h2>
<p>It’s a big deal because in 2016, <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_tca.asp">about 60 percent</a> of kids under age 6 were in some type of nonparental child care if they weren’t in kindergarten.</p>
<p>The Child Care for Working Families Act would enhance our existing <a href="https://www.acf.hhs.gov/occ/fact-sheet-occ">public child care subsidy program</a> by nearly <a href="https://www.help.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/CCFWFA%20Fact%20Sheet%20116th%20Congress%20FINAL.pdf">doubling</a> the number of children eligible. In 2012, <a href="https://aspe.hhs.gov/system/files/pdf/153591/ChildEligibility.pdf">14.2 million</a> children were eligible for child care subsidies under federal rules.</p>
<p>It’s important to point out that child care is more than a place for children to spend time while their parents work. Child care should also provide opportunities for children to learn. If teachers are well-trained and adequately paid, and provide enriching experiences and activities, early education can have <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.1.3.111">lasting</a>, <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/events/pre-k-consensus/">positive impacts</a> on children’s <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cdev.12099">educational</a>, <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/343/6178/1478">health</a> and <a href="https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.97.2.31">economic outcomes</a>. </p>
<p>Unfortunately, much of the care families use today is of <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2006/2006043.pdf">low or mediocre quality</a>. High-quality care is <a href="https://www.russellsage.org/publications/cradle-kindergarten">more expensive than most parents can afford</a>. Child care expenditures make up about <a href="https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p70-135.pdf">11 percent</a> of families’ annual income, but that reflects families’ use of a mix of licensed centers or child care homes and informal arrangements with friends or relatives.</p>
<p>If a family wants to use center-based care for an infant, that costs much more – a whopping <a href="https://cdn2.hubspot.net/hubfs/3957809/costofcare2018.pdf?__hstc=&__hssc=&hsCtaTracking=b4367fa6-f3b9-4e6c-acf4-b5d01d0dc570%7C94d3f065-e4fc-4250-a163-bafc3defaf20">27 percent of median income for single-parent households</a>. And in most regions of the U.S., families with young children are <a href="https://cdn2.hubspot.net/hubfs/3957809/costofcare2018.pdf?__hstc=&__hssc=&hsCtaTracking=b4367fa6-f3b9-4e6c-acf4-b5d01d0dc570%7C94d3f065-e4fc-4250-a163-bafc3defaf20">spending more on child care</a> than they are on housing, food or health care.</p>
<h2>2. Will working families and the poor be able to feel or see the difference? If so, how?</h2>
<p>Yes, parents with young children – and who are typically earning <a href="https://www.demos.org/publication/parent-trap-economic-insecurity-families-young-children">less now</a> than they will when they are further along in their careers – would have more money for housing, health care and the many other expenses that come with raising children. Further, if they choose, parents who left the workforce due to the high costs of child care will be able to return to work without having to spend a <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/early-childhood/reports/2016/06/21/139731/calculating-the-hidden-cost-of-interrupting-a-career-for-child-care/">sizable portion</a> of their paychecks on child care.</p>
<p>Families with infants and toddlers will likely find it easier to find and pay for child care. High-quality infant-toddler care is currently <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/early-childhood/reports/2018/11/15/460970/understanding-true-cost-child-care-infants-toddlers/">very expensive and hard to find</a>, even though it’s <a href="https://www.nap.edu/catalog/9824/from-neurons-to-neighborhoods-the-science-of-early-childhood-development">important for children’s development</a>. The bill will also provide funds for states to expand their preschool programs for 3- and 4-year-old children.</p>
<h2>3. Making child care affordable is one thing. Providing quality child care is another. Can this bill really do both?</h2>
<p>Yes, and one of the ways it will do that is by increasing workforce training and pay.</p>
<p>In 2013, child care teachers <a href="http://cscce.berkeley.edu/files/2014/ReportFINAL.pdf">earned US$10.33</a> per hour, compared to $15.11 and $25.40 per hour for preschool teachers and kindergarten teachers, respectively. Consequently, 40 percent of child care workers <a href="http://cscce.berkeley.edu/files/2014/ReportFINAL.pdf">rely on public assistance</a> at some point in their careers.</p>
<p>It should come as little surprise that <a href="http://cscce.berkeley.edu/files/2014/ReportFINAL.pdf">turnover rates</a> among preschool and child care teachers are high. This turnover is associated with <a href="https://appam.confex.com/appam/2018/webprogram/Paper27153.html">poorer child outcomes</a>.</p>
<p>More skilled and consistent caregivers will translate to higher-quality early learning experiences.</p>
<h2>4. Where will this bill place America among other advanced nations in terms of providing affordable child care?</h2>
<p>If passed, America’s spending on early childhood education would be closer to those of our peer nations. For instance, in 2013, the United States spent less than <a href="https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/PF3_1_Public_spending_on_childcare_and_early_education.pdf">0.5 percent</a> of GDP on early childhood education, while France, New Zealand and the Nordic countries spent more than <a href="https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/PF3_1_Public_spending_on_childcare_and_early_education.pdf">1 percent of GDP</a>. The average for nations in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, or OECD, is 0.8 percent.</p>
<p>Research has shown that high-quality early learning experiences <a href="https://www.russellsage.org/publications/cradle-kindergarten">promote children’s school readiness</a>. Children who don’t have these experiences fall behind early and have a more difficult time <a href="https://www.russellsage.org/publications/whither-opportunity">catching up</a>. Expanding access to early educational experiences would promote America’s <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/want-to-make-america-great-again-make-our-kids-globally-competitive_us_58f9fb95e4b018a9ce5a5d75">global competitiveness</a> by ensuring that young children are best prepared for school their first day of kindergarten. </p>
<h2>5. How much will this bill cost and how likely is this bill to become law?</h2>
<p>No public cost analyses have been done. The bill itself appropriates $20 billion in fiscal 2020, $30 billion in fiscal 2021, and $40 billion in fiscal 2022, and whatever is needed after that for child care subsidy expansions.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, this bill is unlikely to become law – at least anytime in the next two years. Although the Trump administration has supported <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-02-23/ivanka-trump-is-pushing-her-500-billion-child-care-plan-on-hill">child care</a> and <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2019/02/13/politics/ivanka-trump-paid-family-leave/index.html">paid family leave</a> policies, independent <a href="http://www.taxpolicycenter.org/sites/default/files/publication/138781/2001170-who-benefits-from-president-trumps-child-care-proposals.pdf">analyses</a> indicate their proposals would do little to help low- and middle-income families. The child care subsidy program received a substantial <a href="https://www.ffyf.org/congress-passes-historic-funding-increases-federal-early-learning-care-programs/">boost in funding</a> following the bipartisan budget deal in February 2018, but Congress has not acted on other early childhood policy proposals.</p>
<p>In the absence of federal action, cities and states like the <a href="http://lims.dccouncil.us/Legislation/B22-0203">District of Columbia</a>, <a href="https://www.vcstar.com/story/news/2019/01/06/newsom-propose-nearly-2-billion-early-childhood-programs/2470300002/">California</a> and <a href="https://www.ktvz.com/news/governor-state-agencies-unveil-early-learning-plan/1002533536">Oregon</a> are passing or considering sweeping improvements to their early childhood systems. </p>
<p>These state and local efforts, the Child Care for Working Families Act and other proposals, such as <a href="https://medium.com/@teamwarren/my-plan-for-universal-child-care-762535e6c20a">Sen. Elizabeth Warren’s child care plan</a>, would help <a href="https://www.russellsage.org/publications/cradle-kindergarten'">reduce inequality</a> in the short term by putting more money in the hands of families struggling to make ends meet. In the long term, these efforts will help better prepare America’s children for the workforce of tomorrow.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/112601/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Taryn Morrissey has received funding from the Robert Wood Johnson, Ford, Peterson, Gates, Heising-Simons, and the Bainum Family Foundations and the U.S. Departments of Health and Human Services and Agriculture. She is a non-resident fellow at the Urban Institute. </span></em></p>Working class families have struggled for years to afford quality child care. Could the newly proposed Child Care for Working Families Act make a difference? A child care policy scholar weighs in.Taryn Morrissey, Associate Professor of Public Administration and Policy, American University School of Public AffairsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1101942019-01-24T13:38:26Z2019-01-24T13:38:26ZKenyan approach holds promise for boosting early childhood education<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254710/original/file-20190121-100264-1md6je8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Early childhood education can equip kids for later learning.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">karelnoppe/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There has been <a href="http://www.adeanet.org/en/system/files/259338e.pdf">a big push</a> by countries in sub-Saharan Africa over the past decade to improve early childhood education. This refers to pre-primary schools, which usually caters to children aged between 4 and 5.</p>
