tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/fats-11444/articlesFats – The Conversation2024-02-27T12:30:24Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2229702024-02-27T12:30:24Z2024-02-27T12:30:24ZOmega-3 fatty acids are linked to better lung health, particularly in patients with pulmonary fibrosis<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577659/original/file-20240223-30-2mxmmk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3840%2C2160&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Your diet may play a role in maintaining lung health.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/human-respiratory-system-lungs-anatomy-royalty-free-image/1249730889">magicmine/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Omega-3 fatty acids have garnered significant interest among patients and clinicians for their potential <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/an.111.000893">protective health effects</a>, including lung health. In our recently published research, my colleagues and I found that higher dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids is linked to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2023.09.035">better lung function and longer survival</a> in patients with pulmonary fibrosis, a chronic respiratory disease.</p>
<p>Found in foods such as fish and nuts and in some supplements, <a href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Willamette_University/WU%3A_Chem_199_-_Better_Living_Through_Chemistry/01%3A_Chemicals_in_Food/1.04%3A_Macro-_and_Micronutrients/1.4.02%3A_Fats_and_Cholesterol">omega-3 fatty acids</a> are polyunsaturated fats that are essential nutrients for people. They serve several important functions in the body, such as providing structure to cells and regulating inflammation.</p>
<p>Researchers believe two omega-3 fatty acids, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1042/bst20160474">docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids, or DHA and EPA</a>, are the most beneficial to overall health. When the body breaks them down, their byproducts have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2020.11.018">anti-inflammatory effects</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577668/original/file-20240223-26-i1nth6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Chemical structure of EPA and DHA" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577668/original/file-20240223-26-i1nth6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/577668/original/file-20240223-26-i1nth6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577668/original/file-20240223-26-i1nth6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577668/original/file-20240223-26-i1nth6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=507&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577668/original/file-20240223-26-i1nth6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=637&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577668/original/file-20240223-26-i1nth6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=637&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/577668/original/file-20240223-26-i1nth6.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=637&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">EPA and DHA are two omega-3 fatty acids particularly linked to health benefits.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://med.libretexts.org/Courses/Allan_Hancock_College/Introduction_to_Nutrition_Science_(Bisson_et._al)/07%3A_Lipids/7.04%3A_Fatty_Acid_Types_and_Food_Sources">Minutemen/Wikimedia Commons via LibreTexts</a></span>
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<p>I <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=QeKA8ZoAAAAJ&hl=en">am a pulmonologist</a> at the University of Virginia School of Medicine, and my research team and I are working to identify risk factors that may contribute to the development of <a href="https://www.lung.org/lung-health-diseases/lung-disease-lookup/pulmonary-fibrosis/introduction#">pulmonary fibrosis</a>. In this disease, scarred lung tissue can lead to respiratory failure and death.</p>
<p>We examined whether higher levels of DHA and EPA in the blood of patients with pulmonary fibrosis in different groups of research participants in the U.S. were linked to disease progression. We found that patients with higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids in their blood had a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2023.09.035">slower decline in lung function and longer survival</a>. Notably, these findings persisted even after we accounted for other factors such as age and co-occurring diseases. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Currently, there are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/crj.13466">very few treatments</a> available for pulmonary fibrosis. Those that do exist have significant side effects. Our findings suggest that increasing omega-3 fatty acids in a patient’s diet may slow the progression of this devastating disease.</p>
<p>Researchers have investigated the role of nutrition in many other diseases, but it remains understudied in chronic lung diseases, including pulmonary fibrosis. Our study, along with other published research, suggests <a href="https://doi.org/10.1183/13993003.00262-2023">dietary modifications</a> may influence the trajectory of this disease and improve a patient’s ability to tolerate treatment.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/dQt4_KQUCnk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Scarring in lung tissue makes it more difficult to breathe.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Furthermore, other studies using mice have shed light on how omega-3 fatty acids may <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2466-14-64">protect against pulmonary fibrosis</a> by regulating the activity of inflammatory cells and slowing buildup of scar tissue in the lungs. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Since we were able to measure omega-3 fatty acid levels in the blood at only one point in time, we could not determine whether changing levels over time correlates with changes in pulmonary fibrosis. </p>
<p>Crucially, it remains unknown whether increasing omega-3 fatty acid levels in the blood will have a meaningful effect on the lives of patients with pulmonary fibrosis. Omega-3 fatty acids in the blood might not directly affect pulmonary fibrosis and may simply reflect healthier lifestyles and diets. </p>
<p>Clinical trials are necessary to actually determine whether omega-3 fatty acids are beneficial for patients with respiratory diseases.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>We plan to continue researching whether omega-3 fatty acids have a protective effect against pulmonary fibrosis. </p>
<p>Specifically, we hope to determine the mechanism by which omega-3-enriched interventions affect the lungs of patients with pulmonary fibrosis. </p>
<p>These will be important steps to identify patients who may be particularly responsive to omega-3 therapies and move these treatments toward clinical testing.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222970/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>John Kim receives funding from the National Institute of Health and Chest Foundation. </span></em></p>Essential fats found in fish and nuts are tied to many protective health benefits. Researchers found they may also slow decline of lung function and prolong the lives of pulmonary fibrosis patients.John Kim, Assistant Professor of Medicine, University of VirginiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2019272024-01-22T13:27:25Z2024-01-22T13:27:25ZBreaking down fat byproducts could lead to healthier aging − researchers identify a key enzyme that does just that<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569661/original/file-20240116-25-w3uhfy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2121%2C1412&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A buildup of fat byproducts like glycerol may contribute to accelerated aging.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/oily-water-royalty-free-image/492968264">MagicColors/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The journey of aging brings with it an unavoidable reality for many: an increased accumulation of body fat. Though much of society seems mostly focused on the aesthetics of being overweight, doctors look past any cosmetic concerns to focus on the health implications of fat byproducts in the body.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/fatty-acid">Fatty acids</a> are one of the molecular building blocks that make up fats. Though essential for various bodily functions, excessive amounts of fatty acids in the body <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/acel.13048">can be harmful</a>, shortening a person’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/are-you-a-rapid-ager-biological-age-is-a-better-health-indicator-than-the-number-of-years-youve-lived-but-its-tricky-to-measure-198849">health span and life span</a> by increasing their risk of chronic disease, disrupting metabolic processes and promoting inflammation. </p>
<p>Fatty acids are <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/lab-tests/triglycerides-test/">routinely checked</a> during medical examinations, such as blood tests measuring your lipid profile. But clinicians and researchers often overlook the other key component of fat despite its potentially harmful effects: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2009.10.003">glycerol</a>, a compound that links fatty acids to make a fat molecule. </p>
<p>Both of these fat byproducts disrupt cellular and organ function, mirroring the effects of aging. In fact, researchers are increasingly seeing obesity as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffendo.2019.00266">catalyst for accelerated aging</a>.</p>
<p>The role that fats play in aging is one of the focuses of my work as a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=O3qOkKsAAAAJ&hl=en">genomicist and biochemist</a>. My <a href="https://www.agingobesitylab.org">research team</a> and I wondered whether reducing harmful fat byproducts might help slow the aging process and consequently stave off common diseases. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QhUrc4BnPgg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Fats perform essential functions in your cells, but not all of them are good for you.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Breaking down fat byproducts</h2>
<p>In studying ways to extend the life span and improving the health at late age of lab animals, my colleagues and I saw a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.01.059">consistent pattern</a>: All the anti-aging interventions we tested led to reduced glycerol levels.</p>
<p>For instance, when placed on a calorie-restricted diet, the nematode <em>Caenorhabditis elegans</em> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.22.13091">lives about 40% longer</a>. We found that the glycerol levels in the body of these long-lived worms were lower than in shorter-lived worms that were not food restricted. Calorie restriction also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.01.059">heightened the activity of an enzyme</a> responsible for breaking down glycerol, ADH-1, in their intestine and muscles.</p>
<p>We saw similar <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.01.059">high ADH-1 activity levels in people</a> undergoing dietary restriction or treated with an anti-aging drug called rapamycin. This finding suggests there may be a common mechanism underlying healthy aging across species, with ADH-1 at its core.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569663/original/file-20240116-20-gctpab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Figure showing the chemical structure of glycerol, a fatty acid, and a triglycerol" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569663/original/file-20240116-20-gctpab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569663/original/file-20240116-20-gctpab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=792&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569663/original/file-20240116-20-gctpab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=792&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569663/original/file-20240116-20-gctpab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=792&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569663/original/file-20240116-20-gctpab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=995&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569663/original/file-20240116-20-gctpab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=995&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569663/original/file-20240116-20-gctpab.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=995&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Triacylglycerols, also known as triglycerides, are composed of a glycerol linked to three fatty acids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Boundless)/02%3A_Chemistry/2.05%3A_Organic_Compounds/2.5.02%3A_Lipid_Molecules">Lumen Learning (formerly Boundless) via LibreTexts</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>We hypothesized that elevated ADH-1 activity promotes health in old age by decreasing harmful levels of glycerol. Supporting this hypothesis were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.01.059">two critical observations</a>. First, we found that adding glycerol to the diet of worms <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2009.10.003">shortened their life span by 30%</a>. By contrast, animals genetically modified to boost levels of the glycerol-busting enzyme ADH-1 had low glycerol levels and remained lean and healthy with longer lives, even on unrestricted diets. </p>
<p>The simple molecular structure and wealth of research on ADH-1 make it an attractive target for developing drugs that boost its activity. My lab’s long-term goal is to explore how compounds that activate ADH-1 affect the health and longevity of both mice and people.</p>
<h2>A long-lived society</h2>
<p>Anti-aging research generates both excitement and debate. On the one hand, the benefits of <a href="https://theconversation.com/aging-is-complicated-a-biologist-explains-why-no-two-people-or-cells-age-the-same-way-and-what-this-means-for-anti-aging-interventions-202096">healthy aging</a> are clear. On the other hand, extending life span through healthier aging will likely introduce new societal challenges. </p>
<p>If life spans extending to 120 years become the norm, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S2666-7568(21)00250-6">social structures</a>, including retirement ages and economic models, will need to evolve to accommodate an aging population. Legal and social frameworks regarding the elderly and family care may need revision. The <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/parenting/2023/03/22/caregivers-sandwich-generation/">sandwich generation</a>, those with children and living parents and grandparents, might find themselves caring for even more generations simultaneously. Longer lives will require society to rethink and reshape how we integrate and support an increasingly older population in our communities.</p>
<p>Whether through ADH-1 or dietary adjustments, the quest for the solution to healthy aging is not just a medical journey but a societal one.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201927/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Eyleen Jorgelina O'Rourke does not receive funding from any organization that would benefit from this article. </span></em></p>Although you get your fatty acid levels routinely checked at the doctor’s, rarely do clinicians and researchers consider the effects of their potentially harmful byproducts.Eyleen Jorgelina O'Rourke, Associate Professor of Biology and Cell Biology, University of VirginiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2176222023-11-17T13:29:07Z2023-11-17T13:29:07ZThanksgiving sides are delicious and can be nutritious − here’s the biochemistry of how to maximize the benefits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560008/original/file-20231116-25-qa3919.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=371%2C19%2C1212%2C1371&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Side dishes made with colorful vegetables are a holiday staple for many. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/thanksgiving-table-with-turkey-and-sides-royalty-free-image/1036967058?phrase=thanksgiving+vegetables&adppopup=true">VeselovaElena/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While people usually think first about the turkey or the ham during holiday meals, the sides are what help balance your plate. Colorful vegetables like green beans, collard greens, roasted carrots and mashed sweet potatoes are loaded with important micronutrients. But how you prepare them will help determine whether you get the most nutritional value out of each bite this holiday season.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://blog.richmond.edu/pollocklab/">a biochemist</a>, I know that food is made up of many chemical substances that are crucial for human growth and function. These chemical substances are called nutrients and can be divided into macronutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins, and micronutrients, such as vitamins and minerals.</p>
<p>Vegetables are <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nutrition/micronutrient-malnutrition/micronutrients/index.html">full of micronutrients</a> that human bodies need for metabolism – or converting food into energy – as well as to form and maintain cells and tissues. These micronutrients can be classified into three types: minerals, water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins.</p>
<h2>Minerals</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Alt text" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=135&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=135&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=135&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=169&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=169&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=169&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The dietary minerals found in vegetables.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julie Pollock</span></span>
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<p>The greens – collard greens, kale, spinach, green beans – on your table are rich sources of the elements <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-Consumer/">magnesium</a> and <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-Consumer/">calcium</a>. Your body needs these two major minerals for muscle movement and bone health. </p>
<p>Magnesium is essential for many of the enzymes that play important roles in DNA synthesis and repair, as well as protein production and metabolic function. The cellular processes, especially <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/dna-synthesis">accurate DNA synthesis</a>, are important in protecting your body from developing diseases such as cancer. Calcium helps regulate <a href="https://www.news-medical.net/health/pH-in-the-Human-Body.aspx">the pH in your body</a>, influences your metabolism and strengthens your nerve impulses. Nerve impulses are important for your senses and your memory. </p>
<p>Greens are also <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iron-Consumer/">a source of iron</a> – you were right, Popeye! – which is particularly important for the oxygen-binding proteins hemoglobin and myoglobin that transfer and store oxygen in your body, respectively. In addition, human bodies require iron for processes that help generate energy, protect against oxidative damage and make hormones.</p>
<p>Orange vegetables – carrots, pumpkin, sweet potatoes and squash – contain some levels of calcium and iron as well as <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/an.112.003533">high levels of potassium</a>. Potassium is important for muscle movement, nerve impulses and maintaining low blood pressure. Although not a colorful vegetable, white potatoes also contain very <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/an.112.003533">high levels of potassium</a>. </p>
<h2>Water-soluble vitamins</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two diagrams showing Vitamin B6, a hexagon with three branches with 'OH' attached, and vitamin C, a hexagon with two Os and four branches with OH coming off." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The structures of water-soluble vitamins found in vegetables.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julie Pollock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most green and orange vegetables contain <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nu.14.070194.002103">high levels of vitamin C</a>. Vitamin C is an important water-soluble vitamin because it acts as an antioxidant. <a href="https://theconversation.com/13-ways-to-get-more-antioxidants-and-why-you-need-to-70035">Antioxidants protect your cells</a> against certain types of damage caused by very reactive molecules known as free radicals. </p>
<p>In addition, vitamin C can enhance immune response and is essential for the <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/collagen">synthesis of collagen</a> – the major protein in your skin. Although taking large levels of vitamin C will not <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279544/">keep you from ever getting sick</a>, a healthy amount can help your skin stay soft, help you avoid diseases like scurvy and potentially shorten the length of a cold.</p>
<p>The white potatoes on the table have high levels of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093229">vitamin B6</a>, which is a component of enzymes essential for carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism. It also helps create healthy blood cells and is important in the production of neurotransmitters such as <a href="https://brain.harvard.edu/hbi_news/exploring-how-serotonin-and-dopamine-interact/">serotonin and dopamine</a>, which both regulate pleasure and happiness.</p>
<h2>Fat-soluble vitamins</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two diagrams, the left showing the chemical structure of Vitamin K, the right showing the chemical structure of Vitamin A" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=151&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=151&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=151&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=190&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=190&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=190&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The structures of fat-soluble vitamins found in vegetables.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julie Pollock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of the most important vitamins you get from the green vegetables, especially leafy ones like kale, spinach, collards and Brussels sprouts, is <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminK-Consumer/">vitamin K</a>. Vitamin K is an essential component of enzymes that make proteins in bone and proteins that help clot blood after injuries. </p>
<p><a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminA-Consumer/">Vitamin A</a> is another important fat-soluble vitamin found in spinach and orange vegetables. The source of vitamin A in vegetables is actually <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/beta-carotene-benefits">beta carotene</a>, which gets broken into two molecules of active vitamin A after consumption. Vitamin A is essential to vision as well as cell differentiation, reproduction, bone health and immune system function. </p>
<h2>Absorption of micronutrients</h2>
<p>Consuming vegetables that contain micronutrients is very important, but just as important is your body’s ability to absorb the nutrients and transport them to the cells that need them. Macronutrients like carbohydrates, fats and proteins that primarily make up the food we eat are very efficiently absorbed into your bloodstream. </p>
<p>However, only 3%-10% of some micronutrients <a href="https://www.pearson.com/en-us/subject-catalog/p/science-of-nutrition-the/P200000007016/9780135371565">actually get distributed throughout your body</a>. Other ingredients and factors in your food can moderate whether you absorb vitamins and minerals.</p>
<p>Therefore, it is important to prepare vegetables in a way that can enhance the body’s ability to absorb their essential vitamins and minerals.</p>
<p>One good example of this is iron – specifically, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051049">iron in the food you consume</a>. Heme iron, which is the form necessary for incorporation into your body, comes only from animal products and is the most easily absorbed. </p>
<p>The plant-based iron contained in green and orange vegetables, on the other hand, is not bound to a heme, and your body can’t absorb it as readily. Consuming vitamin C alongside vegetables can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1980.tb21325.x">increase the uptake of nonheme iron</a>. So, a squeeze of lemon or orange juice can not only enhance the flavor of your vegetables but the micronutrients you obtain from them.</p>
<p>Fat-soluble vitamins, like vitamin K and vitamin A, are best absorbed when the meal <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002399.htm">contains some dietary fat</a>, which you can get from oil. This is particularly important for vitamin K because green vegetables are its primary dietary source. This is in contrast to the other minerals and vitamins discussed that can also be obtained from animals or legumes that contain some amounts of dietary fat already.</p>
<p>After consumption, vitamin K must be packaged with other fats in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuab061">structures called micelles or lipoproteins</a> that can move around in the bloodstream. That means that it’s a good idea to prepare your greens with some source of fat – olive oil, avocado oil, butter or even a little bacon grease.</p>
<p>So, if you’re staring at the southern style collard greens on your plate and wondering whether they’re as healthy as eating a raw green leaf, think about it in terms of the biochemistry. While raw greens provide you with plenty of fiber and minerals, they won’t help your vitamin K levels as greens cooked in oil will. </p>
<p>Enjoy your time around the holiday table. Load up your plate with everything you like to eat, and make sure to not go completely fat-free in order to help your body process and use all the micronutrients.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217622/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julie Pollock receives funding from the National Institutes of Health. </span></em></p>The turkey doesn’t have to be the star this Thanksgiving. Vegetable side dishes are packed with nutrients − depending on how you prepare them, they can help keep you energized this holiday season.Julie Pollock, Associate Professor of Chemistry, University of RichmondLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2117482023-09-15T00:56:34Z2023-09-15T00:56:34ZHow can I lower my cholesterol? Do supplements work? How about psyllium or probiotics?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545897/original/file-20230901-17-zovk4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=2%2C0%2C1908%2C1279&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/white-ceramic-bowls-with-supplements-7615572/">Nataliya Vaitkevich/Pexels</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Your GP says you have high cholesterol. You’ve six months to work on your diet to see if that’ll bring down your levels, then you’ll review your options. </p>
