tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/mesopotamia-15330/articles
Mesopotamia – The Conversation
2024-03-21T12:25:02Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/218677
2024-03-21T12:25:02Z
2024-03-21T12:25:02Z
Purim’s original queen: How studying the Book of Esther as fan fiction can teach us about the roots of an unruly Jewish festival
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582875/original/file-20240319-24-z4q69e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C1022%2C699&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Esther denouncing Haman, who, according to the Purim story, attempted to have all Jews within the Persian Empire massacred. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/esther-denouncing-haman-haman-a-favourite-at-the-court-of-news-photo/929217364?adppopup=true">Hutchinson's History of the Nations/Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Once upon a time, in the ancient Near East, there was a beautiful queen.</p>
<p>Scribes wrote of her lovely form, her regal majesty and her fierce bravery. The people honored her in lavish celebrations marked by debauchery. She was linked to <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/327/oa_monograph/chapter/2616211#rfn55">the morning star</a>, and her name was “Ishtar” – or “Esther,” <a href="https://www.sefaria.org/Jastrow%2C_%D7%90%D6%B4%D7%A1%D6%B0%D7%AA%D6%B0%D6%BC%D7%94%D6%B7%D7%A8.1">as she was called in Hebrew</a>.</p>
<p>This is the story that inspires the Jewish holiday of Purim, which begins this year on the evening of March 23. Across the world, Jews retell the story of <a href="https://bibleodyssey.com/articles/esther/">Queen Esther</a> in <a href="https://theconversation.com/purim-spiels-skits-and-satire-have-brought-merriment-to-an-ancient-jewish-holiday-in-america-177700">lavish spectacles</a>, <a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/purim-plays-and-carnivals/">called Purim spiels</a>, that feature costumes, jokes, satire, noisemakers and food and wine.</p>
<p>Purim is the only celebration in Judaism with an entire biblical book about its origins. <a href="https://www.sefaria.org/Esther?tab=contents">The Book of Esther</a> tells how she and her pious cousin, Mordecai, defeated the scheming Haman, a powerful royal adviser, thereby saving the Jewish people from annihilation.</p>
<p>Yet among researchers, the actual origins of the holiday – and of Esther herself – are still hotly contested. Few scholars interpret Esther’s story as a record of historical events, and they note a number of oddities surrounding the book. The text, sometimes called the Megillah, contains <a href="https://www.thetorah.com/article/megillat-esther-a-godless-and-assimilated-diaspora">no mention of God</a>, or of religious activities such as prayer or sacrifice; its narrative is colorful and suggestive.</p>
<p>When archaeologists began to dig up cuneiform texts in the 19th century, a further peculiarity emerged: Esther and her cousin Mordecai shared names <a href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/dictionary-of-deities-and-demons-online/ishtar-DDDO_Ishtar">with Ishtar</a> and <a href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/dictionary-of-deities-and-demons-online/marduk-DDDO_Marduk">her cousin Marduk</a>, two of the most prominent deities in ancient Mesopotamia. Ishtar, like Esther, was a divine queen associated with both eroticism and battle. Marduk, like Mordecai, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20182036">overcame a deadly enemy and celebrated his triumph with a banquet</a>. Moreover, the name Purim seems to derive from <a href="https://www.thetorah.com/article/on-the-origins-of-purim-and-its-assyrian-name">the Babylonian word “pûru</a>” – a “lot” in both the senses of “<a href="https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/cad_p.pdf">portion</a>” and “<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/3209686">fortunetelling dice</a>.”</p>
<p><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kwcXAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA94&ots=Oj4t1mFmis&pg=PA87#v=onepage&q&f=false">Earlier scholars of those cuneiform texts</a> concluded that the Book of Esther was retelling a Babylonian myth about Ishtar and Marduk. No such myth has been found to date, however, leading to an apparent historical dead end.</p>
<p>When I learned about these connections as <a href="https://udayton.edu/directory/artssciences/religiousstudies/brownsmith-esther.php">a young biblical scholar</a>, a modern parallel immediately came to mind: the genre of fan fiction. </p>
<h2>Fanfic, then and now</h2>
<p>In fan fiction, amateur writers create stories based on the characters and imaginative worlds of popular media.</p>
<p>Sites such as the <a href="https://archiveofourown.org/">Archive of Our Own</a>, <a href="https://www.fanfiction.net/">FanFiction.net</a> <a href="https://www.wattpad.com/">and Wattpad</a> host millions of “fics,” from short sketches to novel-length epics. The popularity of these stories has extended beyond the internet: “Fifty Shades of Grey” <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/hayleycuccinello/2017/02/10/fifty-shades-of-green-how-fanfiction-went-from-dirty-little-secret-to-money-machine/">was a fic of the teen series “Twilight</a>,” while the bestselling novel “The Love Hypothesis” <a href="https://www.cinemablend.com/star-wars/bestselling-romance-novel-inspired-by-fanfiction-about-star-wars-rey-and-kylo-ren-is-becoming-a-movie">began as a story about characters from “Star Wars</a>.”</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582897/original/file-20240319-30-tbbvty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman in a black shirt and red scarf stands in front of a sign that says 'Fifty shades.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582897/original/file-20240319-30-tbbvty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582897/original/file-20240319-30-tbbvty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582897/original/file-20240319-30-tbbvty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582897/original/file-20240319-30-tbbvty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582897/original/file-20240319-30-tbbvty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582897/original/file-20240319-30-tbbvty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582897/original/file-20240319-30-tbbvty.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Author E.L. James attends a special fan screening of ‘Fifty Shades of Grey,’ the movie based on her books, in New York in 2015.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/FiftyShades-GreyFanFiction/149d58f2e10f4e548709808c0573a816/photo?Query=fan%20fiction&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:asc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=71&currentItemNo=44">Charles Sykes/Invision/AP, File</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Fan fiction studies has become an established corner of academia: studying these texts, their creators and the factors that influence them.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3983/twc.2021.2037">I am not the first scholar</a> to wonder whether ancient texts were the fan fiction of their time. Scholars and fans alike have noted the way that <a href="https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1024&context=anthos_archives">the Aeneid builds upon Homer’s compositions</a>, for example, and <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/20">John Milton’s epic “Paradise Lost</a>” mines the tales of the Bible.</p>
<p>I believe it makes sense to think of Esther, too, as the ancient equivalent of today’s fan fiction: a tale of familiar characters, re-imagined and repurposed to reflect the identities of their creators.</p>
<p>To begin, Esther and Ishtar had more in common than just their name. In fact, everything in my first paragraph describes them both, from the raucous celebrations held in their names to their legendary beauty. The author of the Book of Esther seems to have been describing a character already familiar to readers, just like a modern fan fiction writer does.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582888/original/file-20240319-8674-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An open scroll shows text with a colored floral pattern at the top and bottom of the manuscript." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582888/original/file-20240319-8674-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582888/original/file-20240319-8674-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582888/original/file-20240319-8674-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582888/original/file-20240319-8674-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=442&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582888/original/file-20240319-8674-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582888/original/file-20240319-8674-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582888/original/file-20240319-8674-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=555&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An 18th-century parchment scroll of the Book of Esther, preserved at the Mejanes Library in Aix-en-Provence, France.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/a-scroll-of-parchment-from-the-xviiith-century-preserved-at-news-photo/949696604?adppopup=true">Patrick Horvais/Gamma-Rapho via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This comparison is not hindered by the fact that the plot of Esther did not derive from a known Mesopotamian myth; plenty of <a href="https://fanlore.org/wiki/Alternate_Universe">“alternate universe” fics</a> tell new stories in new settings, using the change of scenery to reveal new facets of their beloved characters.</p>
<p>Nor does the divide between Mesopotamian polytheism and Jewish monotheism pose a problem. For many authors, fanfic provides an opportunity to <a href="https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9781479811748.003.0009">transform and critique its source text</a>, adding elements that were glaringly absent from the original, such as queer relationships. </p>
<p>In short, thinking about the story of Esther as ancient “fanfic” could explain the striking parallels between her character and Ishtar. But the implications of this framework are more than simply academic. Calling Esther fan fiction can teach modern readers something about the celebration of Purim – and about storytelling itself.</p>
<h2>Writing ourselves into stories</h2>
<p>The first lesson is that, from ancient Jewish scribes to modern teenage girls, people have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.3983/twc.2023.2441">rewriting other people’s stories</a> to reflect their own reality and identities.</p>
<p>Today, a fanfic author might compose a saga about how <a href="https://fanlore.org/wiki/Mary_Sue">a girl like her</a> won hearts and saved lives in male-dominated Middle-earth, the world of J.R.R. Tolkien’s “Lord of the Rings” series. Back in ancient Babylon, Jewish scribes might have re-imagined a popular goddess as a Jewish heroine. Transformative writing is empowering and defiant, then as now.</p>
<p>The second lesson is that carnival and queerness and joy are built into ancient scripture; they are no modern development. Ishtar was <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25683215">a gender-fluid queen</a> who <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062957">declared</a>, “I am a woman (but) verily I am an exuberant man.” Her followers included “<a href="https://doi.org/10.25162/9783515130974">assinnu” and “kurgarru</a>,” ranks of Mesopotamian priests who were famous for transgressing gender norms.</p>
<p>It should thus come as no surprise that Esther is a story that names and elevates a number of eunuch characters, ascribes <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4139801">feminine and nonbinary traits</a> to the heroic Mordecai and imagines its heroine as sexual and daring. Purim’s long-standing tradition of <a href="https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/cross-dressing-on-purim/">cross-dressing</a> and <a href="https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2022-03-15/ty-article-magazine/why-do-jews-dress-up-for-purim/00000180-5bb4-d718-afd9-dfbccaa70000">flamboyant costumes</a> has a rich history.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582895/original/file-20240319-8759-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A woman in an orange bikini-style outfit and a large red headdress dances in the street near a tall stuffed bear figure." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582895/original/file-20240319-8759-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582895/original/file-20240319-8759-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582895/original/file-20240319-8759-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582895/original/file-20240319-8759-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582895/original/file-20240319-8759-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582895/original/file-20240319-8759-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582895/original/file-20240319-8759-pb38a9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dancers perform during a Purim parade festival in 2012 in Holon, Israel.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/MideastIsraelPurim/295ac0e151b849e2886aa0ecf16a2a2e/photo?Query=purim&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:asc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=780&currentItemNo=139">AP Photo/Dan Balilty</a></span>
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<p>Likewise, fan fiction is a deeply queer practice. A disproportionate number of stories <a href="https://doi.org/10.3983/twc.2022.2205">address gender and sexuality</a>, and its creators are themselves <a href="https://public.tableau.com/app/profile/fansplaining/viz/TheFansplainingShippingSurveyResults/SurveyDemographicsGenderandSexuality">disproportionately</a> <a href="https://www.flowjournal.org/2023/02/fan-demographics-on-ao3/">LGBTQ+</a>.</p>
<p>The third lesson is one that I strive to teach all my students: Scripture can be both relatable and startling when we look at it through fresh eyes. </p>
<p>The Bible instructs Jews to retell the story of Esther each Purim. But by <a href="https://urj.org/blog/get-act-yes-you-can-write-purim-spiel">creating themed Purim spiels</a> each year, drawing on sources from Motown to Moana, Jewish congregations clothe the familiar plot in exciting new garb.</p>
<p>Thinking about biblical stories as fan fiction invites readers today to imagine the ancient scribes as “fans,” brimming with emotional reactions and strong opinions. The Bible is a diverse library of texts created in manifold times and contexts, and its authors were passionately invested in the stories they told and retold – just like modern amateur authors.</p>
<p>This Purim, I invite you to approach the Bible’s tales as the result of a dynamic process, a panoply of voices that each sought to influence their tradition by adding their own words to it. In the hands of fan fiction writers and Purim spiel creators, that process continues today.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218677/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Esther Brownsmith does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Whether thousands of years ago or right now, fans have always created new stories based on familiar characters, weaving their own experiences into the tale.
Esther Brownsmith, Assistant Professor of Religious Studies, University of Dayton
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/216274
2023-10-30T01:30:47Z
2023-10-30T01:30:47Z
Necromancers, demons and friendly ghosts: humans have been fascinated with the afterlife since ancient Mesopotamia
<p>As Halloween approaches, we start to think about ghosts, monsters, and demons. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556051/original/file-20231026-15-tzkp0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556051/original/file-20231026-15-tzkp0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556051/original/file-20231026-15-tzkp0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556051/original/file-20231026-15-tzkp0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556051/original/file-20231026-15-tzkp0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556051/original/file-20231026-15-tzkp0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556051/original/file-20231026-15-tzkp0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556051/original/file-20231026-15-tzkp0x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Grave goods from Ur, Mesopotamia 6000-1500 BC Gallery, British Museum.</span>
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</figure>
<p>But a fascination with the afterlife and other worlds is not new: <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2014/10/24/358555307/the-creepiest-ghost-and-monster-stories-from-around-the-world">ghost stories from all over the world</a> prove it’s been part of the human experience from prehistoric times.</p>
<p>Even before <a href="https://www.bl.uk/history-of-writing/articles/where-did-writing-begin">the invention of writing</a> over 5,000 years ago, humans were being buried alongside goods that could be useful in their afterlife, such as drinking vessels or weapons. </p>
<p>Though there is some debate about the meaning of <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2023/08/29/neanderthal-burial-with-flowers-likely-the-result-of-animal-activity-new-study-finds/?sh=266890ff2c18">prehistoric grave goods</a>, Mesopotamian ghost expert <a href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/death-and-memory/mesopotamian-ghostbusting-irving-finkel">Irving Finkel</a> persuasively argues they reflect a belief something of the dead person would persevere into an afterlife. There, the grave goods could be put to use.</p>
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<p>
<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/caveman-instincts-may-explain-our-belief-in-gods-and-ghosts-26945">Caveman instincts may explain our belief in gods and ghosts </a>
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</em>
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<h2>Mesopotamian demons in popular culture</h2>
<p><a href="https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-middle-east/mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, an historical area located roughly in the region of modern-day Iraq, was home to some of the world’s great empires. </p>
<p>Ancient Mesopotamian ghosts and demons are perhaps best known today from their presence in horror films. In <a href="https://screenrant.com/ghostbusters-movie-influence-speech-cultural-change-busters/">Ghostbusters</a> (1984), Sigourney Weaver’s Dana is possessed by Zuul, a minion of the fictional god Gozer, who was worshipped as a demigod by the Sumerians in the film’s backstory. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556246/original/file-20231026-21-u748sx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556246/original/file-20231026-21-u748sx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556246/original/file-20231026-21-u748sx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=715&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556246/original/file-20231026-21-u748sx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=715&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556246/original/file-20231026-21-u748sx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=715&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556246/original/file-20231026-21-u748sx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556246/original/file-20231026-21-u748sx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556246/original/file-20231026-21-u748sx.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The head of Pazuzu, the ancient demon represented in The Exorcist.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/327485">The Met</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the novel and film, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20231005-the-exorcist-and-why-demonic-possession-taps-into-our-darkest-fears">The Exorcist</a> (1973), 12-year-old Regan is possessed by Pazuzu, a fictional demon based on Assyrian and Babylonian mythology. </p>
<p>The mythic Pazuzu <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2014/assyria-to-iberia/blog/posts/pazuzu">appears in visual sources</a> from around the 8th century BCE and was considered king of the wind demons. </p>
<p>In contrast to the plot of The Exorcist, Pazuzu’s terrifying visage <a href="https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004368088/BP000014.xml">was used in white magic to protect children</a> from the lion-headed demonness Lamashtu.</p>
<p>And in <a href="https://www.cbr.com/why-the-evil-dead-banned/">Evil Dead</a> (1981), the evil comes from an ancient Sumerian book, the Necronomicon Ex-Mortis, bound in human flesh and inked in blood, which can release evil into the world when certain passages are read aloud. (The book is actually the fictional invention of writer H.P. Lovecraft.)</p>
<p>The influence of supernatural beings in these works is largely malevolent. But the connection between the living and the dead in ancient Mesopotamia was complex – and sometimes, it was mutually beneficial.</p>
<p>Ghosts were an accepted part of life in ancient Mesopotamia. Death was thought to gradually weaken the connections that bound the deceased person to the land of the living, rather than bring an abrupt, complete exit.</p>
<p>In some areas, this concept has endured. Modern-day science fiction writer <a href="https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20220301-philip-k-dick-the-writer-who-witnessed-the-future">Philip K. Dick</a>, best known for his novel <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/36402034-do-androids-dream-of-electric-sheep">Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?</a> (filmed as <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0083658/">Bladerunner</a>) presents death in similarly incomplete terms in writings such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_the_Dead_Men_Say">What the Dead Men Say</a> (1964) and <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22590.Ubik">Ubik</a> (1969). In these stories, the recently deceased maintain some capacity to interact with the living shortly after death. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-exorcist-believer-is-a-retcon-film-it-imagines-none-of-the-sequels-exist-this-sequel-shouldnt-exist-either-210463">The Exorcist: Believer is a ‘retcon’ film - it imagines none of the sequels exist. This sequel shouldn’t exist, either</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The first ghost</h2>
<p>In Mesopotamian myth, humanity was created – along with the first ghost – through the death of a rebellious god. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556057/original/file-20231026-19-4as9yx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556057/original/file-20231026-19-4as9yx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556057/original/file-20231026-19-4as9yx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556057/original/file-20231026-19-4as9yx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556057/original/file-20231026-19-4as9yx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556057/original/file-20231026-19-4as9yx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556057/original/file-20231026-19-4as9yx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556057/original/file-20231026-19-4as9yx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This fragment tells the Babylonian flood story, Epic of Atrahasis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The origin of ghosts is explained in the Mesopotamian myth of <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/227/the-atrahasis-epic-the-great-flood--the-meaning-of/">Atrahasis</a>, a Babylonian flood narrative often <a href="https://history.howstuffworks.com/history-vs-myth/gilgamesh.htm">paralleled with the story of Noah’s ark</a>. </p>
<p>In this myth, humans are created by senior gods, to perform the menial work of the lesser gods, who have gone on strike. The leader of the rebellion is killed, and his body and blood are mixed with clay to create humans. The spirit of the dead god is also mixed into the new creation, meaning his rebellious etemmu (“spirit”) becomes part of humanity. </p>
<p>The combination of god and earth gives the humans a mortal body and an immortal soul. As long as each human lives, the ghost of the dead god within them is signalled through the steady “drumbeat” of the pulse. </p>
<h2>Friendly ghosts?</h2>
<p>Written sources reflect many types of Mesopotamian ghosts, and many different ways to manage them. The nature of a ghost, either friendly or malevolent, could be influenced by several factors. </p>
<p>Dying in tragic circumstances could create an unhappy ghost, while some ghosts were just innately difficult to get along with – as can sometimes be the case with the living. <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/magic/hd_magic.htm">Magic spells</a> were used to free a person of a ghost’s presence, and rituals were used to send the ghost safely on its way to the afterlife. </p>
<p>While ghosts, like demons, were viewed as capable of causing harm to the living, they could also be helpful. Family ghosts could protect their relatives from evil and intercede on their behalf with the gods. Families had responsibilities to care for their deceased loved ones by providing them with appropriate grave goods and funerary rituals.</p>
<p>The ability of dead ancestors to help the living with their problems is also reflected in ancient Egyptian sources. <a href="https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/funerary-beliefs-of-the-ancient-egyptians/">The Egyptian dead</a> were thought capable of helping the living with everything from earthly problems, such as illness, to supernatural issues, such as a safe transition to the afterlife. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556054/original/file-20231026-17-lfr63b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556054/original/file-20231026-17-lfr63b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556054/original/file-20231026-17-lfr63b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556054/original/file-20231026-17-lfr63b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556054/original/file-20231026-17-lfr63b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=408&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556054/original/file-20231026-17-lfr63b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556054/original/file-20231026-17-lfr63b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556054/original/file-20231026-17-lfr63b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Egyption dead were thought capable of helping the living with everything from earthly problems to supernatural issues. (Image: The Egyptian Book of the Dead.)</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Book_of_the_dead_egypt.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Returning from the dead</h2>
<p>Once they were in the afterlife, the dead would <a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-journeys-to-the-underworld-greek-myth-film-and-american-anxiety-82919">journey to the underworld</a> – but this was not necessarily a one-way trip. Behaviours in the upper world, such as mourning rites, had significant consequences for those below. Ghosts and demons were thought capable of periodically rising – and haunting or otherwise interfering with living mortals. </p>
<p>The most famous return from the underworld in Mesopotamian literature occurs in the myth, Ishtar’s Descent to the Underworld. In this myth, the powerful Mesopotamian <a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-legend-of-ishtar-first-goddess-of-love-and-war-78468">goddess of love and war, Ishtar</a>, journeys to the underworld and attempts to overthrow its ruler, <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Ereshkigal/">Ereshkigal</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556036/original/file-20231026-21-7kl3gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556036/original/file-20231026-21-7kl3gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/556036/original/file-20231026-21-7kl3gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=951&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556036/original/file-20231026-21-7kl3gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=951&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556036/original/file-20231026-21-7kl3gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=951&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556036/original/file-20231026-21-7kl3gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1195&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556036/original/file-20231026-21-7kl3gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1195&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/556036/original/file-20231026-21-7kl3gu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1195&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ishtar on a vase held at Louvre.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ishtar_inanna_BaU_vase_Louvre_AO17000-detail.jpg">Marie-Lan Nguyen/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ishtar is killed by Ereshkigal, but revived through the help of the god of wisdom. She returns to the upper world, and sends her husband, Tammuz, down to the underworld in her place. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/61324123/Zgoll_A_2020_Condensation_of_Myths_A_hermeneutic_key_to_a_myth_about_Innana_and_the_Instruments_of_Power_me_incorporated_in_the_epic_angalta_in_W_Sommerfeld_Hg_Dealing_with_Antiquity_Past_Present_and_Future_AOAT_460_M%C3%BCnster_427_447">Myth scholar Annette Zgoll has argued</a> that the story shows Ishtar bringing the powers of the underworld back with her, making a return from the afterlife possible.</p>
<p>Ishtar is not the only figure from Mesopotamian myth who is connected to the journey between our world and the underworld. The <a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-epic-of-gilgamesh-73444">world’s first epic hero, Gilgamesh</a>, becomes a funerary god after his death. </p>
<p>As a judge of the underworld, Gilgamesh played a critical role in maintaining positive relationships between the living and the dead. </p>
<p>In ritual poetry directed towards family ghosts, Gilgamesh is asked to intervene between a living person and their deceased ancestor. Gilgamesh’s authority over the dead meant his permission allowed deceased ancestors to receive offerings made to them. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-epic-of-gilgamesh-73444">Guide to the classics: the Epic of Gilgamesh</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Who ya gonna call?</h2>
<p>The activities of ghosts in Mesopotamia could also be influenced by human religious specialists. Necromancers could summon ghosts and speak to them – as in Evil Dead’s Necronomicon Ex-Mortis. </p>
<p>Professional necromancers could perform a range of ghost-related functions, such as answering questions from the living, assisting with purification, or performing black magic. </p>
<p>The close bonds between loved ones in ancient Mesopotamia continued after death. Maintaining these ties was thought to enable mutually beneficial relationships between the living and the dead. But neglected spirits were thought to haunt the living and create mischief. </p>
<p>Indeed, there was an element of danger to neglecting the dead: ghosts could possibly turn into <a href="https://www.getty.edu/news/meet-the-mesopotamian-demons/">demons</a>, which might return to terrify the living if they were disturbed or improperly buried. </p>
<p>At Halloween, it’s natural to be afraid of apparitions and otherworldly creatures. But exploring their origins in the ancient world may make them seem less haunting – and perhaps, more human.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216274/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Pryke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Some of popular culture’s most famous ghosts and demons have roots in ancient Mesopotamia. What did ancient humans believe about the supernatural? And what stories did they tell?