<p>Research <a href="https://heckmanequation.org/www/assets/2017/01/F_Heckman_FourBenefitsInvestingECDevelopment_022615.pdf">has shown</a> that participating in early childhood development and education programmes is associated with better adjustment to later schooling, as well as higher levels of academic achievement. </p>
<p>Kenya is among the best regional performers in terms of early childhood development enrolment, as shown in the chart below. But enrolment doesn’t necessarily equate with quality. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254705/original/file-20190121-100270-1hnkl2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254705/original/file-20190121-100270-1hnkl2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/254705/original/file-20190121-100270-1hnkl2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254705/original/file-20190121-100270-1hnkl2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254705/original/file-20190121-100270-1hnkl2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=371&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254705/original/file-20190121-100270-1hnkl2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254705/original/file-20190121-100270-1hnkl2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/254705/original/file-20190121-100270-1hnkl2v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=466&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">UNESCO 2017</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So in 2014, the Kenyan government introduced an early childhood education programme called <a href="https://ciff.org/grant-portfolio/tayari-getting-children-ready-to-learn/">Tayari</a> – a Kiswahili word that means “readiness”. It was piloted over four years in more than 1800 public and private early childhood development and education centres. Tayari reached slightly over 72 000 pre-primary school leaners.</p>
<p>Tayari’s aim was to develop a cost-effective, scalable model of early childhood development and education that would prepare children cognitively, physically, socially and emotionally for primary school. The model had three interrelated components. The first was teacher training and classroom support. The second involved providing teachers and learners with appropriate instructional materials like learners’ work books and teacher guides. The third centred on health and hygiene knowledge, making children aware of why hand washing and healthy foods are important.</p>
<p>Cost-effectiveness was determined by comparing net gain scores on learner assessment to incremental costs of implementing Tayari. This information is important to policy makers in making alternative investment decisions. </p>
<p>So, did it succeed? My colleagues and I at the African Population and Health Research Centre conducted an <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329523116_Impact_Evaluation_of_Tayari_School_Readiness_Program_in_Kenya">independent external evaluation</a> to find out. We wanted to assess the programme’s impact, and how cost effective it had been. Our findings were largely positive.</p>
<p>The learners who were exposed to Tayari were more ready to join primary grade 1 compared to those not involved in the programme. The Tayari model provides an opportunity to improve the quality of childhood learning in sub-Saharan Africa. It is flexible and can be tweaked to fit different contexts.</p>
<h2>Measuring success</h2>
<p>Our study involved a randomised control trial design. This means we created a natural experiment to compare scores of learners who were exposed to Tayari with those of similar learners not exposed. Using this approach, we sampled 600 pre-primary schools from the 1800 centres involved in the Tayari programme. Half of these were low-cost private early childhood development and education centres; the other half were public early childhood development and education centres.</p>
<p>We then compared learner assessment results from the centres that were exposed to learners of centres not exposed. We found that, on average, learners who’d been part of the Tayari programme were about three school months ahead of their peers who hadn’t taken part.</p>
<p>Crucially, we also found that the Tayari programme was cost-effective. By spending an extra US $14 per learner over a period of two years – that is, about US $7 a year – policymakers could enhance learners’ scores in early childhood development and education centres by an average of about 3 percentage points. </p>
<p>With a budget of US $7 million per year, the government can heavily subsidise the cost of 1 million learners in early childhood education in a way that will improve the quality and make the learners ready to join primary grade 1.</p>
<h2>Future prospects</h2>
<p>Our results suggest that the Tayari programme could provide a useful model for other countries in sub-Sahara Africa. The typical barriers addressed by Tayari includes inadequate provision of age-appropriate and context relevant quality teaching and learning materials; and, lack of capacity to offer classroom-based teacher coaching during instruction. </p>
<p>Policymakers have much to learn from the way the model was structured, and the way the overall package focused on instructional quality. </p>
<p>Of course, there are still gaps in our knowledge. We don’t know how long Tayari’s social and education benefits will persist; this will need to be the focus of future research. But, based on our study and its findings, we believe the Tayari model is suitable for scaling up by ministries of education and development partners.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/110194/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Moses Ngware receives funding from the Children's Investment Fund Foundation (CIFF)</span></em></p>Cost-effective, scaleable early childhood development and education programmes can make a huge difference.Moses Ngware, Senior Research Scientist, African Population and Health Research CenterLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1096742019-01-10T14:15:30Z2019-01-10T14:15:30ZPhilosophy: we obsess about death, so why don’t we think more about being born?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253212/original/file-20190110-32124-1om3sp7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ramona Heim via Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>All human beings begin life by being born – and all human beings die. In these two ways, we are finite: our lives are not endless, but they begin and they come to an end. Historically, however, philosophers have concentrated attention on only one of these two ways in which we are finite: mortality. Philosophers have said little about being born and how it shapes our existence. An exception is some recent work in feminist philosophy, for instance by <a href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/irigaray/">Luce Irigaray</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriana_Cavarero">Adriana Cavarero</a> – but even here, being born has been overshadowed by giving birth and motherhood.</p>
<p>So how does being born organise human existence? First, let’s clarify that for human beings, to be born is to begin to exist at a certain point in time, and to do so by being conceived and gestated in and then exiting from the womb – historically the maternal womb, although transgender pregnancies are changing this. We thereby come into the world with a specific body, and in a given place, set of relationships and situation in society, culture, and history.</p>
<p>Because of the helplessness of human babies and infants – and children’s prolonged need for nurturing and education – we begin life utterly dependent on the people who care for us physically and emotionally. Often, we become more independent over time, but never completely or permanently so. We all remain dependent on others – in respect of our means of subsistence, language, emotional well-being and basic social trust. Once we remember that we begin life as babies and infants, dependency emerges as more basic than independence – independence takes place against a background of dependence, not vice versa.</p>
<p>Because of our initial dependency, our early relationships with our caregivers have huge formative effects on us. They form our selves: our patterns of emotional reaction, dispositions, habits and traits – and the personalities into which they are organised. None of this is set in stone – we can, of course, be deeply affected and reformed by subsequent relationships. But we are open to new relationships in ways shaped by the previous ones. When we consider birth, then, we see that relationships with others make us the individuals we are – our individual selfhood arises within a background of relationships.</p>
<h2>Me, myself and I</h2>
<p>At birth, each individual comes into a unique situation in the world, made up of a unique combination of historical, social, ethnic, geographical, familial, and generational circumstances. One’s initial natal situation affects every subsequent life situation one comes to be in – including by affecting whatever choices one makes in response to these situations. All one’s successive situations flow down through one’s life, however indirectly, from one’s birth.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253215/original/file-20190110-32136-yicboq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/253215/original/file-20190110-32136-yicboq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253215/original/file-20190110-32136-yicboq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253215/original/file-20190110-32136-yicboq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253215/original/file-20190110-32136-yicboq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253215/original/file-20190110-32136-yicboq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/253215/original/file-20190110-32136-yicboq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We are each born into our own unique situation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">sirtravelalot via Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Our natal situations are given to us, not chosen – and as soon as we are born we begin to imbibe the culture around us. So, first and foremost, we are inheritors and receivers of culture and history. We may develop capacities to question, criticise and change what we have received, but this happens on the prior basis of reception. </p>