<p>Could taking supplements over this time help?</p>
<p>You can’t rely on supplements alone to control your cholesterol. But there’s some good evidence that taking particular supplements, while also eating a healthy diet, can make a difference.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/got-high-cholesterol-here-are-five-foods-to-eat-and-avoid-63941">Got high cholesterol? Here are five foods to eat and avoid</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why are we so worried about cholesterol?</h2>
<p>There are two main types of cholesterol, both affecting your risk of heart disease and stroke. Both types are carried in the bloodstream inside molecules called lipoproteins.</p>
<p><strong>Low-density lipoprotein or LDL cholesterol</strong></p>
<p>This is often called “bad” cholesterol. This lipoprotein carries cholesterol from the liver to cells throughout the body. High levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood can lead to the <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/JAHA.118.011433">build-up of plaque</a> in arteries, which leads to an <em>increased</em> risk of heart disease and stroke. </p>
<p><strong>High-density lipoprotein or HDL cholesterol</strong></p>
<p>This is often called “good” cholesterol. This lipoprotein helps remove excess cholesterol from the bloodstream and transports it back to the liver for processing and excretion. Higher levels of HDL cholesterol are <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.119.312617">linked to</a> a <em>reduced</em> risk of heart disease and stroke. </p>
<p>Diet can play a key role in reducing blood cholesterol levels, especially LDL (“bad”) cholesterol. Healthy dietary choices are <a href="https://theconversation.com/got-high-cholesterol-here-are-five-foods-to-eat-and-avoid-63941">well recognised</a>. These include a focus on eating more unsaturated (“healthy”) fat (such as from olive oil or avocado), and eating less saturated (“unhealthy”) fat (such as animal fats) and trans fats (found in some shop-bought biscuits, pies and pizza bases).</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546536/original/file-20230905-26-5plf10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Cut avocado, glass of olive oil, green herbs and cut lemon on timber background" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546536/original/file-20230905-26-5plf10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546536/original/file-20230905-26-5plf10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546536/original/file-20230905-26-5plf10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546536/original/file-20230905-26-5plf10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546536/original/file-20230905-26-5plf10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546536/original/file-20230905-26-5plf10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546536/original/file-20230905-26-5plf10.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You can find unsaturated fat in foods such as olive oil and avocado.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/food-background-fresh-organic-avocado-lime-253287091">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-whats-healthier-butter-or-margarine-19777">Health Check: what's healthier, butter or margarine?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Fibre is your friend</h2>
<p>An additional way to significantly reduce your total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels through diet is by eating more <a href="https://theconversation.com/fiber-is-your-bodys-natural-guide-to-weight-management-rather-than-cutting-carbs-out-of-your-diet-eat-them-in-their-original-fiber-packaging-instead-205159">soluble fibre</a>.</p>
<p>This is a type of fibre that dissolves in water to form a gel-like substance in your gut. The gel can bind to cholesterol molecules preventing them from being absorbed into the bloodstream and allows them to be eliminated from the body through your faeces. </p>
<p>You can find soluble fibre in whole foods such as fruits, vegetables, oats, barley, beans and lentils.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fiber-is-your-bodys-natural-guide-to-weight-management-rather-than-cutting-carbs-out-of-your-diet-eat-them-in-their-original-fiber-packaging-instead-205159">Fiber is your body's natural guide to weight management – rather than cutting carbs out of your diet, eat them in their original fiber packaging instead</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Fibre supplements, such as psyllium</h2>
<p>There are also many fibre supplements and food-based products on the market that may help lower cholesterol. These include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>natural soluble fibres</strong>, such as inulin (for example, Benefiber) or psyllium (for example, Metamucil) or beta-glucan (for example, in ground oats)</p></li>
<li><p><strong>synthetic soluble fibres</strong>, such as polydextrose (for example, STA-LITE), wheat dextrin (also found in Benefiber) or methylcellulose (such as Citrucel)</p></li>
<li><p><strong>natural insoluble fibres</strong>, which bulk out your faeces, such as flax seeds.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Most of these supplements come as fibres you add to food or dissolve in water or drinks. </p>
<p>Psyllium is the fibre supplement with the strongest evidence to support its use in improving cholesterol levels. It’s been <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5413815/">studied</a> in at least 24 high-quality randomised controlled trials.</p>
<p>These trials show consuming about 10g of psyllium a day (1 tablespoon), as part of a healthy diet, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002916523070107#:%7E:text=Conclusions%3A,mild%2Dto%2Dmoderate%20hypercholesterolemia.">can significantly lower</a> total cholesterol levels by 4% and LDL cholesterol levels by 7%.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545910/original/file-20230901-20-orbx53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Person stirring in psyllium into glass of water, bowl of psyllium next to glass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545910/original/file-20230901-20-orbx53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545910/original/file-20230901-20-orbx53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545910/original/file-20230901-20-orbx53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545910/original/file-20230901-20-orbx53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545910/original/file-20230901-20-orbx53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545910/original/file-20230901-20-orbx53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/545910/original/file-20230901-20-orbx53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You can mix psyllium fibre into a drink or add it to your food.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-adds-spoon-psyllium-fiber-mix-2031428417">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-are-you-eating-the-right-sorts-of-fibre-20089">Health Check: are you eating the right sorts of fibre?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Probiotics</h2>
<p>Other cholesterol-lowering supplements, such as probiotics, are not based on fibre. Probiotics are thought to help lower cholesterol levels via a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3352670/">number of mechanisms</a>. These include helping to incorporate cholesterol into cells, and adjusting the microbiome of the gut to favour elimination of cholesterol via the faeces.</p>
<p>Using probiotics to reduce cholesterol is an upcoming area of interest and the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S089990071500461X">research</a> is promising. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29384846/">2018 study</a>, researchers pooled results from 32 studies and analysed them altogether in a type of study known as a meta-analysis. The people who took probiotics reduced their total cholesterol level by 13%.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.3109/07853890.2015.1071872">Other</a> <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11906-020-01080-y">systematic reviews</a> support these findings.</p>
<p>Most of these studies use probiotics containing <em>Lactobacillus acidophilus</em> and <em>Bifidobacterium lactis</em>, which come in capsules or powders and are consumed daily.</p>
<p>Ultimately, probiotics could be worth a try. However, the effects will likely vary according to the probiotic strains used, whether you take the probiotic each day as indicated, as well as your health status and your diet.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-should-healthy-people-take-probiotic-supplements-95861">Health Check: should healthy people take probiotic supplements?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Red yeast rice</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/red-yeast-rice">Red yeast rice</a> is another non-fibre supplement that has gained attention for lowering cholesterol. It is often used in Asia and some European countries as a complementary therapy. It comes in capsule form and is thought to mimic the role of the cholesterol-lowering medications known as statins.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2021.819482/full">2022 systematic review</a> analysed data from 15 randomised controlled trials. It found taking red yeast rice supplements (200-4,800mg a day) was more effective for lowering blood fats known as triglycerides but less effective at lowering total cholesterol compared with statins.</p>
<p>However, these trials don’t tell us if red yeast rice works and is safe in the long term. The authors also said only one study in the review was registered in a major <a href="https://www.clinicaltrials.gov">database</a> of clinical trials. So we don’t know if the evidence base was complete or biased to only publish studies with positive results.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546589/original/file-20230906-23-a4o8yh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Red yeast rice capsules" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546589/original/file-20230906-23-a4o8yh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/546589/original/file-20230906-23-a4o8yh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=274&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546589/original/file-20230906-23-a4o8yh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=274&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546589/original/file-20230906-23-a4o8yh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=274&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546589/original/file-20230906-23-a4o8yh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546589/original/file-20230906-23-a4o8yh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/546589/original/file-20230906-23-a4o8yh.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=344&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Red yeast rice is often used in Asia and some European countries to lower cholesterol.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/red-yeast-rice-supplement-capsules-on-1625852824">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Diet and supplements may not be enough</h2>
<p>Always speak to your GP and dietitian about your plan to take supplements to lower your cholesterol.</p>
<p>But remember, dietary changes alone – with or without supplements – might not be enough to lower your cholesterol levels sufficiently. You still need to quit smoking, reduce stress, exercise regularly and get enough sleep. Genetics can also play a role.</p>
<p>Even then, depending on your cholesterol levels and other risk factors, you may still be recommended cholesterol-lowering medications, such as <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2795522">statins</a>. Your GP will discuss your options at your six-month review.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/211748/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Ball works for The University of Queensland and receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council, Queensland Health, Mater Misericordia and the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners. She is a Director of Dietitians Australia, a Director of the Darling Downs and West Moreton Primary Health Network and an Associate Member of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Burch works for Southern Cross University.</span></em></p>If you try supplements, you still need to eat a healthy diet, exercise, reduce your stress, quit smoking and get enough sleep. Even then, they may still not be enough.Lauren Ball, Professor of Community Health and Wellbeing, The University of QueenslandEmily Burch, Dietitian, Researcher & Lecturer, Southern Cross UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1964402022-12-14T16:01:37Z2022-12-14T16:01:37ZA brief history of Yorkshire puddings – and why they technically shouldn’t feature in a traditional Christmas dinner<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500455/original/file-20221212-113658-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=107%2C44%2C5883%2C3952&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">shutterstock</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/christmas-holiday-table-setup-traditional-food-753371995">Maksym Poriechkin/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Christmas dinner is considered by many to be the best meal of the year and yet when it comes to deciding what this meal should consist of people’s opinions often differ. </p>
<p>For some there will never be a centre piece that can replace the turkey, although often there are additional meats included such as roast ham, beef or pork, alongside roast potatoes, Brussels sprouts, pigs in blankets, bread sauce and stuffing. And of course, there are those who are vegetarian or vegan and prefer a nut roast.</p>
<p>Then there’s the Yorkshire pudding. For some <a href="https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/whats-on/food-drink-news/christmas-dinner-yorkshire-puddings-poll-17471470">a must-have</a> on Christmas day while for other more traditionalists it seems a Yorkshire pudding <a href="https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/weird-news/nation-divided-over-whether-yorkshire-25744035">should go nowhere near</a> a Christmas dinner.</p>
<p>To understand the origins of the Yorkshire pudding Christmas dinner debate we need to turn the clock back to the time when the original pudding was first created.</p>
<h2>The origin story</h2>
<p>Prior to being given the prefix of Yorkshire in 1747 in the <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Art-Cookery-Made-Plain-Easy/dp/1557094624">bestselling cookbook</a> The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Simple by English cookery writer Hannah Glasse, a Yorkshire Pudding was simply known as a “batter” or “dripping pudding”. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/Yorkshire-Pudding/">original serving of the Yorkshire pudding</a> was as an appetiser to a main meal, usually with gravy. This was because it would fill you up, meaning you wouldn’t eat as much meat, which was expensive. It was originally cooked in northern England over a fire with the meat roasting above it. The fats and juices from the meat would drip into the pudding and provide flavour and colour.</p>
<p>Traditionally, the word “pudding” referred to homely and rustic desserts that were commonly eaten by the lower classes. These could be either sweet or salty. Pudding dishes are mainly made with flour and have a cake-like consistency. Other savoury puddings include – <a href="https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/steak-kidney-pudding">steak and kidney pudding</a> and <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/lamb_and_kidney_suet_94115">suet pudding</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Tray of Yorkshire Puddings" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500477/original/file-20221212-113221-9tmah6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500477/original/file-20221212-113221-9tmah6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500477/original/file-20221212-113221-9tmah6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500477/original/file-20221212-113221-9tmah6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=411&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500477/original/file-20221212-113221-9tmah6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500477/original/file-20221212-113221-9tmah6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500477/original/file-20221212-113221-9tmah6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=516&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">To Yorkshire or not?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/beef-dripping-yorkshire-puddings-on-metal-486225895">Image Source Trading Ltd/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Yorkshire Pudding is a baked pudding made from a batter of eggs, flour and milk or water. It has become a common British side dish which is versatile and can be served in many different ways – although mainly recognised as an accompaniment to a roast dinner. Yorkshire puddings were originally made by tipping the batter into the fat around the roasting meat, but progressed over the years to be given <a href="https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/Yorkshire-Pudding/">their own square dish</a>. </p>
<p>The smaller circular puddings we are more familiar with today date back to Hannah Glasse’s original recipe, in which spoonfuls of batter were dropped into fat surrounding the meat – and often referred to as Yorkshire puffs. </p>
<p>It has been <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/History-Recipes-Sitwell-William-published/dp/B00EKYHX52">suggested</a> the pudding was given the name “Yorkshire” due to the <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/11041921/The-Kitchen-Thinker-the-history-of-Yorkshire-pudding.html">region’s association with coal</a> and the high temperatures this produced that helped to make crispy <a href="https://www.inverse.com/article/42912-hannah-glasse-yorkshire-puddings">batter</a>.</p>
<h2>Healthy or pure indulgence?</h2>
<p>When you look at the individual ingredients that make up a Yorkshire pudding they are <a href="https://www.behealthynow.co.uk/nutrition/is-yorkshire-pudding-good-or-bad-for-you/">quite healthy</a>. But the way they are cooked is another matter. </p>
<p>Eggs, for example, are considered one of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/eight-cracking-facts-about-eggs-150797">most nutritious foods on the planet</a> and contain protein, vitamin B2, B6, B12, zinc, iron and selenium. Milk is also nutrient rich in both protein and fat along with calcium. While flour can <a href="https://www.nutritionix.com/food/yorkshire-pudding">provide you with micronutrients</a>. For example one cup of flour includes one gram of thiamin (vitamin B1), which is 85% of your recommended daily intake. </p>
<p>Traditionally Yorkshire Puddings are cooked in fat or dripping. A small amount of fat is essential in our diets as it’s a source of essential fatty acids, which the body cannot make itself. But <a href="https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/heart-matters-magazine/nutrition/cooking-skills/healthy-roasts/healthy-roast-without-anyone-noticing">too much fat</a> can lead to weight gain. </p>
<p>Vegetable oils such as sunflower can also be used as they reach very high temperatures. There has also been debate as to whether olive oil can be used, however as long as it’s a <a href="https://www.realsimple.com/food-recipes/cooking-tips-techniques/olive-oil-smoke-point-myth">good quality</a>, true <a href="https://www.aboutoliveoil.org/olive-oil-smoke-point">olive oil</a> it’s fine. </p>
<h2>Recipes and ideas</h2>
<p>As well as being a roast dinner side dish, these <a href="https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/howto/guide/yorkshire-puddings">humble puddings</a> are ideal for a cheap and filling family supper. The batter can be turned into puffy pizza bases, fluffy wraps and impressive toad in the holes. </p>
<p>It would also appear that Yorkshire pudding style dishes are now eaten all over the world. <a href="https://foodanddrink.yorkshirepost.co.uk/food/12-things-you-dont-know-yorkshire-pudding/#:%7E:text=Japan%20has%20a%20version%20of,scraps%2C%20onion%20and%20pickled%20ginger.">Japan serves them</a> with anything from cheese to jam and with soup. <a href="https://rouxbe.com/recipes/3000-popovers-yorkshire-puddings">The popover</a> is the US version of the Yorkshire pudding, which dates back to 1850. While Germany and the Netherlands make <a href="https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/dutch-baby-pancake-drunken-cherries">Dutch Babies</a> which is a flat Yorkshire pudding with berries and sugar on top. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Yorkshire pudding with cranberries and cream." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500480/original/file-20221212-116664-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/500480/original/file-20221212-116664-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500480/original/file-20221212-116664-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500480/original/file-20221212-116664-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500480/original/file-20221212-116664-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500480/original/file-20221212-116664-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/500480/original/file-20221212-116664-4pofku.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Anyone for a sweet Yorkshire pud?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/homemade-yorkshire-pudding-redcurrant-sauce-on-2193429247">Geshas/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Back to the original debate then – should we or should we not have a Yorkie with our Christmas Dinner? If you are a strict traditionalist, then technically you should steer clear. It’s unlikely that Yorkshire puddings were included in the first <a href="https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/christmas/christmas-dinners-through-history/">traditional Christmas dinners</a> because they had not yet been invented. Though it should also be noted that neither would one have expected to see <a href="https://www.bbcgoodfood.com/recipes/classic-pigs-blankets">pigs in blankets</a> on an early Christmas dinner plate. Despite often being considered a Christmas staple, they’ve only been around since the 1950s.</p>
<p>So I would say, why not include the Yorkshire pudding, food trends are always changing and modernising. Indeed, Christmas dinner <a href="https://inews.co.uk/inews-lifestyle/food-and-drink/christmas-dinner-traditional-history-why-eat-favourite-festive-recipes-1352886">dates back to medieval times</a> and has been evolving ever since.</p>
<p>You could even dress these puddings up for the Christmas table – <a href="https://www.masoncash.co.uk/recipe/christmas-yorkshire-pudding-canapes">Yorkshire Pudding canapes</a> anyone? While any left over batter could also be used to make a toad in the hole with turkey and gravy – or even topped with cranberries and ice cream – it is Christmas after all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196440/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hazel Flight does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>To understand the origins of the Yorkshire pudding Christmas dinner debate we need to turn the clock back to the time when the original pudding was first created.Hazel Flight, Programme Lead Nutrition and Health, Edge Hill UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1922602022-10-26T15:04:46Z2022-10-26T15:04:46ZAre butter boards bad for you? An expert view on the latest food trend<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491033/original/file-20221021-26-jvbfcq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C10%2C6689%2C4456&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Butter boards are sort of like a charcuterie board featuring artisanal butters.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/butter-board-topped-fresh-figs-fig-2215692749">zarzamora/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In an unexpected twist, butter seems to be <a href="https://time.com/magazine/us/2863200/june-23rd-2014-vol-183-no-24-u-s/">back on the menu</a>. After years of being a maligned ingredient that many people shied away from, butter has now become the latest food trend on social media, thanks to the recent popularity of “<a href="https://www.tiktok.com/discover/butter-board?lang=en">butter boards</a>”.</p>
<p>These are sort of the meat-free equivalent of a charcuterie board. Butter is whipped then spread onto a chopping board, sprinkled with a variety of toppings – from sweet to savoury – and served with an accompaniment of choice (such as bread or a toasted baguette).</p>
<p>But although they may be delicious, butter is still full of saturated fat – which many of us know can be harmful to our health. Here’s what you may want to consider before whipping up a butter board of your own. </p>
<h2>Is butter really that bad?</h2>
<p>Butter is made from cream, the fat-rich part of milk. While it’s usually made from cow’s milk, it can also be made from other milks such as goat milk. </p>
<p>The reason that butter has been seen as a no-go for so many years is because it’s one of the ultimate sources of saturated fat. Butter contains around 80% fat, of which about two-thirds is saturated fat. It contains little else nutrient-wise. </p>
<p>Saturated fats should be avoided in large amounts as they’re linked with many health problems, including <a href="https://www.sevencountriesstudy.com/about-the-study/investigators/ancel-keys/">heart disease and shorter life expectancy</a>. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/102/2/309/4564657">Clinical trials</a> have also shown that saturated fats can have an negative effects on blood cholesterol levels.</p>
<p>When it comes to butter on its own, it appears that eating it has a relatively small or neutral effect on <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0158118&__hstc=232096448.518f1e38284fa6f137ecc732d513cb54.1471737600051.1471737600053.1471737600054.2&__hssc=232096448.1.1471737600054&__hsfp=1773666937">the risk of heart disease</a>. But research that compared butter to olive oil (another source of saturated fat) found that butter can increase levels of <a href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/8/3/e020167.abstract">LDL cholesterol</a>, which is sometimes called “bad” cholesterol as it’s linked to greater risk of <a href="https://www.jacc.org/doi/abs/10.1016/j.jacc.2020.07.059">heart disease</a>.</p>