Louise Pryke, Honorary Research Associate, University of Sydney
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/204751
2023-07-04T20:07:54Z
2023-07-04T20:07:54Z
‘I gave birth but did not bring a child to life’: for millenia, women expressed their pain through a belief in demonic, female monsters
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534238/original/file-20230627-15-7mwt03.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=49%2C32%2C2643%2C2680&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An incantation bowl with an Aramaic inscription around a demon from Nippur, Mesopotamia.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Sarah Clegg’s <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/75367019-woman-s-lore">Woman’s Lore: 4,000 Years of Sirens, Serpents and Succubi</a> is about ancient demonic figures, expressly the infamous child-killing monsters of the Near East and Mediterranean. Intimately tied to childbirth and infant and child mortality, such monsters were female in form. </p>
<p>Often, they were negatively connected to female sexuality. Chronicled over centuries, monsters such as the Mesopotamian <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lamashtu">Lamashtu</a>, the Greek <a href="https://www.theoi.com/Ther/Lamia.html">Lamia</a>, and the Hebrew (and Mesopotamian) <a href="https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lilith">Lilith</a> are, in Clegg’s thesis, a significant part of women’s lore, “a tradition kept alive by women, that tells the story of women’s lives, from 2000 BC to the present day”.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Review: Woman’s Lore: 4,000 Years of Sirens, Serpents and Succubi – Sarah Clegg (Bloomsbury)</em></p>
<hr>
<p>Clegg begins with Lamashtu. Born of divine parents but quickly disowned because of her inherently evil nature, Lamashtu was the subject of curses written on clay tablets designed to drive her away from vulnerable mothers and children.</p>
<p>Included in the spells are some spectacularly graphic descriptions of her, such as the excerpt below, which comes from one of the oldest extant incantations (c. 1800 BCE):</p>
<blockquote>
<p>She has hardly any palms but very long fingers <br> </p>
<p>And very long claws.<br></p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529026/original/file-20230530-21-d332p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529026/original/file-20230530-21-d332p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529026/original/file-20230530-21-d332p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=773&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529026/original/file-20230530-21-d332p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=773&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529026/original/file-20230530-21-d332p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=773&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529026/original/file-20230530-21-d332p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=972&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529026/original/file-20230530-21-d332p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=972&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529026/original/file-20230530-21-d332p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=972&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Amulet with a Lamashtu demon ca. early 1st millennium BCE.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Met, Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The spell describes her as having the face of a dog, and as slithering along “like a snake”. This physiognomy made Lamashtu perfectly designed to wreak havoc on her intended victims; her long fingers and claws were used to tear at babies’ stomachs to generate infection and to reach into mothers’ wombs and cause premature birth and miscarriage. </p>
<p>Belief in this figure of abjection and fear extended beyond Mesopotamia and there was a robust trade in amulets made of diverse materials, reflecting a belief in Lamashtu across different socio-economic groups. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530004/original/file-20230605-230495-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530004/original/file-20230605-230495-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530004/original/file-20230605-230495-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530004/original/file-20230605-230495-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530004/original/file-20230605-230495-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=900&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530004/original/file-20230605-230495-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530004/original/file-20230605-230495-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530004/original/file-20230605-230495-f1rer4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1131&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A plaque used for protection against Lamashtu. Neo-Assyrian, 10th-7th century BCE.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">World History Encyclopedia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Lamashtu’s body was subject to change, depending on the source. <a href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/image/32627001">Clegg includes an amulet</a>, from 800–500 BCE, which depicts her with the head of a lion (a traditionally male symbol in Mesopotamian culture), clutching snakes and suckling animals. </p>
<p>She has bird talons for feet and stands atop a donkey (this donkey, it was hoped, would carry Lamashtu to the Netherworld and away from her victims). </p>
<p>Her embodiment as the antithesis of the archetypal mother is evident in her suckling animals, a dog and a pig, in a parody of the maternal figure who nurtures human babies.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hidden-women-of-history-enheduanna-princess-priestess-and-the-worlds-first-known-author-109185">Hidden women of history: Enheduanna, princess, priestess and the world's first known author</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Beauties and demons</h2>
<p>The ancient Greeks and Romans had their own equivalent to Lamashtu: Lamia, “a direct descendent of the Mesopotamian child-and mother-killing demon” (Clegg notes the etymological connection between the names Lamashtu and Lamia).</p>
<p>Lamia was also a seducer of young men – a skill she managed by concealing her monstrously snaky lower body parts. She also ate babies and children and, like other Mediterranean monsters, such as <a href="https://www.ancientgreecereloaded.com/files/ancient_greece_reloaded_website/legendary_monsters/mormo.php">Mormo</a> and <a href="https://www.theoi.com/Phasma/Empousai.html">Empousa</a>, was a shapeshifter. </p>
<p>Mythologies surrounding the origins of Lamia are redolent with themes of female loss and pain. In one version of how Lamia came into being, Durius of Samos, writing in the third century BCE, explains:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Lamia was a beautiful woman in Libya. Zeus had sex with her. Because of Hera’s envy towards her she destroyed the children she bore. Consequently she became misshapen through grief, snatched other people’s children and killed them.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530003/original/file-20230605-229680-8wjczk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530003/original/file-20230605-229680-8wjczk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530003/original/file-20230605-229680-8wjczk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530003/original/file-20230605-229680-8wjczk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530003/original/file-20230605-229680-8wjczk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530003/original/file-20230605-229680-8wjczk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1212&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530003/original/file-20230605-229680-8wjczk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1212&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530003/original/file-20230605-229680-8wjczk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1212&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lamia, oil on canvas by John William Waterhouse, 1909, based on the Keats poem Lamia from 1820.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While other accounts have Lamia as a fearsome and destructive monster from the start, Durius’ story highlights the vulnerability of women as subject to rape and subsequent punishment. Such plot lines are common in Greek and Roman myths, pointing to the casualisation of rape in certain socio-political circumstances. </p>
<p>Clegg’s first two chapters on these creatures examine women’s lore through the monstrous feminine. And, along the way, her book provides a host of related cultural history on magic, ritual, and ghost traditions, offering a series of poignant insights into women’s lives in these ancient societies. An excerpt from an incantation against Lamashtu composed for a woman to recite, reads: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>I was pregnant, but unable to bring my child to term; I gave birth but did not bring a child to life. May a woman who can grant success release me […] may I have a straightforward pregnancy […]</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Herein is the pain of a woman who did not carry her baby to term, the grief of still birth, and the desperation to bear a healthy child. </p>
<p>Such insights into women’s lived experiences are also evident in the category of demons called the Lilitus, whom, Mespotamians believed were “the spirits of young girls who had died still virgins, before marriage and before children”. </p>
<p>Robbed of a future, the Lilitus were forever seeking to fulfil sexual initiation or male contact, driving them to visit sleeping men. These visits were the Mesopotamian aetiology for wet dreams and night discharge. Clegg regards Lilitus as more to be pitied than hated, citing an incantation:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>She [a Lilitu] is a woman who has never seen a city feast, nor ever raises her eyes, who never rejoiced with the other girls, who was snatched away from her spouse, who had no spouse, nor bore a son.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-ovids-metamorphoses-and-reading-rape-65316">Guide to the classics: Ovid's Metamorphoses and reading rape</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Feisty Lilith</h2>
<p>Clegg’s book is divided into nine chapters, each covering a specific culture and demon or selection of demons (with some, such as Lilith, the first wife of Adam in Jewish folklore, occupying several chapters). There is also a useful timeline for readers without detailed knowledge of the chronology and a fascinating epilogue on contemporary remnants of these beliefs. </p>
<p>Judaic Lilith, like her sister-demons, has an aetiology that helps us understand her, albeit with a sense of fear or anxiety. As Clegg discusses, Lilith – as a prototypical feminist of sorts – flees the Garden of Eden when her husband denies her equality (in short: he refuses to let her “on top” during sex). </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529025/original/file-20230530-21-a8jbqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529025/original/file-20230530-21-a8jbqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/529025/original/file-20230530-21-a8jbqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529025/original/file-20230530-21-a8jbqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529025/original/file-20230530-21-a8jbqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=695&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529025/original/file-20230530-21-a8jbqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=873&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529025/original/file-20230530-21-a8jbqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=873&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/529025/original/file-20230530-21-a8jbqg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=873&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lady Lilith, by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, 1886.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>She wreaks her revenge by hanging outside the walls of Eden, attacking pregnant women and children, and – no surprise – seducing men. </p>
<p>This manifestation of Lilith, its first extant documentation appearing in the <a href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/alphabet-of-ben-sira">Alphabet of Ben Sira</a> (c. ninth or 10th century CE), intricately associates her with Eve as a kind of oppositional paradigm. While the feisty Lilith refuses to submit to patriarchy, a submissive Eve accepts the order of things. </p>
<p>In the <a href="https://reformjudaism.org/beliefs-practices/spirituality/what-kabbalah">Kabbalistic</a> tradition as it developed in the early modern era (c. 13th century) as illustrated in <a href="http://jewishchristianlit.com/Topics/Lilith/jacob_ha_kohen.html">The Treatise on the Left Emanation</a>, Lilith is permitted to justify her protest:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I cannot return because of what is said in the Torah – ‘Her former husband who sent her away, may not take her again to be his wife, after that she is defiled,’ that is, when he was not the last to sleep with her. And the Great Demon has already slept with me.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Herein, Lilith is given a voice and tells us that she did not, in fact, flee but was sent away by Adam. Additionally, once banished, a woman can never return. But, then again, who can trust the words of a demon?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534239/original/file-20230627-17-e69g5c.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534239/original/file-20230627-17-e69g5c.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/534239/original/file-20230627-17-e69g5c.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534239/original/file-20230627-17-e69g5c.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534239/original/file-20230627-17-e69g5c.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534239/original/file-20230627-17-e69g5c.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534239/original/file-20230627-17-e69g5c.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/534239/original/file-20230627-17-e69g5c.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Adam clutches a child in the presence of the child-snatcher Lilith. Fresco by Filippino Lippi, basilica of Santa Maria Novella, Florence.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Enduring spells</h2>
<p>Clegg also discusses the ancient Greek demon, <a href="https://www.hellenicaworld.com/Greece/Mythology/en/Gello.html">Gello</a> who is, like the Lilitus, “a jealous ghost who murdered children and young women”. Traditionally associated with old wives’ tales – nursery stories to frighten and thereby control naughty children – Gello was the ghost of a young virgin who had died before fulfilling her social role of wife and mother. As a cultural signifier, Clegg explains:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Gello, then, was a prematurely dead girl causing the premature deaths of other girls; a hideous, warped form of reproduction, whereby instead of having the children she so wanted, Gello turned other hopeful young girls into thwarted, jealous monsters like herself.</p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530013/original/file-20230605-23-441g2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530013/original/file-20230605-23-441g2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530013/original/file-20230605-23-441g2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=919&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530013/original/file-20230605-23-441g2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=919&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530013/original/file-20230605-23-441g2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=919&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530013/original/file-20230605-23-441g2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1155&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530013/original/file-20230605-23-441g2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1155&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530013/original/file-20230605-23-441g2k.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1155&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>By the <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-middle-east/byzantine-empire">Byzantine era</a>, however, scepticism grew as to the existence of such beings. Church law, writes Clegg, insisted that these monsters were “a deception of the devil, and not to be believed”. Nevertheless, Clegg notes, these traditions continued, often among women, who continued to believe in the effectiveness of magic for protection against such forces. </p>
<p>Like the curse tablets designed to drive away Lamashtu and the amulets made to protect individuals from her, there were also <a href="https://thegemara.com/article/naming-demons-the-aramaic-incantation-bowls-and-gittin/">demon (or incantation) bowls</a>, used in Upper Mesopotamia and Syria from the sixth to the eighth centuries CE. These earthenware bowls were inscribed with spells (mostly in Jewish-Aramaic) and magical images, such as crudely drawn pictures of the target of the spell, including Lilith. </p>
<p>They were designed to entice and then trap evil forces, and thus rid the bowl’s owner of danger, especially disease. </p>
<p>While magic was largely practised by men throughout the ancient Near East and the Mediterranean, Clegg includes several examples of women inscribing their own demon bowls.</p>
<p>For example, there is a cache of bowls written by the same woman, Giyonay (otherwise unknown). Giyonay writes one bowl spell to drive Lilith away from her husband and herself and others to protect members of her family. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527754/original/file-20230523-15-7o5vwy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527754/original/file-20230523-15-7o5vwy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=284&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527754/original/file-20230523-15-7o5vwy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=284&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527754/original/file-20230523-15-7o5vwy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=284&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527754/original/file-20230523-15-7o5vwy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527754/original/file-20230523-15-7o5vwy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527754/original/file-20230523-15-7o5vwy.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=357&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Demon bowl.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">British Museum no. BM 135563</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Melusine and contemporary incarnations</h2>
<p>Clegg also examines mermaids, particularly in Medieval traditions, tracking their connections to earlier demons, such as the Lamia who, as Clegg notes, were believed to swim the waters of the Greek islands until the 1980s. </p>
<p>We also meet Melusine, a beautiful, serpentine female from Europe (particularly France, Luxembourg, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/summary/Low-Countries">Low Countries</a>). Clegg suggests that she is also a successor to Mediterranean and Eastern demons, including Byzantine fantasies of Gello possessing a snake-tail. She is, however, more akin to the fairy or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy">fae</a> creatures of Europe and Britain (which Clegg does concede).</p>
<p>Melusine’s backstory reads like a classic fairy tale, complete with feminine deception and a narrative taboo. Told by <a href="https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/miniature-of-an-aristocratic-marriage-from-jean-darrass-roman-de-melusine">Jean d’Arras</a> in <em>Roman de Mélusine</em> (The Story of Melusine) in the 14th century, it chronicles Melusine’s marriage to the mortal, Raymond. Like most marriages between mortals and non-mortals, Melusine and Raymond’s union ends in tears. While the couple are initially happy, their marital bliss ends when Raymond breaks the one taboo that Melusine insists on: not to enter her chambers on a Saturday.</p>
<p>The act, which reveals Melusine in her true form as she enjoys a bath, sets in chain a series of disasters, culminating in Raymond cursing her – at which point she transforms into a dragon and flies away forever. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530006/original/file-20230605-188678-2owrp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530006/original/file-20230605-188678-2owrp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530006/original/file-20230605-188678-2owrp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530006/original/file-20230605-188678-2owrp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530006/original/file-20230605-188678-2owrp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=302&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530006/original/file-20230605-188678-2owrp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530006/original/file-20230605-188678-2owrp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530006/original/file-20230605-188678-2owrp4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Melusine’s secret discovered, illustration from folio 19 of the illuminated manuscript of The Romance of Melusine by Jean d'Arras, 15th century.
Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While Melusine may be a monster, Clegg points out the positive aspects of her, including the cultural capital she brings to the mortal family tied to her. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>A child or a descendent of these fairy marriages was viewed as something to be proud of: a sign of greatness much like being a child or descendent of a god in ancient Greece or Rome. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Additionally, Melusine builds, albeit by magic, some pretty impressive infrastructure for her husband, including – or so the story goes – the very real, <a href="https://www.frenchchateau.net/chateaux-of-poitou-charentes/chateau-de-lusignan.html">Château de Lusignan</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530010/original/file-20230605-27-kpv71o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530010/original/file-20230605-27-kpv71o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530010/original/file-20230605-27-kpv71o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530010/original/file-20230605-27-kpv71o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530010/original/file-20230605-27-kpv71o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=784&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530010/original/file-20230605-27-kpv71o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530010/original/file-20230605-27-kpv71o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530010/original/file-20230605-27-kpv71o.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=986&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Clegg’s final chapters deal with later receptions of these terrifying, seductive, bewitching, destructive and ultimately intriguing female monsters. </p>
<p>In chapter nine the reader meets some of these creatures in contemporary guises. Herein, Lilith dominates. We meet her as a symbol of second wave feminism through to the latest manifestations of the same and also an icon of modern spiritual worship. We read of the origins of the Australian feminist research journal, <a href="http://www.auswhn.org.au/lilith/">Lilith</a>, and the appropriation of the demon by <a href="https://www.octaviabutler.com/">Octavia E. Butler</a> in her <a href="https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Literature/LilithsBrood">Lilith’s Brood</a> trilogy.</p>
<p>Clegg also includes a revisioning of the tricksy Melusine, transformed in Serge Ecker’s 2013 statue, erected in Luxembourg for the city’s 1050th anniversary.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530008/original/file-20230605-236601-g6p816.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530008/original/file-20230605-236601-g6p816.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/530008/original/file-20230605-236601-g6p816.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530008/original/file-20230605-236601-g6p816.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530008/original/file-20230605-236601-g6p816.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530008/original/file-20230605-236601-g6p816.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530008/original/file-20230605-236601-g6p816.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/530008/original/file-20230605-236601-g6p816.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A modern statue of Melusine by Serge Ecker in Luxembourg.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">World History Encyclopedia</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As Clegg rightly observes, these ancient figures: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>have proven enormously adaptable to women’s causes – symbolizing everything from the need to leave home and husband to find equality to sexual freedom and LGBTQ rights.</p>
</blockquote><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204751/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marguerite Johnson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
From snake-like creatures with claws to jealous virgin ghosts, female monsters have long been a part of women’s lore. Such figures were Intimately tied to childbirth, sexuality and child mortality.