<p>Why have I been leading the particular life I have, since birth? I may wonder: “Why am I me?” or: “Why is this the life I’m leading and none other?” Eastern and Western religious traditions offer various answers – for example, by referring to our immortal souls as in Christianity, or cycles of rebirth, as in Hinduism. But perhaps my being born me is a fact that cannot be explained, only accepted. </p>
<p>We can explain, at least to a point, why the particular body that I happen to be born with was conceived (my parents met, a particular sperm fertilised a particular egg on a given occasion – and the rest). But that does not explain why this body is the one whose life I happen to be leading and experiencing directly, from the inside. This is just a fact, and because it is inexplicable, a dimension of mystery pervades my existence. That mystery can generate anxiety – one of several forms of birth anxiety. Philosophers (<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/jul/13/heidegger-being-time">Heidegger</a>, for example) have said much about anxiety about death, but being born also presents anxieties and existential difficulties. </p>
<h2>Early days</h2>
<p>It can seem perplexing that I ever arrived in existence having not previously been there. And it can be troubling that we cannot remember being born, or indeed remember early childhood – the phenomenon known as “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5473198/">infantile amnesia</a>”. </p>
<p>This amnesia is a consequence of the <a href="https://www.learningrx.com/cognitive-stages-for-child-development.htm">staged development</a> of our memory and cognitive systems during childhood. As we rise to more advanced forms of memory, we lose access to earlier memories laid down in less advanced forms. In turn, our staged cognitive development is a consequence of birth: we are born very immature and unformed but develop, eventually, to reach high levels of cognitive sophistication.</p>
<p>Yet the early years that we forget are the most formative for us. We therefore end up with much of our own emotional lives and reactions as mysteries to us. Why do we fall in and out of love with the people we do? Why does this song move me to tears and leave you cold? Infantile amnesia leaves us strangers to ourselves in important respects – and this is disconcerting.</p>
<p>These are just some features of human existence which are thrown into relief once we remember that we are not only mortal, but also natal. Being born is a fundamental, not a trivial or accidental, feature of human life – and human existence overall has the shape it does because we are born.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109674/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison Stone receives a Major Research Fellowship from the Leverhulme Trust to work on the project 'Birth and Philosophy'.</span></em></p>Our birth is one of the all-important bookends of our lives and affects so much of what comes later – so why don’t we think about it more?Alison Stone, Professor of Philosophy, Lancaster UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1079552018-12-13T22:12:57Z2018-12-13T22:12:57Z5 ways to infuse your family with the spirit of generosity this Christmas<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249108/original/file-20181205-186082-12lny8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Research shows that a parent’s level of generosity and charitable behaviour is linked with their child’s display of the same behaviours. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Around this time each year, many children have made a Christmas wish list that includes items like toys, games, crafts and electronics. While children may express gratitude and joy in response to receiving gifts, the concept of generosity of spirit has certainly changed over the years. </p>
<p>It was St. Nicholas’s legendary status of generosity that gave rise to the modern-day tradition of Santa Claus. As the story goes, as a young boy, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Nicholas">St. Nicholas</a> was left with a substantial amount of inheritance when his parents died. He used this to help others, primarily the poor. </p>
<p>St. Nicholas was generous. <a href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-94-017-8607-2">Generosity is defined as the quality of being kind and giving time, attention or gifts to others without conditions</a> or the expectation of getting something in return. Being generous is seen as a positive virtue in people and has links with other emotions such as <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.91">empathy and compassion</a>. </p>
<h2>Parental behaviour matters</h2>
<p>The roots of generosity, such as empathy, compassion and prosocial behavior, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014179">begin to develop in the toddler years</a>. </p>
<p>One study of charitable giving by children shows that <a href="https://philanthropy.iupui.edu/files/research/women_give_2013-final9-12-2013.pdf">boys and girls give equally</a>. Research also shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2006.10.003">by the age of nine most children have a good understanding of generosity</a>. As with all aspects of development, as the child ages, greater understanding and mastery of generosity will unfold.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249377/original/file-20181206-128214-1km74pw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/249377/original/file-20181206-128214-1km74pw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249377/original/file-20181206-128214-1km74pw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249377/original/file-20181206-128214-1km74pw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249377/original/file-20181206-128214-1km74pw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249377/original/file-20181206-128214-1km74pw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/249377/original/file-20181206-128214-1km74pw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When parents model acts of generosity in their everyday lives, such as taking care of elderly neighbours, they help their children learn to do the same.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What role do parents play in socializing children to be more generous? One way is by showing generosity themselves. Research shows that a parent’s level of generosity and charitable behaviour <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2008.04.004">is correlated with their child’s display of the same behaviours</a>. </p>
<p>Modelling generosity makes an impression on children and is thus a great first step to fostering this behaviour. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13015">Siblings can also effectively role model empathy and compassion</a>, and by extension, generosity. </p>
<p>Another way is to talk with children about generosity. Studies have shown that having family discussions about generosity had a stronger influence on <a href="https://philanthropy.iupui.edu/files/research/women_give_2013-final9-12-2013.pdf">children’s charitable behaviour</a> than parent role modelling alone. </p>
<h2>Five ways to help foster generosity</h2>
<ol>
<li><p><em><strong>Give experiences</strong></em>. Gifts do not always need to come in the form of material possessions. Giving experiences can be of value as well. This can include time with caregivers, such as a set of tickets that children can “turn in” to bake together, do arts and crafts, go skating, swimming, hiking or to a movie or the theatre. These experiences are also opportunities to discuss the value of family connection and making memories.</p></li>
<li><p><em><strong>Give to those in need</strong></em>. Discuss the legend of Saint Nicholas (Santa Claus) and his spirit of giving to those who are less fortunate. Encourage children to add a gift to someone in need to their Christmas or birthday wish list, or to give used or unused material possessions (such as toys, books or clothing) to those without.</p></li>
<li><p><em><strong>Give without expecting anything in return</strong></em>. The core concept of generosity is to give without conditions. Show children that being charitable is unconditional. Several reputable local, national and international organizations have charitable gift-giving programs for children in need (for example, providing water purification tablets and school supplies).</p></li>
<li><p><em><strong>Give the gift of time</strong></em>. Together with your children, come up with a list of ways they could give their time to someone else. This could be shovelling someone’s driveway, weeding a neighbour’s garden or cleaning up his or her local park. They could also give their time to an organization in need of volunteers (for example a soup kitchen).</p></li>
<li><p><em><strong>Give year round</strong></em>. Generosity and kindness shouldn’t just happen over the holidays. Make these concepts part of your everyday family life and try to schedule acts of kindness together. At the dinner table, ask your children: “Can you tell me a time today you showed kindness?” You can also talk about how, as a parent, you showed kindness or generosity to someone in your professional or personal life that day. </p></li>
</ol>
<p>Giving gifts is certainly part of being generous, but as we all know, the holidays can also be a time of stress and panic about getting the right gift, navigating the shopping mania in stores, and frankly, just paying for everything. All is not lost, however — there are other narratives parents can use around kids when it comes to generosity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/107955/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sheri Madigan receives funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, the Canada Research Chairs program and the Alberta Children's Hospital Foundation.</span></em></p>Children start developing empathy and compassion as toddlers and should have a good understanding of generosity by age nine. Parents can help foster these behaviours.Sheri Madigan, Assistant Professor, Canada Research Chair in Determinants of Child Development, Owerko Centre at the Alberta Children’s Hospital Research Institute, University of CalgaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1070242018-12-04T06:39:37Z2018-12-04T06:39:37ZHere’s how much kids need to move, play and sleep in their early years<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248103/original/file-20181130-194953-1vbn5lk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">It's important for kids to move and play.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most of us would agree that we want to encourage children to be physically active, get enough sleep, and keep their screen time at healthy levels. But did you know that this starts from birth? And, what is enough sleep for young children? Also, given the ubiquity of screens, what is a healthy level of screen time?</p>