<p>But the majority of the butter many of us consume <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21767448/">in our diets</a> comes from other foods such as biscuits, cakes and pastries. Alongside butter, these foods tend also to contain high amounts of sugar, while being low in other nutrients. High intakes of these types of foods is also linked with greater risk of <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/113/5/1301/6155958">heart disease</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An assortment of buttery pastries, including croissants and pains au chocolat." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491034/original/file-20221021-12-pnp72j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/491034/original/file-20221021-12-pnp72j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491034/original/file-20221021-12-pnp72j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491034/original/file-20221021-12-pnp72j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491034/original/file-20221021-12-pnp72j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491034/original/file-20221021-12-pnp72j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/491034/original/file-20221021-12-pnp72j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Buttery pastries also contain high levels of sugar.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fresh-croissants-pain-au-chocolate-puff-2019764000">Ion Mes/ Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Overall, sharing a butter board with friends every now and then is unlikely to cause much harm to your health. But doing it often, or eating very large quantities, could raise cholesterol levels and increase your risk of cardiovascular disease somewhat. </p>
<p>It’s also worth bearing in mind what toppings you serve your butter board with. Certain foods (such as processed or cured meats) also contain saturated fats, and should only be enjoyed occasionally.</p>
<h2>Butter alternatives</h2>
<p>Since butter is very calorific and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1021949817301904">fat-rich</a>, some people may want to look at using butter alternatives for the base of their butter board. </p>
<p>The first substitute many people might look to is margarine. Margarine is chemically very similar to butter. Depending on the product though, it only contains around <a href="https://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/sh-proxy/fr/?lnk=1&url=https%253A%252F%252Fworkspace.fao.org%252Fsites%252Fcodex%252FStandards%252FCXS%2B256-1999%252FCXS_256e.pdf">40%-70% fat</a>, making it a lighter alternative with a possibly similar taste. </p>
<p>In the past, the processes needed to make margarine solid resulted in the production of trans fats, which have been linked to increased risk of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1871402119301420?casa_token=0J44Y4TygcEAAAAA:MoM1c2BvTOPO7xFZ_U55ymXFs_k9HMOVqID4irJWfBVFxFzCgm0chfunbjlck2KTWWvxoT1DhMa9">heart disease</a>. But these processes have since been improved so margarine no longer contain trans fat. So it may be a good option for people wary of the amount of fat they consume. </p>
<p>Another alternative people may look at using is ghee, also sometimes known as clarified butter. A staple of Indian cooking, this is still made from milk, but the fat is much more concentrated as most of the water has been simmered away. This means it won’t have the same creamy texture as butter.</p>
<p>Grass-fed ghee is as rich in saturated fats as butter. It also contains naturally produced <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022030206722639">trans fats</a>. However, these trans fats are different to the industrially produced types which are bad for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4816962/">our health</a>. But since ghee contains more calories than butter, it may not be the best choice for a butter board, especially if you’re looking for the best flavour.</p>
<p>Cultured butter may also be a choice for your butter board. This is made from cream which has been <a href="https://ifst.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jfpp.14867?casa_token=SA3php9pKYIAAAAA:X2kRxPSaWamC_wsiF8T0SZIbjJeEOnZWzzyPNd5HdwKr8H9_iW_vLRRo-3GqrqC6FZ5YkkswkIxStlFSkg">fermented like yoghurt</a>. However, no research to date has looked at whether the probiotics in cultured butter provide the same health benefits as those in yoghurt and other fermented foods. Nutrition-wise, it contains the same amount of fat and calories as regular butter.</p>
<p>All in all, butter is not bad. But since it’s very high in calories and cholesterol, you may want to try not to have too much. Sharing a butter board with some friends or loved ones every now and again is unlikely to have any long-term negative impact on your health.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192260/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Duane Mellor is registered dietitian and media spokesperson for the British Dietetic Association.</span></em></p>An occasional butter board with friends is unlikely to cause any harm.Duane Mellor, Lead for Evidence-Based Medicine and Nutrition, Aston Medical School, Aston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1841282022-08-22T12:26:15Z2022-08-22T12:26:15ZTwo surprising reasons behind the obesity epidemic: Too much salt, not enough water<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471724/original/file-20220629-12-h11vd4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3600%2C2398&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Salty french fries may taste good, but they just contribute to dehydration and obesity.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/cropped-image-of-tempted-boy-holding-french-fries-royalty-free-image/660559557?adppopup=true">William Voon/EyeEm via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Scientific studies and <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/what-percent-young-adults-obese/2021/12/03/b6010f98-5387-11ec-9267-17ae3bde2f26_story.html">media coverage</a> are rife <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.22073">with warnings</a> on how <a href="https://doi.org/10.31883/pjfns/110735">sugar</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/jhn.12559">carbohydrates</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.153460">saturated fat</a> and <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/obesity-prevention-source/obesity-causes/physical-activity-and-obesity/">lack of exercise</a> contribute to obesity. And <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7721435/">tens of millions of Americans are still overweight or obese</a> in large part because of the classic Western diet and lifestyle. </p>
<p>As an <a href="https://drrichardjohnson.com/about/#">educator, researcher and professor of medicine</a>, I have <a href="https://drrichardjohnson.com/books/">spent more than 20 years</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=dTgECeMAAAAJ&hl=en">investigating the causes of obesity</a>, as well as related conditions such as diabetes, high blood pressure and chronic kidney disease. </p>
<p>Throughout my many years of studying obesity and related health conditions, I’ve observed that relatively little is said about two significant pieces of this very complex puzzle: lack of hydration and excessive salt intake. Both are known to contribute to obesity. </p>
<h2>Lessons learned from a desert sand rat</h2>
<p>Nature provides a clue to the role these factors play with the desert sand rat <em>Psammomys obesus</em>, a half-pound rodent with a high-pitched squeak that lives in the salty marshes and deserts of Northern Africa. It survives, barely, by eating the stems of <em>Salicornia</em> – the glasswort – a plant that looks a bit like asparagus. </p>
<p>Although low in nutrients, the glasswort’s fleshy, succulent sap is filled with water that’s rich in salt, at concentrations as high as what’s found in seawater.</p>
<p>Recent studies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1713837115">have provided new insights</a> into why the desert sand rat might crave the salty sap of glasswort. Although this has not yet been proven specifically in the sand rat, it is likely that a high-salt diet helps the sand rat convert the relatively low amount of carbohydrates it’s ingesting into fructose, a type of sugar that occurs naturally in fruits, honey and some vegetables.</p>
<p>This <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12993">helps the animal survive</a> when food and fresh water are sparse. This is because fructose activates a “survival switch” that stimulates foraging, food intake and the storage of fat and carbohydrates that protect the animal from starvation.</p>
<p>However, when the rat is brought into captivity and given the common rodent diet of about 50% carbohydrates, it <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplegacy.1965.208.2.297">rapidly develops obesity and diabetes</a>. But if given fresh vegetables low in starchy carbohydrates, the rodent remains lean. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471738/original/file-20220629-21-kvfn1y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A desert sand rat, with prominent whiskers and a brown and white coat, takes a look outside its burrow." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471738/original/file-20220629-21-kvfn1y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/471738/original/file-20220629-21-kvfn1y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471738/original/file-20220629-21-kvfn1y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471738/original/file-20220629-21-kvfn1y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=433&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471738/original/file-20220629-21-kvfn1y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471738/original/file-20220629-21-kvfn1y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/471738/original/file-20220629-21-kvfn1y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=544&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The desert sand rat, also known as the fat sand rat, is actually a gerbil. It’s found in Asia as well as Africa.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/fat-sand-rat-emerging-from-burrow-in-coastal-royalty-free-image/617548398?adppopup=true">Kristian Bell/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://drrichardjohnson.com/books/">My research</a>, and the research of many other scientists over the decades, shows that many Americans unwittingly behave much like a captive desert sand rat, although few are in settings where food and water are limited. They are constantly activating the survival switch. </p>
<h2>Fructose and our diets</h2>
<p>As mentioned, fructose, a simple sugar, appears to have a key role in activating this survival switch that leads to fat production.</p>
<p>Small amounts of fructose, like that found in an individual fruit, are not the problem – rather it is excessive amounts of fructose that are problematic for human health. Most of us get our fructose from table sugar and high-fructose corn syrup. Intake of these two sugars <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2014/03/05/five-percent-of-calories-should-be-from-sugar/6097623/">totals approximately 15% of calories</a> in the average American diet. </p>
<p>These sugars encourage people to eat more, which can lead to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-021-00627-6">weight gain, fat accumulation and prediabetes</a>. </p>
<p>Our bodies also make fructose on their own – and experimental studies suggest it may be enough to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.RA118.006158">trigger the development of obesity</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468593/original/file-20220613-17-sgohui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A spoonful of sugar, surrounded by sugar cubes, on a wooden table." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468593/original/file-20220613-17-sgohui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468593/original/file-20220613-17-sgohui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468593/original/file-20220613-17-sgohui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468593/original/file-20220613-17-sgohui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=461&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468593/original/file-20220613-17-sgohui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468593/original/file-20220613-17-sgohui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468593/original/file-20220613-17-sgohui.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=579&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Table sugar and high-fructose corn syrup are two of the culprits that can cause weight gain and obesity.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/sugar-spoon-on-wood-royalty-free-image/681197933?adppopup=true">ATU Images/The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Since fructose is made from glucose, production of fructose increases when blood glucose levels are high. This process happens when we eat a lot of rice, cereal, potatoes and white bread; those are carbs that rapidly release glucose into the blood rapidly.</p>
<p>And notably, fructose production can also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.RA118.006158">be stimulated by dehydration</a>, which drives fat production. </p>
<h2>Fat provides water</h2>
<p>Fat has two major functions. The first one, which is well known, is to store calories for a later time when food is unavailable. </p>
<p>The other major but lesser-known function of fat <a href="https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2015121314">is to provide water</a>. </p>
<p>To be clear, fat does not contain water. But when fat breaks down, it generates water in the body. The amount produced is substantial, and roughly equivalent to the amount of fat burned. It’s so significant that some animals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2015121314">rely on fat to provide water</a> during times when it’s not available. </p>
<p>Whales are but one example. While they drink some seawater, they get most of their water from the foods they eat. And when they go for extended periods without food, they get their water <a href="https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.204.11.1831">primarily by metabolizing fat</a>. </p>
<h2>Hold the fries</h2>
<p>The role of dehydration as a contributor to obesity should not be underestimated. It commonly occurs after eating salty foods. Both dehydration and salt consumption lead to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1713837115">the production of fructose and fat</a>. </p>
<p>This is why salty french fries are especially fattening. The salt causes a dehydration-like state that encourages the conversion of the starch in the french fry to fructose.</p>
<p>What’s more, studies show most people who are overweight or obese <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602521">don’t drink enough water</a>. They are far more likely to be dehydrated than those who are lean. Their salt intake is also very high compared with lean people’s. </p>
<p>Research shows that people with obesity frequently <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2012.88">have high levels of vasopressin</a>, a hormone that helps the kidneys hold water to regulate urine volume. </p>
<p>But recent studies suggest vasopressin has another purpose, which is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.140848">to stimulate fat production</a>. </p>
<p>For someone at risk of dehydration or starvation, vasopressin may have a real survival benefit. But for those not at risk, vasopressin could drive most of the metabolic effects of excess fructose, like weight gain, fat accumulation, fatty liver and prediabetes. </p>
<h2>Drinking more water</h2>
<p>So does this mean drinking more water can help us lose weight? The medical community has <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/17/well/live/how-much-water-should-I-drink.html">often scoffed at the assertion</a>. However, our research team found that giving mice more water slowed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.140848">weight gain and the development of prediabetes</a>, even when the mice had diets rich in sugar and fat. </p>
<p>There is also increasing evidence that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14102070">most people drink too little water</a> in general, and increasing water intake may help people who are obese <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2008.409">lose weight</a>. </p>
<p>That’s why I encourage drinking eight tall glasses of water a day. And eight is likely enough; don’t assume more is better. There have been cases of people drinking so much that “water intoxication” occurs. This is particularly a problem with people who have heart, kidney or liver conditions, as well as those who have had recent surgery or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa043901">are long-distance runners</a>. It’s always good to first check with your doctor about water intake. </p>
<p>For the desert sand rat, and for our ancestors who scavenged for food, a high-salt and limited-water diet made sense. But human beings no longer live that way. These simple measures – drinking more water and reducing salt intake – offer cheap, easy and healthy strategies that may prevent or treat obesity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184128/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Johnson is a Professor of Medicine at the University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus who has received funding from the National Institutes of Health, Veteran's Health Administration, and Department of Defense to understand the role of fructose metabolism in a variety of metabolic disorders. He also has equity with Colorado Research Partners LLC that is developing inhibitors of fructose metabolism. He is also author of Nature Wants Us to Be Fat (Benbella books, 2022) that discusses the science of fructose and its role in obesity and metabolic disorders.</span></em></p>Studies show that most people who are overweight or obese are also chronically dehydrated.Richard Johnson, Professor of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical CampusLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1775792022-04-17T06:35:38Z2022-04-17T06:35:38ZChemical traces in ancient West African pots show a diet rich in plants<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/456377/original/file-20220405-21-t1smtb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A plate of fufu, a meal common in West Africa. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/traditional-african-meal-cassava-togo-news-photo/929274752?adppopup=true">Godong/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>West African cuisine is known for its distinct ingredients and flavours, often including a diverse range of plant foods. A traditional meal comprises a starchy staple cooked in a pot, served with a sauce prepared from vegetables, fish or meat. It is often accompanied by pulses. Today, these starchy staples include root crops such as yams, cassava, sorghum, pearl millet and maize. </p>
<p>In the northern Sahel and savanna zones, pearl millet is mainly prepared as porridge, while in the southern forest zone, a pounded mash from tuber crops such as yam, called fufu, is the major starch-rich element. </p>
<p>Indigenous vegetables, eaten at almost every West African meal, include eggplant, pumpkin, watermelon and okra (used as a thickener for soups and stews). A great variety of both farmed and foraged green leafy vegetables, little known outside the African continent, are also eaten. These include leaves from the amaranth, roselle and baobab tree.</p>
<p>Little has been known about how long all these plants have been grown and eaten in the region. Plant domestication plays a fundamental role in human history. And many globally used plants were domesticated in West Africa, for example <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352409X21003229">pearl millet</a>, cowpea, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6527260/">African yam</a>, fonio (an ancient grain) and African rice. Investigating the origin and development of indigenous West African crops has global relevance, providing information on human adaptation and plant history.</p>
<p>Finding archaeological evidence of their use helps clarify the origins of human manipulation of wild species, including planting and harvesting. </p>
<p>Some food plants, including grain and legume crops, have been found on archaeological sites in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/49518621_Archaeobotanical_evidence_for_pearl_millet_Pennisetum_glaucum_in_Sub-Saharan_West_Africa">West Africa</a> dating as far back as 3,000 years ago. Finding evidence for vegetables and leafy greens is difficult, however, as they do not generally survive over archaeological timescales.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/kenyas-push-to-promote-traditional-food-is-good-for-nutrition-and-cultural-heritage-176384">Kenya's push to promote traditional food is good for nutrition and cultural heritage</a>
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<p>The only way to investigate this is to analyse organic residues preserved in ancient pottery. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12520-021-01476-0">Our research</a> combined organic residue analysis of 458 prehistoric vessels with archaeobotanical evidence from 10 sites of the prehistoric Nok culture in Nigeria. This culture spanned a period of around 1,500 years, from around the middle of the second millennium BC to the last century BC.</p>
<p>What we found in the Nok pottery was chemical evidence of a remarkable range of plants. It is impossible to say how many but this suggested that – like today – a wide variety of leafy greens were processed together with cereals, pulses and what were probably yams. The method we used, lipid analysis, can now be added to the “toolset” of useful techniques to identify plant exploitation in West Africa, giving a fuller picture of food preparation and ancient diet. This has been done elsewhere but it is the first in West Africa. </p>
<h2>Organic residue analysis of ancient pottery</h2>
<p>The technique of analysing organic residue involves grinding up small pieces of potsherds excavated from archaeological sites and chemically extracting lipids preserved in the vessels. Lipids are the fats, oils and waxes of the natural world. They provide a “biomolecular fingerprint” of the foods that were cooked in the vessels. </p>
<p>The people of the Nok culture, <a href="https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/An-outline-of-recent-studies-on-the-Nigerian-Nok-Breunig-Rupp/a6650623d8dbbf1c44bcd25371942d96f73bc294">known</a> for its terracotta figurines and early iron working, <a href="https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5bd0e66f8d97400eb0099556/t/5bddff4c8a922de6f7b1a874/1541275468604/Nyame+Akuma+Issue+073-breunig.pdf">lived around 3,500 years ago</a> in Nigeria. Little was known of their diet and subsistence practices because acidic soils at Nok archaeological sites didn’t preserve much organic material. For example there were few animal bones to provide information on whether they kept domesticated animals or hunted wild game. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449507/original/file-20220302-25-ysuakd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/449507/original/file-20220302-25-ysuakd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449507/original/file-20220302-25-ysuakd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449507/original/file-20220302-25-ysuakd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449507/original/file-20220302-25-ysuakd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449507/original/file-20220302-25-ysuakd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/449507/original/file-20220302-25-ysuakd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Traditional leafy vegetables a) okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.), b) jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius L.), c) African eggplant (Solanum macrocarpon L.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marco Schmidt, Meike Piepenbring and Marco Schmidt</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Carbonised plant remains did suggest that they cultivated <a href="https://www.feedipedia.org/node/724">pearl millet</a> (<em>Cenchrus americanus</em> syn. <em>Pennisetum glaucum</em>) and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/cowpea">cowpea</a> (<em>Vigna unguiculata</em>) and foraged for tree fruits, such as <a href="https://greeninstitute.ng/plants/2020/1/10/canarium-schweinfurthii">canarium</a> (<em>Canarium schweinfurthii</em>) and <a href="https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Nauclea+latifolia">African peach</a> (<em>Nauclea latifolia</em>).</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/beeswax-in-nok-pots-provides-evidence-of-early-west-african-honey-use-161197">Beeswax in Nok pots provides evidence of early West African honey use</a>
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<p>Animal fats, such as milk or meat, are by far the most common foodstuffs identified in ancient pots worldwide. So we were surprised when our analyses revealed that over one third of Nok potsherds yielded a remarkable range of plant lipid profiles, some of which had not previously been seen in archaeological vessels anywhere – though <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nplants2016194">evidence</a> for plant processing has been found in the Libyan Sahara.</p>
<p>Our results suggest that Nok people consumed “greens” or leaves from plants such as jute mallow, African eggplant, okra, cowpea and bombax, widely used today. These provide cheap but quality nutrition and add taste and flavour to the otherwise monotonous starch-based staples consumed. They can be kept dried and stored for use throughout the year, affording a buffer in periods of food shortage.</p>
<p>One of the most important leaf-providing species today is the baobab, which, together with okra, false sesame, jute mallow and black sesame, is cooked in soups with a little potash (potassium carbonate) to give a high mucilage content, or “slimy” consistency. This soup is often found in areas that produce a lot of yam, likely because pounded yam is complemented by sauces of this consistency, as are other local cereal and tuber dishes. </p>
<p>Evidence for leafy vegetables and starchy plants in the ancient pots mirrors the starches and sauces cooked today. </p>
<p>These exciting results have allowed us to go beyond the identification of meals thought to consist mainly of meat and starchy plants. We can now confirm, based on the highly diverse range of lipid profiles we found, the preparation of ancient meals combining vegetables, pulses, tubers and, possibly, herbs and spices, in prehistoric West Africa. </p>
<p>The early invention of pottery around <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/abs/emergence-of-pottery-in-africa-during-the-tenth-millennium-cal-bc-new-evidence-from-ounjougou-mali/EC383CF3E1B961102319433214C6E034">10,000 years ago</a> in this region, crucial in facilitating plant processing, suggests that West African plant cuisine may be thousands of years older than was thought. This question remains open for now.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177579/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julie Dunne does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The preparation of ancient meals in prehistoric West Africa combined vegetables, pulses, tubers and, possibly, herbs and spices.Julie Dunne, Postdoctoral Researcher in Archaeology, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1593492021-04-22T07:34:51Z2021-04-22T07:34:51ZAlexei Navalny has been on a hunger strike for over 3 weeks. How long can humans survive without food?<p>From time to time, generally when there’s a public case of a hunger strike, people ask me how long a person can survive without food.</p>