Marguerite Johnson, The University of Queensland
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/205091
2023-05-25T07:37:48Z
2023-05-25T07:37:48Z
AI is helping us read ancient Mesopotamian literature
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527723/original/file-20230523-21-kktgwf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C3%2C2544%2C1701&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tablet V of the Epic of Gilgamesh located in the The Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraq.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Newly_Discovered_Tablet_V_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh,_The_Sulaymaniyah_Museum,_Iraq.jpg">Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><blockquote>
<p>[… who s]aw the Deep, […] the country,</p>
<p>[who] knew […], […] all […]</p>
<p>[… who] saw the Deep, […] the country,</p>
<p>[who] knew […], […] all […]</p>
</blockquote>
<p>This first quote represents the beginning of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-epic-of-gilgamesh-73444">Epic of Gilgamesh</a> <a href="https://archive.org/details/izdubarnimrodein00jere/page/14/mode/2up">as known from the 19th century onwards</a>. The following one shows the text fully restored, in the form it achieved over 100 years later, <a href="https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/5654/">when a new fragment of it was published in 2007</a>. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>He who saw the Deep, the foundation of the country,</p>
<p>who knew the proper ways, was wise in all matters!</p>
<p>Gilgamesh, who saw the Deep, the foundation of the country,</p>
<p>who knew the proper ways, was wise in all matters!</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Throughout the twentieth century, only the fragmentary version of the prologue of the epic was known. Generations of readers, when first confronted with the foremost classic of ancient Mesopotamian literature, experienced the frustration of reading a fragmentary text, of being allowed only a latticed glimpse into the world of the Babylonians. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527722/original/file-20230523-27-w0efx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A cuneiform tablet, broken and rejoined." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527722/original/file-20230523-27-w0efx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527722/original/file-20230523-27-w0efx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527722/original/file-20230523-27-w0efx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527722/original/file-20230523-27-w0efx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=902&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527722/original/file-20230523-27-w0efx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1134&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527722/original/file-20230523-27-w0efx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1134&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527722/original/file-20230523-27-w0efx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1134&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Manuscript NipNB1 (IM.77087) of Advice to a Prince (Photograph by Anmar A. Fadhil, by permission of the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage and The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.ebl.lmu.de/corpus/L/2/5">Electronic Babylonian Library</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The original text was written in cuneiform, the most widespread and historically significant writing system in the ancient Middle East. Its name comes from the wedge-shaped impressions (in Latin, <em>cuneus</em>) that form its signs.</p>
<p>Regarding the impossibilty of reading the whole poem, a cuneiformist <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/zava.1934.42.1-4.92">expressed in frustration</a>: “The opening lines of the Epic of Gilgamesh, unfortunately, still cannot be completely read without making ample use of the imagination”. </p>
<p>This frustration is, even today, every cuneiformist’s bread and butter, <a href="https://fu-berlin.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/49KOBV_FUB/icublf/alma990046595170402883">often experienced</a> “when one struggles with a fragmentary text in the Students’ Room of the British Museum and suspects with more or less reason that unidentified pieces are lying in drawers just a few meters away”. Enter the <a href="https://www.ebl.lmu.de/">Electronic Babylonian Library Platform</a> (eBL).</p>
<h2>Reaching to Babylonian literature</h2>
<p>The primary objective of the eBL project is to advance the understanding of Babylonian literature by reconstructing it to the fullest extent possible. Additionally, the project aims to provide a user-friendly platform containing extensive transliterations of cuneiform tablet fragments, along with a robust search tool, to address the abiding problem of the fragmented nature of Mesopotamian literature.</p>
<p>The backbone of the project is the <a href="https://www.ebl.lmu.de/fragmentarium">Fragmentarium</a>, which digitally brings together transliterations of fragments of cuneiform tablets. These cuneiform tablets were mostly excavated in the 19th century, and have been stored in the drawers of various museums since. </p>
<p>In particular, the British Museum holds hundreds of thousands of cuneiform tablets, many of which have not been read since antiquity. Our collaboration with the British Museum has digitised tens of thousands of these tablets, and transliterated them in the Fragmentarium.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527698/original/file-20230523-19-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C8%2C5473%2C4014&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Reconstruction of two examples of tablet fragments." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527698/original/file-20230523-19-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C8%2C5473%2C4014&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527698/original/file-20230523-19-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527698/original/file-20230523-19-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527698/original/file-20230523-19-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527698/original/file-20230523-19-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527698/original/file-20230523-19-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527698/original/file-20230523-19-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Reconstruction of the manuscript K.4981+ from nine discrete fragments previously transliterated in the Fragmentarium.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>If the Fragmentarium is the backbone of the project, its showcase is the <a href="https://www.ebl.lmu.de/corpus">eBL Corpus</a>. The corpus is conceived to contain editions of all “classics” of Babylonian literature copied during the first millennium BCE, from the <a href="https://www.ebl.lmu.de/corpus/L/1/2">Epic of Creation</a> to the <a href="https://www.ebl.lmu.de/corpus/L/2/2">Poem of the Righteous Sufferer</a>.</p>
<p>The eBL editions use many previously unpublished or unedited fragments, often identified by the members of the project, and thus represent cutting-edge versions of the texts.</p>
<h2>Relating the databases</h2>
<p>The main problem we face is getting these two large textual databases (Fragmentarium and Corpus) to talk to each other. The literature from ancient Mesopotamia is still riddled with textual gaps, and the identification of fragments to fill these gaps has traditionally been slow and laborious due to the ambiguities of cuneiform script. </p>
<p>Indeed, cuneiform writing knows no orthography. There is no single, standard way of writing a word. Scribes, when copying traditional texts, would adapt them to their specific dialects or spelling preferences. Consequently, the task of fragment identification becomes challenging, as the signs present in one fragment may differ from those found in another.</p>
<p>As is the case in many ancient and modern writing systems, the same cuneiform character can represent multiple phonetic readings and whole words. When there is sufficient context, then multiple meaning is not a problem: usually there is only one correct reading for each sign. </p>
<p>In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240511">recent project</a>, we trained an AI model with a relatively small corpus (less than 20,000 lines) and without using a sign list, to make this multiple meaning clear… The computer achieved a success rate of 98%. </p>
<p>With isolated fragments, however, there is no correct reading of a character. The reading only becomes possible if one identifies where the fragment comes from.</p>
<p>Also, we do not have a single complete cuneiform tablet from which to reconstruct the beginning of a work like Gilgamesh. Instead, we possess a multitude of manuscripts, some of which overlap. Typically, only a few fragments of each manuscript survive. </p>
<p>The key to identifying additional pieces, and thus to advancing the reconstruction, lies in discovering overlaps between fragments, which will, in turn, enable the discovery of further overlaps with other fragments, and so on.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527721/original/file-20230523-27-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A white screen with two columns of writings, one incomplete and one complete" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527721/original/file-20230523-27-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527721/original/file-20230523-27-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=165&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527721/original/file-20230523-27-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=165&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527721/original/file-20230523-27-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=165&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527721/original/file-20230523-27-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=207&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527721/original/file-20230523-27-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=207&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527721/original/file-20230523-27-pw88dq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=207&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The edition of Gilgamesh I on eBL platform. George, A. R. (2022). Poem of Gilgameš Chapter Standard Babylonian I. With contributions by E. Jiménez and G. Rozzi. Translated by Andrew R.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.ebl.lmu.de/corpus/L/1/4/SB/I">Electronic Babylonian Library</a>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Words as our historical DNA</h2>
<p>Interestingly, the substitutions encountered in cuneiform texts bear resemblance to genetic variations found in DNA. Taking into account such variations is a central concern in bioinformatics, which has lead to the development of numerous sequence alignment algorithms.</p>
<p>The eBL project has implemented similar string alignment algorithm specifically tailored for cuneiform, facilitating the identification process and significantly speeding up progress.</p>
<p>Using this algorithm, and the various other utilities that the eBL project has made available to researchers, the team dedicated to it at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich has succeeded in identifying thousands of new fragments and significantly advanced the reconstruction of Babylonian literature. </p>
<p>If the 150 years of existence of Assyriology prior to the project found 5,000 cuneiform pieces that could be joined to already known pieces, the five years of the eBL project have added another 1,500 to the tally, and several thousand that cannot be joined directly. </p>
<p>The pace is only accelerating, and it is hoped that following the publication of the electronic Babylonian Library portal in February, other researchers and amateurs will use these tools to reconstruct partly lost ancient texts.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The eBL Project, initiated in April 2018 at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, is funded with a Sofja Kovalevskaja Award of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205091/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Enrique Jiménez recibe fondos de Humboldt Stiftung.</span></em></p>
Generations of readers have experienced the frustration of reading fragments when trying to access classics of ancient Mesopotamian literature.
Enrique Jiménez, Chair of Ancient Near Eastern Literatures, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/183604
2022-05-26T18:07:37Z
2022-05-26T18:07:37Z
Rivers can suddenly change course – scientists used 50 years of satellite images to learn where and how it happens
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465160/original/file-20220524-11-8sp9rh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C4%2C3000%2C2380&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Satellite image of the Irrawaddy River delta in Myanmar, a major rice growing area.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://flic.kr/p/VUwQed">European Space Agency</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Throughout history, important cities around the world have flourished along river banks. But rivers can also be destructive forces. They routinely flood, and on rare occasions, they can abruptly shift pathways. </p>
<p>These “channel-jumping” events, which are called avulsions, have caused some of the deadliest floods in human history. Avulsions on China’s Yellow River killed <a href="https://hakaimagazine.com/news/suddenly-river-runs-through-it/">over 6 million people</a> in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Similar events have been linked to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/gea.20057">decline of Mesopotamian civilization</a> along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey and Syria.</p>
<p>In a <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm1215">2022 published study</a>, I worked with colleagues to map the global distribution of avulsions on river fans and deltas. We used satellite images of over 100 rivers from 1973 to the present, providing a half-century of bird’s-eye views of global river evolution. </p>
<p>We discovered 113 river avulsion events in temperate, tropical and dry climates. Of these events, 33 were on <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/alluvial-fan/">alluvial fans</a>. These land forms develop when rivers flow out of mountains or canyons onto an open plain or into the ocean and spread out, depositing dirt and gravel in a triangle-shaped area. </p>
<p>The other 80 events occurred on <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/delta/">river deltas</a> – fertile, low-lying regions where slower-moving rivers branch into many channels that empty into lakes or the ocean, creating networks of wetlands. We used this novel data set to answer a simple question: What determines where avulsions happen? </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/H-f49djgg9s?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The Mississippi River has changed course repeatedly over the past 7,000 years, depositing sediment that created much of the land of southern Louisiana.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Water seeks the lowest path</h2>
<p>Avulsions occur because of sediment deposition. Over time, rivers deposit sediment at the avulsion site, choking up the river with sediment. Water always flows downhill, so as its current course becomes increasingly blocked, it eventually jumps to a new location. </p>
<p>Much like earthquakes, river avulsions happen periodically in the same places. They disperse sediment and water across the rivers’ flood plains, producing these formations’ characteristic triangular shape. </p>
<p>One recent example occurred in 2008, when the Kosi River in India <a href="https://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/anatomy-flood-case-kosi-2008">shifted its course</a> by over 60 miles (100 kilometers) in a matter of days, displacing over 3 million people. </p>
<p>In the U.S., the Mississippi River has <a href="https://www.nps.gov/vick/learn/nature/river-course-changes.htm">changed course many times</a> over the past 7,000 years. Today, a multi-dam <a href="https://www.katc.com/news/louisiana-flooding/2019/06/05/how-the-old-river-control-structure-tames-the-might-mississippi/">control structure</a> in central Louisiana keeps it from jumping its banks and joining with the Atchafalaya River, but scientists have warned that a mega-flood could <a href="https://www.nola.com/news/environment/article_dc220244-81cf-560a-bee3-3d5ed2d5e8ef.html">overwhelm these barriers</a>, causing widespread economic damage across southern Louisiana. </p>
<p>A river may not change course more than once over many decades, or even centuries. Scientists’ understanding of where these events occur is poor, and rests largely on a handful of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/2014GL061918">detailed observations on large deltas</a>, plus laboratory and computer models. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DZ6vr9IWjCg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">In this lab experiment, a river delta is built through repeated avulsions. As the river emerges from the canyon (left side), it slows and deposits sediment. When the river’s path becomes blocked, it changes course and drops sediment in new areas, creating a fan-shaped delta over time.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Three kinds of avulsions</h2>
<p>Our global database revealed three distinct types of avulsions. First, the 33 avulsions on alluvial fans occurred when the rivers exited canyons. Once the rivers no longer flowed through confined valleys, they were able to spill over to one side or another toward the lowest ground.</p>
<p>The 80 avulsions that happened on deltas were influenced by forces in their backwaters. A river’s backwater is the zone where the speed of the current is affected by the presence of the ocean or lake at the river’s end. In this zone, the river current either slows down or speeds up in response to changing flood conditions. Scientists can estimate the backwater length from the size and slope of the river. </p>
<p>For example, the Mississippi River has a backwater length of nearly 300 miles (480 kilometers), which means that the speed of its flow is affected by the Gulf of Mexico all the way to a point north of Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Steeper rivers can have a backwater length scale as short as 0.6 miles (1 kilometer). </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465165/original/file-20220524-22-2k506t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two rivers converge with dams separating them." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465165/original/file-20220524-22-2k506t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465165/original/file-20220524-22-2k506t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465165/original/file-20220524-22-2k506t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465165/original/file-20220524-22-2k506t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465165/original/file-20220524-22-2k506t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465165/original/file-20220524-22-2k506t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465165/original/file-20220524-22-2k506t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Old River Control Structure complex in central Louisiana was built to keep the Mississippi River (left) from diverting into the Atchafalaya River, which runs off to the bottom right. Three dams allow 30% of the Mississippi’s flow to spill into the Atchafalaya and keep the rest flowing down the Mississippi’s current course (lower left to upper right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_River_Control_Structure#/media/File:Old_River_Control_Structure_Complex.jpg">US Army Corps of Engineers/Wikipedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When a river is flowing normally, it slows down in its backwater stretch and drops sediment onto the riverbed. However, when floods occur, the larger volume of faster-moving water erodes the riverbed. </p>
<p>This effect starts at the river’s mouth and moves upstream, in the opposite direction from the water’s flow, erasing some of the sedimentation that has built up prior to the flood. Ultimately, this interplay between sedimentation and erosion causes the river to choke up with sediment at a location that roughly coincides with the backwater length. </p>
<p>Our database showed that 50 of the 80 avulsion events that occurred on deltas happened approximately at the backwater length. For example, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Catatumbo-River">Catatumbo River</a> in South America changed course in 1982 about 6.5 miles (10.5 kilometers) inland from the point where it flows into Venezuela’s Lake Maracaibo – close to its backwater length, which is 8.5 miles (13.7 kilometers). </p>
<h2>Some rivers can change course far upstream</h2>
<p>However, we also discovered a new class of avulsions on deltas that did not reflect either valley confinement or the backwater length. These rivers changed course far upstream from the point where they were affected by the lakes or oceans at their mouths. </p>
<p>These deltas were either on steep tropical islands like Madagascar and Papua New Guinea or in desert environments such as Eritrea. In these places, rivers carry exceptionally large quantities of sediment during floods.</p>
<p>When the rivers flood, they erode their beds starting at their mouths and working backward far upriver, similar to large rivers like the Mississippi. However, the combination of long typical flood durations and exceptionally high sediment loads during floods enables the erosion to progress far upstream. As a result, these rivers can change course well above the backwater zone where avulsions happen in large coastal rivers. </p>
<h2>More water, more sediment</h2>
<p>Our description of these three types of avulsions provides the first framework for predicting where rivers will change course on fans and deltas worldwide. These findings have crucial implications, especially for river deltas, which are home to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18531-4">some 340 million people around the world</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465369/original/file-20220525-18-ybplza.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Photo showing the Nile and its delta brightly lit at night." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465369/original/file-20220525-18-ybplza.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/465369/original/file-20220525-18-ybplza.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465369/original/file-20220525-18-ybplza.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465369/original/file-20220525-18-ybplza.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465369/original/file-20220525-18-ybplza.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465369/original/file-20220525-18-ybplza.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/465369/original/file-20220525-18-ybplza.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An aerial view of the Nile River delta at night from the International Space Station. Metropolitan Cairo is the bright area at the base of the fan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/images/537063main_nileatnight_full.jpg">NASA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most deltas are only a few feet above sea level, and some are very densely populated, such as the Mekong and Ganges-Brahmaputra deltas. Our results show that avulsion sites on deltas can move from their historic locations to new areas. Rapid sea level rise can move avulsion sites inland on deltas, exposing new communities to catastrophic flood risks. </p>
<p>We also found that rivers in our second group – those where avulsions occur in the backwater zone – can shift into the third group, where avulsions happen significantly farther upstream. We find that this can happen if the typical duration of flooding on a river or the river’s sediment supply changes. </p>
<p>Climate change is already <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/2021/08/09/ar6-wg1-20210809-pr/">increasing flooding</a> in many parts of the world and washing more sediments into rivers. Land use changes, such as converting forests to farmlands, also are increasing sediment loads. In my view, it is imperative to understand how such changes can affect dynamic, volatile river systems – and the people who live around them – well into the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/183604/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vamsi Ganti receives funding from the National Science Foundation, and the donors of the American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund. </span></em></p>
Millions of people around the world live on river deltas and are vulnerable when those rivers shift direction. A new study shows why and where these events, called avulsions, happen.