<p>South Africa has just launched 24-hour <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/faculties-and-schools/health-sciences/research-entities/documents/EYG%20consensus%20panel%20meeting%20notes.pdf">movement guidelines</a> for children from birth to five years, integrating physical activity, sitting behaviour, screen time and sleep. These guidelines intend to answer these and other questions, providing guidance that can help put young children on the best trajectory for their growth, health and development. </p>
<p>The country is following the example of others that have recently updated or are busy updating their movement behaviour guidelines for the early years – <a href="https://csepguidelines.ca/early-years-0-4/">Canada</a>, <a href="http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/F01F92328EDADA5BCA257BF0001E720D/$File/Birthto5years_24hrGuidelines_Brochure.pdf">Australia</a>, and <a href="https://www.gov.gg/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=111278&p=0">the UK</a>. It’s the first low- and middle-income country to bring out movement behaviour guidelines for this or any age group. </p>
<p>These developments represent a shift towards integrated guidelines for children’s physical activity, sitting and sleep behaviours. These guidelines take into account the natural and instinctual integration of these behaviours across a 24-hour period, and are intended to provide a more cohesive message for parents, caregivers, teachers and practitioners.</p>
<p><a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-017-4867-6">Research</a> shows that children from birth to five years who receive support to meet these movement guidelines are likely to grow up healthier, fitter and stronger. They may also have greater motor skill abilities, be more prepared for school, manage their feelings better, and enjoy life more. </p>
<h2>The guidelines</h2>
<p>The development of the guidelines was supported by the <a href="http://www.laureus.co.za">Laureus Sport for Good Foundation South Africa</a> which brought together a panel of stakeholders, practitioners and academics (local and international) from the field of early childhood. The panel considered the best available scientific evidence, the South African context and how the guidelines would be received across the country’s very diverse settings.</p>
<p>The guidelines recommend that children from birth to five years should participate in a range of play-based and structured physical activities that are appropriate for their age and ability, and that are fun and safe. Children should be encouraged to do these activities independently as well as with adults and other children. For caregivers, activities that are loving and involve play and talking with children are best.</p>
<p>These guidelines also emphasise that the quality of what is done when sitting matters. For children younger than two years, screen time is not recommended. Sitting activities that are screen-based should be limited among children aged two to five years. The quality of sleep in children from birth to five years is also important, and screen time should be avoided before bed.</p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245933/original/file-20181116-194513-rf8t6d.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/245933/original/file-20181116-194513-rf8t6d.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245933/original/file-20181116-194513-rf8t6d.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245933/original/file-20181116-194513-rf8t6d.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245933/original/file-20181116-194513-rf8t6d.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245933/original/file-20181116-194513-rf8t6d.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/245933/original/file-20181116-194513-rf8t6d.PNG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p>While the educational benefits of screen time receive much attention in the <a href="https://www.childtrends.org/child-trends-5/5-ways-screen-time-can-benefit-children-and-families">media</a>, there’s little scientific evidence to support the claims of these benefits. And the long-term, potentially negative, impacts of replacing “traditional” games and books with screen-based versions are not yet known. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/11/07/child-screen-time-now-linked-12-deadly-cancers-short-sightedness/">World Cancer Research Fund</a> recently highlighted the link between childhood screen time to 12 deadly cancers and short-sightedness. There is also a trend emerging among technologists in <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/26/style/phones-children-silicon-valley.html?action=click&module=RelatedLinks&pgtype=Article">Silicon Valley</a> to keep their children away from screens. This should surely be causing us to think twice about the easy role that screens play in little ones’ lives.</p>
<p>Early childhood represents a key window of opportunity to lay down a healthy foundation for children’s movement behaviours, setting them up for a win as far as their growth, health and development are concerned. </p>
<p>The guidelines can help build this foundation and can be used by anyone who has an interest in the health and development of all children from birth to five years – parents and family, educators, caregivers, health professionals, and community workers.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/107024/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Draper receives funding from the British Academy for the Humanities and Social Sciences. She has an honorary affiliation with the Division of Exercise Science at the University of Cape Town </span></em></p>New guidelines have been launched that make recommendations on the daily activities of babies and young children.Catherine Draper, Senior Researcher, University of the WitwatersrandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1023962018-09-04T20:03:00Z2018-09-04T20:03:00ZWhy Australia should invest in paying early childhood educators a liveable wage<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234577/original/file-20180903-41714-1gbkw8l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many early education and care workers earn little above the minimum wage.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">www.shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Today, across the nation, educators who work in long day care centres are <a href="https://www.facebook.com/pg/UnitedVoiceECEC/events/?ref=page_internal">walking off the job</a> for the fourth time in 18 months. In February this year, an attempt to bring a pay equity case through the <a href="https://www.ablawyers.com.au/News/FWC-dismissed">Fair Work Commission</a> was dismissed. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/low-paid-womens-work-why-early-childhood-educators-are-walking-out-91402">Low-paid 'women's work': why early childhood educators are walking out</a>
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<p>Early childhood educators are seeking improved wages and recognition of the value of their work in early childhood education and care. Without a liveable wage many of these educators will be compelled to walk out the door of these centres – not just today, but forever. </p>
<p>This comes at a high cost to Australia’s aspiration for world-class, high quality education for its youngest children. </p>
<h2>Educators frequently leave their centre</h2>
<p>Many of those working in the early childhood education and care sector earn little above the minimum wage. Yet <a href="https://www.acecqa.gov.au/qualification-requirements">all are required</a> to hold a vocational qualification and work to regulated professional standards to promote the learning, development and wellbeing of Australia’s youngest citizens. Even those with a four-year teaching degree are paid <a href="https://www.payscale.com/research/AU/Job=Daycare_Teacher/Hourly_Rate">on average A$10,000</a> less per year than those working in the schools sector – without the long holiday breaks.</p>
<p>Additionally, they have few opportunities for non-contact time to undertake the significant demands of planning each child’s education program and recording their learning. Caring for multiple young children is physically and emotionally demanding, but not recognised in liveable rates of pay. A liveable rate of pay would enable them to afford the basic costs of housing, food, health and transport. </p>
<p>While most educators say they love their work, continued participation in the workforce often <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/119437/1/AJEC079-17_Mckinlay_CE2_final.pdf">comes at a significant personal cost</a>. Low wages restrict workers’ abilities to live self-sufficient lives. </p>
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<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234576/original/file-20180903-41729-otyoal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234576/original/file-20180903-41729-otyoal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234576/original/file-20180903-41729-otyoal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234576/original/file-20180903-41729-otyoal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234576/original/file-20180903-41729-otyoal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234576/original/file-20180903-41729-otyoal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234576/original/file-20180903-41729-otyoal.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Early childhood educators will walk off the job for the fourth time in a year and a half.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">United Voice/flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
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<p>For example, younger educators discuss their inability to leave home. Partnered educators <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/101622/1/Brief_report_ECEC_Workforce_Development_Policy_Workshop_final.pdf">remain dependent</a> on the income of their spouse or even a former spouse, to cover basic living expenses. Those who don’t have additional financial support live precariously under persistent financial stress which impacts on their emotional well-being.</p>