<p>The hunger strike <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-04-20/kremlin-foe-navalny-extends-hunger-strike-seeks-own-doctors">generating attention</a> at the moment is that of Russian opposition leader Alexei Navalny. Navalny, who was arrested in January after returning to Russia, began refusing food <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/russia-navalny-hunger-strike-prison/2021/03/31/750214fc-9234-11eb-aadc-af78701a30ca_story.html">on March 31</a> in protest at not being able to access medical care in prison. This means he’s been fasting now for more than three weeks.</p>
<p>Based on the science of long-term fasting, Navalny could theoretically continue his hunger strike for another number of weeks. But reports suggest he’s experiencing problems with his <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/jailed-kremlin-critic-navalny-growing-risk-kidney-failure-medics-union-2021-04-17/">kidneys</a>, which may be caused by underlying health issues. He’s now <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/apr/19/alexei-navalny-moved-to-hospital-as-fears-grow-for-life-of-putin-critic">in a prison hospital</a>, with concerns circulating he is very ill.</p>
<p>To put the specifics of Navalny’s situation aside, a normal adult human can actually survive a surprisingly long time without food, provided they have an adequate intake of water, which contains some minerals. </p>
<h2>Starvation is a long process</h2>
<p>I advise my undergraduate students to avoid hunger strikes to generate public pressure, because generally it takes too long for health risks to become severe enough to garner the expected attention. </p>
<p>Evolution has prepared us well to starve. It’s conceivable early hunter-gatherers and early farmers endured extended periods without adequate food. We’re also aware of pictures of prisoners of war with a skeletal appearance who were undernourished for months, if not years. </p>
<p>The science is pretty well understood, thanks to a pioneer in this field, <a href="https://thehealthsciencesacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Fuel-Metabolism-in-Starvation_ReviewArticleTIMM2008-9Lazar-1.pdf">George F. Cahill</a>, and his colleagues. In the 1960s Cahill worked with volunteers in fasting experiments of up to 40 days, and established many of the ways our bodies seem to adapt to long periods without food. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/by-jailing-alexei-navalny-the-kremlin-may-turn-him-into-an-even-more-potent-opposition-symbol-154258">By jailing Alexei Navalny, the Kremlin may turn him into an even more potent opposition symbol</a>
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<p>The main challenge to long-term fasting is our brain. It consumes <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6107421/">20% of our total energy</a>, regardless of mental activity. It also loves glucose, our preferred energy provider when we’re eating normally.</p>
<p>The body’s stores of glucose are fairly limited and run out in less than <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6566767/">one day</a> when we stop eating. But your body knows what to do. While you’re sleeping or fasting, your body starts to convert muscle mass into glucose, thereby keeping glucose levels up. </p>
<p>Producing glucose <a href="https://thehealthsciencesacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Fuel-Metabolism-in-Starvation_ReviewArticleTIMM2008-9Lazar-1.pdf">from muscle protein</a> is a good way to keep up glucose in the short term, but you don’t want to lose muscle mass in case you need to be active again.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="An empty plate with a fork." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396476/original/file-20210422-23-1hnfn93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/396476/original/file-20210422-23-1hnfn93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396476/original/file-20210422-23-1hnfn93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396476/original/file-20210422-23-1hnfn93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396476/original/file-20210422-23-1hnfn93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396476/original/file-20210422-23-1hnfn93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/396476/original/file-20210422-23-1hnfn93.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">When we don’t eat, our body’s stores of glucose — an important energy provider — run out. So our body draws on other reserves for energy.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Enter fat. Fat is our best energy store. In contrast to glycogen (our stores of glucose in the body), fat doesn’t need water to be stored with it, meaning it gives you far more energy for an equivalent amount. Per gram, fat has more than <a href="https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/publications/publishing.nsf/Content/canteen-mgr-tr1%7Enutrition-energy#">twice the energy content</a> of carbohydrates and protein.</p>
<p>Even a person at a normal weight has about <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_fat_percentage">15kg of fat</a> and 6kg of protein in the form of muscle. Almost all the fat is dispensable, but only part of the muscles can be wasted to avoid damage to vital organs. </p>
<p>So fat stores are mobilised during fasting to sustain the body. But they provide limited capacity to generate glucose. To keep your brain happy, your body has two tricks up its sleeve. First, fat is converted into <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketone_bodies">ketone bodies</a> — an alternative energy supply to glucose — through a process called ketogenesis.</p>
<p>You can push your body to make ketone bodies by eating a lot of fat and minimal glucose (think ketogenic diets), or by starving. The <a href="https://thehealthsciencesacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Fuel-Metabolism-in-Starvation_ReviewArticleTIMM2008-9Lazar-1.pdf">levels of ketone bodies</a> in blood rise after a couple of hours of fasting, and skyrocket over the next couple of days of fasting. Importantly, your organs prefer them over glucose to generate energy. </p>
<p>The second trick is that your brain starts using ketone bodies as an energy source as well. This is an important trick to minimise the loss of muscle mass, by reducing the demand for glucose. The brain works very well on ketone bodies and there’s no reduction of intellectual capacity.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/chemical-messengers-how-hormones-make-us-feel-hungry-and-full-35545">Chemical messengers: how hormones make us feel hungry and full</a>
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<p>In summary, the body has some nifty ways of using muscle mass and fat to produce the energy we need, when it’s not coming directly from glucose. And we can usually survive until these alternate supplies are depleted. </p>
<h2>So, how long?</h2>
<p>A normal person might last for almost three months without eating if resting; <a href="https://thehealthsciencesacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Fuel-Metabolism-in-Starvation_ReviewArticleTIMM2008-9Lazar-1.pdf">two months</a> is considered a safe bet. </p>
<p>An obese person could take much longer to starve, perhaps 6-12 months, because of the considerably larger fat mass their body can draw on for energy supplies. However, loss of muscle mass could impair mobility, heart and kidney function.</p>
<p>For a person on a hunger strike, the feeling of hunger first increases but then subsides. In response to <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/obr.13191">starvation and malnutrition</a>, a person is likely to experience chronic fatigue, and a range of negative effects on their mood.</p>
<p>However, not drinking any <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32575998/">water</a> is much more dangerous than abstaining from food. It will cause serious health problems and death a lot more quickly.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-chemical-agent-that-was-reportedly-used-to-poison-russian-politician-alexei-navalny-145013">What is the chemical agent that was reportedly used to poison Russian politician Alexei Navalny?</a>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stefan Broer has received funding from the Australian Research Council (ARC), the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) for his work on nutrition and proteins. </span></em></p>The average person is likely to be able to survive on a hunger strike for two months, provided they are drinking water. Here’s how the human body can manage for so long without food.Stefan Broer, Head of molecular nutrition group, College of Medicine, Biology and Environment, Australian National UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1364342020-05-12T12:35:50Z2020-05-12T12:35:50ZThe dirty history of soap<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333754/original/file-20200508-49546-dx6y3a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=126%2C364%2C4404%2C3169&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How many times a day do you use soap?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/bar-soap-royalty-free-image/530859976">Paul Linse/The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html">Wash your hands often with soap and water for at least 20 seconds</a>.” That’s what the CDC has advised all Americans to do to prevent the spread of COVID-19 during this pandemic.</p>
<p>It’s common-sense advice. The <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/03/20/dear-science-how-does-soap-make-things-clean/">surfactants found in soap lift germs from the skin</a>, and water then washes them away. Soap is inexpensive and ubiquitous; it’s a consumer product found in every household across the country.</p>
<p>Yet few people know the long and dirty history of making soap, the product we all rely on to clean our skin. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZG3N6Cr_wT0C&hl=en&oi=ao">I’m a historian who focuses on material culture</a> in much of my research. As I started digging into what’s known about soap’s use in the past, I was surprised to discover its messy origins.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333755/original/file-20200508-49546-550d2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333755/original/file-20200508-49546-550d2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333755/original/file-20200508-49546-550d2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333755/original/file-20200508-49546-550d2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333755/original/file-20200508-49546-550d2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333755/original/file-20200508-49546-550d2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333755/original/file-20200508-49546-550d2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333755/original/file-20200508-49546-550d2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">From animal fat to coal tar, what goes in tends to be pretty dirty.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/advertising-during-the-first-world-war-in-1915-wrights-coal-news-photo/1080227192">SeM/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Gross ingredients to clean things up</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2015-1211.ch009">Ancient Mesopotamians were first to produce</a> a kind of soap by cooking fatty acids – like the fat rendered from a slaughtered cow, sheep or goat – together with water and an alkaline like <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/lye">lye</a>, a caustic substance derived from wood ashes. The result was a greasy and smelly goop that lifted away dirt.</p>
<p>An early mention of soap comes in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282650616_An_Ancient_Cleanser_Soap_Production_and_Use_in_Antiquity">Roman scholar Pliny the Elder’s</a> book “<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nvBDAQAAMAAJ&q=sapo#v=onepage&accltump;q=soap&f=false">Naturalis Historia</a>” from A.D. 77. He described soap as a pomade made of tallow – typically derived from beef fat – and ashes that the Gauls, particularly the men, applied to their hair to give it “a reddish tint.”</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333756/original/file-20200508-49550-1mcaftr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333756/original/file-20200508-49550-1mcaftr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333756/original/file-20200508-49550-1mcaftr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1276&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333756/original/file-20200508-49550-1mcaftr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1276&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333756/original/file-20200508-49550-1mcaftr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1276&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333756/original/file-20200508-49550-1mcaftr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333756/original/file-20200508-49550-1mcaftr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333756/original/file-20200508-49550-1mcaftr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A strigil and flask.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/strigil-and-flask-roman-a-strigil-was-a-curved-blade-used-news-photo/464504797">Heritage Images/Hulton Archive via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ancient people used these early soaps to clean wool or cotton fibers before weaving them into cloth, rather than for human hygiene. Not even the Greeks and Romans, who pioneered running water and public baths, <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/hygiene-in-ancient-rome-and-baths-119136">used soap to clean their bodies</a>. Instead, men and women immersed themselves in water baths and then smeared their bodies with scented olive oils. They used a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1976.0080">metal or reed scraper called a strigil</a> to remove any remaining oil or grime.</p>
<p>By the Middle Ages, new vegetable-oil-based soaps, which were hailed for their mildness and purity and smelled good, had come into use as luxury items among Europe’s most privileged classes. The first of these, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-soap/modern-threat-to-syrias-ancient-aleppo-soap-industry-idUSTRE69L1ID20101022">Aleppo soap, a green, olive-oil-based bar soap</a> infused with aromatic laurel oil, was produced in Syria and brought to Europe by Christian crusaders and traders.</p>
<p>French, Italian, Spanish and eventually English versions soon followed. Of these, <a href="https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/opinion/comment/a-short-history-of-soap/20066753.article?firstPass=false">Jabon de Castilla</a>, or Castile soap, named for the region of central Spain where it was produced, was the best known. The white, olive-oil-based bar soap was a wildly popular toiletry item among European royals. Castile soap became <a href="https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/opinion/comment/a-short-history-of-soap/20066753.article?firstPass=false">a generic term for any hard soap of this type</a>.</p>
<p>The settlement of the American colonies coincided with an age (1500s-1700s) when most Europeans, whether privileged or poor, had turned away from regular bathing out of <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300171556/foul-bodies">fear that water actually spread disease</a>. Colonists used soap primarily for domestic cleaning, and soap-making was part of the seasonal domestic routine overseen by women.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/22675/22675-h/22675-h.htm">As one Connecticut woman described it in 1775</a>, women stored fat from butchering, grease from cooking and wood ashes over the winter months. In the spring, they made lye from the ashes and then boiled it with fat and grease in a giant kettle. This produced a soft soap that women used to wash the <a href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300171556/foul-bodies">linen shifts that colonists wore as undergarments</a>.</p>
<p>In the new nation, the founding of soap manufactories like New York-based <a href="https://www.supplytime.com/Blogs/Blog/History-of-Colgate-Palmolive-Company_23.aspx">Colgate, founded in 1807</a>, or the Cincinnati-based <a href="https://www.pg.com/en_US/downloads/media/Fact_Sheets_CompanyHistory.pdf">Procter & Gamble, founded in 1837</a>, increased the scale of soap production but did little to alter its ingredients or use. Middle-class Americans <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1894408">had resumed water bathing, but still shunned soap</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0289.2007.00388.x">Soap-making remained an extension of the tallow trade</a> that was closely allied with candle making. Soap itself was for laundry. At the first P&G factory, laborers used large cauldrons to <a href="https://oac.cdlib.org/ark:/28722/bk000401r2p/?brand=oac4">boil down fat collected from homes, hotels and butchers</a> to make the candles and soap they sold.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333757/original/file-20200508-49565-mm0nq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333757/original/file-20200508-49565-mm0nq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333757/original/file-20200508-49565-mm0nq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333757/original/file-20200508-49565-mm0nq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333757/original/file-20200508-49565-mm0nq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=453&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333757/original/file-20200508-49565-mm0nq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=569&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333757/original/file-20200508-49565-mm0nq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=569&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333757/original/file-20200508-49565-mm0nq7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=569&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Workers tended to soap in large tanks in a French factory circa 1870.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-manufacture-of-soap-in-large-tanks-in-the-19th-century-news-photo/929239368">Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>From cleaning objects to cleaning bodies</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/ed079p1172">The Civil War was the watershed</a>. Thanks to reformers who touted regular washing with water and soap as a sanitary measure to aid the Union war effort, bathing for personal hygiene caught on. <a href="https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Procter_%26_Gamble">Demand for inexpensive toilet soaps increased</a> dramatically among the masses.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333758/original/file-20200508-49558-6zabpn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333758/original/file-20200508-49558-6zabpn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333758/original/file-20200508-49558-6zabpn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=862&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333758/original/file-20200508-49558-6zabpn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=862&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333758/original/file-20200508-49558-6zabpn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=862&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333758/original/file-20200508-49558-6zabpn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1083&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333758/original/file-20200508-49558-6zabpn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1083&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333758/original/file-20200508-49558-6zabpn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1083&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Palmolive ads, like this one from 1900, stressed the exotic ingredients in the green bar.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2018696682/">Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Companies began to develop and market a variety of new products to consumers. In 1879, P&G introduced <a href="https://oac.cdlib.org/ark:/28722/bk000401r2p/?brand=oac4">Ivory soap</a>, one of the first perfumed toilet soaps in the U.S. B.J. Johnson Soap Company of Milwaukee followed with their own palm-and-olive-oil-based <a href="https://www.milwaukeemag.com/story-behind-this-bar-of-palmolive-soap/">Palmolive soap</a> in 1898. It was the <a href="https://www.supplytime.com/Blogs/Blog/History-of-Colgate-Palmolive-Company_23.aspx">world’s best-selling soap by the early 1900s</a>.</p>
<p>Soap chemistry also began to change, paving the way for the modern era. At P&G, <a href="https://oac.cdlib.org/ark:/28722/bk000401r2p/?brand=oac4">decades of laboratory experiments</a> with imported coconut and palm oil, and then with domestically produced cottonseed oil, led to the <a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publication/?seqNo115=210614">discovery of hydrogenated fats in 1909</a>. These solid, vegetable-based fats revolutionized soap by making its manufacture less dependent on animal byproducts. <a href="https://www.cleaninginstitute.org/understanding-products/why-clean/soaps-detergents-history">Shortages of fats and oils for soap</a> during World Wars I and II also led to the discovery of synthetic detergents as a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/soap/Early-synthetic-detergents">“superior” substitute</a> for fat-based laundry soaps, household cleaners and shampoos.</p>
<p>Today’s commercially manufactured soaps are <a href="http://www.soaphistory.net/soap-facts/soap-types/">highly specialized</a>, lab-engineered products. Synthesized animal fats and plant-based oils and bases are combined with <a href="https://www.bare-soaps.com/blogs/your-impact/116431557-what-s-in-a-bar-of-soap">chemical additives</a>, including moisturizers, conditioners, lathering agents, colors and scents, to make soaps more appealing to the senses. But they cannot fully mask its mostly foul ingredients, including <a href="http://www.soaphistory.net/soap-history/history-of-liquid-soap-and-shower-gel/">shower gels’</a> petroleum-based contents.</p>
<p>As a 1947 history of P&G observed: “<a href="https://oac.cdlib.org/ark:/28722/bk000401r2p/?brand=oac4">Soap is a desperately ordinary substance to us</a>.” As unremarkable as it is during normal times, soap has risen to prominence during this pandemic.</p>
<p>[<em>Get facts about coronavirus and the latest research.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=upper-coronavirus-facts">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter.</a>]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/136434/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Judith Ridner does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With hand-washing top of mind, soap is an integral part of keeping clean. But people through the ages relied on earlier forms of soap more for cleaning objects than for personal hygiene.Judith Ridner, Professor of History, Mississippi State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1021302018-08-31T14:00:24Z2018-08-31T14:00:24ZCoconut oil: not quite poisonous, but best treated with caution<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234232/original/file-20180830-195298-kb0wja.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/coconut-oil-fresh-coconuts-on-old-257285275?src=aW4T-jCpdoIsbKg_-tqM_A-1-4">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Coconut oil is under attack. Once hailed as a miraculous superfood, its reputation has been more than a little bruised after a Harvard professor <a href="https://news.sky.com/story/coconut-oil-pure-poison-says-harvard-professor-11478886">described the substance</a> as “pure poison”. To remove any doubt about her feelings, Karin Michels, an epidemiologist, added that coconut oil is “one of the worst things you can eat”.</p>
<p>Pure poison? Well it won’t kill you instantly, eyes popping, foaming at the mouth, gasping for breath – nothing quite as dramatic as that. But it’s true that coconut oil could, for avid and devoted fans, contribute to potentially fatal heart disease. </p>
<p>So how can such a natural plant product be regarded as being so dangerous? After all, it looks so innocent, with its white flesh and refreshing liquid centre providing an exotic taste of tropical beaches, as well as minor amounts of minerals (potassium and iron), some fibre and fat. </p>
<p>It has also been a long standing and popular ingredient in sun cream and shampoo and skin products. But it is edible coconut oil that has grabbed centre stage recently for its supposed health benefits. Products containing coconut oil and recipes using it are becoming ever more popular. A quick web search will provide numerous suggestions for including more coconut oil in your diet by using it in cooking and baking and even mixing it into tea, coffee and smoothies. </p>
<p>With claims of health benefits including weight loss, increased “good” cholesterol, improved immune function and even prevention of Alzheimers disease, it is easy to see why the public would be swayed to swap their usual household oils and fats for this incredible sounding product. </p>
<p>Not even the high price tag seems to deter buyers (one British supermarket is currently selling it at £1.36 per 100ml compared to vegetable (rapeseed) oil at 11p per 100ml and olive oil at 30p per 100ml). </p>
<h2>The fats of the matter</h2>
<p>But <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nbu.12188">looking more closely</a> at these apparent health benefits, we can see that most claims derive from studies, which to date, are based on animal or in-vitro (laboratory) studies. </p>
<p>By far the biggest negative for coconut oil is the fact that it is so very high in saturated fat. As much as 86% of it is made up of the type of fat that we have been urging people to cut down on in their diets due to its proven association with raised “bad” cholesterol and heart disease. </p>
<p>Even butter, that long standing enemy of heart health fanatics, looks healthy compared to the fatty acid profile of coconut oil, at 52% saturated fat. Olive oil comes in at 14% and rapeseed is 7%.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234243/original/file-20180830-195331-11q7s7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/234243/original/file-20180830-195331-11q7s7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234243/original/file-20180830-195331-11q7s7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234243/original/file-20180830-195331-11q7s7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234243/original/file-20180830-195331-11q7s7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234243/original/file-20180830-195331-11q7s7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/234243/original/file-20180830-195331-11q7s7u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A taste of the exotic?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/coconut-palm-tree-on-sandy-beach-144219664?src=Fu3VC3SqHPnMxBrrv1Zpaw-2-0">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So why, after decades of promoting the evidence-based health benefits of replacing saturated fats with unsaturated fats, such as olive, rapeseed and sunflower oils, has this product soared in popularity? Perhaps it is the taste that people like (though I’m not convinced it’s that good). Or the fact that it seems like an exotic and trendy ingredient, and people are still unconvinced about the risks of saturated fat (despite professional advice not changing for years).</p>