Vamsi Ganti, Assistant Professor of Geography, University of California, Santa Barbara
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/154429
2021-02-04T16:05:38Z
2021-02-04T16:05:38Z
Environmental change may have played a role at the dawn of Egyptian history – here’s how
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/381780/original/file-20210201-23-8r5dc1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A depiction of a man milking a cow found on one of the walls of ancient burial tombs south of present-day Cairo dating from 2340 BC.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Photo by DeAgostini/Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Around 5,000 years ago (<em>c.</em> 3100 BC), what we know today as Ancient Egypt came into existence. A thousand years either side, and other such “primary states” had also arisen across the world, in Mesopotamia, North China, the Indus Valley and other locations. </p>
<p>But why did human social dynamics change so dramatically in such a relatively short space of time? Why did we stop living in smaller communities and come together into cities and “civilisations”?</p>
<p>In trying to answer this perennial question, archaeologists and anthropologists have historically studied the emergence of social stratification, notions of kingship, shifting identities, changing technologies, and much else. However, these studies – while looking in detail at these “human factors” – have arguably overlooked the changing environment within which the people were interacting, just at the crucial juncture. It is almost as if we have been so focused on the “actors” of the narrative, we have missed the “stage.”</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00438243.2020.1864463">research</a> recognises this omission, and has sought to integrate the changing landscapes – the stage – into the discussion, recognising that actors’ choices may be influenced by the theatre or set.</p>
<p>So what did the “stage” look like for the emergence of Ancient Egypt, or indeed any of these other areas in which the first “civilisations” arose?</p>
<p>Perhaps surprisingly, until very recently, we really didn’t know.</p>
<p>To find out, you have to dig. For every metre you drill down into the silts of the Nile Delta, you delve about a thousand years into the past. If you then study the layers of sand and mud at that depth you can begin to piece together a picture of the landscapes from the past.</p>
<p>So, if you drill lots of boreholes all over the delta (2-10m deep), study the layers of sand and mud that come up in each one, you can then produce a whole series of maps showing how the delta as a whole looked at different times.</p>
<p>From various such drilling programmes we are now beginning to understand that in the Nile Delta the landscapes were changing dramatically just as the people here and upstream were beginning to reorganise their social structures. Intriguingly, very <a href="https://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gea.21539">similar environmental changes</a> were also taking place in Mesopotamia and North China (other locations where the world’s first state societies emerged).</p>
<p>Furthermore, these shifts in the landscape were not driven by people, but by an external factor: the slowing-down and stabilisation of post-glacial sea level rise. The “stage” of the theatre upon which the human story played out was indeed evolving by itself, with a natural, inescapable, worldwide driver as the cause.</p>
<h2>Mud to monuments</h2>
<p>But what were these landscape changes? And could they have nudged the “actors” one way or another? Did they contribute in any way to the emergence of Ancient Egypt?</p>
<p>Answering the first question is easy: the environments ultimately became less swampy. As sea-level stabilised, rivers started to behave differently. The landscapes gradually <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S027737911630659X">evolved</a> from a network of small, dynamic streams criss-crossing a vast expanse of marshland into wider, more open, well-drained floodplains.</p>
<p>Answering the other questions – establishing if and how these changes impacted on the trajectory of human history – is much harder.</p>
<p>One way we can attempt this is by studying how people interacted with the environment to source their most basic of needs: food.</p>
<p>If you analyse the environment in this way, it (perhaps counter-intuitively) turns out the earlier, marshy environments were a great place for people to live. There were plenty of very varied food resources in these extraordinarily rich environments. Of course, you couldn’t farm much very easily, but you could happily fish, hunt, keep a few animals and move around in this veritable “Eden” and it would have provided for a large population.</p>
<p>But, as the environment changed – as the “stage” evolved – the Nile Delta gradually became much less rich in these wild food resources. Over a few hundred years we can calculate that the delta would have lost some 45% of its primary productivity (food potential). Each succeeding generation would have had a slightly harder job of supporting itself.</p>
<p>The obvious solution was to increase the takeup of farming. Farming is an extraordinarily efficient invention for maximising the amount of food you can get from a given patch of land. Making the shift would have been easy over a few generations – the inhabitants of the delta were in frequent contact with other societies that were farming wheat, barley, pigs and cattle, and they could have simply copied.</p>
<p>This is exactly what we see in the archaeological record. When we analyse what people were eating in this area between 4000-3000 BC it appears that in the swampy landscapes the inhabitants of the delta fished for their food. In the later landscapes they kept pigs and grew more crops. We can even calculate that this shift would have produced a food surplus.</p>
<p>So it does appear that the landscape changes may have facilitated the inhabitants of the delta farming more through the fourth millennium BC.</p>
<p>But what was special about this? Plenty of societies have taken up farming in a big way over the last ten thousand years, yet “civilisations” did not emerge everywhere.</p>
<p>Perhaps the answer has something to do with the vast size of the Nile Delta, coupled with what was happening upstream. The agricultural potential of the delta was at least 40% larger than the whole of the rest of Egypt (which by this time was a collection of rival “proto-kingdoms”). Any of the local upstream leaders who wanted control over their rivals would have realised that the economic key to power lay in controlling the vast output of the newly agricultural, highly fertile delta, just downstream. The delta’s economic surplus ultimately needed to be brought into the network of a new territorial “state” structure.</p>
<p>Once again, this is what we see in the archaeological record. In a short space of time, around 3100 BC, the delta’s surplus was brought under control of the world’s first “nation state” – perhaps even set up in part for that purpose. Early hieroglyphics from this time record transactions into and out of the state treasury, while the “capital” and royal court were set up at the obvious place – near modern-day Cairo – binding the agricultural powerhouse of the delta with the older centres of culture upstream.</p>
<h2>Parallels</h2>
<p>So it seems that the natural landscape changes in the Nile Delta may have not only helped stimulate local take up of farming technologies, but might also have played a role in the emergence of the first “nation state”. Broadly similar parallels can be tantalisingly drawn up for Mesopotamia and North China – areas with similar geographies, landscape histories, shifts away from fishing and towards farming, and socio-cultural trends.</p>
<p>Whether such trends are evident in these other settings requires more detailed study. But in doing this we must remember not only to focus on the archaeological record of sites and settlements, but also to look at the changing landscapes. History is not complete without geography. There are ultimately no actors without a stage, and when the stage changes, actors may behave differently.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/154429/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Benjamin T Pennington does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Natural landscape changes in the Nile Delta may have not only stimulated local take up of farming technologies, but might also have played a role in the emergence of the first “nation state”.
Benjamin T Pennington, Visiting Fellow in Geoarchaeology, University of Southampton
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/142215
2020-08-24T12:18:31Z
2020-08-24T12:18:31Z
Brewing Mesopotamian beer brings a sip of this vibrant ancient drinking culture back to life
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352345/original/file-20200811-19-11yl8ks.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=65%2C312%2C1353%2C547&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Cylinder seal (left) and modern impression (right) showing two people drinking beer through long straws. Khafajeh, Iraq (Early Dynastic period, c. 2600–2350 B.C.). </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://oi-idb.uchicago.edu/id/61722c88-6efd-4b76-a98f-8bd9acf7b43a">Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It’s been about five months since I set foot in a bar. Like many of you navigating life in a pandemic, I miss bars. I miss the simple pleasure of sharing a beer with friends. And I know I’m not alone. </p>
<p>People have been gathering over a beer for thousands of years. As an <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=usYo1yAAAAAJ">archaeologist</a>, I can tell you <a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520267985/uncorking-the-past">the history of beer</a> stretches deep into the human past – and the history of bars is not far behind.</p>
<p>If you could travel back in time to one of the bustling cities of ancient Mesopotamia (c. 4000–330 B.C.), for example, you would have no trouble finding yourself a bar or a beer. Beer was the <a href="https://youtu.be/nDva-HQmLUo">beverage of choice in Mesopotamia</a>. In fact, to be a Mesopotamian was to drink beer.</p>
<h2>A beloved beverage</h2>
<p>For the Sumerians, Akkadians and Babylonians, the ancient inhabitants of modern-day Iraq, beer was a daily staple and an essential component of social life. It was a beloved beverage, celebrated in <a href="http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section4/tr4231.htm">poetry</a> and <a href="http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section5/tr55a.htm">song</a>.</p>
<p>But it was also <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/drinking-in-ancient-societies-history-and-culture-of-drinks-in-the-ancient-near-east-papers-of-a-symposium-held-in-rome-may-17-19-1990/oclc/33497775">recognized as a potent force</a> whose consumption could prove risky. In Mesopotamian literature, drinking beer could lead to confusion, <a href="http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.1.1.1#">loss of control</a> and <a href="http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr131.htm">poor judgment</a>.</p>
<p>Beer was also known to produce unwanted physical effects, like a certain less-than-stellar feeling the morning after or <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/drinking-in-ancient-societies-history-and-culture-of-drinks-in-the-ancient-near-east-papers-of-a-symposium-held-in-rome-may-17-19-1990/oclc/33497775">an inability to perform sexually</a>. Still, Mesopotamians continued to drink their beer with enjoyment and gusto. A common scene in the artistic record depicts a <a href="https://youtu.be/l2iHAgPV-EQ">man and woman having sex</a>, while the woman drinks beer.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352551/original/file-20200812-14-1cz764e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Standing man penetrating a standing woman who is bent over sipping beer out of an urn with a straw" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352551/original/file-20200812-14-1cz764e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/352551/original/file-20200812-14-1cz764e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352551/original/file-20200812-14-1cz764e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352551/original/file-20200812-14-1cz764e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=541&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352551/original/file-20200812-14-1cz764e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=680&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352551/original/file-20200812-14-1cz764e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=680&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/352551/original/file-20200812-14-1cz764e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=680&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Clay plaque showing a man and woman having sex, while the woman drinks beer through a straw (Old Babylonian period, c. 1800 B.C.).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/image/32605001">© The Trustees of the British Museum</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The key to this impressive example of multitasking was the humble straw. Typically, the straw would have been crafted from a hollow reed or, for the fancier set, bronze or gold. Numerous artistic renderings show one or more people seated genteelly by a pot, drinking beer through long straws.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351429/original/file-20200805-16-ykskhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Stone plaque showing people gathered drinking out of cups" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351429/original/file-20200805-16-ykskhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351429/original/file-20200805-16-ykskhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351429/original/file-20200805-16-ykskhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351429/original/file-20200805-16-ykskhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=570&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351429/original/file-20200805-16-ykskhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351429/original/file-20200805-16-ykskhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351429/original/file-20200805-16-ykskhw.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=716&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A banquet scene. Khafajeh, Iraq, (c. 2600–2350 B.C.).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://oi-idb.uchicago.edu/id/36098fce-449e-4613-9130-4075af42f247">Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Other renderings show banquet scenes, where attendees are surrounded by servants and drink from cups or goblets. The absence of straws makes it less certain these drinkers are consuming beer. It could be wine, for example. But it probably isn’t water. </p>
<p>These scenes offer a glimpse into the drinking world of the well-to-do. But people across the social spectrum enjoyed beer: rich and poor, male and female, young and old. Kings, queens, soldiers, farmers, messengers, carpenters, priests, prostitutes, musicians, children – everybody drank beer. They drank it at home, on the job, at feasts and festivals, in the temple and at the neighborhood tavern.</p>
<p>In the academic literature, there has been a persistent suggestion – well on its way to becoming an unquestioned assumption – that the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/4987500/sumerian_beer">beers of Mesopotamia were low or extremely low in alcohol content</a>. This is, however, just an assumption. </p>
<p>Some of the beers of ancient Mesopotamia might have been “near beers” with little discernible effect on the imbiber. But, the drinking of beer was also <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/drinking-in-ancient-societies-history-and-culture-of-drinks-in-the-ancient-near-east-papers-of-a-symposium-held-in-rome-may-17-19-1990/oclc/33497775">clearly recognized to lead to inebriation</a>. I suspect the argument for low-alcohol beer in Mesopotamia has more to do with current, conflicted attitudes towards alcohol than any past reality. </p>
<h2>What did the beers of ancient Mesopotamia taste like?</h2>
<p>If you could somehow procure a taste of a 4,000-year-old beer (miraculously preserved in its original state of freshness) from, say, the city of Ur, would you enjoy the experience? Would you even recognize it as beer? </p>
<p>First off, let’s just banish all discussion of whether or not their beer was gross or nasty or otherwise unpleasant. They loved their beer. Enough said. </p>
<p>Like many beers enjoyed across the world today, theirs was <a href="http://www.brepols.net/Pages/ShowProduct.aspx?prod_id=IS-9782503583785-1">built on a base of malted barley</a>. And it could include date syrup, emmer wheat, and various roasted, toasted, or baked grain products. But <a href="http://www.brepols.net/Pages/ShowProduct.aspx?prod_id=IS-9782503583785-1">Mesopotamian beer was not flavored with hops</a>, and it was probably on the thick, porridgey side. Their beer certainly diverged from the hopped-up IPAs and crisp lagers of the 21st century. Exactly how much is difficult to say.</p>
<p>Since no one has yet unearthed that sample of 4,000-year-old beer, one of the best ways to gauge the character of Mesopotamian beer is to brew some yourself and give it a try. This is what archaeologists call experimental archaeology. Over the years, a number of different groups have <a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1997-10-22-9710220112-story.html">sought to bring the beers of ancient Mesopotamia back to life</a>. </p>
<p>No ancient brewing manual has yet come to light, but experimental brewers can turn to plenty of resources for guidance: the excavated remains of ancient brewing facilities and equipment, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2018.05.010">traces of beer</a> preserved within ceramic vessels and thousands of cuneiform tablets featuring information about beer and brewing.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351430/original/file-20200805-24-1s9vm9r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A tray of glasses containing a milky-looking, modern-day Mesopotamian beer" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351430/original/file-20200805-24-1s9vm9r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351430/original/file-20200805-24-1s9vm9r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351430/original/file-20200805-24-1s9vm9r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351430/original/file-20200805-24-1s9vm9r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351430/original/file-20200805-24-1s9vm9r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351430/original/file-20200805-24-1s9vm9r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351430/original/file-20200805-24-1s9vm9r.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Serving up a taste of the past. Great Lakes Brewing Company, Cleveland, Ohio, 2013.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kathryn Grossman</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I myself have been <a href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2013-07-05-ct-met-sumerian-beer-20130705-story.html">involved with a collaborative effort</a> joining the <a href="https://oi.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago’s Oriental Institute</a> and <a href="https://www.greatlakesbrewing.com/">Great Lakes Brewing Company</a>. Many <a href="https://www.chicagobeergeeks.com/2013/12/the-gods-must-be-crazy/">intrepid tasters have sampled</a> <a href="http://3beersin3days.blogspot.com/2014/04/sumerian-beer-dinner-gage-and-great.html">our Gilgamash and Enkibru</a>, <a href="https://www.ozy.com/the-new-and-the-next/the-art-of-making-and-of-course-drinking-ancient-booze/39045/">two experimental brews</a> named after the famous adventuring duo, <a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-epic-of-gilgamesh-73444">Gilgamesh and Enkidu</a>. Assessments <a href="https://untappd.com/b/great-lakes-brewing-company-enkibru-ancient-equipment-version/431286">have generally</a> <a href="https://untappd.com/b/great-lakes-brewing-company-gilgamash/445708">been positive</a>. The Enkibru (the more authentic of the two) is flat, lukewarm, sour, milky-looking and sometimes a bit cloying. But it’s also intriguing and, in our version, yes, intoxicating.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/the-daily-3?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p>
<p>Peering down into the murky liquid, bits of grain husk floating on the surface, taking a good long sip through a reed straw and feeling that alcoholic punch hit you – it feels a little like stepping into a time machine. Our experimental recreation is far from perfect, but it provides a unique kind of sensory connection with the past.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351431/original/file-20200805-24-12pfdc0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="People gathered around a large vessel drinking from long straws." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351431/original/file-20200805-24-12pfdc0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/351431/original/file-20200805-24-12pfdc0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351431/original/file-20200805-24-12pfdc0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351431/original/file-20200805-24-12pfdc0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351431/original/file-20200805-24-12pfdc0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351431/original/file-20200805-24-12pfdc0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/351431/original/file-20200805-24-12pfdc0.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bottoms up, Sumerian-style.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kathryn Grossman</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>I like to think the beer aficionados and bar flies of ancient Mesopotamia, who themselves were <a href="https://narratively.com/the-king-who-ordered-a-quarantine-to-flatten-the-curve-4000-years-ago/">no strangers to epidemics</a>, might genuinely sympathize with the challenges of 2020. But I wonder what they would make of our beer, the beer of the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/142215/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tate Paulette consults with Great Lakes Brewing Company. </span></em></p>
Beer was extremely popular in ancient Mesopotamia. Sipped through straws, it differed from today’s beer and was enjoyed by people from all walks of life.