<p>Under these circumstances it’s not surprising staff frequently leave their centre, or the sector entirely. Our recent <a href="https://eprints.qut.edu.au/101622/1/Brief_report_ECEC_Workforce_Development_Policy_Workshop_final.pdf">study</a> of early childhood education and care centres in metropolitan, regional and remote Australia found a turnover rate of 37% a year, with rates in remote areas at 45%. <a href="https://experts.umn.edu/en/publications/retaining-early-childhood-education-workers-a-review-of-the-empir">International comparisons</a> suggest these turnover rates are high.</p>
<h2>Where do the educators go?</h2>
<p>Our study suggests educators pursue a range of options. The degree-qualified move up to the few better paid administrative roles within the sector or move out to the schooling sector where pay, conditions and status are higher. </p>
<p>Diploma and Certificate trained educators may move around within the sector looking for marginal gains in pay or conditions. Such “churn” is enabled by significant <a href="https://qed.qld.gov.au/earlychildhood/educator/Documents/pdf/workforce-action-plan-16-19.pdf">under-supply</a> of qualified early childhood educators. Others move to less demanding work outside the sector. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/early-childhood-educators-rely-on-families-to-prop-up-low-income-research-finds-69283">Early childhood educators rely on families to prop up low income, research finds</a>
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<p>In our study, about half of those leaving the sector expressed a high level of dissatisfaction with their pay and conditions. </p>
<h2>Losing skilled, experienced educators takes its toll</h2>
<p>High turnover represents unnecessary loss and significant personal and economic cost. Most noticeable is the loss of skilled and experienced educators in the sector. </p>
<p>In our study, 40% were Certificate trained, 26% held a Diploma and 16% held a degree. Many were undertaking further study and all participated in ongoing professional development.</p>
<p>The loss of educators also takes its toll on children’s development, well-being and learning experiences. Turnover causes significant <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03004430.2016.1180516?scroll=top&needAccess=true">disruptions to attachment</a> relationships with children and partnerships with parents. </p>
<p>Even more concerning is that turnover is highest in areas of greater socioeconomic disadvantage where the role of early childhood education and care is especially important in supporting school readiness and ongoing educational progress.</p>
<h2>Turnover has a societal cost</h2>
<p>There is compelling evidence for the value of high quality early childhood education and care in supporting <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24675955">positive life outcomes for children</a>, enabling parents to participate in the workforce, and yielding long-term <a href="http://doi.org/10.1257/jep.27.2.109">economic growth for the nation</a>. Yet, Australia has largely taken the significant contributions of the people who design and deliver early education programs for the <a href="https://docs.education.gov.au/system/files/doc/other/2014-15_education_pbs_00_full.pdf">1.57 million Australian children</a> who attend long day care in Australia each week for granted.</p>
<p>Three decades of <a href="https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/experiences-build-brain-architecture/">neuroscience</a>, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5884058/">developmental science</a> and <a href="https://heckmanequation.org/">economic modelling</a> tells us this work is not merely unskilled or instinctive. Rather, it’s crucial to the opportunities and life course outcomes of each child. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-outcomes-parents-should-expect-from-early-childhood-education-and-care-94731">What outcomes parents should expect from early childhood education and care</a>
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<p>Valuing the skills and contributions of our skilled educators and reversing the high rates of turnover is critical and can only be achieved through fair pay and rewards.</p>
<p>As educators walk out today, they’re supported by the <a href="https://www.kinderling.com.au/kinderling-conversation/why-parents-should-support-the-childcare-walk-off">many families</a> who use early childhood education and care. Politicians who focus on the cost of early childhood education and care rather than its quality <a href="https://www.unicef.org.au/about-us/media/septenmber-2017/only-15-countries-worldwide-have-three-essential-n">should take heed</a> of this support. Compared with many OECD nations Australian parents foot <a href="http://www.oecd.org/education/school/ECECDCN-Australia.pdf">a higher proportion</a> of the child care bill.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102396/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karen Thorpe receives funding from The Australian Research Council, The Commonwealth Departments of Social Services and Health and the Queensland Department of Education to undertake studies in the fields of child health, wellbeing and early education and care.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paula McDonald receives funding from the Australian Research Council. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Irvine has received funding from the Australian Research Council and Queensland Department of Education to undertake studies of the Australian ECEC workforce. Susan is a member of Early Childhood Australia.</span></em></p>Valuing the skills and contributions of our educators and reversing the high rates of turnover is critical and can only be achieved through fair pay and rewards.Karen Thorpe, Professor, Deputy Director, Institute for Social Science Research, The University of QueenslandPaula McDonald, Professor of Work and Organisation, Queensland University of TechnologySusan Irvine, Associate Professor, School of Early Childhood and Inclusive Education, QUT, Queensland University of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1003062018-08-31T10:41:29Z2018-08-31T10:41:29ZText messages to parents can help boost children’s reading skills<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234135/original/file-20180829-195316-dcn5bp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Sending text-message reminders and tips to parents can help boost their children's reading skills. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-girl-library-holding-books-119721868?src=GnsMj3bZjf6JopdmeA6Zfg-1-47">ESB Professional/www.shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Boosting preschoolers’ literacy can be as simple as sending their parents a few texts – but it’s important not to overdo it.</p>
<p>That was the <a href="http://www.nber.org/papers/w24827">key finding of a recent study</a> we conducted of a <a href="https://sites.stanford.edu/cepalabs/tipsbytext">text-messaging</a> program developed at Stanford University that is meant to improve parental engagement. We, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=MMzxAS8AAAAJ">Kalena E. Cortes</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1_JJXXUAAAAJ&hl=de">Hans Fricke</a> – together with our co-authors <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=VFu4kqEAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Susanna Loeb</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=search_authors&hl=en&mauthors=David+Shuang+Song+&btnG=">David Song</a> – are interested in the best ways to improve children’s academic performance. </p>
<p>Through the program we studied, parents get three types of text messages: facts, tips and growth text messages. </p>
<p>Facts include general information about important literacy skills and parent-child activities, such as, “Children need to know letters to learn how to read & write. Research shows that kids with good letter knowledge become good readers.”</p>
<p>Tips include actionable advice with specific examples of parent-child literacy activities, such as, “Point out the first letter in your child’s name in magazines, on signs & at the store. Have your child try. Make it a game. Who can find the most?” </p>
<p>Growth messages provide continuous encouragement to parents of preschoolers throughout the school year: “Keep pointing out letters. You’re preparing your child 4K (for kindergarten)! Point out each of the letters in your child’s name. Ask: What sound does it make?”</p>
<h2>Discovering what works</h2>
<p>For our study, we wanted to know why the text-message program works and how to make it more effective. More specifically, we wanted to know if the advice being provided through the program was working and whether more text message tips would make the program even stronger.</p>
<p>To do this, we carried out a randomized experiment with 3,473 parents of preschoolers in a large urban school district in Texas. Four out of 5 of the preschoolers in our study came from families that are considered poor. Sixty-seven percent of the preschoolers are Hispanic and 28 percent are black.</p>
<p>We divided the parents of preschoolers into three different groups. The first group only got one text tip per week – on Wednesdays. The second group got the same thing as the first group, plus a fact message on Monday and a growth message on Friday. The third group got a text message five days a week. More specifically, this last group got a fact message on Mondays, a tip message on Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays, and a growth message on Fridays.</p>
<h2>Three is the magic number for engagement</h2>
<p>What we ultimately found is that three is the magic number for parent engagement. One tip is not enough and five text messages is too many. We found that parents who got one tip reported to engage less often with their children than parents with three text messages, but that five text messages were more likely to lead parents to opt out of the program. That is, parents who got five messages opted out at a rate of 8 percent, while parents who only got three texts opted out at a rate of 5 percent.</p>
<p>We also found that the effectiveness of the program to improve children’s literacy development, measured in 1-on-1 assessments, depends on how strong a preschooler’s literacy skills were in the first place. If children were lower performing, the single text message was not enough and in fact their literacy strength dropped compared to children whose parents received three texts. For instance, when children were asked to identify whether or not a word pair rhymes, lower performing children in the single-message program identified, on average, 0.6 out of nine word pairs less than those in the three-message program.</p>