<h2>Coconut fall</h2>
<p>Whatever the reason, timely <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nbu.12333">draft reports</a> currently being finalised from the UK’s Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition and the World Health Organisation continue to endorse the dietary guidelines of restricting intake of saturated fat to less than 10% of total energy intake (around 20g for women and 30g for men per day).</p>
<p>Using as little as two tablespoons of coconut oil in the daily diet will smash this target to pieces, providing 26g of saturated fat as well as around 200 calories. </p>
<p>Do I use coconut oil in my kitchen? Definitely not. But the odd can of (reduced fat) coconut milk for a Thai curry or bag of desiccated coconut for home baking can be found lurking in my larder.</p>
<p>No single food is a “superfood”. It is the overall balance of our intake that matters. As with any high fat product, coconut oil should be used sparingly, only occasionally and as a minor ingredient, rather than as a replacement for staple oils such as rapeseed, olive and sunflower oils. Coconut oil is not strictly speaking a poison – but nor is it something which should pass our lips without caution.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/102130/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Kinrade does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s been trendy for some time – but these nuts are filled with saturated fat.Emma Kinrade, Lecturer in Nutrition and Dietetics, Glasgow Caledonian UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/955082018-05-24T21:08:48Z2018-05-24T21:08:48ZYoung adults need to eat more omega-3 fats<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220219/original/file-20180523-51091-zbvwfl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Omega-3 fats can be found in many food sources, including salmon, flax seeds and walnuts as well as over-the-counter supplements.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The vast majority of doctors, naturopaths, dietitians and scientists all agree that <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/#h7">having more omega-3 fats in our diet is good for our health</a>. </p>
<p>There are three main omega-3 fats — alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) — and we can <a href="https://www.dietitians.ca/Your-Health/Nutrition-A-Z/Fat/Food-Sources-of-Omega-3-Fats.aspx">find them in many different foods</a>. </p>
<p>We can get lots of ALA by eating ground flaxseed, chia seeds and walnuts, for example, while fatty fish such as salmon, mackerel and herring are rich in EPA and DHA. </p>
<p>These fats are also all available in over-the-counter supplements. Flaxseed supplements are high in ALA; fish, krill and algal supplements are high in EPA and DHA. </p>
<p>Despite their availability, evidence shows that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2016.05.001">most people in North America are not getting enough of these important fats in their diets</a>. Low levels in our diet means low levels in our bodies. And this may be linked with higher risk for a number of health complications, such as <a href="http://www.dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.2925">coronary heart disease</a> and <a href="http://www.dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.011">depression</a>. </p>
<p>I find this disconnect to be intriguing. So, <a href="https://twitter.com/KaitlinRoke?lang=en">nutrigenomics researcher Kaitlin Roke</a> and I set about building a new online survey — to study what young adults know about omega-3 fats and their link to various health outcomes.</p>
<h2>What do young adults know?</h2>
<p>Developing this survey was important for a few reasons. First, it’s been a long time since a survey about dietary omega-3 fats was conducted. Second, the boom in social media means that people now get nutrition information from a lot of different sources in addition to health-care professionals. Third, many nutrition surveys are done with older adults. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220218/original/file-20180523-51135-1oyler6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/220218/original/file-20180523-51135-1oyler6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220218/original/file-20180523-51135-1oyler6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220218/original/file-20180523-51135-1oyler6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220218/original/file-20180523-51135-1oyler6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220218/original/file-20180523-51135-1oyler6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/220218/original/file-20180523-51135-1oyler6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Only one in five young adults surveyed reported taking omega-3 supplements.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07359680802619834">dietary habits established as a young adult have a high chance of being maintained throughout a person’s lifetime</a>. So we conducted our research with more than 800 young adult participants in the Guelph community. </p>
<p>The results showed that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29546765">young adults are very aware of the different omega-3 fats and of their associated health benefits</a>. </p>
<p>One of the key findings is that how people name the different omega-3s matters. On the one hand, young adults were more familiar with the term alpha-linolenic acid then the abbreviation ALA. On the other hand, these same individuals recognized the abbreviations EPA and DHA more than their scientific names. </p>
<p>This information is important for health-care professionals and companies selling dietary supplements, as talking to people in different ways about each of the omega-3s could lead to improved uptake of nutrition information. </p>
<h2>Heart and brain health</h2>
<p>Another key finding from this survey was that four out of five young adults recognized omega-3s as linked with heart, metabolic and brain health. </p>
<p>But here’s the kicker: While most young adults seem to know about the health benefits of omega-3 fats, only 40 per cent (two out of five) reported purchasing or consuming omega-3 foods. Only 21 per cent (one out of five) reported taking omega-3 supplements.</p>
<p>This study highlights the disconnect that exists between awareness of omega-3 health benefits and consumption of omega-3 fats. Now it’s time to brainstorm new ways to increase intake of these important dietary fats. </p>
<p>I am very interested in the new and exciting area of personalized nutrition. The idea behind this is that giving people access to their genetic information, specifically related to nutrient metabolism, may change their dietary behaviours. </p>
<p>Specifically, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28272299">nutrigenomics research is investigating whether giving people personal genetic information related to omega-3 fat metabolism can encourage consumption of these fats</a>.</p>
<h2>Social media solutions</h2>
<p>Another tool that could be used more often by health-care professionals is social media. </p>
<p>Indeed, our survey showed that many young adults use social media as a source of nutrition information. We just need to make sure that what’s on social media is accurate and based on scientific evidence.</p>
<p>What is clear is that there is no one solution to increase omega-3 levels in the general Canadian population. We will undoubtedly have to tailor dietary advice differently for different people. </p>
<p>But the good news is that young adults seem to know a lot about the health benefits of omega-3s. Now we just have to figure out how to get them to eat more of them.</p>
<p><em>Do you want to know if you have enough omega-3 fats in your diet? Take a <a href="https://alwaysomega3s.com/do/are-you-getting-enough-omega-3s">free quiz online</a>.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/95508/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Mutch has received funding from NSERC, CIHR, OMAFRA, and CFI. </span></em></p>A new study shows that most young adults know about the connection between omega-3 fats and brain and heart health. Despite this, only two out of five reported buying or eating omega-3 foods.David Mutch, Associate Professor of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of GuelphLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/892312018-02-18T19:14:41Z2018-02-18T19:14:41ZCan diet improve the symptoms of endometriosis? Sadly, there’s no clear answer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206473/original/file-20180215-124883-u4ad54.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Every woman and her disease are different, and each will respond in her own way to different types of foods.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is no cure for endometriosis, a condition affecting one in ten women of childbearing age <a href="https://jeanhailes.org.au/health-a-z/endometriosis/symptoms-causes">that can cause</a> painful and heavy periods, fatigue and pain with sex. Some women with the disease experience pain so severe, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/sep/06/years-of-pain-but-no-diagnosis-one-womans-experience-of-endometriosis">it makes them nauseated</a> and interferes with their life.</p>
<p>Current <a href="https://jeanhailes.org.au/health-a-z/endometriosis/management-treatment">treatments</a>, such as surgery and contraceptive pills, can be invasive or cause unpleasant side effects. So, the internet is awash with advice for <a href="https://draxe.com/endometriosis-symptoms/">alternative treatments</a>, including acupuncture and <a href="http://www.endometriosisdiet.com.au/">dietary changes</a>. Some women claim to have <a href="https://www.wellandgood.com/good-food/tia-mowry-endometriosis-caused-by-diet-inflammation/">reduced their symptoms</a> by eating “anti-inflammatory” foods, cutting out gluten, dairy and alcohol. </p>
<p>But what is the evidence behind eating or avoiding certain foods, and should women with endometriosis adhere to a specific diet?</p>
<h2>The oestrogen logic</h2>
<p>Endometriosis is an inflammatory disease in which tissue similar to the lining of the endometrium (womb), grows outside the womb. The stimulus for this tissue growth is the female hormone oestrogen. Inflammation occurs as the immune system’s natural response to the tissue growing somewhere where it shouldn’t.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-inflammation-and-how-does-it-cause-disease-84997">Explainer: what is inflammation and how does it cause disease?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>It’s logical to assume that foods known to influence oestrogen production (such as soy products) or those that have anti-inflammatory properties (like green, leafy vegetables, nuts and oily fish) may have an effect on endometriosis and its symptoms. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206470/original/file-20180215-124902-jmx9cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206470/original/file-20180215-124902-jmx9cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206470/original/file-20180215-124902-jmx9cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206470/original/file-20180215-124902-jmx9cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206470/original/file-20180215-124902-jmx9cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=904&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206470/original/file-20180215-124902-jmx9cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206470/original/file-20180215-124902-jmx9cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206470/original/file-20180215-124902-jmx9cu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1136&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Avoiding foods that influence oestrogen production, like soy products could help with endometriosis symptoms.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But the research on this is inconclusive. A wide range of nutrients and food substances – including fat, gluten, various vitamins and minerals, antioxidants, caffeine, gut flora and food toxins – have been studied. And while some studies show a response to dietary changes, others refute it.</p>
<p>The severity of symptoms and response to diet will also vary according to the individual, making it difficult to be prescriptive about dietary management. </p>
<h2>Back and forth on dietary fats</h2>
<p>Several studies have shown a relationship between certain types of fat and the incidence of endometriosis, as well as the severity of symptoms. </p>
<p>A study conducted in 2010 <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20332166">analysed whether consumption of dietary</a> fat was associated with incidence of endometriosis. It found total fat intake had no bearing on the disorder, but showed that women with the highest intake of omega-3 fatty acid consumption were less likely to be diagnosed with endometriosis. </p>
<p>Research shows that omega-3 fatty acids <a href="https://www.umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/omega3-fatty-acids">reduce inflammation</a>. The best sources of omega-3 are oily fish such as salmon, mackerel, sardines, trout and herring. There are smaller amounts in plant-based foods such as canola and flaxseed oil, and green vegetables.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-australian-dietary-recommendations-on-fat-need-to-change-67543">Why Australian dietary recommendations on fat need to change</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The study also showed those women with the highest intake of trans-fats were more likely to be diagnosed with endometriosis. Trans fats occur naturally in animal foods such as butter, milk and meat and they are also found in commercially prepared fried and baked foods. This could explain the stories of women who found <a href="http://www.endo-resolved.com/cutting-out-gluten-and-dairy-has-fixed-my-endometriosis.html">reducing dairy</a> intake, helped their symptoms. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206334/original/file-20180214-174966-vu80u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206334/original/file-20180214-174966-vu80u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206334/original/file-20180214-174966-vu80u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206334/original/file-20180214-174966-vu80u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206334/original/file-20180214-174966-vu80u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206334/original/file-20180214-174966-vu80u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206334/original/file-20180214-174966-vu80u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206334/original/file-20180214-174966-vu80u3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fatty fish like salmon and mackerel are the best sources of omega-3 fatty acids.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 2013, a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23642910">review of 12 studies</a>, including 74,708 women, looked at the relationship between diet and endometriosis. The results in this paper were consistent with the paper in 2010, making the evidence for the protective properties of omega-3 fatty acids more rigorous.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23419794">another 2013 review</a> of 11 studies on endometriosis and diet was inconsistent with the above findings. This one showed that women with endometriosis seemed to consume fewer vegetables and omega-3 fatty acids; and more red meat, coffee and trans fats. </p>
<p>But these findings could not be consistently replicated, and the authors concluded:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Further studies are needed to clarify the role of diet on endometriosis risk and progression.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Then, in 2015, an <a href="http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-42302015000600519">analysis of the evidence</a> of diet on the development and progression of endometriosis said something else again. It showed that foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids with anti-inflammatory effects and increased consumption of fruits, vegetables and wholegrains, were found to exert a protective effect on developing endometriosis and possibly regressed the disease. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whole-grains-are-better-for-you-but-theyre-no-panacea-11215">Whole grains are better for you but they're no panacea</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Gluten</h2>
<p>Some women claim their <a href="https://thetab.com/uk/2017/01/30/i-used-gluten-free-diet-control-endometriosis-31335">symptoms improve</a> on a gluten-free diet.</p>
<p>A small study conducted on 217 women with severe endometriosis-related symptoms did find that 75% of the patients reported a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23334113">statistically significant improvement</a> in symptoms after 12 months on a gluten-free diet. It should be noted though, that while the findings are statistically significant, the number of participants in this study is very small.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206487/original/file-20180215-124890-73044v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206487/original/file-20180215-124890-73044v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206487/original/file-20180215-124890-73044v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206487/original/file-20180215-124890-73044v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206487/original/file-20180215-124890-73044v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206487/original/file-20180215-124890-73044v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206487/original/file-20180215-124890-73044v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206487/original/file-20180215-124890-73044v.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some women find their endometriosis symptoms improve on a gluten-free diet.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Vitamin D</h2>
<p>The relationship between vitamin D (with its anti-inflammatory properties) in the development of endometriosis has also been looked at. One <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24135500">paper concluded</a> that endometriosis may be influenced by vitamin D intake but that it was difficult to illustrate due to sparse evidence from human studies. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-you-be-worried-about-getting-enough-vitamin-d-25032">Should you be worried about getting enough vitamin D?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Another <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23380045">study investigated</a> whether dairy foods and Vitamin D blood levels were associated with endometriosis. Researchers looked at 1,385 cases of confirmed endometriosis, intake of dairy foods and the nutrients in dairy foods, and predicted Vitamin D status for each participant. The findings suggested a higher intake of dairy foods and a higher predicted vitamin D status were associated with a lower risk of endometriosis. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206488/original/file-20180215-124902-falsh1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206488/original/file-20180215-124902-falsh1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206488/original/file-20180215-124902-falsh1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206488/original/file-20180215-124902-falsh1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206488/original/file-20180215-124902-falsh1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206488/original/file-20180215-124902-falsh1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206488/original/file-20180215-124902-falsh1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206488/original/file-20180215-124902-falsh1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Including green, leafy vegetables in your diet is good for your overall health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>It doesn’t hurt to eat well</h2>
<p>Maintaining a healthy diet is always important and especially so for anyone dealing with a chronic, debilitating condition. There is also no harm in being proactive and attempting dietary changes that may be beneficial for endometriosis. </p>
<p>If the dietary changes are safe and improve your symptoms, then stick with them. But if the changes are difficult and don’t improve your situation, there’s no point in persisting.</p>
<p>Including these foods in your diet may help your symptoms:</p>
<ul>
<li>Lean red meat and poultry (preferably organic)</li>
<li>Oily fish such as salmon, mackerel, sardines, trout and herring</li>
<li>Citrus fruits and berries for vitamin C</li>
<li>Green leafy vegetables such as broccoli, bok choy, cabbage, kale, brussel sprouts and yellow/orange vegetables such as pumpkin and sweet potato (for a range of vitamins, minerals, anti-oxidants and fibre)</li>
<li>Nuts and seeds for essential fatty acids</li>
<li>Non gluten grains such as rice, corn and buckwheat</li>
<li>Low fat dairy for calcium</li>
<li>Healthy oils such as extra virgin olive oil, flaxseed oil, safflower</li>
<li>Foods to support healthy gut flora such as yoghurt, kombucha, kefir and fermented vegetables such as kimchi or sauerkraut.</li>
</ul>
<p>It may also help to avoid or limit these foods:</p>
<ul>
<li>trans and hydrogenated oils (usually hidden in processed foods, snack foods and take aways)</li>
<li>sugar and sugary foods</li>
<li>alcohol</li>
<li>caffeine.</li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/89231/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elisabeth Gasparini does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There’s some logic in eating and avoiding certain foods if you have endometriosis. And there are some studies that confirm this logic, but then others seem to refute it. And everyone is unique too.Elisabeth Gasparini, Manager, Nutrition and Food Services, The Royal Women's HospitalLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/841402018-01-26T11:00:56Z2018-01-26T11:00:56ZThe simple cholesterol test that says if you need statins — and why doctors in UK aren’t using it<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203398/original/file-20180125-107971-1egjzch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/medical-equipment-blood-test-tube-laboratory-537711568">Shuttertstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Heart disease stubbornly remains one of the biggest killers in the UK, where there are <a href="https://www.bhf.org.uk/about-us/press-centre/facts-and-figures">7m people</a> living with the condition. During the past 60 years, the management of cholesterol has become an important weapon in the fight against this – and drugs called statins are often used in treatment. </p>
<p>But as <a href="http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/early/2018/01/16/bjsports-2017-098497">a new review highlights</a>, statins can often cause crippling side-effects – and may actually result in more harm than good. Writing in the British Journal of Sports Medicine, Australian science reporter Maryanne Demasi claims that doctors and patients are being misled about the true benefits and harms of these drugs. She also suggests that raw data on their efficacy and safety are being kept secret and have not been subjected to scrutiny by other scientists. </p>
<p>But despite <a href="https://www.nice.org.uk/Media/Default/News/NICE-statin-letter.pdf">concerns about patients taking them unnecessarily</a>, the use of statins is so widespread that they are now the <a href="https://www.bhf.org.uk/heart-health/treatments/statins">most prescribed drug in the UK</a>. There have even been <a href="http://www.bmj.com/content/358/bmj.j3674.long">recent calls</a> for all males over 65 and females over 75 to be prescribed them. If this were to happen it would mean they were used by almost 12m people across the country. </p>
<p>One of the key diagnostic tests to decide if a person should be put on statins is often a <a href="http://heartuk.org.uk/health-and-high-cholesterol/cholesterol-tests---know-your-number?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIm--zrPfy2AIVCLftCh3A5QQOEAAYASAAEgIrePD_BwE">blood cholesterol test</a>. If the results show raised levels, the patient will generally be thought of as being at an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and prescribed statins. But there is <a href="http://www.onlinecjc.ca/article/S0828-282X(16)30732-2/pdf">mounting evidence</a> which shows this test alone is insufficient in its predictive power. </p>
<h2>Cholesterol explained</h2>
<p>To make sense of this it helps to understand how cholesterol is transported around our bodies. A simple analogy may be to think of how boats move cargo around waterways. But rather than rivers and canals, our bodies have a network of arteries and capillaries, with “lipoprotein” particles which act like minuscule vessels, constantly shuttling cholesterol back and forth.</p>
<p>These particles exist in a variety of distinct types, with perhaps the most well known being low density lipoproteins (LDL) and high density lipoproteins (HDL). LDL particles are commonly referred to as “bad cholesterol” as they ship cholesterol to the arterial wall where it can potentially form a plaque. Whereas HDL is often known as “good cholesterol” as it removes cholesterol from arteries. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203404/original/file-20180125-107946-g7aif9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203404/original/file-20180125-107946-g7aif9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203404/original/file-20180125-107946-g7aif9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203404/original/file-20180125-107946-g7aif9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=343&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203404/original/file-20180125-107946-g7aif9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203404/original/file-20180125-107946-g7aif9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203404/original/file-20180125-107946-g7aif9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=431&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A clogged artery with platelets and cholesterol plaque.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/clogged-artery-platelets-cholesterol-plaque-concept-259675388">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Despite these simplistic explanations it is important to realise that when doctors test for LDL they are actually observing the amount of cholesterol stored on board the boat (or particle), rather than looking at the actual vessel itself. This seemingly minor detail is where problems can arise. </p>