Tate Paulette, Assistant Professor of History, North Carolina State University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/127498
2019-11-25T23:42:26Z
2019-11-25T23:42:26Z
Nebuchadnezzar explained: warrior king, rebuilder of cities, and musical muse
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303598/original/file-20191125-74593-12uoe48.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=29%2C131%2C1494%2C965&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">William Blake's portrait of the Old Testament Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II, who in the Book of Daniel 'was driven from men, and did eat grass as oxen'.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Tate Britain</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Kanye West’s <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/kanye-west-opera-nebuchadnezzar-hollywood-bowl-913874/">first operatic work</a>, Nebuchadnezzar, has <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/nov/25/kanye-west-nebuchadnezzar-opera-hollywood-bowl-los-angeles-review">just premiered</a> at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles. Set in the 6th century BCE, the opera is based on <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/an-instagram-worthy-bible-aimed-at-millennials/2019/03/08/5a303cc0-411f-11e9-922c-64d6b7840b82_story.html">the biblical story </a> of Nebuchadnezzar II, a powerful ruler and the longest-reigning king of Babylon.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303599/original/file-20191125-74599-1ksb1js.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303599/original/file-20191125-74599-1ksb1js.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303599/original/file-20191125-74599-1ksb1js.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303599/original/file-20191125-74599-1ksb1js.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303599/original/file-20191125-74599-1ksb1js.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303599/original/file-20191125-74599-1ksb1js.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303599/original/file-20191125-74599-1ksb1js.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303599/original/file-20191125-74599-1ksb1js.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Kanye West: has spoken of parallels between himself and the Babylonian king.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA/Etienne Laurent</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nebuchadnezzar was a warrior-king, often described as the greatest military leader of <a href="http://mini-site.louvre.fr/babylone/EN/html/1.4.4.html">the Neo-Babylonian empire.</a> He ruled from 605 – 562 BCE in the area around the Tigris-Euphrates basin. His leadership saw numerous military successes and the construction of building works such as the famous Ishtar Gate. </p>
<p>Thousands of years after his rule, Nebuchadnezzar’s name lives on in his buildings and in ancient literature. Interestingly, his name and life have inspired numerous musical works by artists such as <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cZNpzS9tVn0&list=RDcZNpzS9tVn0&start_radio=1">jazz pianist Marcus Roberts</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jGhd5kGM7dk">Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi</a>, and now, West.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1198788970299240448"}"></div></p>
<p>The name Nebuchadnezzar in <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/brush-your-akkadian-new-online-dictionary-180964725/">Akkadian (an ancient Semitic language that is an early cognate of Hebrew)</a> is Nabu-Kudurri-usur, which means “O Nabu, protect my first-born son.” <a href="http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/amgg/listofdeities/nabu/index.html">Nabu</a> was a major Mesopotamian deity associated with literacy and the work of scribes.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303596/original/file-20191125-74557-ook47h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303596/original/file-20191125-74557-ook47h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303596/original/file-20191125-74557-ook47h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303596/original/file-20191125-74557-ook47h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303596/original/file-20191125-74557-ook47h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=607&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303596/original/file-20191125-74557-ook47h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=763&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303596/original/file-20191125-74557-ook47h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=763&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303596/original/file-20191125-74557-ook47h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=763&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An engraving on an eye stone of onyx with an inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The late Iron Age in the Near East saw the end of the mighty Assyrian Empire around 609 BCE - partly fuelled by climate change. </p>
<p>The area became the focus of political manoeuvring between two regional superpowers – the Egyptian and the Babylonian empires. Under Nebuchadnezzar’s reign, Neo-Babylonian armies swept through the area, leaving a trail of destruction <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon/ancient-tablets-reveal-life-of-jews-in-nebuchadnezzars-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203">including that of the biblical kingdom of Judah, which was besieged and destroyed</a>. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-fueled-the-rise-and-demise-of-the-neo-assyrian-empire-superpower-of-the-ancient-world-126661">Climate change fueled the rise and demise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, superpower of the ancient world</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Redbuilding Babylon</h2>
<p>Nebuchadnezzar appears prominently in the Book of Daniel, as well as in Kings, Ezekiel, Jeremiah, Ezra, and Nehemiah, and rabbinical literature. The fall of the kingdom of Judah is presented in detail in 2 Kings 24-25. </p>
<p>Many scholars have noted that the historicity of the biblical account is supported by cuneiform sources. Indeed, this biblical account of the destruction is remarkably close to descriptions of the event found in Neo-Babylonian chronicles.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303388/original/file-20191125-74603-1hu4xtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303388/original/file-20191125-74603-1hu4xtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303388/original/file-20191125-74603-1hu4xtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=883&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303388/original/file-20191125-74603-1hu4xtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=883&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303388/original/file-20191125-74603-1hu4xtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=883&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303388/original/file-20191125-74603-1hu4xtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1109&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303388/original/file-20191125-74603-1hu4xtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1109&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303388/original/file-20191125-74603-1hu4xtj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1109&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle. Clay tablet; New Babylonian. Chronicle for years 605-594 BC. © Trustees of the British Museum.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nebuchadnezzar’s military might looms large in the biblical text, but evidence from Neo-Babylonian sources from around the time of his reign offers a different emphasis. These sources focus on the king’s outstanding record in building and construction, and his religious piety. </p>
<p>Nebuchadnezzar <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-world-heritage-unesco-iraq/ancient-iraqi-city-of-babylon-designated-unesco-world-heritage-site-idUSKCN1U02AW">was committed to rebuilding Babylon</a> (in modern-day Iraq) after it had been freed from Assyrian rule. He turned the city into one that was famed for its opulence and majesty throughout the ancient world. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/ancient-near-east1/babylonian/v/ishtar-gate-and-processional-way-reconstruction-babylon-c-575-b-c-e">The famous Ishtar Gate</a>, part of the processional way leading into the heart of the city, was constructed under Nebuchadnezzar’s rule, and carries his dedication. The walls of the processional way were decorated with images of lions, the sacred animal of Ishtar, goddess of love.</p>
<p>Bricks from the blue-glazed wall bearing Nebuchadnezzar’s inscription have been discovered in their thousands.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303390/original/file-20191125-74580-pn54fn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303390/original/file-20191125-74580-pn54fn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303390/original/file-20191125-74580-pn54fn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303390/original/file-20191125-74580-pn54fn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303390/original/file-20191125-74580-pn54fn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303390/original/file-20191125-74580-pn54fn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303390/original/file-20191125-74580-pn54fn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303390/original/file-20191125-74580-pn54fn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A reconstruction of the blue Ishtar Gate of Babylon, decorated with extinct aurochs and mythological creatures, at the Pergamon History Museum.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-legend-of-ishtar-first-goddess-of-love-and-war-78468">Friday essay: the legend of Ishtar, first goddess of love and war</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Legend has it that the mysterious Hanging Gardens of Babylon were built by Nebuchadnezzar as a gift for his wife, Amuhia.</p>
<p>The story goes that Amuhia was <a href="https://qz.com/1557308/psychoterratica-is-the-trauma-caused-by-distance-from-nature/">homesick for the forested landscape</a> of her homeland Medea (which in the modern-day includes parts of Turkey, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), so Nebuchadnezzar built the gardens to provide her with some comforts of home. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are <a href="https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/173590">one of the seven wonders of the ancient world,</a> but their exact historical location remains unknown.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303389/original/file-20191125-74562-1huvjhk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303389/original/file-20191125-74562-1huvjhk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303389/original/file-20191125-74562-1huvjhk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303389/original/file-20191125-74562-1huvjhk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303389/original/file-20191125-74562-1huvjhk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303389/original/file-20191125-74562-1huvjhk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303389/original/file-20191125-74562-1huvjhk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303389/original/file-20191125-74562-1huvjhk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, painting by Ferdinand Knab (1834-1902)</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nebuchadnezzar’s building works are described in the works of Classical writers such as the 5th century historian, <a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-histories-by-herodotus-53748">Herodotus</a>. Several ancient sources, including inscriptions ascribed to Nebuchadnezzar, suggest the king constructed a giant reservoir that was 200km in length. (However, alternate sources suggest the construction was the work of the ancient queens Nitocris or Semiramis.)</p>
<h2>Musical connections</h2>
<p>In a much-quoted interview with DJ Zane Lowe, <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/chrislambert/2019/11/17/who-is-king-nebuchadnezzar-and-why-is-he-the-focus-of-kanye-wests-upcoming-opera/#2eff530a7b24">Kanye West has explained his connection to the Babylonian monarch</a>. West noted parallels between the exceptional successes enjoyed by Nebuchadnezzar and himself, and the relationship between their achievements and their religion.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1198796300151508992"}"></div></p>
<p>He has also observed that Nebuchadnezzar’s mental illness as described in the Bible (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boanthropy">there is a passage where he believes himself to be a cow</a>) has resonated with <a href="https://people.com/music/kanye-west-sprained-brain-mental-illness-stigma/">his own health issues</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303597/original/file-20191125-74557-1s3s590.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303597/original/file-20191125-74557-1s3s590.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/303597/original/file-20191125-74557-1s3s590.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=759&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303597/original/file-20191125-74557-1s3s590.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=759&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303597/original/file-20191125-74557-1s3s590.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=759&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303597/original/file-20191125-74557-1s3s590.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=954&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303597/original/file-20191125-74557-1s3s590.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=954&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/303597/original/file-20191125-74557-1s3s590.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=954&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nebuchadnezzar Recovering His Reason, Robert Blyth, 1782.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Several ancient sources also connect Nebuchadnezzar to hymns and musical performances. In the Book of Daniel, for instance, Nebuchadnezzar builds a giant golden statue in his own image. The king’s attendants decree that when people “hear the sound of the horn, flute, harp, lyre, and psaltery, in symphony with all kinds of music” they should fall down and worship this gold image.</p>
<p>Following Nebuchadnezzar’s death around 562 BCE, three different kings held the Babylonian throne in six years.</p>
<p>Two were assassinated - suggesting perhaps that Nebuchadnezzar’s many achievements made him a hard act to follow. While the king’s rule was undoubtedly complicated, his story is still providing inspiration for modern artists and diverse new tellings.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/127498/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Pryke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Nebuchadnezzar was a warrior-king of the Neo-Babylonian empire. And now, Kanye West has written an opera inspired by him.
Louise Pryke, Honorary Research Associate and Lecturer, University of Sydney
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/126661
2019-11-13T19:01:08Z
2019-11-13T19:01:08Z
Climate change fueled the rise and demise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, superpower of the ancient world
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301411/original/file-20191113-37401-1f01jrx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C2402%2C1938&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ashurbanipal, last major ruler of the Assyrian Empire, couldn't outrun the effects of climate change.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">British Museum</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ancient Mesopotamia, the fabled land between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers, was the command and control center of the <a href="http://www.en.uni-muenchen.de/news/newsarchiv/2018/mooc_radner.html">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>. This ancient superpower was the largest empire of its time, lasting from 912 BC to 609 BC in what is now modern Iraq and Syria. At its height, the Assyrian state stretched from the Mediterranean and Egypt in the west to the Persian Gulf and western Iran in the east.</p>
<p>Then, in an astonishing reversal of fortune, the Neo-Assyrian Empire plummeted from its zenith (circa 650 BC) to <a href="https://www.eisenbrauns.org/books/titles/978-1-57506-754-4.html">complete political collapse</a> within the span of just a few decades. What happened?</p>
<p>Numerous theories attempt to explain the Assyrian collapse. Most researchers attribute it to imperial overexpansion, civil wars, political unrest and Assyrian military defeat by a coalition of Babylonian and Median forces in 612 BC. But exactly how these two small armies were able to annihilate what was then the most powerful military force in the world has <a href="https://ucl.rl.talis.com/items/DDBEC935-1F16-2C7B-7370-3D5BED633425.html">mystified historians and archaeologists</a> for more than a hundred years.</p>
<p>Our new research published in the journal Science Advances <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/11/eaax6656">sheds light on these mysteries</a>. We show that climate change was the proverbial double-edged sword that first contributed to the meteoric rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and then to its precipitous collapse.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301416/original/file-20191113-37425-u6r88t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301416/original/file-20191113-37425-u6r88t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301416/original/file-20191113-37425-u6r88t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301416/original/file-20191113-37425-u6r88t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301416/original/file-20191113-37425-u6r88t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301416/original/file-20191113-37425-u6r88t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301416/original/file-20191113-37425-u6r88t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301416/original/file-20191113-37425-u6r88t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An artist’s vision of the interior of an Assyrian palace, based on drawings made in 1849 by Austen Henry Layard on the site of 19th century excavations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">New York Public library digital collections</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Booming right up to an unexpected bust</h2>
<p>The Neo-Assyrian state was an economic powerhouse. Its formidable <a href="https://www.ancient.eu/Assyrian_Warfare/">war machine</a> boasted a large standing army with cavalry, chariots and iron weaponry. For over two centuries, the mighty Assyrians waged relentless military campaigns with ruthless efficiency. They conquered, plundered and subjugated major regional powers across the Near and Middle East, as each Assyrian king tried to outshine his predecessor.</p>
<p><a href="http://etc.ancient.eu/photos/assyrian-lion-hunting-british-museum/">Ashurbanipal</a>, the last great king of Assyria, ruled this vast empire from the <a href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/galleries/assyria-nineveh">ancient city of Nineveh</a>, the ruins of which lie across the Tigris River from modern Mosul, Iraq. Nineveh was a sprawling metropolis of unprecedented size and grandeur filled with temples and palace complexes, with exotic gardens that were watered by an extensive system of canals and aqueducts.</p>
<p>And then it all ended within just a few years. Why?</p>
<p>Our research group wanted to investigate climate conditions over the few centuries when the Neo-Assyrian Empire took hold and then eventually collapsed. </p>
<h2>Building a picture of climate 2,600 years ago</h2>
<p>For clues about rainfall patterns over northern Mesopotamia, we turned to Kuna Ba cave, located near Nineveh.</p>
<p>Our colleagues collected samples from the cave’s stalagmites. These are the cone-like structures that point upward from the cave floor. They grow slowly, from the ground up, as rainwater drips down from the cave ceiling, depositing dissolved minerals.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301570/original/file-20191113-77326-1fwa01o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301570/original/file-20191113-77326-1fwa01o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301570/original/file-20191113-77326-1fwa01o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=916&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301570/original/file-20191113-77326-1fwa01o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=916&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301570/original/file-20191113-77326-1fwa01o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=916&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301570/original/file-20191113-77326-1fwa01o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1151&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301570/original/file-20191113-77326-1fwa01o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1151&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301570/original/file-20191113-77326-1fwa01o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1151&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The layers of a stalagmite record the climate conditions of the time when they were created.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ashish Sinha</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The rainwater naturally contains heavy and light isotopes of oxygen – that is, atoms of oxygen that have different numbers of neutrons. Subtle variations in the oxygen isotope ratios can be sensitive indicators of climatic conditions at the time the rainwater originally fell. <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Paleoclimatology_Speleothems">As stalagmites grow</a>, they lock into their structure the oxygen isotope ratios of the percolating rainwater that seeps into the cave.</p>
<p>We painstakingly pieced together the climatic history of northern Mesopotamia by carefully drilling into stalagmites, across their growth rings, which are similar to those of trees. In each sample, we measured the oxygen isotope ratios to build a timeline of how conditions changed. That told us the order of events but didn’t tell us the amount of time that elapsed between them.</p>
<p>Luckily, the stalagmites also trap uranium, an element that’s ever-present in trace amounts in the infiltrating water. Over time, uranium decays into thorium at a predictable pace. So the dating experts on our research team made scores of high-precision <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814124-3.00128-X">uranium-thorium measurements</a> on stalagmite growth layers.</p>
<p>Together these two kinds of measurements let us anchor our climate record to precise calendar years.</p>
<h2>Unusual wet period, then massive drought</h2>
<p>Now a direct comparison of the stalagmite climate record with the historical and archaeological records from the region was possible. We wanted to place the key events of Neo-Assyrian history into the long-term context of our climate reconstruction.</p>
<p>We found that the most significant expansion phase of the Neo-Assyrian state occurred during a two-centuries-long interval of anomalously wet climate, as compared with the previous 4,000 years. Called a megapluvial period, this time of unusually high rainfall was immediately followed by megadroughts during the early-to-mid-seventh century BC. These ancient dry conditions were as severe as recent droughts in Iraq and Syria but lasted for decades. The period marking the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire occurred well within this time frame.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301568/original/file-20191113-77315-fxb77e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301568/original/file-20191113-77315-fxb77e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/301568/original/file-20191113-77315-fxb77e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301568/original/file-20191113-77315-fxb77e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301568/original/file-20191113-77315-fxb77e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301568/original/file-20191113-77315-fxb77e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=650&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301568/original/file-20191113-77315-fxb77e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=650&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/301568/original/file-20191113-77315-fxb77e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=650&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Neo-Assyrian Empire rose during an unusual time of wet climate and collapsed soon after conditions swung to unusual dryness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Ashish Sinha</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Mindful of the caveat that correlation doesn’t imply causation, we were interested in how this wild climate swing – an unusually rainy period that ended in drought – could have influenced an empire.</p>
<p>While the Neo-Assyrian state was huge in its final few decades, its economic core was always confined to a rather small region. This relatively <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/countries/centralassyria/">small area</a> in northern Mesopotamia served as a primary source of agricultural revenues and powered Assyrian military campaigns.</p>
<p>We argue that nearly two centuries of unusually wet conditions in this otherwise semi-arid region allowed for agriculture to flourish and energized the Assyrian economy. The climate acted as a catalyst for the creation of a dense network of urban and rural settlements in the unsettled zones that previously hadn’t been able to support farming.</p>
<p>Our data show the wet period abruptly ended and the pendulum swung the other way. In the grips of recurring megadroughts, the Assyrian core and its hinterlands would have been engulfed within a “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-014-9072-2">zone of uncertainty</a>” – a corridor of land where the rainfall is highly erratic and any rain-fed agriculture comes with a large risk of crop failure.</p>
<p>Repeated crop failures likely exacerbated the political unrest in Assyria, crippled its economy and empowered the adjacent rival states. </p>
<h2>Uncertain climate, unsustainable growth</h2>
<p>Our findings have current-day implications.</p>
<p>In modern times, the same region that once constituted the Assyrian core has been repeatedly struck by multiyear droughts. The catastrophic <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1421533112">drought of 2007–2008</a> in northern Iraq and Syria, the most severe in the past 50 years, led to cereal crop failures across the region.</p>
<p>Droughts like this one offer a glimpse of what Assyrians endured during the mid-seventh century BC. And the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire offers a warning to today’s societies.</p>
<p>Climate change is here to stay. In the 21st century, people have what Neo-Assyrians did not: the benefit of hindsight and plenty of observational data. Unsustainable growth in politically volatile and water-stressed regions is a time-tested recipe for disaster.</p>
<p>[ <em>You’re too busy to read everything. We get it. That’s why we’ve got a weekly newsletter.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybusy">Sign up for good Sunday reading</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/126661/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ashish Sinha receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gayatri Kathayat receives funding from National Science Foundation of China.</span></em></p>
What caused the rise and then collapse 2,600 years ago of this vast empire centered on Mesopotamia? Clues from a cave in northern Iraq point to abrupt climate change.
Ashish Sinha, Professor of Earth and Climate Sciences, California State University, Dominguez Hills
Gayatri Kathayat, Associate Professor of Global Environmental Change, Xi'an Jiaotong University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/116431
2019-05-21T19:40:39Z
2019-05-21T19:40:39Z
Hidden women of history: Ennigaldi-Nanna, curator of the world’s first museum
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/274802/original/file-20190516-69204-1e64x70.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The National Museum of Iraq photographed in February 2018. Many of the pieces discovered at the ruins of Ur, arranged and labelled by Ennigaldi-Nanna, can be found here.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/hidden-women-of-history-64072">this series</a>, we look at under-acknowledged women through the ages.</em></p>
<p>“It belongs in a museum.” With these words, Indiana Jones, <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/05/150514-indiana-jones-archaeology-exhibit-national-geographic-museum/">the world’s best-known fictional archaeologist</a>, articulated an association between archaeologists, antiquities, and museums that has a very long history. Indeed, even Jones himself would likely marvel at the historic setting of the world’s first <a href="https://qz.com/1433682/doctors-in-montreal-will-start-prescribing-visits-to-the-art-museum/">“museum,”</a> and the remarkable woman who is believed to have been its curator, the Mesopotamian princess, Ennigaldi-Nanna.</p>
<p>Ennigaldi-Nanna was the priestess of the moon deity Sin, and the daughter of the Neo-Babylonian king, Nabonidus. In the ancient Mesopotamian city of Ur, around 530BCE, a small collection of antiquities was gathered, with Ennigaldi-Nanna working to arrange and label the varied artefacts. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273508/original/file-20190509-183103-lsnrfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273508/original/file-20190509-183103-lsnrfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273508/original/file-20190509-183103-lsnrfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=819&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273508/original/file-20190509-183103-lsnrfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=819&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273508/original/file-20190509-183103-lsnrfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=819&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273508/original/file-20190509-183103-lsnrfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1030&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273508/original/file-20190509-183103-lsnrfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1030&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273508/original/file-20190509-183103-lsnrfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1030&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">C. Leonard Woolley (left) and T. E. Lawrence at archaeological excavations in Syria, circa 1912-1914.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This collection was considered by the British archaeologist, <a>Sir Charles Leonard Woolley</a>, to be the earliest known example of a “museum”.</p>
<p>In 1925, <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/03/160311-ur-iraq-trade-royal-cemetery-woolley-archaeology/%5D(https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/03/160311-ur-iraq-trade-royal-cemetery-woolley-archaeology/">Woolley and his team were excavating at Ur</a> (now in the Dhi Qar governate of southern Iraq). They discovered a curious collection of artefacts among the ruins of a Babylonian palace. Especially unusual was that while the items were from different geographical areas and historical settings, they were neatly assembled together. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273514/original/file-20190509-183112-gnx3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273514/original/file-20190509-183112-gnx3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273514/original/file-20190509-183112-gnx3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1274&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273514/original/file-20190509-183112-gnx3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1274&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273514/original/file-20190509-183112-gnx3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1274&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273514/original/file-20190509-183112-gnx3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1600&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273514/original/file-20190509-183112-gnx3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273514/original/file-20190509-183112-gnx3h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1600&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An example of Sumerian script on a foundation tablet 2144-2124 BCE (Lagash II; Ur III).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">The Walters Art Museum</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The items ranged in dates from around 2100 BCE to 600 BCE. They included part of a statue of the famous early king, Shulgi of Ur, who ruled around 2058 BCE, a ceremonial mace-head made of stone, and some texts. The statue, Woolley observed, had been carefully restored to preserve the writing.</p>
<p>There was also a Kassite boundary stele (called a <a href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=369362&partId=1">“kudurru”</a>), a written document used to mark boundaries and make proclamations. The stele was dated to around 1400 BCE, and contained, Woolley noted, a “terrific curse” on anyone who removed or destroyed the record it contained. </p>
<p>Many items were accompanied by labels giving details about the artefacts. These were written in three languages, including Sumerian. The labels have been described in modern scholarship as early examples of the <a href="https://www.getty.edu/publications/intrometadata/">“metadata”</a> that is so critical to the preservation of antiquities and the historical record.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/fifteen-years-after-looting-thousands-of-artefacts-are-still-missing-from-iraqs-national-museum-93949">Fifteen years after looting, thousands of artefacts are still missing from Iraq's national museum</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The museum, over 2,500 years old, was centred on cultural heritage, and it is thought to have perhaps had an educational purpose. Along with her other roles, Ennigaldi-Nanna is believed to have run a scribal school for elite women.</p>
<p>When considering the discovery, Woolley noted that the discovery of a museum associated with the priestess was not unexpected, given the close connection between religious specialists and education. He also commented on the “antiquarian piety” of the time of the museum’s construction — an interest in history was a common feature among monarchs from the Neo-Babylonian period.</p>
<h2>A family fascination with history</h2>
<p>Indeed, Ennigaldi-Nanna’s appreciation for the past seems to have been a family trait. Her father Nabonidus had a fascination with history which led him to conduct excavations and discover lost texts. Many of the items in the collection were discovered by him, with Nabonidus sometimes described in the modern day as the world’s first archaeologist.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273510/original/file-20190509-183093-aytkvr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273510/original/file-20190509-183093-aytkvr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273510/original/file-20190509-183093-aytkvr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273510/original/file-20190509-183093-aytkvr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273510/original/file-20190509-183093-aytkvr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=605&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273510/original/file-20190509-183093-aytkvr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=760&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273510/original/file-20190509-183093-aytkvr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=760&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273510/original/file-20190509-183093-aytkvr.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=760&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stela of Nabonidus made of basalt.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Nabonidus was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and a religious reformer. His eldest son, Belshazzar, ruled as his regent for many years, but is perhaps best known for his appearance in the biblical Book of Daniel. In a famous scene, the unfortunate regent sees the end of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom coming when it is foretold through the writing of a disembodied hand on a wall.</p>
<p><a href="https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/cylinder-of-nabonidus/jAHdrtpI35v9UA">King Nabonidus’ interest in history didn’t end with archaeology.</a> He also worked to revive ancient cultic traditions relating to the moon deity, Sin (Sumerian Nanna). His daughter Ennigaldi was an important part of these efforts, indeed, her name is an ancient Sumerian one, meaning “the priestess, the desire of the Moon god.” </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273513/original/file-20190509-183100-ouf96o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273513/original/file-20190509-183100-ouf96o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273513/original/file-20190509-183100-ouf96o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273513/original/file-20190509-183100-ouf96o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273513/original/file-20190509-183100-ouf96o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273513/original/file-20190509-183100-ouf96o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=679&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273513/original/file-20190509-183100-ouf96o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=679&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273513/original/file-20190509-183100-ouf96o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=679&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A boundary stele/kudurru showing King Melishipak I (1186–1172 BC) presenting his daughter to the goddess Nannaya. The crescent moon represents the god Sin, the sun the Shamash and the star the goddess Ishtar.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The appointment of Ennigaldi as high priestess in Ur reinvigorated a historical trend made famous by <a href="https://historyarch.com/2018/03/30/sargon-the-great-the-first-empire-builder/">Sargon of Akkad</a>, who installed his daughter, the poetess Enheduanna, in the role over 1000 years earlier.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/hidden-women-of-history-enheduanna-princess-priestess-and-the-worlds-first-known-author-109185">Hidden women of history: Enheduanna, princess, priestess and the world's first known author</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>By the time of Ennigaldi-Nanna’s appointment, the religious role she would inhabit had long been unoccupied, and the rituals associated with the post had been forgotten. Nabonidus, however, describes finding an ancient stela belonging to Nebuchadnezzar I, and using it to guide his actions.</p>
<p>The historic aspects of the appointment of Ennigaldi-Nanna were further emphasised by Nabonidus when noting his research into the requirements of her role. The king describes consulting the writings of a previous priestess, a sister of the ruler Rim-Sin named En-ane-du. </p>
<p>Rim-Sin reigned over 1200 years before Nabonidus came to power. While some scholars doubt Nabonidus’ discovery of the stela of Nebuchadnezzar I, his recovery of the writings of the priestess, En-ane-du, has greater acceptance.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273512/original/file-20190509-183093-pwuph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273512/original/file-20190509-183093-pwuph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/273512/original/file-20190509-183093-pwuph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273512/original/file-20190509-183093-pwuph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273512/original/file-20190509-183093-pwuph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273512/original/file-20190509-183093-pwuph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273512/original/file-20190509-183093-pwuph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/273512/original/file-20190509-183093-pwuph0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ruins in the town of Ur, Southern Iraq, photographed in 2006. Around 530BCE, a small collection of antiquities was gathered here, with Ennigaldi-Nanna working to arrange and label the varied artefacts.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Little known today</h2>
<p>Ennigaldi is largely unknown in the modern day. An exception to her modern anonymity may be found in the <a href="https://ennigaldi.com/">luxury fashion line</a>, Ennigaldi, which creates pieces inspired by ancient Babylonian architecture. </p>
<p>While relatively little is known of the life of Ennigaldi, there are other well-known women in her family tree. Ennigaldi’s grandmother, Adad-guppi, was also a powerful priestess involved in the political world of her son, Nabonidus. Adad-guppi is best known in the present day from her “autobiography,” a cuneiform account of her life, written in the first person. Adad-guppi’s autobiography records the blessings she received from the moon deity <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/topics/life/health/article/2016/02/05/surprising-ways-moon-might-affect-your-health">such as living to the age of 104 with a sound mind and body</a>.</p>
<p>The city of Ur and its museum were abandoned around 500 BCE, due to deteriorating environmental conditions. These included a severe drought, along with changing river and silt patterns. The prevalence of drought has also been cited as a likely cause of the falls of many earlier kingdoms from the Bronze Age.</p>
<p>The story of <a href="https://mymodernmet.com/history-of-museums/">the world’s first known museum</a>, its curator, and her family, shows the timeless appeal of conserving the treasures of the past. At the same time, the disappearance of this early institution of learning over two millennia ago demonstrates <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/10/131024-drought-bronze-age-pollen-archaeology/">the significant overlap in the important areas of cultural heritage and environmental conservation</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116431/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Pryke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Ennigaldi-Nanna is largely unknown in the modern day. But in 530BC, this Mesopotamian priestess worked to arrange and label various artefacts in the world’s first museum.