<p>But those who were higher performing increased more in the single-message program – the one that offered just a tip – than in the three-message program, which included a fact, tip and growth message. As an example, the higher-performing children in the single-message program named around one common object more in one minute than those in the three-message program. The five-message program made no difference compared to the three-text program.</p>
<p>The bottom line is that for a text message program to work for parents, it pays to pay attention to what kind of messages are being sent and how often they are being sent. Parents of lower-performing children may benefit more from general information and encouragement, whereas parents of higher-performing children may only need tips on specific activities.</p>
<p>Whatever the case may be, the beautiful thing about this kind of text-message program is that it only costs about $2 a year per family to implement. And any parent with a cell phone can <a href="https://ready4k.parentpowered.com/">sign up for it for free</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100306/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Providing text-message tips to parents on how to make their children stronger readers can make a difference, but only if parents don’t get too many or too few text messages, researchers find.Kalena E. Cortes, Associate Professor of Public Policy, The Bush School of Government and Public Service, Texas A&M UniversityHans Fricke, Director of Quantitative Research of the CORE-PACE Research Partnership, Stanford UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/982222018-06-14T13:52:14Z2018-06-14T13:52:14ZFathers forgotten when it comes to services to help them be good parents<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223097/original/file-20180613-32319-1pfwgyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fathers want to be more involved but often feel sidelined, studies suggest.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beautiful-young-afro-american-parents-spending-469014011?customer_ID=&campaign_ID=shutters.11154505&launch_ID=10580185&utm_source=sstkemail&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=!Auto_API_Share_Module">George Rudy/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fathers have a significant impact on their children’s well-being – an impact that begins even before the child is born. In fact, studies have shown that fathers who are involved during pregnancy have <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19826935">healthier children</a>. </p>
<p>During the early years of life, emotionally nourishing father-child relationships lay the foundation for lifelong health and well-being for children. Fathers who are involved during pregnancy also tend to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jomf.12193">stay involved over the long term.</a> Indeed, the positive influence of father involvement can be felt throughout <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00572.x">adolescence and young adulthood</a>. </p>
<p>Our <a href="http://www.parentingincontext.org/">research lab</a> studies father-child relationships, and we looked at the question: What early parent education programs are out there to support fathers during the prenatal and postnatal periods? Our study, published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-0437">Pediatrics</a>, suggested that there are not that many. </p>
<h2>Not many father-friendly early parent education programs</h2>
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<span class="caption">Studies suggest that fathers want to be involved but may not know how to do so.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/confused-father-watching-his-baby-son-684469087?src=SiDX-IKwE-86YVs5-4KjUA-1-2">Antonio Guillem/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Specifically, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-0437">our systematic review</a> examined U.S.-based parent programs for men during the perinatal period, i.e., pregnancy through the first year of life. We could identify only 19 programs (out of a total of 1,353 studies reviewed) that were considered “father-friendly.” Father-friendly was defined as involving or targeting fathers and including outcomes related to fathering, such as father involvement, father-infant interaction and father’s parenting knowledge. </p>
<p>Most programs were offered in clinic or hospital settings. Programs ranged from general education programs (on childbirth, infant care and infant development) to relationship and co-parenting programs to clinical and case management programs. </p>
<p>In addition to the small number of existing programs for fathers, most programs reviewed in the systematic review lacked evidence of improving key fathering outcomes. Relatedly, only three studies were considered high quality. These findings demonstrate the dearth of father-inclusive programs that yield promising outcomes. </p>
<p>Overall, when it comes to education and support during the perinatal period, research shows that there are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24980187">few parenting programs</a> to prepare men for the <a href="http://www.mensstudies.info/OJS/index.php/FATHERING/article/view/379">magic moment</a> when they welcome their new baby, even though this time has been identified as a critical <a href="http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/23/6/191">window of opportunity</a> to intervene to support fathers during their transition to fatherhood. </p>
<p>Most existing programs are designed primarily for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165032716314173?via%3Dihub">mothers</a>. This is a missed opportunity, because fathers in the U.S. are <a href="http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/06/15/fathers-day-facts/">increasingly involved in their children’s lives</a>. And fathers today want to be involved not just as breadwinners, but also as caregivers who provide nurturing and responsive parenting.</p>
<h2>Father-friendly practices by health care professionals</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223099/original/file-20180613-32319-19qkk9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/223099/original/file-20180613-32319-19qkk9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223099/original/file-20180613-32319-19qkk9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223099/original/file-20180613-32319-19qkk9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223099/original/file-20180613-32319-19qkk9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223099/original/file-20180613-32319-19qkk9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/223099/original/file-20180613-32319-19qkk9j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A father and newborn. Fathers have reported that they feel neglected in obstetric and pediatric settings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/newborn-baby-first-days-his-father-360421721?src=rgLNLYIEbB2sqR3FIKI1iw-1-3">ESB Studios/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In obstetrics and pediatrics settings, fathers participating in research have reported <a href="https://ac.els-cdn.com/S026661381000104X/1-s2.0-S026661381000104X-main.pdf?_tid=2e87f75a-1968-44fb-9745-d1355a3368b2&acdnat=1528846098_c703a0362ba18116c61fd6124e974330">feeling neglected</a>. They are often viewed as playing a secondary role to mothers. This may entail the father seeing himself as a “helper” of the mother instead of a “co-parent” alongside the mother. </p>
<p>This neglect persists for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-0437">several reasons</a>. For instance, health care professionals may be unwilling or inadequately trained to work with fathers. Clinical services may not be sensitive to men’s parenting needs. Further, mothers might limit men from being engaged in prenatal and postnatal services. </p>
<p>Yet, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4306805/">men have a vital role to play during infancy</a>. To help address the above barriers, <a href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2016/06/10/peds.2016-1128">Michael Yogman and Craig Garfield</a>, pediatric faculty at the Harvard Medical School and Northwestern Feinberg School of Medicine respectively, recommended that health care professionals engage in father-friendly practices. These include acknowledging fathers’ presence at health care visits, welcoming fathers directly, educating fathers about parenting, and encouraging fathers to assume childcare roles early on. </p>
<h2>Innovative early parent education programs for fathers</h2>
<p>Although there aren’t many yet, innovative parent education programs targeting men during the perinatal period are emerging. One example is <a href="http://sswr.confex.com/sswr/2018/webprogram/Paper31627.html">Dads Matter</a>, a father-friendly home visitation program that may improve fathers’ engagement with their babies among socioeconomically disadvantaged families. </p>
<p>Another emerging program is <a href="http://elp.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Richeda0515-3-Baby-Elmo-ZTT.pdf">Baby Elmo</a>. This is an interactive program that helps fathers understand their babies’ emotional needs to support positive father–child interactions. Baby Elmo is currently being tested for its effectiveness within low-income communities. </p>
<p>Our research lab is implementing a <a href="http://www.parentingincontext.org/healthy-start-engaged-father-program.html">father engagement program</a> for low-income fathers, in collaboration with Healthy Start home visitation programs in Michigan.</p>
<p>Yet another promising program is <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28146337">Supporting Father Involvement</a> by Philip Cowan, emeritus professor of psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. Supporting Father Involvement is a group-based relationship program that has been successful in promoting father involvement with young children. </p>
<p>On the whole, these programs help ensure that American children – especially those at the highest risk of living apart from their fathers – grow up in households where their fathers or father figures are positively involved from the very beginning. </p>
<p>Fathers play a key role in children’s lives, starting from the very beginning of life. Their involvement in pregnancy is just as important as the involvement of mothers. We celebrate mothers on Mother’s Day and offer multiple programs and resources for helping women navigate motherhood. </p>