<p>Although conventional wisdom holds that there is a positive relationship between the cholesterol on board LDL particles and cardiovascular risk, we have known for some time through <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16467234">large-scale</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7050440?dopt=Abstract">studies</a> that this is not always the case. </p>
<p>In reality some people with high LDL cholesterol may actually be at a low risk of heart disease and are therefore potentially treated unnecessarily. And in the same way, some individuals with low LDL cholesterol levels can be at an extremely high risk – yet remain untreated due to a lack of diagnosis. The number of people who fall into these categories is substantial – <a href="http://www.lipidjournal.com/article/S1933-2874(11)00027-4/fulltext">studies suggest</a> up to 20% may be affected. </p>
<p>To address these issues, doctors have now been told to use “non-HDL” cholesterol as a determinant of cardiovascular risk. This encompasses all cholesterol stored in lipoproteins which contribute towards cardiovascular disease, except for HDL. </p>
<p>But although this has been shown to be a better predictor, <a href="http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/content/4/3/337.long">problems remain</a>. This is mainly because non-HDL is also determined from the cholesterol content of particles, rather than by measuring the particles themselves. </p>
<h2>The test</h2>
<p>Returning to our earlier analogy, if an enemy armada was approaching at sea, surely it would be better to gauge the threat by counting the number of boats, rather than trying to determine the amount of cargo contained on board. Remarkably, we can do something similar with our lipoproteins.</p>
<p>Attached to each LDL particle is a single molecule of a protein called apolipoprotein B100 (ApoB). And by determining how much ApoB is in the blood we can “count” exactly how many LDL particles are present. </p>
<p>Determining LDL in this way is better than measuring the cholesterol stored inside, because ApoB <a href="http://circoutcomes.ahajournals.org/content/4/3/337.long">has been shown</a> to be a superior predictor of cardiovascular disease than measuring both LDL cholesterol and non-HDL cholesterol.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203406/original/file-20180125-107963-qpv52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/203406/original/file-20180125-107963-qpv52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203406/original/file-20180125-107963-qpv52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203406/original/file-20180125-107963-qpv52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203406/original/file-20180125-107963-qpv52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203406/original/file-20180125-107963-qpv52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/203406/original/file-20180125-107963-qpv52x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Experts have raised concerns that those using statins see next to no benefit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/479441023?src=q3FyiDbRkQYEYm4eG6dMJQ-1-87&size=huge_jpg">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But despite this, tests for ApoB aren’t routinely used – partly because of the cost. An ApoB test is more expensive than using non-HDL alone – which can be quickly and cheaply calculated using data derived from routine lipid checks. </p>
<p>Many doctors may also be simply unaware of the importance of ApoB – despite countries such as Canada incorporating ApoB testing into their <a href="http://www.onlinecjc.ca/article/S0828-282X(16)30732-2/pdf">guidelines</a>. The UK, for example, has been reluctant to make such recommendations. All of which further perpetuates the hesitance of health care professionals to incorporate the measure into their assessments. </p>
<p>But this is highly shortsighted, given the scale of the burden that cardiovascular disease places upon the NHS – and the mass prescription of statins and their widely documented side-effects.</p>
<p>Perhaps then, it is time to ask if the current diagnostic method for blood cholesterol really is the best option.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/84140/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard Webb does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Current cholesterol tests in the UK are outdated and are putting lives at risk.Richard Webb, Postdoctoral Researcher in Nutritional Science, Liverpool John Moores UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/855662017-11-06T15:43:18Z2017-11-06T15:43:18ZHow to solve the ‘monster’ fatberg problem<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193390/original/file-20171106-1032-7soxbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pradit.Ph/Shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Fatbergs – enormous solid masses of oil, grease, wet wipes and other hygiene products that congeal together to cause major blockages – are wreaking havoc on the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/sep/12/total-monster-concrete-fatberg-blocks-london-sewage-system">sewers</a> of cities around the world. A 130 tonne specimen described as a “monster” recently caused backups in sewers in <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-41860764">London’s Whitechapel</a>, and the cities of <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4993048/Giant-fatberg-removed-Baltimore-sewer.html">Baltimore</a>, <a href="http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/the-tip-of-a-fatberg-are-you-guilty-of-choking-singapore-s-9349426">Singapore</a> and <a href="http://www.newshub.co.nz/home/new-zealand/2017/11/fatbergs-a-big-problem-for-nz-s-sewers-watercare.html">Dannevirke, New Zealand</a> have also all experienced similar issues in recent weeks.</p>
<p>Fatbergs are <a href="http://researchrepository.ucd.ie/handle/10197/8257">not a recent phenomenon</a>, but have attracted increased attention in recent years as <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-41608863">old sewerage systems</a> struggle to cope with an increased consumption and disposal of everyday products like fats, oils and greases from cooking. This is a particular issue for cities like London with Victorian systems. The visceral disgust that runs alongside the image of fatbergs lingering under the city, and the potential impact they will have on <a href="http://uk.businessinsider.com/giant-fatberg-threatens-uk-government-2014-11">local flooding</a>, means that they will remain a topic that demands attention. </p>
<p>Strategies are already being put in place in order to <a href="https://corporate.thameswater.co.uk/Media/News-releases/Thames-Water-campaign-bids-to-reduce-sewer-blockages-in-local-hotspots">prevent sewer fatbergs</a>. Current water industry tactics tend to focus on removing sewer blockages and reducing the fats, oils and greases that enter sewers from commercial sources (such as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/11/fatbergs-london-restaurants-oil-food-grease-traps">restaurants</a>). But around three quarters of the fats, oils and greases in sewers <a href="https://www.water.org.uk/policy/environment/waste-and-wastewater/fats-oils-and-grease">comes from domestic sources</a>, making household disposal a key priority for change. </p>
<p>Awareness campaigns directed at the public currently focus on <a href="http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/vancouver-ad-campaign-aims-to-prevent-sewer-fatbergs-1.3624335">what people put down the kitchen sink</a>. Current advice is that cooking fats, oils and greases should be disposed through food or solid waste recycling. But there is little information on how we can dispose of other products – like that fatty off milk at the back of the fridge – without pouring it down the sink. The mucky complexities of how people actually deal with fats, oils and greases in the home suggests that the solution might need to be more complex than awareness campaigns. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://nexusathome.files.wordpress.com/2017/10/fog-and-kitchen-practices-nexus-at-home-report1.pdf">recent report</a> we suggest that changing people’s broader behaviour related to food waste and disposal of fatty products is not going to be easy to change – and that we also need to look beyond the plughole.</p>
<h2>Down the plughole</h2>
<p>Fats, oils and greases are changeable, often smelly, visceral materials. The way we dispose of them is tied to attempts to reduce their impact on our kitchens and in our lives, and this becomes entrenched in our everyday habits and routines. </p>
<p>They can be troublesome materials to handle. The fact that they are liquid at cooking temperatures, and often at room temperature, makes them simpler to dispose of via liquid waste than via solid waste channels, yet their tendency to solidify and accumulate in the specific physical and chemical conditions of drains and sewers makes this disposal highly problematic. Fats, oils and greases are not only difficult to deal with, but many also find it unpleasant.</p>
<p>Evidence from research into <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/food-waste-9780857852342/">food waste and disposal</a> suggests that when food begins to deteriorate, its material properties – and the bodily reactions caused by its appearance, smell and feel in the people handling it – play an important role in how it is discarded. The more effectively and reliably it can be sealed off and ejected from the home with minimal human contact, the better. </p>
<p><a href="https://nexusathome.wordpress.com/2017/10/06/report-fats-oils-grease-and-kitchen-practices-implications-for-policy-and-intervention/">Our research</a> suggests that if the same is true of householders’ reactions to leftover fats then successful interventions to divert fats, oils and greases from sewers will mean providing an alternative, yet similarly effective, option for quick and seemingly hassle-free disposal than the kitchen sink.</p>
<p>These ideas of disgust, dirt, smell, and convenience are also likely underpinning similar dynamics for the disposal of wetwipes, nappies, and other hygiene products down the toilet rather than the bathroom bin.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/3i_axpk0a7Q?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<h2>Beyond the kitchen sink</h2>
<p>But crucially, fats, oils and greases do not end up in our sewers purely due to decisions related to disposal at the kitchen sink. Rather, actions throughout the stages of food provisioning – including shopping, food preparation, cooking, dealing with leftovers, and clearing up – leads to fats, oils and greases entering sewers. </p>
<p>Another way of thinking about the issues is in regards to tracing the numerous decisions that occur in the process of carrying out routine household tasks: moments in which resources are used up and waste is produced. This is broader than just individual behaviours and involves a consideration of all of those moments where waste fat is indirectly or directly produced – such as when we are choosing what to cook; how much oil to use; whether to reuse that rendered meat fat from the Sunday roast in the next meal we cook or discard it.</p>
<p>Insights into what shapes behaviour at these points lead to a range of implications and recommendations for policies and intervention programs. For example, there needs to be a recognition that disposal of products like fats, oils and greases is part of a wider set of kitchen practices that are in turn shaped by wider systems of food provision (supply chains, retail, and so on) as well as waste disposal facilities.</p>
<p>Interventions that influence household behaviour therefore don’t just need to target the household but could involve product innovations that reduce likelihood of excess fat oil and grease production – for example, fryers that use less fat. Retail environments and packaging could be used as means of changing social norms. <a href="http://theconversation.com/to-fight-the-fatbergs-we-have-to-rethink-how-we-treat-sewage-waste-84714">Sewerage systems</a> could be rethought. Effective alternative waste fat and oil disposal infrastructures could be envisioned.</p>
<p>Rather than fatbergs just being seen as a water industry issue there needs to be greater collaboration across sectors (water, energy, food) to deal with the problem. Potential solutions need to range from the level of the household right through to new infrastructures that are experimenting with turning this mucky fatberg problem into <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/08/from-fatberg-to-fuel-the-nausea-inducing-energy-source-that-lurks-beneath-our-feet/">energy</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/shortcuts/2017/sep/19/can-we-turn-the-whitechapel-fatberg-into-biodiesel">biofuel</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/85566/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alison Browne (University of Manchester) and collaborators/co-authors at the University of Sheffield (Matt Watson, Mike Foden, David Evans, Liz Sharp) received funding from the ESRC Nexus Network for this project. Waterwise and Defra also provided feedback on the policy briefing on which this article is based. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mike Foden was employed at the University of Sheffield during this ESRC Nexus Network funded project ‘Nexus at Home’, on which this article is based.</span></em></p>We need to delve into the mucky complexities of fats, oils and greases in and beyond the home.Alison Browne, Lecturer in Human Geography and the Sustainable Consumption Institute, University of ManchesterMike Foden, Postdoctoral Research Associate, Keele UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/824452017-09-13T03:10:51Z2017-09-13T03:10:51ZHealth Check: is margarine actually better for me than butter?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/184150/original/file-20170831-9954-9bteez.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The type of fatty acid is what's most important when choosing a spread. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com.au</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Only 20 years ago butter was the public villain – contributing to raised cholesterol levels and public concern over an increased risk of heart disease. Now this public perception seems to have been reversed, and reality cooking shows seem to use butter in every recipe. But what has caused this shift in perceptions and is it based on scientific evidence? </p>
<p>In the domestic market more people buy margarine than butter, with 27% of <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4364.0.55.012%7E2011-12%7EMain%20Features%7EUnsaturated%20spreads%20and%20oils%7E10002">respondents in an ABS survey</a> eating margarine the day before, and 15% consuming butter. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/eat-food-not-nutrients-why-healthy-diets-need-a-broad-approach-45823">Eat food, not nutrients: why healthy diets need a broad approach</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Do we still need to be concerned about butter’s links to heart disease, and is there any evidence to suggest butter is better for our health compared to margarine? To answer this we first need to look more closely at the make-up of butter and margarine.</p>
<h2>Where do our favourite yellow spreads come from?</h2>
<p>Butter is made from the processing of cream. The cream is churned until the liquid (buttermilk) separates from the fat solids. These fat solids are then rinsed, a little salt added, and shaped to form the butter we all love. </p>
<p>Margarine was first developed <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margarine">in France by Napoleon</a> as a substitute for butter to feed the armed forces and lower classes. Margarine is made from vegetable oils, beta-carotene (added for colour), emulsifiers (to help the oil and water mix), salt and flavours (which can include milk solids). Vitamins A and D are also added to the same level present in butter.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185770/original/file-20170913-3737-16hxocw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185770/original/file-20170913-3737-16hxocw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185770/original/file-20170913-3737-16hxocw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185770/original/file-20170913-3737-16hxocw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185770/original/file-20170913-3737-16hxocw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=458&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185770/original/file-20170913-3737-16hxocw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185770/original/file-20170913-3737-16hxocw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185770/original/file-20170913-3737-16hxocw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=575&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We have Napoleon to thank for the advent of margarine.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Any diet app will tell you margarine has about 10-15% fewer kilojoules than butter. But whether this is significant will largely depend on the amount you consume each day.</p>
<p>A national nutrition survey indicates the average person over 19 years <a href="http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4364.0.55.012%7E2011-12%7EMain%20Features%7EUnsaturated%20spreads%20and%20oils%7E10002">consumes 20 grams a day</a> of spreads (either butter or margarine), which equates to a difference of 100kj. This difference is largely insignificant in a usual daily intake of 8700kj/day. </p>
<h2>It’s all in the fatty acids</h2>
<p>The significant nutritional difference actually lies in the fatty acid profiles of the two products. The health differences between butter and margarine are based on the presence of different types of fats. </p>
<p>There are three types of fats in our food: saturated fat, monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats. The difference between these lies in their chemical structure. The structure of saturated fats has no double bonds in between the carbon atoms, monounsaturated fats have one double bond between the carbon atoms, and polyunsaturated fats have two or more double bonds between the carbon atoms. </p>
<p>These subtle differences in structure lead to differences in the way our body metabolises these fats, and hence how they affect our health, in particular our heart health. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/viewpoints-is-saturated-fat-really-the-killer-its-made-out-to-be-76698">Viewpoints: is saturated fat really the killer it's made out to be?</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<p>Margarine can be made from a number of different oils. If coconut oil is used the margarine will be mainly saturated fat, if sunflower oil is used it will mainly be a polyunsaturated fat, and if olive oil or canola oil is used it will mainly be a monounsaturated fat. </p>
<p>Butter, derived from dairy milk, is mainly saturated fat, and the main saturated fats are palmitic acid (about 31%) and myristic acid (about 12%). Studies have shown these <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5492032/">raise blood cholesterol levels</a>. </p>
<p>While there is <a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-are-saturated-fats-good-or-bad-21524">debate in the scientific world</a> about the relative contributions of saturated fats (and the different types of saturated fatty acids) to heart disease, <a href="https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/images/uploads/publications/Dietary-fats-summary-evidence.pdf">the consensus</a> is that replacing saturated fats with monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fats will lower the risk of heart disease. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.nrv.gov.au/chronic-disease/macronutrient-balance">Australian Dietary Guidelines</a> and <a href="http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/nutrientrequirements/fatsandfattyacids_humannutrition/en/">World Health Organisation</a> recommend the lowering of saturated fats to below 10% of daily energy intake. Depending on the overall quality of your diet and intake of saturated fats, you may need to swap your butter for margarine. </p>
<h2>Check the labels</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185769/original/file-20170913-3737-1g25arr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185769/original/file-20170913-3737-1g25arr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185769/original/file-20170913-3737-1g25arr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=762&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185769/original/file-20170913-3737-1g25arr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=762&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185769/original/file-20170913-3737-1g25arr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=762&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185769/original/file-20170913-3737-1g25arr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=958&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185769/original/file-20170913-3737-1g25arr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=958&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185769/original/file-20170913-3737-1g25arr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=958&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Extra-virgin oil protects against heart disease.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">from shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is <a href="http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1200303#t=abstract">strong evidence</a> extra-virgin olive oil (a monounsaturated fat) provides strong benefits for heart disease protection – but there isn’t enough extra-virgin olive oil in margarine products to confer this benefit. Using olive-oil-based margarines is going to contribute very little to your daily intake of extra-virgin olive oil. </p>
<p>And this is why it’s confusing for the consumer – despite a margarine being labelled as being made from olive oil, it may contain only small amounts of olive oil and not be as high in monounsaturated fats as expected. It’s best to read the <a href="https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/eating-well/how-understand-food-labels">nutrition information panel</a> to determine which margarine is highest in monounsaturated fats.</p>
<p>Another point of difference between butter and margarine is that margarine may contain <a href="https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/images/uploads/.../Stanols-QA-General.pdf">plant sterols</a>, which help reduce cholesterol levels.</p>
<p>At the end of the day, if you consume butter only occasionally and your diet closely adheres to the <a href="https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/">Australian guidelines</a> for healthy eating, there is no harm in continuing to do so. </p>
<p>Another option to consider would be the butter blends. These provide the taste of butter while reducing saturated fat intake to half, and they are easier to spread. Of course, if you consume lots of butter, swapping for a low saturated fat margarine is your healthier option – perhaps reserve the butter for special occasions.</p>
<p>If you’re concerned about saturated fat levels in your diet, you should read the nutrition information panel to determine which margarine is lowest in saturated fat, regardless of which oil is used in the product. </p>
<p>As always, people need to base their decision on their family and medical history and obtain advice from their <a href="https://daa.asn.au/maintaining-professional-standards/register-of-apds/">dietitian</a> or GP.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82445/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Evangeline Mantzioris does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Depending on the overall quality of your diet and intake of saturated fats, you may need to swap your butter for margarine.Evangeline Mantzioris, Lecturer in Nutrition, University of South AustraliaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/760962017-04-13T09:01:05Z2017-04-13T09:01:05ZHow to eat chocolate without piling on the pounds
this Easter<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164834/original/image-20170411-26706-s0ffgq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Easter is once again upon us and for many people it is a time when a little more chocolate than usual is consumed. Chocolate gives many of us pleasure mainly because it has physiological effects that make it moreish – if not downright addictive. </p>
<p>Some <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002822302000329">research studies</a> even claim that certain types of chocolate are a “super food” – something that’s particularly good for us. After all, one of the ingredients of chocolate is cocoa, which is a good source of iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorous and zinc. But is this really the case?</p>
<p>In dark chocolate – which has a high cocoa level – there is some evidence to show that small amounts may reduce the risk of heart disease. This is because of the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07315724.2004.10719361">presence of flavonoids</a> – a type of plant chemical. </p>
<p>Flavonoids are said to be a powerful antioxidant with anti-inflammatory and immune system benefits. Health benefits include better blood sugar control and better insulin sensitivity – which are both indicators of protection from diabetes. </p>
<p>There are, of course, a <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Peter_Hollman/publication/40131264_Content_of_potentially_anticarcinogenic_flavonoids_of_28_vegetables_and_9_fruits_commonly_consumed_in_The_Netherlands/links/547ee64d0cf2d2200edeb065/Content-of-potentially-anticarcinogenic-flavonoids-of-28-vegetables-and-9-fruits-commonly-consumed-in-The-Netherlands.pdf#page=44">lot of other foods that contain flavonoids</a> – vegetables, for instance – but maybe they are not as marketable as a bar of dark chocolate.</p>
<h2>Other ingredients</h2>
<p>But despite this evidence, few neutral studies have been done, and work has only ever been done over the short term. </p>
<p>So before we can say for certain whether chocolate is actually a super food, there need to be far longer trials – that are not funded by chocolate manufacturers. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164835/original/image-20170411-26712-ov61qp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164835/original/image-20170411-26712-ov61qp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164835/original/image-20170411-26712-ov61qp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164835/original/image-20170411-26712-ov61qp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164835/original/image-20170411-26712-ov61qp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164835/original/image-20170411-26712-ov61qp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164835/original/image-20170411-26712-ov61qp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Easter egg bounty.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There is also the issue of the other ingredients apart from cocoa – given that your average Easter egg is likely to contain more sugar and saturated fat than plain cocoa. </p>