Louise Pryke, Lecturer, Languages and Literature of Ancient Israel, Macquarie University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/109185
2019-02-12T19:16:25Z
2019-02-12T19:16:25Z
Hidden women of history: Enheduanna, princess, priestess and the world’s first known author
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257852/original/file-20190207-174861-1s749k2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Standard of Ur mosaic, 26th century BC.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Standard_of_Ur_-_War.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In this series, we look at under-acknowledged women through the ages.</em></p>
<p>The world’s first known author is widely considered to be Enheduanna, a woman who lived in the 23rd century BCE in ancient Mesopotamia (approximately 2285 – 2250 BCE). Enheduanna is a remarkable figure: an ancient <a href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/triple-threat">“triple threat”</a>, she was a princess and a priestess as well as a writer and poet.</p>
<p>The third millennium BCE was a time of upheaval in Mesopotamia. The <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/akka/hd_akka.htm">conquest of Sargon the Great</a> saw the development of the world’s <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-climate-change-caused-the-worlds-first-ever-empire-to-collapse-109060">first great empire</a>. The city of Akkad become one of the largest in the world, and northern and southern Mesopotamia were united for the first time in history.</p>
<p>In this extraordinary historical setting, we find the fascinating character of Enheduanna, Sargon’s daughter. She worked as the high priestess of the moon deity Nanna-Suen at his temple in Ur (in modern-day Southern Iraq). The celestial nature of her occupation is reflected in her name, meaning “Ornament of Heaven”.</p>
<p>Enheduanna composed several works of literature, including two hymns to the Mesopotamian love goddess Inanna (Semitic Ishtar). She wrote the myth of Inanna and Ebih, and a collection of 42 temple hymns. Scribal traditions in the ancient world are often considered an area of male authority, but Enheduanna’s works form an important part of <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/epic/hd_epic.htm">Mesopotamia’s rich literary history</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257437/original/file-20190206-174894-1uxn5sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257437/original/file-20190206-174894-1uxn5sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257437/original/file-20190206-174894-1uxn5sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257437/original/file-20190206-174894-1uxn5sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257437/original/file-20190206-174894-1uxn5sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=448&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257437/original/file-20190206-174894-1uxn5sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257437/original/file-20190206-174894-1uxn5sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257437/original/file-20190206-174894-1uxn5sl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=563&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ancient Akkadian cylindrical seal depicting Mesopotamian love goddess Inanna.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_Akkadian_Cylindrical_Seal_Depicting_Inanna_and_Ninshubur.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-legend-of-ishtar-first-goddess-of-love-and-war-78468">Friday essay: the legend of Ishtar, first goddess of love and war</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Enheduanna’s status as a named poet is significant given the anonymity surrounding works of <a href="http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/crux/2018/12/19/the-origins-of-writing/#.XFJYGcSYPIV">even earlier authors</a>. Yet she is almost <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/books/turning-pages-in-praise-of-the-neglected-women-writers-20181101-h17dch.html">entirely unknown in the modern day</a>, and her achievements have been largely overlooked (a notable exception is the work of Jungian analyst <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/736232.Inanna_Lady_of_Largest_Heart">Betty De Shong Meador</a>).
Her written works are deeply personal in subject, containing numerous biographical features. </p>
<p>Enheduanna’s <a href="http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section4/tr4801.htm">cycle of temple hymns</a> concludes with an assertion of the work’s originality and its authorship:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The compiler of the tablets was En-hedu-ana. My king, something has been created that no one has created before.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>While clearly asserting ownership over the creative property of her work, Enheduanna also comments on the difficulties of the creative process — apparently, writer’s block was a problem even in ancient Mesopotamia.</p>
<h2>Long hours labouring by night</h2>
<p>In her hymns, Enheduanna comments on the challenge of encapsulating divine wonders through the written word. She describes spending long hours labouring over her compositions by night, for them then to be performed in the day. The fruits of her work are dedicated to the goddess of love. </p>
<p>Enheduanna’s poetry has a reflective quality that emphasises the superlative qualities of its divine muse, while also highlighting the artistic skill required for written compositions.</p>
<p>Her written praise of celestial deities has been recognised in the field of modern astronomy. Her descriptions of stellar measurements and movements have been described as <a href="http://womeninastronomy.blogspot.com/2013/05/enheduanna-our-first-great-scientist.html">possible early scientific observations.</a> Indeed, <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/news/mercury-crater-naming-contest-winners-announced">a crater on Mercury was named in her honour in 2015.</a> </p>
<p>Enheduanna’s works were written in cuneiform, an ancient form of writing using clay tablets but have only survived in the form of much later copies from around 1800 BCE, from the Old Babylonian period and later. The lack of earlier sources has raised doubts for some over Enheduanna’s identification as the author of myths and hymns and her status as a religious official of high rank. However, the historical record clearly identifies Enheduanna as the composer of ancient literary works, and this is undoubtedly an important aspect of the traditions surrounding her.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-recovery-of-cuneiform-the-worlds-oldest-known-writing-82639">Friday essay: the recovery of cuneiform, the world's oldest known writing</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Aside from poetry, other sources for Enheduanna’s life have been discovered by archaeologists. These include cylinder seals belonging to her servants, and an alabaster relief inscribed with her dedication. The <a href="https://www.penn.museum/collections/object/293415">Disk of Enheduanna</a> was discovered by British archaeologist Sir Charles Leonard Woolley and his team of excavators in 1927. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257648/original/file-20190207-174857-7wfxay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257648/original/file-20190207-174857-7wfxay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257648/original/file-20190207-174857-7wfxay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257648/original/file-20190207-174857-7wfxay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257648/original/file-20190207-174857-7wfxay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=573&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257648/original/file-20190207-174857-7wfxay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257648/original/file-20190207-174857-7wfxay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257648/original/file-20190207-174857-7wfxay.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=720&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Disk of Enheduanna.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Disk_of_Enheduanna_(2).jpg">Zunkir/Mefman00/Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Disk was <a href="https://www.penn.museum/blog/museum/ur-digitization-project-item-of-the-month-june-2012/">discarded and apparently defaced in antiquity</a>, but the pieces were recovered through excavations and the scene featuring the writer successfully restored. The scene depicts the priestess at work: along with three male attendants, she observes a libation offering being poured from a jug.</p>
<p>Enheduanna is situated in the centre of the image, with her gaze focused on the religious offering, and her hand raised in a gesture of piety. The image on the Disk emphasises the religious and social status of the priestess, who is wearing a cap and flounced garment.</p>
<h2>Art imitates life</h2>
<p>Enheduanna’s poetry contains what are thought to be autobiographical elements, such as <a href="https://www.academia.edu/5824228/The_First_Author_2010-2011_">descriptions of her struggle against a usurper</a>, Lugalanne. In her composition The Exaltation of Inanna, Enheduanna describes Lugalanne’s attempts to force her from her role at the temple. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257630/original/file-20190207-174880-5uae6b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257630/original/file-20190207-174880-5uae6b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/257630/original/file-20190207-174880-5uae6b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=988&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257630/original/file-20190207-174880-5uae6b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=988&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257630/original/file-20190207-174880-5uae6b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=988&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257630/original/file-20190207-174880-5uae6b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1241&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257630/original/file-20190207-174880-5uae6b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1241&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/257630/original/file-20190207-174880-5uae6b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1241&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Inanna temple relief.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Inanna_Temple_relief,_Nippur.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Enheduanna’s pleas to the moon god were apparently met with silence. She then turned to Inanna, who is praised for restoring her to office.</p>
<p>The challenge to Enheduanna’s authority, and her praise of her divine helper, are echoed in her other work, such as in the myth known as Inanna and Ebih.</p>
<p>In this narrative, the goddess Inanna comes into conflict with a haughty mountain, Ebih. The mountain offends the deity by standing tall and refusing to bow low to her. Inanna seeks help from her father, the deity Anu. He (understandably) advises her against going to war with the fearsome mountain range.</p>
<p>Inanna, in typically bold form, ignores this instruction and annihilates the mountain, before praising the god Enlil for his assistance. The myth contains intriguing parallels with the conflict described in Enheduanna’s poetry.</p>
<p>In the figure of Enheduanna, we see a powerful figure of great creativity, whose passionate praise of the goddess of love continues to echo through time, 4000 years after first being carved into a clay tablet.</p>
<p><em>Note: Translations of the Temple Hymns are taken from Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Fluckiger-Hawker, E, Robson, E., and Zólyomi, G., <a href="http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/">The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature</a>, Oxford 1998.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109185/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Pryke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Enheduanna’s name means ‘Ornament of Heaven’. She wrote hymns and myths more than 4000 years ago, studied the stars and yet is almost entirely unknown in the present day.
Louise Pryke, Lecturer, Languages and Literature of Ancient Israel, Macquarie University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/109060
2019-01-03T11:17:42Z
2019-01-03T11:17:42Z
How climate change caused the world’s first ever empire to collapse
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252304/original/file-20190102-32121-1d7jyfa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">King Naram-Sin of Akkad, grandson of Sargon, leading his army to victory.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Rama / Louvre</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Gol-e-Zard Cave lies in the shadow of Mount Damavand, which at more than 5,000 metres dominates the landscape of northern Iran. In this cave, stalagmites and stalactites are growing slowly over millennia and preserve in them clues about past climate events. Changes in stalagmite chemistry from this cave have now linked the collapse of the Akkadian Empire to <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2018/12/18/1808103115.short?rss=1">climate changes more than 4,000 years ago</a>.</p>
<p>Akkadia was the world’s first empire. It was established in Mesopotamia around 4,300 years ago after its ruler, Sargon of Akkad, united a series of independent city states. Akkadian influence spanned along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers from what is now southern Iraq, through to Syria and Turkey. The north-south extent of the empire meant that it covered regions with different climates, ranging from fertile lands in the north which were highly dependent on rainfall (one of Asia’s “bread baskets”), to the irrigation-fed alluvial plains to the south. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252311/original/file-20190102-32121-46c89h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252311/original/file-20190102-32121-46c89h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252311/original/file-20190102-32121-46c89h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252311/original/file-20190102-32121-46c89h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252311/original/file-20190102-32121-46c89h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=468&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252311/original/file-20190102-32121-46c89h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=588&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252311/original/file-20190102-32121-46c89h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=588&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252311/original/file-20190102-32121-46c89h.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=588&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Akkad empire during the reign of Narâm-Sîn (2254-2218 BC). Mount Damavand is labelled in blue.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Empire_akkad.svg">Zunkir / Semhir / wiki</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It appears that the empire became increasingly dependent on the productivity of the northern lands and used the grains sourced from this region to feed the army and redistribute the food supplies to key supporters. Then, about a century after its formation, the Akkadian Empire suddenly collapsed, followed by mass migration and conflicts. The anguish of the era is perfectly captured in the ancient <a href="http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section2/tr215.htm">Curse of Akkad</a> text, which describes a period of turmoil with water and food shortages: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>… the large arable tracts yielded no grain, the inundated fields yielded no fish, the irrigated orchards yielded no syrup or wine, the thick clouds did not rain.</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Drought and dust</h2>
<p>The reason for this collapse is still debated by historians, archaeologists and scientists. One of the most prominent views, championed by Yale archaeologist Harvey Weiss (who built on earlier ideas by <a href="https://archive.org/details/palestineitstran00hunt/page/n11">Ellsworth Huntington</a>), is that it was caused by an abrupt onset of drought conditions which severely affected the productive northern regions of the empire. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252312/original/file-20190102-32148-13s7d4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252312/original/file-20190102-32148-13s7d4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252312/original/file-20190102-32148-13s7d4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1140&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252312/original/file-20190102-32148-13s7d4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1140&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252312/original/file-20190102-32148-13s7d4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1140&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252312/original/file-20190102-32148-13s7d4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1433&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252312/original/file-20190102-32148-13s7d4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1433&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252312/original/file-20190102-32148-13s7d4f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1433&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sargon of Akkad – or maybe his son, Naram-Sin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Iraqi Directorate General of Antiquities / wiki</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Weiss and his colleagues discovered evidence in northern Syria that this once prosperous region was <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/261/5124/995">suddenly abandoned around 4,200 years ago</a>, as indicated by a lack of pottery and other archaeological remains. Instead, the rich soils of earlier periods were replaced by large amounts of wind-blown dust and sand, suggesting the onset of drought conditions. Subsequently, marine cores from the <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/28/4/379/207263/climate-change-and-the-collapse-of-the-akkadian?redirectedFrom=fulltext">Gulf of Oman</a> and the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2006.05.006">Red Sea</a> which linked the input of dust into the sea to distant sources in Mesopotamia, provided further evidence of a regional drought at the time.</p>
<p>Many other researchers viewed Weiss’s interpretation with scepticism, however. Some argued, for example, that the archaeological and marine evidence was <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/109/10/3632">not accurate enough</a> to demonstrate a robust correlation between drought and societal change in Mesopotamia. </p>
<h2>A new detailed climate record</h2>
<p>Now, stalagmite data from Iran sheds new light on the controversy. In a study published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2018/12/18/1808103115.short?rss=1">PNAS</a>, led by Oxford palaeoclimatologist Stacy Carolin, colleagues and I provide a very well dated and high resolution record of dust activity between 5,200 and 3,700 years ago. And cave dust from Iran can tell us a surprising amount about climate history elsewhere.</p>
<p>Gol-e-Zard Cave might be several hundred miles to the east of the former Akkadian Empire, but it is directly downwind. As a result, around 90% of the region’s dust originates in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231013002938?via%3Dihub">the deserts of Syria and Iraq</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252315/original/file-20190102-32127-m41jn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252315/original/file-20190102-32127-m41jn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252315/original/file-20190102-32127-m41jn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252315/original/file-20190102-32127-m41jn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252315/original/file-20190102-32127-m41jn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252315/original/file-20190102-32127-m41jn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252315/original/file-20190102-32127-m41jn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252315/original/file-20190102-32127-m41jn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Mount Damavand is a ‘potentially active’ volcano, and the highest peak in Iran. Gol-e-Zard Cave is nearby.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Vasile Ersek</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>That desert dust has a higher concentration of magnesium than the local limestone which forms most of Gol-e-Zard’s stalagmites (the ones which grow upwards from the cave floor). Therefore, the amount of magnesium in the Gol-e-Zard stalagmites can be used as an indicator of dustiness at the surface, with higher magnesium concentrations indicating dustier periods, and by extension drier conditions. </p>
<p>The stalagmites have the additional advantage that they can be dated very precisely using <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/313/5787/620">uranium-thorium chronology</a>. Combining these methods, our new study provides a detailed history of dustiness in the area, and identifies two major drought periods which started 4,510 and 4,260 years ago, and lasted 110 and 290 years respectively. The latter event occurs precisely at the time of the Akkadian Empire’s collapse and provides a strong argument that climate change was at least in part responsible.</p>
<p>The collapse was followed by mass migration from north to south which was met with resistance by the local populations. A 180km wall – the “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/24/science/collapse-of-earliest-known-empire-is-linked-to-long-harsh-drought.html">Repeller of the Amorites</a>” – was even built between the Tigris and Euphrates in an effort to control immigration, not unlike some strategies proposed today. The stories of abrupt climate change in the Middle East therefore echo over millennia to the present day.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/109060/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vasile Ersek receives funding from Leverhulme Trust, Royal Geographical Society, British Cave Research Association. </span></em></p>
Scientists have discovered new evidence of a drought that finished off the Akkadian Empire 4,000 years ago.