<p>We also celebrate our fathers on Father’s Day. However, we leave them with almost no resources for navigating the transition to fatherhood. This disparity in services is inevitably hurting not only fathers, but also their children. It’s time to change this narrative. </p>
<p>[ <em>Like what you’ve read? Want more?</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=likethis">Sign up for The Conversation’s daily newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/98222/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Fathers are important for children starting from the very beginning of life, but few early parenting resources are available for men. Two scholars who studied this explain their findings.Joyce Y. Lee, PhD Student in Social Work and Psychology, University of MichiganShawna J. Lee, Associate Professor, Social Work, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/975152018-06-06T10:38:46Z2018-06-06T10:38:46ZWhy long-term separation from parents harms kids<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/221628/original/file-20180604-175407-oeh2pg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Children are often sad when separated from their parents for a short time, but the effects are pronounced if the separation is long.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/scared-alone-311598398?src=afSNnHJTxpC57-uuKFQqEQ-1-5">Eakachai Lessin/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As a society, we often wax eloquent about how important it is to nurture, support and protect our children. The sad reality, however, is that all too often major, life-changing decisions are made without any consideration of their potential lifelong and devastating impact on kids. </p>
<p>Case in point: children <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/20/us/immigrant-children-separation-ice.html">separated from their parents at borders</a> as new immigration policies are debated. Separation from parents for even short periods can cause anxiety disorders that can last a long time.</p>
<p>I wish to underscore that my explanation here is apolitical. Instead, I am writing as a child and adolescent psychiatrist, parent, and member of our society, who would prefer that we be proactive rather than reactive when it comes to protecting vulnerable children at high risk for separation anxiety disorder and other emotional and behavior problems. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.uptodate.com/contents/anxiety-disorders-in-children-and-adolescents-assessment-and-diagnosis#H545216747">Separation anxiety disorder</a> is a disorder that is marked by unusually strong, and clinically significant, fear and distress related to separation from the home, a parent or other attachment figure. The fear and distress exceed levels appropriate for the individual’s age and developmental level, and lasts at least four weeks in children.</p>
<p>Symptoms can include persistent fears of parents being killed or kidnapped, worries about a parent getting sick and being afraid to go to school. Abdominal pain, nausea and other physical symptoms are also common.</p>
<p>Uncertainty and pathological doubting can dominate. These children with separation anxiety disorder never get the “all clear signal” that they or their loved ones are safe unless they are physically together. Even then, safety is precarious as there is always the risk for future separation.</p>
<p>Low socioeconomic status, a family history of anxiety or depression, and other <a href="http://iacapap.org/wp-content/uploads/F.2-SEPARATION-ANXIETY-300812.pdf#page=5">environmental, hereditary and genetic factors</a> appear to increase the risk of developing separation anxiety disorder. However, some of the most common precipitants of separation anxiety symptoms are stress, trauma or a sudden change in environment, such as a divorce or death in the family, a move to a new house or school, or from being forcibly separated from a parent or loved one.</p>
<p>It is important to point out that it is perfectly normal for young children to experience separation anxiety. It is a normal developmental milestone. For example, it is common for young children to get nervous and scared when their parent leaves and says goodbye. </p>
<p>This usually gets better in children as they get older, but in about <a href="https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200115020-00002">4-5 percent of children and adolescents</a> separation anxiety persists and requires therapeutic intervention.</p>
<p>Treatment for separation anxiety disorder includes therapy, reassurance of the child and caregivers, and psychoeducation to provide the family with information about this disorder and the available treatment services that they can receive. However, medication may also be required for severe cases.</p>
<p>Separation anxiety disorder also <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2FCHI.0b013e31816765e7">increases the risk</a> for developing depression, other anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, and a dependent personality disorder in adulthood.</p>
<p>While it is true that children can be resilient and either persevere or recover, it is never easy and the hidden scars remain.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97515/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Rosenberg does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Kids often experience anxiety when separated from parents for short periods. Longer separations, happening with some immigrant children, is a different matter, a leading child psychiatrist explains.David Rosenberg, Professor of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Wayne State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/952982018-05-06T11:32:45Z2018-05-06T11:32:45ZA three-pronged new deal could help South Africa’s economic woes<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/217455/original/file-20180503-83693-vvtnne.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Most South Africans are locked out of economic opportunities.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA-EFE/Kim Ludbrook</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>South African President, Cyril Ramaphosa, has <a href="https://theconversation.com/ramaphosas-to-do-list-seven-economic-policy-areas-that-will-shift-the-dial-94352">impressed</a> many since taking over the country’s reigns earlier this year. </p>
<p>But unless the citizens become convinced that the core challenge of constructing a more inclusive economy is being addressed effectively, the gains will prove ephemeral. </p>
<p>South Africa has made significant progress over the last 20 years in reducing extreme poverty. The proportion of the population that confronts hunger on a daily basis <a href="http://www.goldmansachs.com/our-thinking/archive/colin-coleman-south-africa/20-yrs-of-freedom.pdf">declined from 27% in 1995 to 11% in 2010</a>. </p>
<p>But the country has struggled to address inequality. Relative to other middle-income countries, South Africa’s economy is extraordinarily dualistic – its citizens are <a href="http://www.effective-states.org/wp-content/uploads/working_papers/final-pdfs/esid_wp_51_levy_hirsch_woolard.pdf">either affluent or poor, with little in-between</a>. </p>
<p>The richest 10% accounts for a much higher proportion of total spending than in almost any other middle income country in the world, including Brazil, Mexico or Turkey. And unionised white and blue-collar workers also do moderately well. Beyond these narrow segments, opportunities for upward mobility for the bulk of the population have been harder to come by. The excluded middle of South African society currently confronts a seemingly unscaleable cliff which separates them from the wealthy and formal sector employed minority.</p>
<p>How can this be turned around? I believe that a credible new deal for the country based on three factors would offer a fresh, hopeful way forward. It should include: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>strengthening ‘ladders of opportunity’. The country urgently needs feasible ways for its poorer citizens to journey, step-by-step, from low- to middle- to high incomes; </p></li>
<li><p>government investment so that the ladders of opportunity – such as schools and skills training – work effectively. This will need more money from taxpayers. And; </p></li>
<li><p>a new approach to how public services are governed - with much more active, collaborative engagement by citizens, private firms and non-governmental organizations.</p></li>
</ul>
<h2>Ladders of opportunity</h2>
<p>To improve the prospects of upward mobility South Africa will need to improve support for early childhood development, basic education and of its opportunities for vocational training. Compared with other middle-income countries, a much lower proportion of children under the age of six are in early childhood development programmes. And far fewer between the ages of 15 and 24 are in tertiary or vocational education. There is also <a href="https://nicspaull.com/2018/04/16/throwing-basic-education-under-the-bus-my-business-day-article/">troubling new evidence</a> that South Africa’s per child spending for schooling has declined sharply in recent years. </p>
<p>The country also needs to expand earnings opportunities for its citizens. This can only happen with accelerated economic growth and private sector job creation.</p>
<p>But a call to leave job creation to the market isn’t enough. Programmes to support entrepreneurship sound appealing, but <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/13199">have a very mixed track record</a>. <a href="http://ewn.co.za/2017/06/26/sa-s-public-works-programme-is-creating-jobs-but-it-can-do-more-for-women">Public works programmes</a>, and an <a href="https://www.wider.unu.edu/sites/default/files/About/2_aroop_0.pdf">employment tax incentive </a> targeted at younger workers, have shown some success. Both should be scaled up.</p>
<p>South Africa will need to overcome the skewed access to urban land and housing, one of the most pernicious legacies of apartheid. For poor South Africans living at the edge of cities, the <a href="https://mg.co.za/article/2015-11-15-commuting-costs-the-poor-dearly">costs of transport to-and-from work are the equivalent of 40%</a> of their earnings. </p>
<p>Health as always is a critical aspect of development. Some ambitious initiatives like the universal healthcare initiative, have been set in motion to expand access to health care – but scaling up barely has begun. </p>