<p>There’s also the fact that there is little or no nutritional benefit to standard milk chocolate. So the only reason to eat it is because it gives us pleasure.</p>
<p>But whether its dark, milk or white, if you only binge on it once a year, the type of chocolate is not going to make much difference. What matters most is the rest of your lifestyle – what your diets like over the rest of the week, and how much you move around and exercise. </p>
<h2>Healthy chocolate?</h2>
<p>Maybe instead of worrying about the health benefits of chocolate, we should just see it for what it is – an indulgence or a treat – leaving us to get on with enjoying it occasionally.</p>
<p>With this in mind, we recently <a href="http://www4.shu.ac.uk/mediacentre/trevor-simper?filter=Food-and-nutrition">conducted an experiment</a> that split people into three groups. The first group consumed a drink which contained calories from sugar only. The second group drank the same beverage but then did some gentle walking. And the third group drank a beverage with the same calories but from protein and a little fat, and not so much sugar. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164836/original/image-20170411-26730-1x68duo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/164836/original/image-20170411-26730-1x68duo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164836/original/image-20170411-26730-1x68duo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164836/original/image-20170411-26730-1x68duo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164836/original/image-20170411-26730-1x68duo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164836/original/image-20170411-26730-1x68duo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/164836/original/image-20170411-26730-1x68duo.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The joys of spring.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pexels.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When we traced everyone’s blood sugar levels over the next two hours, we found that the second and third groups had a much lower spike in blood sugar. </p>
<p>This is a good indicator that gentle exercise after eating or consuming foods which contain a mixture of protein and fat – rather than sugar alone – helps us to maintain steady blood sugar levels. </p>
<p>So maybe rather than worrying about chocolate as an occasional treat you should just enjoy it this Easter – and combine it with a nice spring walk.</p>
<p>Because at the end of the day, Easter is once a year, and your annual chocolate egg is unlikely to make a huge difference to your overall health or weight. So go ahead and enjoy – because that’s what Easter eggs are for. Just take advantage of the bank holiday to go for a walk as well.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/76096/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Trevor Simper does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s all about what you do after you indulge.Trevor Simper, Senior Lecturer/Researcher in nutrition and health, Sheffield Hallam UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/565832016-04-07T20:05:57Z2016-04-07T20:05:57ZKitchen Science: everything you eat is made of chemicals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117592/original/image-20160406-28935-1ml0tol.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Chemicals or a spice rack? Or both?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Hans Splinter/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This is the first in our ongoing Kitchen Science series exploring the physics, chemistry and biology that takes place in your home.</em></p>
<hr>
<p><a href="http://www.chemfreecom.com/">Earnest websites</a>, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2008/aug/06/dodgyscienceintvadverts">advertisements</a> and well-meaning <a href="http://www.mamamia.com.au/chemicals-affecting-childs-brain/">popular articles</a> routinely warn us about nasty “chemicals” lurking in our homes and kitchens. Many tout the benefits of switching to a “<a href="http://chemical-free-living.com/">chemical-free lifestyle</a>”. </p>
<p>The problem is: the word “chemical” is entirely misused in these contexts. <em>Everything</em> is a chemical – common table salt (sodium chloride), for instance, and even water (<a href="http://www.dhmo.org/truth/Dihydrogen-Monoxide.html">dihydrogen oxide</a>).</p>
<p>The chemicals in our diet are often put into four broad categories: carbohydrates, proteins, fats and lipids, and everything else. This final group has no defining characteristics but includes vitamins, minerals, pharmaceuticals and the hundreds of trace chemicals each of us consumes every day. </p>
<p>Of course, there are toxic and harmful chemicals, but just as many are completely fine for human consumption. So here’s a handy guide to the chemicals in your kitchen and what they mean for your health.</p>
<h2>The macronutrient chemicals</h2>
<p>Proteins, lipids (such as fats) and carbohydrates are known as the macronutrients. These provide most of our daily energy needs. </p>
<p>Despite <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-race-to-find-even-more-new-elements-to-add-to-the-periodic-table-52747">118 known elements</a> in the <a href="http://www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/news/IUPAC_Periodic_Table-8Jan16.pdf">periodic table</a>, these three categories predominantly contain just four elements – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen – with trace amounts of the remaining elements.</p>
<p>Chemicals called amino acids link together to create proteins. The richest sources include meat and eggs, but significant amounts are also found in beans, legumes and wheat flour.</p>
<p>Carbohydrates contain just carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, all connected in very particular ways. “Carbs” include sugars, starch and cellulose, all of which are digested differently.</p>
<p>While sugars are one type of carbohydrate, artificial sweeteners, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/sweet-news-no-evidence-that-artificial-sweetener-aspartames-bad-for-you-12608">aspartame</a> and saccharin, are not actually carbohydrates. </p>
<p>Despite concerns about the <a href="http://www.globalhealingcenter.com/natural-health/two-of-the-most-dangerous-artificial-sweeteners/">health effects of artificial sweeteners</a>, the health spotlight has recently been on the natural sweeteners: the <em>sugars</em>. White sugar (sucrose) and high-fructose corn syrup (a mixture of fructose and glucose) have been linked to a <a href="https://theconversation.com/sugar-isnt-just-empty-fattening-calories-its-making-us-sick-49788">range of widespread health conditions</a>.</p>
<p>Just like carbs, fats only contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but gram for gram release more than twice the dietary energy of either protein or the carbs. Perhaps it’s for this reason fats have copped a lot of bad press for longer than the sugars. Nevertheless, some fat is essential for a healthy diet.</p>
<h2>Acids and bases</h2>
<p>Acid sounds bad. But there are many acids sitting benignly in our pantries and fridges.</p>
<p>Consider varieties of food and drink that are acidic. A classic example we often hear is that Coca-Cola has a pH value of about 3.2 (lower means more acidic, with 7 being neutral). That’s strong enough to remove rust from metal. And it’s true, thanks to the phosphoric acid in Coke. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/d5vZdhB9HcY?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Watch as Coke eats away at surface rust.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As it happens, the human stomach also contains phosphoric acid (as well as hydrochloric acid), and this has an even stronger acidic pH value. Actually, apples and oranges have a similar pH value to Coke, and lemon juice is ten times more acidic.</p>
<p>The acidic characteristics of food and drink combine with other chemicals to provide flavour. Without some acidic character, many foods would be bland.</p>
<p>Chemically speaking, the opposite of acidic is known as basic, or alkali. While acidic substances have a pH of less than 7, basic foods have a pH greater than 7. Examples of basic foods from the kitchen are fewer, but include eggs, some baked products like cakes and biscuits, and bicarb soda.</p>
<h2>Toxic chemicals in the kitchen</h2>
<p>Obviously, there are also toxic chemicals lurking in our kitchen cupboards. But these are usually kept under the sink and often have pH values at the extreme ends of the spectrum. </p>
<p>Cleaning products such as ammonia and lye (i.e. Drano) are very basic. Soaps and detergents are also at the basic end of the scale.</p>
<p>Acidic cleaning solutions are also common, such as concentrated sulfuric acid, which can also be used to unblock drains.</p>
<h2>Cooking is chemistry</h2>
<p>Cooking itself is really just chemistry. Heating, freezing, mixing and blending are all processes used in the laboratory and the kitchen. </p>
<p>When we cook food, a myriad of different physical and chemical processes simultaneously take place to transform the ingredients (i.e. chemicals) involved. </p>
<p>Carbohydrates are an interesting case study. Simple sugars combine with proteins in the <a href="http://www.scienceofcooking.com/maillard_reaction.htm">Maillard reaction</a>, which is responsible for browning food when it’s cooked. Add a little more heat and caramelisation takes over, while too much heat for too long leads to burnt flavours. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117594/original/image-20160406-28945-1kr3phz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117594/original/image-20160406-28945-1kr3phz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/117594/original/image-20160406-28945-1kr3phz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117594/original/image-20160406-28945-1kr3phz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117594/original/image-20160406-28945-1kr3phz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117594/original/image-20160406-28945-1kr3phz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117594/original/image-20160406-28945-1kr3phz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/117594/original/image-20160406-28945-1kr3phz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">It takes some deft chemistry to make a seasoned smoked brisket.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">jeffreyw/Flickr</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Starch is another carbohydrate well known for its ability to create gels, such as in a panna cotta. Upon heating, powdered starch combines with water and a completely different texture is created.</p>
<p>So next time you hear someone say “I don’t like to put chemicals into my body”, feel free to chuckle. <em>Everything</em> is made of chemicals. We’d be in a bit of strife without chemicals, not least in the kitchen.</p>
<p><em>This article is part of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/kitchen-science">Kitchen Science</a> series, exploring the amazing physics and chemistry going on in our kitchens every day. If you’re an academic with an idea for a Kitchen Science article, <a href="mailto:tim.dean@theconversation.edu.au">get in touch!</a></em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/56583/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Thompson is affiliated with Monash University and the Chemistry Education Association. </span></em></p>Chemicals have a bad rap these days. But the fact is that everything is made of chemicals. Here are some of the chemicals at work in your kitchen.Chris Thompson, Lecturer in Chemistry, Monash UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/488372015-10-09T13:55:24Z2015-10-09T13:55:24ZDrink a glass of olive oil every day – the Mediterranean way to a long life<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97931/original/image-20151009-9153-1hsfuye.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>I felt nauseous and dizzy. My attempted one week of following the intensive olive oil diet was not going well. It was eight in the morning and on an empty stomach I had only finished half of the small glass of golden liquid specially chosen by my Spanish friends as the smoothest Albequina variety of extra virgin olive oil. Dipping crusty warm bread into it before an evening meal is one thing. Drinking it neat in the morning was another.</p>
<p>For the sake of science and <a href="https://www.orionbooks.co.uk/books/detail.page?isbn=9780297609193">my book</a> I was trying to emulate the diets of Cretan fishermen from the 1960s, who reportedly had a glass of olive oil for breakfast before a hard day of fishing or goat herding. These high intakes of oil had been suggested as a cause of their remarkable longevity, despite the large amounts of saturated fat they consumed as a result.</p>
<p>I decided to replace my usual yoghurt and fruit breakfast with the golden drink to test the story. Thirty minutes later I was lying on the floor after a faint in the hairdresser, which was unlikely to be a coincidence. Despite realising I maybe should have lined my stomach first, I abandoned my heroic attempt. </p>
<p>In Britain and the US, people <a href="http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/estaticos/view/131-world-olive-oil-figures">consume on average</a> around 1 litre of olive oil per person per year, but isn’t much compared to the Greeks, Italians and Spanish who all consume more 13 litres per person. Olive oil, with its high calories and mixed saturated and unsaturated fats, was once assumed by many doctors to be dreadfully unhealthy. But <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7754984">health surveys</a> of European populations kept finding that southern Europeans lived longer and had less heart disease despite higher fat intakes. It turns out olive oil was the likely reason.</p>
<h2>Mediterranean diet vs low-fat</h2>
<p>Ten years ago an ambitious and unique research trial was started in Spain in 7,500 mildly overweight men and women in their 60s at risk of heart disease and diabetes. They were randomly allocated to two diets for five years: one a low-fat diet recommended by doctors in most western countries and the other a high fat Mediterranean diet supplemented with either extra olive oil or nuts.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1200303">“PREDIMED” study</a>, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2013 <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25940230">conclusively showed</a> that the Mediterranean diet group had a third less heart disease, diabetes and stroke than the low-fat group. They also lost a little weight and had less memory loss. The <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26365989">most recent results</a> showed that it also reduced chances of breast cancer, albeit in a small number of women.</p>
<p>Picking through the data, the researchers found that the extra olive oil group did slightly better than the extra nut group, but both were clearly superior to low fat diets. The research was also much more reliable than many diet studies because it was a <a href="https://www.nice.org.uk/glossary?letter=r">randomised control trial</a> that looked at a large group of people over a long period of time, rather than just monitoring people on one diet for a few days or weeks.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97932/original/image-20151009-9146-ija8ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/97932/original/image-20151009-9146-ija8ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97932/original/image-20151009-9146-ija8ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97932/original/image-20151009-9146-ija8ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97932/original/image-20151009-9146-ija8ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97932/original/image-20151009-9146-ija8ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/97932/original/image-20151009-9146-ija8ee.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mediterranean diets: olive oil is essential (checked table cloths aren’t)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The benefits can’t be narrowed down to one single food or factor but to some general themes. Extra fibre, a diverse range of fruits and vegetables, whole grains and legumes, yoghurts and cheese, small amounts of fish and meat, red wine, nuts and seeds and good quality olive oil all played their part. However <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24886626">the authors believe</a> that the olive oil itself was the most powerful single factor. </p>
<p>The cheaper forms of olive oil (those labelled regular or virgin) didn’t show any benefit – it had to be extra virgin. The difference between the grades of oil lies not just in the lower acidity, freshness and richer taste but in the number of chemicals released <a href="http://phenol-explorer.eu/contents/food/822">called polyphenols</a>. High grade extra virgin oil, especially if cold extracted, has around 30 polyphenols that act as antioxidants, which reduce inflammation and also help reduce the <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26148918">effects of aging</a> particularly on the heart and brain. </p>
<p>Until recently it was thought these antioxidant polyphenols acted directly on <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25299479">genes and blood vessels</a>. But it turns out that they also work via our gut microbes that make up our microbiome. This is the community of trillions of diverse bacteria which live in our large intestine. They feed off the different polyphenols and produce other small chemicals (short chain fatty acids) that dampen down inflammation and <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23916722">help our immune system</a>.</p>
<h2>The more bugs the better</h2>
<p>Complex high fat foods such as extra virgin olive oil, when eaten with a wide variety of other healthy polyphenol-dense foods, provide the basis for a rich and diverse community of gut microbes. This diversity is increasingly being shown to be <a href="http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/03/140310090919.htm">important for our health</a>. The original PREDIMED study didn’t measure gut microbes directly (although subsequent research is doing so) but the striking benefits of <a href="https://theconversation.com/proof-that-the-mediterranean-diet-is-good-for-your-brain-18530">the Mediterranean diet</a> and particularly extra virgin olive oil are that they are superb gut microbe fertilisers and improve gut health.</p>
<p>Critics of olive oil, who usually promote untested alternatives, suggest its lower burning temperature make make it more likely to produce potential <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027869150300190X">carcinogens in cooking</a>. But the Spanish participants in the trial regularly cooked with the oil, reassuringly with no obvious health consequences.</p>
<p>Eating extra virgin olive oil as part of a diverse Mediterranean diet is clearly beneficial in Spanish adults. And although genes partially control preferences, there is no reason to believe it won’t work in other cultures and populations. If we start educating people to use high-quality extra virgin olive oil early in life and change its stigma as a medicine or punishment, we could make our populations and our gut microbiomes healthier. Although we are unlikely to ever match the Greeks.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/48837/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tim Spector receives funding from MRC, NIHR and Wellcome Trust and is author of "The Diet Myth" by W&N 2015</span></em></p>Drinking olive oil might not sound appetising but there is strong evidence it has greater health benefits than low-fat diets.Tim Spector, Professor of Genetic Epidemiology, King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/475852015-09-16T12:11:28Z2015-09-16T12:11:28ZBanning trans fats won’t stop heart disease in the UK<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95021/original/image-20150916-11961-r0c9xc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Imagine if you could ban a certain, easily replaceable food component and save thousands of lives as a result. That’s the claim of <a href="http://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h4583">new research</a> that says a ban on trans fats in England could prevent 7,200 deaths between 2015 and 2020. The problem is that industrial trans fats have already virtually disappeared from UK diets.</p>
<p>The term “trans fat” refers to fats that contain trans fatty acids (TFAs). These have a higher melting point than other kinds of fatty acids and so are useful for making biscuits, cakes, margarine and stable deep-frying oils. They are usually produced from vegetable oils via a process called <a href="http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Biological_Chemistry/Lipids/Fatty_Acids/Hydrogenation_of_Unsaturated_Fats_and_Trans_Fat">partial hydrogenation</a>, which involves reacting the fat with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel. </p>
<p>This process typically creates fats with around 15% TFAs, although this figure can be as high as 55%. However a small amount of naturally occurring TFAs can be found in butter and the meat of grass-fed animals, created by bacteria in a fermenting process.</p>
<p>Partially hydrogenated vegetable oil was manufactured as a cheaper alternative to butter from around 1910. By the middle of the century it had grown in popularity throughout Europe and North America, in particular because of the widespread adoption of electric refrigerators. Margarine, unlike butter of course, can be spread straight from the fridge.</p>
<p>In the US in the 1960s, it proved a useful way to turn soybean oil – a byproduct of the growing soybean industry – into an alternative for lard, which was unacceptable to some religious groups. And in northern Europe, partial hydrogenation was conducted on fish oil and later rapeseed oil after fish stocks reached a serious decline in the 1980s.</p>
<h2>Health concerns</h2>
<p>But then scientists began to raise health concerns about trans fats. In the 1970s, swine given partially hydrogenated soybean oil were found to develop atherosclerosis, a condition where fatty deposits form <a href="http://www.jlr.org/content/18/2/182.long">in the arteries</a>. However, the food industry countered this with research suggesting eating more polyunsaturated fats could <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2505010">prevent the disease</a>.</p>
<p><a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/77/5/1146.long">Human feeding trials</a> in the early 1990s then found TFAs had adverse cholesterol effects on the blood. Finally, several studies of groups of people over a long period of time found people who consumed large amounts of artificial TFAs were at <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=10.7326%2Fm13-1788">16% greater risk</a> of dying from coronary heart disease than those who consumed small amounts. No association was found for naturally occurring TFAs.</p>
<p>Those who ate more TFAs were also more likely to be on lower incomes and so were more likely to be affected by unhealthy lifestyle issues such as smoking and obesity, so the evidence was not conclusive. However, it is but <a href="http://www.nature.com/ejcn/journal/v63/n2s/full/1602976a.html">still sufficient</a> to make dietary recommendations. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95020/original/image-20150916-12021-m4x3q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/95020/original/image-20150916-12021-m4x3q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95020/original/image-20150916-12021-m4x3q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95020/original/image-20150916-12021-m4x3q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95020/original/image-20150916-12021-m4x3q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95020/original/image-20150916-12021-m4x3q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/95020/original/image-20150916-12021-m4x3q7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Already trans-fat free.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Following these revelations, much of the world began to move away from trans fats. I was a member of a UN team <a href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/v4700e/v4700e00.htm">that recommended</a> the removal of industrial TFAs from food in 1994, after which major oil and fat processing firms worked to reduce the presence of these fats. Today, European manufacturers instead blend liquid oils with solid fat products from sources such as palm kernel oil or coconut oil to produce equivalent products. However, trans fats are <a href="http://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/2/5/e000859.full">still prevalent</a> in some Eastern European countries.</p>
<p>In the US, fully hydrogenated soybean oil, which is trans fat-free, is used to the same effect. Better labelling has also encourage a sharp fall in TFA consumption in the US, although authorities are <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/16/health/fda-trans-fat/">now forcing</a> manufacturers to phase out trans fats. The wider availability of cheap palm oil, which is TFA-free and needs less processing, has also helped. And new kinds of deep-frying oils such as high-oleic sunflower oil are used in place of partially hydrogenated ones.</p>
<h2>We’ve already changed</h2>
<p>In the years since, deaths from cardiovascular disease have fallen by 55% in the UK for a <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/article?id=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001237">variety of reasons</a> including better treatment. But some of the effect is unexplained and might be due to the removal of TFAs.</p>
<p>The changes made by industry mean that artificial trans fats are virtually absent from food consumed in the UK, something corroborated by studies measuring levels of TFAs <a href="http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FBJN%2FBJN105_04%2FS0007114510004083a.pdf&code=f9be8b542fb03d1bd4063bbf512011e1">in blood</a> or <a href="https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/files/12373147/Studentthesis-Maryam_Alhilal_2013.pdf">adipose (fat) tissue</a>. To my knowledge, no partially hydrogenated vegetable oils are currently manufactured in the UK. The main sources of TFAs left are the natural ones.</p>
<p>As such, banning trans fats as suggested by the new report would seemingly involve banning not just the industrial trans fats that are no longer present but also milk, butter, cheese and ruminant meats. A far simpler long-term solution would be to support European legislation to ban the process of partial hydrogenation, preventing EU imports containing trans fats from affecting the UK food supply. However, it’s wrong to blame TFAs for thousands of death in the UK, when the real culprits are smoking, obesity and physical inactivity.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/47585/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Sanders was Head of the Diabetes and Nutritional Sciences Division and Professor of Nutrition and Dietetics at King's College London until his retirement in September 2014, he is a Scientific Governor of the British Nutrition Foundation, Honorary Nutritional Director of Heart UK and a member of the Programme Advisory Board of the Malaysian Palm Oil Board.