Vasile Ersek, Senior Lecturer in Physical Geography, Northumbria University, Newcastle
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/101529
2018-08-16T04:51:13Z
2018-08-16T04:51:13Z
Marvel meets Mesopotamia: how modern comics preserve ancient myths
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232210/original/file-20180816-2918-1pz5ku3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Gilgamesh (right) in his first appearance as an Avenger in the Marvel comic Avengers Vol 1 300</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://marvel.wikia.com/wiki/Avengers_Vol_1_300">Marvel Database</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ancient <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/wam.html">Mesopotamia</a>, the region roughly encompassing modern-day Iraq, Kuwait and parts of Syria, Iran and Turkey, gave us what we could consider some of the earliest known literary “superheroes”. </p>
<p>One was the hero <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugalbanda_and_the_Anzud_Bird">Lugalbanda</a>, whose <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/aysha-akhtar/loving-animals-is-good-fo_b_13411346.html">kindness to animals</a> resulted in the gift of <a href="https://qz.com/1043997/usain-bolt-is-the-fastest-human-in-the-world-heres-the-science-that-shows-how-he-does-it/">super speed</a>, perhaps making him the literary great-grandparent of the comic hero <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ryGR06dlPf0">The Flash</a>.</p>
<p>But unlike the classical heroes (<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/jul/28/myth-monsters-and-the-maze-how-writers-fell-in-love-with-the-labyrinth">Theseus</a>, <a>Herakles</a>, and Egyptian deities such as <a href="http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/herocomplex/la-et-hc-gods-of-egypt-trailer-why-20151117-htmlstory.html">Horus</a>), which have continued to be important cultural symbols in modern pop culture, Mesopotamian deities have largely fallen into obscurity. </p>
<p>An exception to this is the representation of Mesopotamian culture in science fiction, fantasy, and especially comics. Marvel and DC comics have added Mesopotamian deities, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-legend-of-ishtar-first-goddess-of-love-and-war-78468">Inanna, goddess of love</a>, Netherworld deities <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ereshkigal">Nergal and Ereshkigal</a>, and Gilgamesh, the heroic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilgamesh">king of the city of Uruk</a>.</p>
<h2>Gilgamesh the Avenger</h2>
<p>The Marvel comic book hero of Gilgamesh was created by Jack Kirby, although the character has been employed by numerous authors, notably Roy Thomas. Gilgamesh the superhero is a member of the Avengers, Marvel comics’ fictional team of superheroes now the subject of <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-superhero-films-such-as-infinity-war-arent-ruining-cinema-or-our-minds-95864">a major movie franchise</a>, including Captain America, Thor, and the Hulk. His character has a close connection with Captain America, who assists Gilgamesh in numerous battles.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-epic-of-gilgamesh-73444">Guide to the classics: the Epic of Gilgamesh</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Gilgamesh and Captain America are both characters who stand apart from their own time and culture. For Captain America, this is the United States during the 1940s, and for Gilgamesh, ancient Mesopotamia. A core aspect of their personal narratives is their struggle to navigate the modern world while still engaging with traditions from the past.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232211/original/file-20180816-2897-ctuco6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232211/original/file-20180816-2897-ctuco6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232211/original/file-20180816-2897-ctuco6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=923&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232211/original/file-20180816-2897-ctuco6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=923&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232211/original/file-20180816-2897-ctuco6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=923&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232211/original/file-20180816-2897-ctuco6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1159&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232211/original/file-20180816-2897-ctuco6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1159&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232211/original/file-20180816-2897-ctuco6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1159&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In the 1992 comic Captain America Annual #11, Cap is transported to ancient Mesopotamia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://marvel.wikia.com/wiki/Captain_America_Annual_Vol_1_11">Marvel Database</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Gilgamesh’s first appearance as an Avenger was in <a href="https://people.com/celebrity/the-summer-of-1989-see-31-things-that-defined-25-years-ago/">1989</a> in the comic series Avengers 1, issue #300, Inferno Squared. In the comic, Gilgamesh is known, rather aptly, as the “Forgotten One”. The “forgetting” of Gilgamesh the hero is also referenced in his first appearance in Marvel comics in 1976, where the character Sprite remarks that the hero “lives like an ancient myth, no longer remembered”.</p>
<p>In Avengers #304, …Yearning to Breathe Free!, Gilgamesh travels to Ellis Island with Captain America and Thor. The setting of Ellis Island allows for the heroes’ thoughtful consideration of their shared past as immigrants. Like Gilgamesh, Thor is also from foreign lands, in this case the Norse kingdom of <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/music/what-to-listen-to/thor-ragnarok-story-behind-led-zeppelins-viking-anthem-immigrant/">Asgard</a>. </p>
<p>In the 1992 comic Captain America Annual #11, the battle against the villainous Kang sends Captain America <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/time-travel-possible-time-machine-dr-who-tardis-spacetime-university-of-british-columbia-university-a7711411.html">time-travelling</a> back to Uruk in 2700 BCE. Captain America realises that the his royal companion is Gilgamesh, and accompanies the king on adventures from the legendary Epic of Gilgamesh.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232214/original/file-20180816-2903-18ht4nz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232214/original/file-20180816-2903-18ht4nz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232214/original/file-20180816-2903-18ht4nz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232214/original/file-20180816-2903-18ht4nz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232214/original/file-20180816-2903-18ht4nz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=914&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232214/original/file-20180816-2903-18ht4nz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1148&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232214/original/file-20180816-2903-18ht4nz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1148&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232214/original/file-20180816-2903-18ht4nz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1148&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Conan the Barbarian, featuring the goddess Inanna.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://marvel.wikia.com/wiki/Conan_the_Barbarian_Vol_1_40?file=ConantheBarbarian40.jpg">Marvel Database</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the original legend, Gilgamesh finds <a href="https://theconversation.com/young-blood-magic-or-medicine-88956">the key to eternal youth</a>, a heartbeat plant, and then promptly loses it to a snake. In the comic adaptation, the snake is an angry <a href="https://theconversation.com/did-snakes-evolve-from-ancient-sea-serpents-61144">sea serpent</a>, who Captain America must fight to save Gilgamesh. The Mesopotamian hero’s famous fixation on acquiring immortality is reflected in his Marvel counterpart’s choice to leave Captain America fighting the serpent in order to collect the heartbeat plant. This leads Cap to observe his ancient friend has “a few millennia” of catching up to do on <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-businesses-can-learn-from-teamwork-at-the-world-cup-100080">the concept of team-work</a>!</p>
<p>Gilgamesh is not the only hero to feature. Marvel’s 1974 comic, Conan the Barbarian #40, The Fiend from the Forgotten City, features the Mesopotamian goddess of love, Inanna. In the comic, the barbarian hero is assisted by the goddess while fighting against <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2016/06/looting-ancient-blood-antiquities/">looters</a> in an ancient “forgotten city.” Marvel’s Inanna holds similar powers to her mythical counterpart, including the ability to heal. It is interesting to note the prominence of <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/01/what-was-this-article-about-again/551603/">the theme of “forgetting</a>” in comic books involving Mesopotamian myths, perhaps alluding to the present day obscurity of ancient Mesopotamian culture.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-legend-of-ishtar-first-goddess-of-love-and-war-78468">Friday essay: the legend of Ishtar, first goddess of love and war</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Myth literacy</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232215/original/file-20180816-2912-1dgbmyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232215/original/file-20180816-2912-1dgbmyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/232215/original/file-20180816-2912-1dgbmyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232215/original/file-20180816-2912-1dgbmyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232215/original/file-20180816-2912-1dgbmyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232215/original/file-20180816-2912-1dgbmyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1759&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232215/original/file-20180816-2912-1dgbmyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1759&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/232215/original/file-20180816-2912-1dgbmyb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1759&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A possible image of Gilgamesh from 700BC in Iraq.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilgamesh#/media/File:Hero_lion_Dur-Sharrukin_Louvre_AO19862.jpg">Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s tempting to think that Captain America’s 1992 journey back to Ancient Mesopotamia was a comment on the political context at the time, particularly the <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2016/01/operation-desert-storm-25-years-since-the-first-gulf-war/424191/">Gulf War</a>. But Roy Thomas, creator of this comic, told me via email his portrayal of Gilgamesh reflected his interest in the legend from his university days, and teaching students ancient myths at a high school. </p>
<p>Thomas’ belief in the benefits of learning myths is well founded. <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/11/the-psychological-comforts-of-storytelling/381964/">Story-telling </a>has been recognised since ancient times as a powerful tool for <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/01/the-wisdom-deficit-in-schools/384713/">imparting wisdom</a>. Myths teach empathy and the ability to consider problems from different perspectives. </p>
<p>The combination of social and analytical skills developed through engaging with mythology can provide the foundation for<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/innovations/wp/2015/07/27/a-love-of-learning-will-guarantee-todays-students-succeed-in-the-jobless-future/?utm_term=.8de7fdce80ac"> a life-long love of learning</a>. A recent study has shown that packaging stories in comics makes them more memorable, a finding with particular significance for preserving Mesopotamia’s cultural heritage.</p>
<p>The myth literacy of science fiction and fantasy audiences allows for the representation in these works of more obscure ancient figures. Marvel comics see virtually the entire pantheons of Greece, Rome, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asgard_(comics)">Asgard</a> represented. But beyond these more familiar ancient worlds, Marvel has also featured deities of the <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2018/03/09/archaeological-finds-suggest-that-ancient-maya-religion-was-inspired-by-fossils/#59e201067309">Mayan</a>, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/21/us/pele-hawaii-volcano.html">Hawaiian</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/britannia-druids-and-the-surprisingly-modern-origins-of-myths-89979">Celtic religions</a>, and <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/2017/01/10/wombat-kaptn-koori-aboriginal-representation-comic-books-and-capes">Australian Aboriginal divinities</a>, and many others.</p>
<p>The use of Mesopotamian myth in comic books shows <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2012/apr/19/avengers-assemble-tom-hiddleston-superhero">the continued capacity of ancient legends to find new audiences</a> and modern <a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-feminist-medusas-and-outback-minotaurs-why-myth-is-big-in-childrens-books-60166">relevance</a>. In the comic multiverse, an appreciation of storytelling bridges a cultural gap of 4,000 years, making old stories new again, and hopefully preserving them for the future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/101529/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Pryke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Unlike the Greek heroes, many Mesopotamian mythical figures have slipped into obscurity. An exception to this is their representation in comics, such as Gilgamesh, who served alongside Captain America as an Avenger.
Louise Pryke, Lecturer, Languages and Literature of Ancient Israel, Macquarie University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/87858
2018-04-22T19:12:23Z
2018-04-22T19:12:23Z
In ancient Mesopotamia, sex among the gods shook heaven and earth
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215719/original/file-20180420-75123-92p1gd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The "Burney Relief," which is believed to represent either Ishtar, the Mesopotamian goddess of love and war, or her older sister Ereshkigal, Queen of the underworld (c. 19th or 18th century BC)</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:British_Museum_Queen_of_the_Night.jpg">BabelStone</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In our <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/sexual-histories-series-47407">sexual histories series</a>, authors explore changing sexual mores from antiquity to today.</em></p>
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<p>Sexuality was central to life in ancient Mesopotamia, an area of the Ancient Near East often described as the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2010/nov/10/ancient-world-mesopotamia">cradle of western civilisation</a> roughly corresponding to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, and parts of Syria, Iran and Turkey. It was not only so for everyday humans but for kings and even deities. </p>
<p>Mesopotamian deities shared many human experiences, with gods marrying, procreating and sharing households and familial duties. However when love went wrong, the consequences could be dire in both heaven and on earth. </p>
<p>Scholars have observed the similarities between the divine “marriage machine” found in ancient literary works and the historical courtship of mortals, although it is difficult to disentangle the two, most famously in so-called “sacred marriages”, which saw Mesopotamian kings marrying deities. </p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-epic-of-gilgamesh-73444">Guide to the classics: the Epic of Gilgamesh</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Divine sex</h2>
<p>Gods, being immortal and generally of superior status to humans, did not strictly need sexual intercourse for population maintenance, yet the practicalities of the matter seem to have done little to curb their enthusiasm. </p>
<p>Sexual relationships between Mesopotamian deities provided inspiration for a rich variety of narratives. These include Sumerian myths such as <a href="http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr121.htm">Enlil and Ninlil</a> and <a href="http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.1.1.1&charenc=j#">Enki and Ninhursag</a>, where the complicated sexual interactions between deities was shown to involve trickery, deception and disguise. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215723/original/file-20180420-75126-vclet3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215723/original/file-20180420-75126-vclet3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215723/original/file-20180420-75126-vclet3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=893&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215723/original/file-20180420-75126-vclet3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=893&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215723/original/file-20180420-75126-vclet3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=893&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215723/original/file-20180420-75126-vclet3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1122&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215723/original/file-20180420-75126-vclet3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1122&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215723/original/file-20180420-75126-vclet3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1122&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The goddess Ishtar as depicted in Myths and legends of Babylonia & Assyria, 1916, by Lewis Spence.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Myths_and_legends_of_Babylonia_and_Assyria_%281916%29_%2814801964123%29.jpg">Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In both myths, a male deity adopts a disguise, and then attempts to gain sexual access to the female deity — or to avoid his lover’s pursuit. In the first, the goddess Ninlil follows her lover Enlil down into the Underworld, and barters sexual favours for information on Enlil’s whereabouts. The provision of a false identity in these myths is used to circumnavigate <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2013/05/how-marital-infidelity-became-americas-last-sexual-taboo/276341/">societal expectations of sex and fidelity</a>.</p>
<p>Sexual betrayal could spell doom not only for errant lovers but for the <a href="http://wsrp.usc.edu/information/REL499_2011/Nergal%20and%20Ereshkigal.pdf">whole of society</a>. When the Queen of the Underworld, Ereshkigal, is abandoned by her lover, Nergal, she threatens to raise the dead unless he is returned to her, alluding to her right to sexual satiety. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-legend-of-ishtar-first-goddess-of-love-and-war-78468">goddess Ishtar makes the same threat</a> in the face of a romantic rejection from the king of Uruk in the <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sWppk7-Mti4">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>. It is interesting to note that both Ishtar and Ereshkigal, who are sisters, use one of the most potent threats at their disposal to address matters of the heart. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-legend-of-ishtar-first-goddess-of-love-and-war-78468">Friday essay: the legend of Ishtar, first goddess of love and war</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>The plots of these myths highlight the potential for deceit to create alienation between lovers during courtship. The <a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/books/the-course-of-love-by-alain-de-botton-review-a3230851.html">less-than-smooth course of love</a> in these myths, and their complex use of literary imagery, have drawn scholarly comparisons with the works of <a href="https://blog.oup.com/2010/03/shakespeare-and-sex/">Shakespeare</a>. </p>
<h2>Love poetry</h2>
<p>Ancient authors of Sumerian love poetry, depicting the exploits of divine couples, show a wealth of practical knowledge on the stages of female sexual arousal. It’s thought by some scholars that this poetry may have historically had an educational purpose: to <a href="https://theconversation.com/lets-talk-about-sex-teaching-teens-to-negotiate-sexual-intimacy-34983">teach inexperienced young lovers</a> in ancient Mesopotamia about intercourse. It’s also been suggested the texts had religious purposes, or possibly <a href="http://cis.uchicago.edu/oldsite/outreach/summerinstitute/epidemics/readings/farber_witchcraft.pdf">magical potency</a>. </p>
<p>Several texts write of the courtship of a divine couple, Inanna (the Semitic equivalent of Ishtar) and her lover, the shepherd deity Dumuzi. The closeness of the lovers is shown through a sophisticated combination of poetry and sensuousness imagery - perhaps providing an edifying example for this year’s <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2017/nov/23/bad-sex-award-2017-shortlist-the-contenders-in-quotes">Bad Sex in Fiction</a> nominees. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214678/original/file-20180413-566-862hnk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214678/original/file-20180413-566-862hnk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214678/original/file-20180413-566-862hnk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214678/original/file-20180413-566-862hnk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214678/original/file-20180413-566-862hnk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214678/original/file-20180413-566-862hnk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214678/original/file-20180413-566-862hnk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214678/original/file-20180413-566-862hnk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ancient Sumerian cylinder seal impression showing Dumuzid being tortured in the Underworld by the galla demons.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumuzid#/media/File:Dumuzi_aux_enfers.jpg">British Museum</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In one of the poems, elements of the female lover’s arousal are catalogued, from the increased lubrication of her vulva, to the “trembling” of her climax. The male partner is presented delighting in his partner’s physical form, and <a href="https://www.rd.com/advice/relationships/compliments-for-spouse/">speaking kindly to her</a>. The feminine perspective on lovemaking is emphasised in the texts through the description of the goddess’ <a href="http://www.health.com/sex/sexual-fantasy-meaning#01-sex-fantasies-why-intro">erotic fantasies</a>. These fantasies are part of the preparations of the goddess for her union, and perhaps contribute to her <a href="https://verilymag.com/2017/11/gender-roles-millennial-generation-millennial-parents-moms-men">sexual satisfaction</a>. </p>
<p>Female and male genitals could be celebrated in poetry, the presence of dark pubic hair on the goddess’ vulva is poetically described through the symbolism of a flock of ducks on a well-watered field or a narrow doorway framed in glossy black <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/afghanistans-beautiful-link-to-da-vincis-450-million_us_5a132ac0e4b010527d677f42">lapis-lazuli</a>. </p>
<p>The representation of genitals may also have served a religious function: temple inventories have revealed votive models of pubic triangles, some made of clay or bronze. Votive offerings in the shape of vulvae have been found in the city of Assur from before 1000 BC.</p>
<h2>Happy goddess, happy kingdom</h2>
<p>Divine sex was not the sole preserve of the gods, but could also involve the human king. Few topics from Mesopotamia have captured the imagination as much as the concept of sacred marriage. In this tradition, the historical Mesopotamian king would be married to the goddess of love, Ishtar. There is literary evidence for such marriages from very early Mesopotamia, before 2300 BC, and the concept persevered into much later periods. </p>
<p>The relationship between historical kings and Mesopotamian deities was considered crucial to the successful continuation of earthly and cosmic order. For the Mesopotamian monarch, then, the sexual relationship with the goddess of love most likely involved a certain amount of <a href="https://theconversation.com/on-love-and-politics-24304">pressure to perform</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215721/original/file-20180420-75095-1e84x3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215721/original/file-20180420-75095-1e84x3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/215721/original/file-20180420-75095-1e84x3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215721/original/file-20180420-75095-1e84x3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215721/original/file-20180420-75095-1e84x3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=290&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215721/original/file-20180420-75095-1e84x3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215721/original/file-20180420-75095-1e84x3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/215721/original/file-20180420-75095-1e84x3t.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=364&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In ancient Mesopotamia, a goddess’ vulva could be compared to a flock of ducks.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Some scholars have suggested these marriages involved a physical expression between the king and another person (such as a priestess) embodying the goddess. The general view now is that if there were a physical enactment to a sacred marriage ritual it would have been conducted on a symbolic level rather than a carnal one, with the king perhaps sharing his bed with a statue of the deity. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/date-sex-in-mesopotamia/">Agricultural imagery</a> was often used to describe the union of goddess and king. <a href="https://theconversation.com/give-bees-a-chance-the-ancient-art-of-beekeeping-could-save-our-honey-and-us-too-51322">Honey</a>, for instance, is described as sweet like the goddess’ mouth and vulva. </p>
<p>A <a href="http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.2.4.4.2#">love song from the city of Ur</a> between 2100-2000 BC is dedicated to Shu-Shin, the king, and Ishtar: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>In the bedchamber dripping with honey let us enjoy over and over your allure, the sweet thing. Lad, let me do the sweetest things to you. My precious sweet, let me bring you honey.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Sex in this love poetry is depicted as a pleasurable activity that enhanced loving feelings of intimacy. This sense of increased closeness was considered to bring joy to the heart of the goddess, resulting in good fortune and abundance for the entire community — perhaps demonstrating an early Mesopotamian version of the adage “<a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/video/new-study-confirms-happy-wife-happy-life-330048067667">happy wife, happy life</a>”. </p>
<p>The diverse presentation of divine sex creates something of a mystery around the causes for the cultural emphasis on cosmic copulation. While the presentation of divine sex and marriage in ancient Mesopotamia likely served numerous purposes, some elements of the intimate relationships between gods shows some carry-over to mortal unions. </p>
<p>While dishonesty between lovers could lead to alienation, positive sexual interactions held countless benefits, including greater intimacy and <a href="https://www.rd.com/advice/relationships/afterglow-from-sex/">lasting happiness</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/87858/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Pryke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Sex was central to life in ancient Mesopotamia. And the authors of Sumerian love poetry, depicting the exploits of divine couples, showed a wealth of practical knowledge about the stages of female sexual arousal.