<h2>Providing the requisite fiscal resources</h2>
<p>Building effective ladders of opportunity will not come cheap. The country will have to find additional money to fund opening up opportunities for its citizens.</p>
<p>There is room for manoeuvre on the tax collection front. At 28%, South Africa’s <a href="http://data.imf.org/?sk=77413F1D-1525-450A-A23A-47AEED40FE78">2014 revenue collection as a percentage of GDP</a> was in the mid-range among middle income countries, well below Brazil (34%) and Turkey (36%) - or for that matter the high-income US (32%), Australia (34%) and Germany (45%). And South Africa’s taxes on wealth are relatively low. </p>
<p>Though taxpayers, always and everywhere, would like to pay less, South Africa continues to have ample room to finance the costs of building a more inclusive society by increasing taxes (perhaps especially taxes on wealth) if – and it is a big if – the governance of these efforts can be improved. Which brings me to active citizenship. </p>
<h2>Active citizenship</h2>
<p>A successful ‘new deal’ will require renewed commitment from all South Africa’s citizens. </p>
<p>In his <a href="https://www.thesouthafrican.com/sona2018-read-the-full-text-of-cyril-ramaphosas-address-here/">inaugural State of the Nation address, Ramaphosa</a> invited South Africans to play their part in the addressing the country’s challenges. The engaged approach he was advocating goes against the grain of the hierarchical – government should deliver – perspective. </p>
<p>Experience from other countries shows that focusing narrowly on the management of public bureaucracies <a href="https://workingwiththegrain.com/">is insufficient to turn around weak public performance</a>. Plenty of studies suggest concrete ways in which <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/5986">an active citizenry can contribute</a> to broader development. </p>
<p>These include making use of the energy of parents and communities to strengthen educational outcomes. <a href="https://theconversation.com/active-citizens-for-better-schooling-what-kenyas-history-can-teach-south-africa-92534">In Kenya, for example</a> parents and communities have been encouraged to take on their educational roles more effectively. This can have a powerful positive influence. </p>
<p>Partnering with the private sector to strengthen work-related skills development could yield great results. Opportunities range from support for technical colleges, apprenticeships, and sectoral training authorities. </p>
<p>And South Africa should try and harness the energy of non-governmental organisations (NGOs). There are a range opportunities to achieve gains at scale through pro-active partnerships between these NGOs and government. One <a href="https://dgmt.co.za/the-first-comprehensive-review-of-early-childhood-in-south-africa/">example is in early childhood development</a> where NGOs are already active.</p>
<p>South Africa cannot get out of its present predicament if everyone shifts the responsibility – and the blame – to someone else. With a ‘new deal’, a different future is possible. But getting there will require letting go of stale ideologically-driven debates. Instead, it will require embracing the vision of an inclusive ‘new deal’ across the spectrum of society, both as taxpayers, and as active citizens.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95298/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian Levy receives funding from the Effective States and Inclusive Development research programme, based at the University of Manchester and funded by the UK's Department for International Development.</span></em></p>The majority of South Africans are separated from the wealthy and formal-sector employed minority.Brian Levy, Academic Director in the Graduate School of Development Policy and Practice, University of Cape TownLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/885322018-04-03T10:46:46Z2018-04-03T10:46:46ZGenes and environment have equal influence in learning for rich and poor kids, study finds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212454/original/file-20180328-109204-1um4x34.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Two youngsters in a kindergarten classroom. A new study suggests that class may not affect their learning as much as previously believed. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/american-african-boys-reading-together-happiness-1006711075?src=YuGIwz_MT0h0pXNI6GXfBw-1-59">mangpoor2004/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>More than 40 years ago, psychologist Sandra Scarr put forth a provocative idea: that genetic influence on children’s cognitive abilities is linked to their family’s income. The wealthier the family, the <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/174/4016/1285">more influence genes have on brain development</a>, the thinking went. </p>
<p>Scarr turned the nature-nurture debate on its head, proposing that how much “nature” matters varies between environments. Scarr’s research has since been roundly debated and thoroughly studied by other researchers with mixed results, including reaffirmation by another American psychologist, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10546338">David Rowe</a>, in 1999. </p>
<p>The line of research has come to be called the Scarr-Rowe hypothesis — that parents’ socio-economic status moderates genetic contributions to variation in intelligence. The thinking was that, for people of lower socio-economic status, a person’s intelligence is influenced more by his or her environment than by genetics, meaning whether a child reaches full potential depends on economic standing. </p>
<p>I have been studying the relationship of early health conditions to subsequent school performance for 25 years and been fascinated by the role that genetics and environment play in student achievement.</p>
<p>A group of us set out to re-examine the question: Are genetic influences on cognitive abilities larger for children raised in a more advantaged environment? To get that answer, I collaborated with colleagues at Northwestern University and Stanford University. </p>
<h2>Studying twins, siblings gives insight</h2>
<p>We <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/114/51/13441">analyzed birth and school records</a> of 24,000 twins and nearly 275,000 siblings born in Florida between 1994 and 2002. As did previous researchers who examined genetic and environmental influences of cognitive development, we focused on a very large set of twins and siblings. </p>
<p>Twins and siblings close in age allowed us to disentangle the role of genes and environment in development of cognitive ability. We found no evidence that social class played more of a role in educational performance for poor kids than for rich ones.</p>
<p>While students in the higher income groups performed better than students in the lower income groups, the relative influence of genetic and environmental differences was the same across groups. The results were published recently in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/114/51/13441">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.</p>
<h2>A complex gene-environment interaction</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/212455/original/file-20180328-109185-t173q0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The influence of genetics and environment is equally strong in kids from rich and poor families.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-woman-parents-two-children-having-71140174?src=7Y7aaCTHhwEwYM8a8ZGYiw-1-25">Darren Baker/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>What is the significance of our findings? According to David Figlio, dean of the School of Education and Social Policy at Northwestern and lead author of the study, we did not confirm that environmental factors mitigate the effects of genetics on cognitive development. Environmental differences are just as important for students from affluent backgrounds as students from poorer backgrounds.</p>
<p><a href="https://labs.la.utexas.edu/tucker-drob/files/2015/02/Tucker-Drob-Harden-4.20.15-A-Behavioral-Genetic-Perspective-on-Noncognitive-Factors-and-Academic-Achievement.pdf">Recent research</a> has found evidence of a difference in genetic influence on academic performance between rich and poor families in the United States, when compared with families in Australia or Western Europe. </p>
<p>However, our research did not replicate the U.S. findings, in part because our large data set from Florida represented a very socio-economically diverse set of families. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/1XgKGTQchHw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Our findings, however, do not contradict the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4641149/">overall pattern</a> that parental socio-economic status is associated with children’s cognitive development. Among twins and siblings pairs who were close in age, standardized math and reading scores increased proportionally along with mothers’ years of education beyond high school. </p>
<p>More broadly, our findings suggest that the confluence of genes and environment that shape a child’s cognitive ability is not so clear cut; it is far more elusive and complex than currently understood.</p>
<p>Jeremy Freese, a Stanford University sociology professor and second author of our paper, noted that being able to say that genes matter more for one group than another is appealing partly for its simplicity. We suspect the truth is more complicated: Some genes may matter more in wealthier families, and other genes may matter more in poorer families, so there’s no overall characterization one can provide.</p>
<p>In the near future, deeper understanding of the interplay between genetics and environment will become available. With the advent of more specific genetic information, we may be able to map more precisely the gene-environment connection. Such information will improve the ability for researchers to forecast how children achieve their intellectual potential.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/88532/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeffrey Roth received funding from the National Science Foundation.</span></em></p>For years, educators have viewed socio-economic status as an influence on learning. Here’s why a recent study suggests the full story may be more complicated than that.Jeffrey Roth, Professor of Pediatrics, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.