His research on dietary fats was previously funded by the Food Standards Agency/ Public Health England, the BBSRC and the Malaysian Palm Oil Board. In the past, he has received consultancy payments from Unilever PLC and Archer Daniel Midland Company and the Global Dairy Platform. </span></em></p>New research claims banning trans fats could save thousands of lives. The reality is we’ve already moved on.Tom Sanders, Emeritus Professor of Nutrition & Dietetics , King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/335922015-01-14T19:31:51Z2015-01-14T19:31:51ZMilking the market: are you pouring additives on your cereal?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68918/original/image-20150113-28437-jhd9hg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some alternative 'milk' products are startlingly low on nutrition and many are packed with additives despite their 'natural' tag. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/mandarina94/6773907310/in/photolist-bjA3Dm-4uZAC1-9zNQa-ak9ERG-bQyEN-8N4A9G-5TCoh7-bQwU8-bQCzf-ndLbPA-djoZ1X-7tCymc-bK33di-hxKF2v-zpT4J-aEBZ6w-bQw45-5nuLSV-4xKdXD-dCq9CK-9mwf6w-dDC1p-qhttGS-7TNGN-fiBSuL-pnNcV-7tYURL-9jpRT9-6pvyN3-is2MRk-98rSJC-5bjYvq-hKhhan-bzkAr-8soT4S-djX6wT-55f1eo-3CKue9-e3XgH1-h7pRrG-noKNFP-dd5t-g1BatW-fEhdH6-4mqbD4-9FFQjk-7yuMD6-5sae7-9ZxUDH-5HyQEn">Iryna Yeroshko/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There’s a milk revolution going on in supermarkets and it’s showing no sign of retreat. Where formerly we might have had a simple choice between cow milk and soy milk, with a few other niche products available in the bigger supermarkets, suddenly we’re facing a bewildering range: almond or macadamia milk? Cow, sheep, or goat? Coconut? Rice, oat or quinoa? </p>
<h2>But why?</h2>
<p>First, let’s take a moment to reflect on the possible reasons for this phenomenon. The current interest in the Palaeolithic diet may certainly have something to do with it. Adherents seek alternatives to dairy and soy foods under the misconception that humans had entirely completed their evolutionary process before any use of these foods. They argue that this somehow means we are not “meant” to consume them. </p>
<p>People with lactose intolerance have long avoided animal milks, which all contain lactose as their natural (but sometimes poorly absorbed) sugar. <a href="https://theconversation.com/soy-versus-dairy-whats-the-footprint-of-milk-8498">Environmental concerns</a> are another possible reason people want to reduce their consumption of animal milks. </p>
<p>Distrust of soy foods has also grown in recent years because of concerns about their hormonal effects, although there’s <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11880595">little evidence to support the idea</a> they’re harmful. Nonetheless, people are looking further afield to find a suitable swap for cow’s milk if they have a dairy protein allergy or if they’re avoiding casein to help manage neurological conditions such as autism or dementia (as part of a diet that has been popular but <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16685183">controversial</a>). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68923/original/image-20150113-28449-94hr59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68923/original/image-20150113-28449-94hr59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68923/original/image-20150113-28449-94hr59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68923/original/image-20150113-28449-94hr59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=430&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68923/original/image-20150113-28449-94hr59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68923/original/image-20150113-28449-94hr59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68923/original/image-20150113-28449-94hr59.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Distrust of soy foods has grown in recent years because of concerns about their hormonal effects.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/87807550@N00/126164015/in/photolist-7eEqpt-nWLv7B-8sGrwk-c9CaD-an27Sp-5nQH8f-bBqp5e-akP4yK-akRSCf-arjEc9-n6QhBt-6hre2Y-9XAMpi-4JgJdy-arh1oM-7n77CR-9XDCbs-9XDyxE-9ts4YJ-n6Scby">mc559/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Soy allergy is another reason people search for milk alternatives. The ranks of these searchers are boosted by the fact that plant-based and raw diets are on the increase.</p>
<h2>Not so good</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, unless they’re reading the packaging carefully, many consumers are probably being misled by the labelling of these alternative products as milk. What’s more, some are startlingly low on nutrition and, ironically, many are packed with additives despite their “natural” tag. </p>
<p>Indeed, compared to animal milks, which usually contain only milk, a typical ingredients list for one of these alternative products might contain between ten and 18 different added substances. These include oils, thickening agents (starches, carrageenan, or vegetable gums), flavourings and syrup sweeteners, emulsifiers and added vitamins and minerals. And their main ingredient is water.</p>
<p>The large amount of added water means that many of these products are quite dilute. Other than soy milk, none of the others have even a tenth of the protein in animal milks. </p>
<p>If you adjust for the amount of added water by looking at their nutrition relative to calorie content (instead of just per 100 millilitres as most labels show), then some of the nut products look a bit better. They’re still very high in fat. </p>
<p>And really, you’re mainly paying for some very expensive water. Then, there’s added salt, which surprisingly seems to be a supplement to every nut milk product on the market. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68920/original/image-20150113-28455-1awljx5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68920/original/image-20150113-28455-1awljx5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68920/original/image-20150113-28455-1awljx5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68920/original/image-20150113-28455-1awljx5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=441&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68920/original/image-20150113-28455-1awljx5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68920/original/image-20150113-28455-1awljx5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68920/original/image-20150113-28455-1awljx5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=554&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nut milks are a mixture of ground nuts and water, usually with a sweetener and salt.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/vrangtantebrun/3773798630/in/photolist-6KtGRC-aJz9GZ-8xQjVF-is1jtM-8HceUT-6Z8MJo-9qcY5K-8t3Hke-aWWPji-5kfqD8-4xVxfT-4xVwS6-ipKvf-dDMshu-8E4cB4-6KtGJ9-zDxBm-7yRdw8-Je8yh-5VLRJg-2M65Xs-aFbte6-5V13AC-jFV2KK-5UVEnK-3cj6wk-7mCBN-6v3Vsv-9weQcA-7t749R-7qrHyk-45hxfA-7gGRrr-5C9WG6-dmv5mo-2jaXpz-nTn2j1-4gVrtb">Vrangtante Brun/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Calcium content is not comparable either, unless it has been added. Unfortunately, the form of calcium commonly used is not easily absorbed by the human body compared to what’s present in animal milks.</p>
<h2>The low-down</h2>
<p>Nut milks are a mixture of ground nuts and water, usually with a sweetener and salt. They provide the beneficial fats that are found in nuts, as well as protein and calcium in very small amounts. </p>
<p>Cereal milks, such as oat, rice or quinoa, are a starchy mixture of grain flours or brans – or both. They usually have added oil and, again, salt. Generally, these cereal milks provide little protein but the added oil usually has beneficial mono-unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. </p>
<p>Coconut milk sold as a beverage usually has added water and salt. It is also very low in protein. Coconut oil is mostly saturated fat. While many advocates will argue for the specific benefits of the medium-chain triglycerides present in this fat, these form only part of the fat content of coconut. And it still doesn’t stack up as a healthier fat than the mono- and poly-unsaturated fats.</p>
<h2>Unsustainable?</h2>
<p>The environmental implications of Palaeolithic-style eating are rarely mentioned. Eating like a cave-dweller sounds so natural, how could it be bad for the environment, right? But the world’s population is more than 6,000 times the size it was in the Palaeolithic era, so sustainability is now a much bigger issue! </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68919/original/image-20150113-28443-44ghlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/68919/original/image-20150113-28443-44ghlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68919/original/image-20150113-28443-44ghlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68919/original/image-20150113-28443-44ghlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=487&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68919/original/image-20150113-28443-44ghlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=612&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68919/original/image-20150113-28443-44ghlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=612&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/68919/original/image-20150113-28443-44ghlc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=612&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Coconut milk sold as a beverage usually has added water and salt.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/bionicteaching/2166640369/in/photolist-4isAGr-oxFxRs-6b9xBe-4APyxk-4muZ12-bpkg5L-7z8dfr-75fcxb-jhkfbU-9kJ1Fq-72ra5B-7zJ2Xu-9nX1Ph-98YhsP-cNpuCG-79fwBN-4ps8i9-7CT5Tb-EpL1t-8E4cB4-a1JEvx-k3fk9z-5DEat-a6GF41-eMPHpy-5RwKrW-2tZyPL-dKtAAd-4SxSj5-jcRoha-2tZnWS-4drgub-9frE7m-7G49uj-ohuEei-68Lhq3-DM9ab-annZWH-4WCvgD-hE2zSp-dVX5Xb-7vaL4i-htX54-2tV2FV-aVJE5V-H5uCK-6b9xCX-dCq9CK-622DPQ-dQ4eG9">Tom Woodward/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>There would be huge <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1747-0080.2008.00251.x/abstract">environmental implications</a> if six billion people tried to follow a diet high in meat, but the type of milk we choose may be very important too. The <a href="http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2014/02/wheres-californias-water-going">amount of water</a> used to grow almonds is very large, for instance, and coconut milk will be high in food miles for most of us. So there isn’t a clear front-runner amongst these milks in the environmental stakes.</p>
<p>Given the strict rules about what products can be called juice, it’s curious that manufacturers are allowed to call these products milk at all, since they really aren’t. Other than in the sense of being a white liquid you can put on cereal and in tea, and use in cooking, that is. </p>
<p>If that’s all you’re looking for, then it’s up to you to choose which one you like most - but do read the label to see what else you’re getting!</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/33592/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suzie Ferrie does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There’s a milk revolution going on in supermarkets and it’s showing no sign of retreat. Where formerly we might have had a simple choice between cow milk and soy milk, with a few other niche products available…Suzie Ferrie, Clinical Affiliate, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/289262014-07-11T05:15:59Z2014-07-11T05:15:59ZTen things you didn’t know about fat<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53442/original/f4764jzv-1404920126.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The cat that got too fat. But let's talk about you. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/yukariryu/122530943/sizes/o/">Yukari</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Our understanding of fats – including which ones are actually good for us – is evolving. We know for example <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3599112/">that red meat</a> and meat products, cakes and biscuits, which are rich sources of saturated fatty acids, <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/87/5/1414.long">are associated</a> with an increased number of cardiovascular deaths. Conversely, nuts, oily fish and milk products, which are high in saturated fats, <a href="http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/123/24/2870.long">are associated</a> with lower risk. </p>
<p>There are <a href="http://www.healthcheck.org/page/different-types-fat">four main types</a> of fats in our foods: polyunsaturated, monounsaturated, saturated and transfats. Each has different chemical and physical properties. Vegetable spreads and cooking oils – mainly rapeseed, sunflower, soybean and olive – usually contain the first two but relatively small amounts of saturated fat. But palm oil, which has a higher melting point and is now used in many products, is highly saturated. </p>
<p>Dietary advice, then, has moved away from the simplistic mantra that we should just eat less saturated fat, salt and sugar, towards a more discerning pattern that emphasises fruit, vegetables and low-fat dairy food, includes wholegrains, poultry, fish and nuts, and contains less red meat, sweets and sugar-containing beverages. But where do fats fit in? Here are ten things you may not know.</p>
<h2>1. Fat is an energy food</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53453/original/tk364pwy-1404927870.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53453/original/tk364pwy-1404927870.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53453/original/tk364pwy-1404927870.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53453/original/tk364pwy-1404927870.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53453/original/tk364pwy-1404927870.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53453/original/tk364pwy-1404927870.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53453/original/tk364pwy-1404927870.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fully loaded.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/wilfwilson/11883984685/">Wilf Wilson</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most of the energy in our diet comes from carbohydrates. But fat supplies between a quarter and two-fifths of an adult’s energy intake and half for a newborn. In babies, a high fat intake promotes fat deposits which insulate against heat loss. </p>
<p>Adding fat to food can double its energy content. Removing fat, from products like meat and milk, can substantially reduce it. Fat provides 9kcal/g (kilocalories/gram) in energy compared with 3.75kcal/g, 4kcal/g and 7kcal/g for carbohydrates, protein and alcohol.</p>
<h2>2. Less energy intake, bigger weight loss</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53454/original/yzbykn57-1404928101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53454/original/yzbykn57-1404928101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53454/original/yzbykn57-1404928101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53454/original/yzbykn57-1404928101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53454/original/yzbykn57-1404928101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53454/original/yzbykn57-1404928101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53454/original/yzbykn57-1404928101.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Slim pickings.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-155243915/stock-photo-healthy-food-green-salad-for-meal.html?src=T0eyRxdPwSVT8ybUTQ2lfg-1-2">Lettuce leaf by Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Reducing energy intake rather than increasing physical activity is the most effective means of reducing body fat. This can be achieved by using lower fat versions of existing foods, trimming fat from meat and using oils sparingly. There is not much difference in fat content between grilled and fried meat. Restriction of energy intake also requires limiting the intake of carbohydrates and alcohol.</p>
<h2>3. Where it is in the body matters</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53529/original/mbyp34x7-1404983965.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53529/original/mbyp34x7-1404983965.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53529/original/mbyp34x7-1404983965.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53529/original/mbyp34x7-1404983965.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=398&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53529/original/mbyp34x7-1404983965.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53529/original/mbyp34x7-1404983965.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53529/original/mbyp34x7-1404983965.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Great power, less responsibility.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/shawnhoke/5083787647/sizes/l">Shawne Hoke</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Excess accumulation of body fat is most harmful if it is in the abdominal cavity or liver and <a href="http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1360863">is causally linked</a> to developing type 2 diabetes. The use of a waist measurement (more than 80cm for women 94cm for men) indicates central obesity and is useful for predicting risk of type 2 diabetes. Women have more subcutaneous fat stores than men, so men store this visceral fat around the mesenteric blood vessel in the abdomen. When energy stored in fat cells is released, the <a href="http://oregonstate.edu/dept/biochem/hhmi/hhmiclasses/biochem/lectnoteskga/lecturenotes011199.html">fat mobilisation process</a> leads to fatty acids entering the bloodstream. Visceral fat is more rapidly mobilised than subcutaneous fat and can accumulate in the liver. Fat also accumulates in the liver if the intake of alcohol or sugar is high.</p>
<h2>4. Body uses carbohydrate for fuel not fat</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53456/original/fdcn4ryh-1404928788.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53456/original/fdcn4ryh-1404928788.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53456/original/fdcn4ryh-1404928788.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53456/original/fdcn4ryh-1404928788.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53456/original/fdcn4ryh-1404928788.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53456/original/fdcn4ryh-1404928788.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53456/original/fdcn4ryh-1404928788.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Chain of events.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/oskay/893845346/sizes/o/">Oskay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Obesity results from the excess accumulation of dietary fat in the body. Very little fat is made in the body from carbohydrates (including sugar) or alcohol because they are used as fuel in preference to fat. But if you have excess fuel on board you deposit it as fat because we have a limited capacity to store carbohydrates. </p>
<h2>5. Women need fat for fertility</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53457/original/6f9npg8m-1404929226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53457/original/6f9npg8m-1404929226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53457/original/6f9npg8m-1404929226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53457/original/6f9npg8m-1404929226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53457/original/6f9npg8m-1404929226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53457/original/6f9npg8m-1404929226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53457/original/6f9npg8m-1404929226.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gymnasts: known to suffer delayed puberty.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/gtmcknight/93447586/sizes/o/">Gtmcknight</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Body fat plays an important role in female fertility. Between 20-30% of a healthy mature woman’s body weight is fat – twice as much as men. If <a href="http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/F/bo3627067.html*">the level drops below</a> about 18%, ovulation stops but if it raises to very high levels – typically about 50% of her weight – it also results in infertility. A hormone called <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12087495">leptin is secreted</a> by adipose (fat) tissue into the blood in proportion to the amount of fat it stores. The brain detects the blood leptin signal and this promotes ovulation when the level is high enough. </p>
<h2>6. Some fatty acids are essential</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53551/original/g9jgynx5-1405003029.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53551/original/g9jgynx5-1405003029.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53551/original/g9jgynx5-1405003029.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53551/original/g9jgynx5-1405003029.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53551/original/g9jgynx5-1405003029.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53551/original/g9jgynx5-1405003029.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53551/original/g9jgynx5-1405003029.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some ingestion needed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/superfantastic/2385609883/sizes/l">SuperFantastic</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We need certain polyunsaturated fatty acids, aptly named essential fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic acids), in our diet <a href="http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/skin/EFA/">for healthy skin</a>. These also contribute to maintaining cardiovascular health as well as brain and visual function. We mainly get these from vegetable oils, nuts and oily fish. </p>
<h2>7. We need fat to absorb some vitamins</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53459/original/j4pt59tq-1404929844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53459/original/j4pt59tq-1404929844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53459/original/j4pt59tq-1404929844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53459/original/j4pt59tq-1404929844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53459/original/j4pt59tq-1404929844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53459/original/j4pt59tq-1404929844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53459/original/j4pt59tq-1404929844.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Oiling digestion.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/chiotsrun/4838011044/sizes/l">Chiot's run</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>About 30g of fat is required every day <a href="http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/foodnut/09315.html">to promote the absorption</a> of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K, which we also get from fatty foods. Vegetable oils are an important source of vitamin E and oily fish is the best dietary source of vitamin D. Provitamins are substances that can be converted within the body into vitamins. And adding a little oil to green vegetables and carrots actually improves the absorption of carotene (pro-vitamin A).</p>
<h2>8. Big scale effect on blood cholesterol</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53461/original/bnnssm4m-1404930320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53461/original/bnnssm4m-1404930320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53461/original/bnnssm4m-1404930320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53461/original/bnnssm4m-1404930320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53461/original/bnnssm4m-1404930320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53461/original/bnnssm4m-1404930320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53461/original/bnnssm4m-1404930320.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bloodbath.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/csutka/3956855512/sizes/l">Peter Almay</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A population’s average blood cholesterol level <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22592684">is a major determinant</a> of coronary heart disease risk. Trials show the replacement of saturated fatty acids with polyunsaturated fatty acids lowers blood cholesterol and reduces the incidence of disease but not mortality. These days high cholesterol levels are more effectively <a href="http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-cholesterol/in-depth/statins/art-20045772">treated with statins</a>, but the public health goal is to reduce average cholesterol levels.</p>
<h2>9. Not all saturated fat is bad</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53460/original/y7xsb6kj-1404930034.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53460/original/y7xsb6kj-1404930034.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53460/original/y7xsb6kj-1404930034.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53460/original/y7xsb6kj-1404930034.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53460/original/y7xsb6kj-1404930034.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53460/original/y7xsb6kj-1404930034.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53460/original/y7xsb6kj-1404930034.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Saturation point.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jetpants/11836235/sizes/o/">Mandroid</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Not all saturated fats increase blood cholesterol. The cholesterol raising effects are confined to lauric, myristic and palmitic acids (the latter is found in palm oil). These raise low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) in decreasing order of potency compared to carbohydrates (including all types of starches and sugars) or unsaturated fatty acids. It is generally more effective to lower cholesterol by replacing saturated fatty acids with oils rich in monounsaturated (olive, rapeseed) or polyunsaturated fatty acids (soybean, sunflower oil) than lowering carbohydrates. For example, replacing butter or lard with olive oil as your main source of fat can lower LDL-C by about 10%.</p>
<h2>10. Saturated fat intake is stable</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53462/original/yx9ywqxq-1404930755.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/53462/original/yx9ywqxq-1404930755.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53462/original/yx9ywqxq-1404930755.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53462/original/yx9ywqxq-1404930755.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53462/original/yx9ywqxq-1404930755.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53462/original/yx9ywqxq-1404930755.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/53462/original/yx9ywqxq-1404930755.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Equilibrium.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/larskflem/3974587487/sizes/o/">Larskflem</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Food and nutrition policies have changed the food supply. In the UK, energy intakes of fat and saturated fatty acids respectively fell from 42% and 20% in the early 1970s to 35% and 12% by 2000, where <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/310995/NDNS_Y1_to_4_UK_report.pdf">they have remained</a> since. Between 1987 and 2000, average blood cholesterol <a href="http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/lifestyles/the-national-diet-and-nutrition-survey/2001-edition/index.html">levels fell</a> from 5.7mmol/L to 5.2mmol/L. Despite the continuing rise in obesity and diabetes, death from cardiovascular disease <a href="http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1001237">fell from</a> 141 to 63/100,000 of the population between 1994-97 and 2009-11, owing mainly to better treatment and improvements in control of risk factors such as blood pressure, smoking and cholesterol. </p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/28926/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tom Sanders does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Our understanding of fats – including which ones are actually good for us – is evolving. We know for example that red meat and meat products, cakes and biscuits, which are rich sources of saturated fatty…Tom Sanders, Head of Diabetes & Nutritional Sciences and Professor of Nutrition & Dietetics , King's College LondonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.