Louise Pryke, Lecturer, Languages and Literature of Ancient Israel, Macquarie University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/92852
2018-03-15T15:24:32Z
2018-03-15T15:24:32Z
How we recreated a lost African city with laser technology
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209507/original/file-20180308-30986-1iluhpa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C43%2C2241%2C1340&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">LiDAR, was used to "redraw" the remains of the city, along the lower western slopes of the Suikerbosrand hills near Johannesburg. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Karim Sadr</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There are lost cities all over the world. Some, like the remains of <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-42916261">Mayan cities</a> hidden beneath a thick canopy of rainforest in Mesoamerica, are found with the help of laser lights.</p>
<p>Now the same technology which located those Mayan cities has been used to rediscover a southern African city that was occupied from the 15th century until about 200 years ago. This technology, called LiDAR, was used to “redraw” the remains of the city, along the lower western slopes of the Suikerbosrand hills near Johannesburg. </p>
<p>It is one of <a href="https://www.academia.edu/7337019/SETTLEMENTS_LANDSCAPES_AND_IDENTITIES_AMONG_THE_TSWANA_OF_THE_WESTERN_TRANSVAAL_AND_EASTERN_KALAHARI_BEFORE_1820">several large settlements</a> occupied by Tswana-speakers that dotted the northern parts of South Africa for generations before the first European travellers encountered them in the early years of the nineteenth century. In the 1820s all these Tswana city states collapsed in what became known as the <a href="http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/political-changes-1750-1835">Difeqane civil wars</a>. Some had never been documented in writing and their oral histories had gone unrecorded. </p>
<p>Four or five decades ago, several ancient Tswana ruins in and around the Suikerbosrand hills, about 60 kilometres south of Johannesburg, had been excavated by archaeologists from the University of the Witwatersrand. But from ground level and on aerial photos the full extent of this settlement could not be appreciated because vegetation hides many of the ruins.</p>
<p>But LiDAR, which uses laser light, <a href="https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxzb3V0aGVybmdhdXRlbmdzd3N8Z3g6NDA3NTU4ZGI2N2M4MmI2Yg">allowed my students and I</a> to create images of the landscape and virtually strip away the vegetation. This permits unimpeded aerial views of the ancient buildings and monuments. </p>
<p>We have given the city a generic placeholder name for now – SKBR. We hope an appropriate Tswana name can eventually be adopted.</p>
<h2>Bringing the city to life</h2>
<p>Judging by the dated architectural styles that were common at SKBR, it’s estimated that the builders of the stone walled structures occupied this area from the fifteenth century AD until the second half of the 1800s. </p>
<p>The evidence we gathered suggests that SKBR was certainly large enough to be called a city. The <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books?id=ZEX-yZOAG9IC&pg=PA40&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false">ancient Mesopotamian city of Ur</a> was less than 2km in diameter while SKBR is nearly 10km long and about 2km wide.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209509/original/file-20180308-30989-jigewb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/209509/original/file-20180308-30989-jigewb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209509/original/file-20180308-30989-jigewb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209509/original/file-20180308-30989-jigewb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209509/original/file-20180308-30989-jigewb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209509/original/file-20180308-30989-jigewb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/209509/original/file-20180308-30989-jigewb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The ancient homesteads at Suikerbosrand are shown against an aerial photograph from 1961. The two rectangles show the footprint of the LiDAR imagery.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Karim Sadr</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is difficult to estimate the size of its population. Between 750 and 850 homesteads have been counted at SKBR, but it’s hard to tell how many of these were inhabited at the same time, so we cannot easily estimate the city’s population at its peak. </p>
<p>Given what we know about more recent Tswana settlements, each homestead would have housed an extended family with, at the least, the (male) head of the homestead, one or more wives and their children.</p>
<p>Many features of the built environment at SKBR seem to signal the wealth and status of the homesteads or suburbs that they are associated with. For example, parallel pairs of rock alignments mark sections of passageways in several different parts of the city. </p>
<p>South African archaeologist Professor Revil Mason, who has carried out <a href="https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxzb3V0aGVybmdhdXRlbmdzd3N8Z3g6NzJmNzUyNjE0ZDQwOWM5MA">a great deal of research</a> on stone walled ruins around Johannesburg, called these features cattle drives, built to funnel the beasts along certain routes through the city.</p>
<p>If these were cattle drives the width and location of these passageways would have signalled the livestock wealth of the ward or homestead that constructed them, even when the cattle were not present.</p>
<p>In the central sector of SKBR there are two very large stone walled enclosures, with a combined area of just under 10, 000 square meters. They may have been kraals and if so they could have held nearly a thousand head of cattle.</p>
<h2>Monuments to wealth</h2>
<p>Among the largest features of the built environment at SKBR are artificial mounds composed of masses of ash from cattle dung fires, mixed with bones of livestock and broken pottery vessels. All this material appears to have been deliberately piled up at the entrance to the larger homesteads. </p>
<p>These are the remains of feasts and the ash heaps’ size publicised the particular homestead’s generosity and wealth. The use of refuse dumps as <a href="http://www.ucalgary.ca/uofc/others/sukur/Cult/HidiMidden/HMreport2013Main.pdf">landmarks of wealth and power</a> is known from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278416504000352">other parts of the world</a>, like India, as well. Even the contemporary gold mine dumps of Johannesburg can be seen in this light.</p>
<p>Other monuments to wealth and power at SKBR include a large number of short and squat <a href="https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxzb3V0aGVybmdhdXRlbmdzd3N8Z3g6MzU2N2VlN2NkNzVlZmM3Zg">stone towers</a> – on average 1.8 - 2.5 metres tall and about 5 metres wide at their base. The homesteads with the most stone towers tend to also have unusually large ash heaps at their entrance. The practical function of the towers isn’t known yet: they may have been the bases for grain bins, or they may mark burials of important people.</p>
<p>It will take another decade or two of field work to fully understand the birth, development and ultimate demise of this African city. This will be done through additional coverage with LiDAR, intensive ground surveys as well as excavations in selected localities. </p>
<p>Ideally, the descendants of those who built and inhabited this city should be involved in future research at this site. Some of my postgraduate students are already in contact with representatives of the Bakwena branch of the Tswana who claim parts of the landscape to the south of Johannesburg. We hope that they will actively become involved in our research project.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/92852/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Karim Sadr receives funding from the National Research Foundation and from the University of the Witwatersrand.</span></em></p>
Technology which located Mayan cities has been used to rediscover a southern African city from the 15th century.
Karim Sadr, Professor Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, University of the Witwatersrand
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/82639
2017-10-05T19:05:23Z
2017-10-05T19:05:23Z
Friday essay: the recovery of cuneiform, the world’s oldest known writing
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188297/original/file-20171002-12149-1sdz8wv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A relief at the ancient Persian city of Persepolis (now in modern Iran), including inscriptions in cuneiform, the world's oldest form of writing. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Diego Delso/Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>It is a little-known piece of history that Saddam Hussein was a great fan of ancient Mesopotamian literature. His enthusiasm for epics written in cuneiform – the world’s <a href="http://www.archaeology.org/issues/213-1605/features/4326-cuneiform-the-world-s-oldest-writing">oldest known form of writing</a> – can be seen in his own efforts at writing political romance novels and poetry. Hussein’s first novel, Zabibah and the King, blended the <a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-epic-of-gilgamesh-73444">Epic of Gilgamesh</a> with the <a href="https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/leisure/anglo-indian-nights/articleshow/60039407.cms">1001 Nights</a>, and was adapted into a television series and a musical.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188284/original/file-20171002-28506-caxt4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188284/original/file-20171002-28506-caxt4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188284/original/file-20171002-28506-caxt4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=856&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188284/original/file-20171002-28506-caxt4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=856&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188284/original/file-20171002-28506-caxt4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=856&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188284/original/file-20171002-28506-caxt4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1076&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188284/original/file-20171002-28506-caxt4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1076&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188284/original/file-20171002-28506-caxt4u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1076&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Zabibah and the King, 2000, by Saddam Hussein.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Indeed, the Iraqi dictator was said to be so immersed in his novel-writing that he left much of the military strategising to his sons leading up to the 2003 war. He <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2004/jul/06/fiction.iraq">continued writing in prison</a>, using a card table as a writing desk. This example from the modern genre of “<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/2011/mar/31/dictator-lit-saddam-hussein">dictator literature</a>” provides an unusual insight into the diverse reception of cuneiform literature in the modern day. </p>
<p>The decipherment of cuneiform in the late 18th century, a tale of academic virtuosity and daring, revealed a “forgotten age” and challenged the traditional, biblical view of history. One scholar was even put on trial for heresy for the wonders he uncovered in the translated script. </p>
<p>For over 3,000 years, cuneiform was the primary language of communication throughout the Ancient Near East (roughly corresponding to the Middle East today) and into parts of the Mediterranean. The <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=fHXobmWJ_IwC&pg=PA104&dq=hallo+1971+bahrani&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj915Pi__rVAhWLzLwKHe8YABAQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=hallo%201971%20bahrani&f=false">dominance of the cuneiform writing style</a> in antiquity has led scholars to refer to it as “the script of the first half of the known history of the world”. Yet it disappeared from use and understanding by 400 CE, and the processes and causes of the script’s vanishing act remain somewhat enigmatic. </p>
<p>Cuneiform is composed of wedge-shaped characters and was written on clay tablets (often likened to marks made by a chicken scratching in the mud). Unlike other ancient writing media, such as the papyri or leather scrolls used in Ancient Greece and Rome, cuneiform tablets survive in great abundance. Hundreds of thousands of tablets have been recovered from ruined Mesopotamian cities. </p>
<p>The discoveries yielded from the recovery of cuneiform writing continue to unfold in unexpected and exciting ways. In August this year, mathematicians at an Australian university made international headlines with their discovery involving a <a href="https://newsroom.unsw.edu.au/news/science-tech/mathematical-mystery-ancient-clay-tablet-solved">3,700-year-old clay tablet</a> containing a trigonometric table. The researchers said the cuneiform table reveals a sophisticated understanding of trigonometry — in some ways <a href="https://theconversation.com/written-in-stone-the-worlds-first-trigonometry-revealed-in-an-ancient-babylonian-tablet-81472">more advanced than in modern-day mathematics</a>!</p>
<h2>Lost in translation</h2>
<p>It is difficult to overstate the influence of cuneiform literature in the ancient world. Many languages throughout a vast geographical span over thousands of years were written in cuneiform, including Sumerian, Hittite, Hurrian and Akkadian. Among these, <a href="http://mymodernmet.com/akkadian-free-dictionary-online/">Akkadian</a> (an early cognate of Hebrew and Arabic) became the lingua franca of the Near East, including Egypt, during the Late Bronze Age. </p>
<p>Cuneiform was used to preserve the official royal correspondences between leaders of empires, but also simple transactions and record-keeping that were part of daily life. Over time, the skill of writing moved outside the main institutions of cities, such as temples and scribal schools, into the hands of citizens, as well as into private homes. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/HbZ2asfyHcA?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>Despite its dominance in antiquity, the use of cuneiform ceased entirely at some point between the first and third centuries CE. The great empires of the Ancient Near East experienced a long decline over many centuries, which ultimately resulted in the loss of Egyptian hieroglyphs and cuneiform as written languages. </p>
<p>Cuneiform’s sphere of influence shrank after the sixth century BCE, before vanishing entirely. The disappearance of cuneiform accompanied, and likely facilitated, the loss of Mesopotamian cultural traditions from the ancient and modern worlds.</p>
<p>There are several schools of thought surrounding the disappearance of cuneiform, including competition with alphabetic languages (where letters correspond to sounds) such as Aramaic and Greek, and the <a href="http://krieger2.jhu.edu/neareast/pdf/jcooper/Redundancy%20Reconsidered%202008.pdf">decline of writing traditions</a>. However, the process of the transition from cuneiform to alphabet is yet to be clearly understood.</p>
<h2>Deciphering the code</h2>
<p>The resurrection of cuneiform writing systems was described by legendary Sumerologist Samuel Noah Kramer as an “eloquent and magnificent achievement of 19th century scholarship and humanism”.</p>
<p>In the 15th century, cuneiform inscriptions were observed in Persepolis (in modern-day Iran). The script’s patterned dashes were not immediately recognised as writing. The name “cuneiform” (a Latin-based word meaning “wedge-shaped”) was given to the undeciphered writings by Oxford professor Thomas Hyde in 1700. </p>
<p>Hyde viewed the cuneiform markings as decorative rather than conveying language — a widely held view in academic circles of the 18th century. Despite some efforts to popularise the name “arrow writing”, “cuneiform” gained general acceptance. Yet cuneiform remained cryptic, and its ancient masterpieces buried and inscrutable.</p>
<p>The modern-day decipherment of cuneiform owes a great debt to the rulers of the <a href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm">Persian Achaemenid dynasty</a>, who reigned in what is modern-day Iran in the first millennium BCE. These rulers made cuneiform inscriptions recording their achievements. </p>
<p>The most important of these inscriptions for the decipherment of cuneiform was the Behistun inscription, which recorded the same message in three languages: Persian, Elamite and Akkadian. This trilingual inscription was carved into the face of a cliff in Behistun in what is now western Iran.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188526/original/file-20171003-12138-r1go5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188526/original/file-20171003-12138-r1go5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188526/original/file-20171003-12138-r1go5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188526/original/file-20171003-12138-r1go5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188526/original/file-20171003-12138-r1go5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188526/original/file-20171003-12138-r1go5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188526/original/file-20171003-12138-r1go5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188526/original/file-20171003-12138-r1go5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Behistun inscription, high above the ground in Iran.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">KendallKDown/Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Detailing the successes of King Darius I of Persia, the Behistun inscription was inscribed on rock some 100 metres off the ground around 520 BCE. In 1835, Henry Creswicke Rawlinson was training troops of the Shah of Iran when he encountered the inscription. In order to reach the writings and transcribe them, Rawlinson needed to <a href="https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/health-family/fitness/rock-climbing-puts-you-on-top-of-the-world-in-body-and-mind-1.3168467">dangle from the cliffs</a>, or to stand on the very top rung of a long ladder. From these precarious positions, he copied as much of the inscription as possible. </p>
<p>A “Kurdish boy”, whose name seems to be lost to history, assisted the daring endeavour. The boy was said to have used pegs dug into the rock wall as anchors to swing across the cliffs and reach the most inaccessible parts of the writing. Returning home, Rawlinson began working to unlock the secret of the lost script, perhaps with his <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?id=RMe3AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84&lpg=PA84&dq=rawlinson+lion+cub&source=bl&ots=HalWvyEiQo&sig=yNebXgVuuXE0tvTqxatm1HtvqLc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwilqPXYou_VAhVGv7wKHVbtBL4Q6AEIPTAH#v=onepage&q=rawlinson%20lion%20cub&f=false">pet lion cub by his side</a>.</p>
<p>Of the three languages, the Old Persian was the first to be decoded by Rawlinson. Scholars working on deciphering the script gained a sense of the chronological placement of the inscription and recognised some repeated signs, thereby gleaning something of the content and structure of the writings. </p>
<p>The presence of king lists in the Behistun inscription, which could be compared with lists in <a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-histories-by-herodotus-53748">Herodotus’ Histories</a>, provided a point of reference for deciphering the signs. Other Greek historians, and the Bible, were also consulted in the process. Through the contributions of a number of scholars in the first half of the 19th century, cuneiform slowly began to reveal its secrets.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185216/original/file-20170908-9538-nzkh60.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185216/original/file-20170908-9538-nzkh60.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/185216/original/file-20170908-9538-nzkh60.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=219&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185216/original/file-20170908-9538-nzkh60.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=219&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185216/original/file-20170908-9538-nzkh60.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=219&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185216/original/file-20170908-9538-nzkh60.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185216/original/file-20170908-9538-nzkh60.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/185216/original/file-20170908-9538-nzkh60.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=275&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Behistun inscription in western Iran was key to unlocking cuneiform – and the intellectual riches inside it.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/dynamosquito/3936190483">dynamosquito/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The significance of the Behistun inscription in the translation of cuneiform is often likened to the importance of <a href="https://www.livescience.com/60154-rosetta-stone.html">the Rosetta Stone</a> for deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs. In recent years, the inscription has been the focus of restorative efforts, after sustaining various types of damage — notably when Allied troops used the inscription for target practice during World War II. It is now a <a href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1222/">UNESCO World Heritage site</a>.</p>
<h2>Cuneiform controversy</h2>
<p>As the deciphering went on, divisions developed in the academic community over whether efforts to unravel cuneiform had proven successful. Part of the controversy stemmed from the extreme intricacy of the writing system. Cuneiform languages are made up of a collection of signs, and the meaning of these signs shows a great deal of variety. </p>
<p>In the Akkadian language, for example, a cuneiform sign may have a phonetic value — but not always the same phonetic value — or it may be a logogram, symbolising a word (such as “temple”), or a determinative sign, such as for a place or an occupation. This gives the translation of cuneiform a puzzle-like quality. The translator must select the value of the sign that appears best suited to the context. </p>
<p>Some scholars probably had sensible reasons for questioning the deciphering of cuneiform. Others held the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-some-controversies-persist-despite-the-evidence-28954">inaccurate view</a> that ancient Assyrians would have lacked the capacity to comprehend such a difficult writing system. To resolve the controversy, the British scientist W.H. Fox Talbot suggested a kind of cuneiform competition. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://royalasiaticsociety.org/">British Royal Asiatic Society</a> held the contest in 1857. Four scholars – Fox Talbot, Rawlinson and a Dr Hincks and a Dr Oppert – made unique translations of a single, previously unseen, cuneiform inscription. Each scholar then sent their translation in strict confidence to the society for comparison. After opening the sealed letters and examining the four translations, the society decided that the similarities between them were sufficiently compelling to declare cuneiform deciphered.</p>
<p>The rediscovery of cuneiform literature was not without further controversy. Fierce debates were conducted in eloquent handwritten letters over who had contributed to the discovery and decipherment of texts, and who deserved credit for the achievement.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188525/original/file-20171003-3782-pksdsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188525/original/file-20171003-3782-pksdsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/188525/original/file-20171003-3782-pksdsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188525/original/file-20171003-3782-pksdsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188525/original/file-20171003-3782-pksdsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188525/original/file-20171003-3782-pksdsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188525/original/file-20171003-3782-pksdsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/188525/original/file-20171003-3782-pksdsb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A recently discovered clay tablet telling part of the Epic of Gilgamesh in cuneiform.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg)/Wikimedia</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As well as this, the content of the literature caused friction in the academic communities of the 19th century. Prior to the rediscovery of cuneiform, the most prominent source for the Ancient Near East was the Hebrew Bible. The ability of cuneiform literature to provide a new perspective on the rich history of Egypt and Mesopotamia was embraced by many, but viewed with suspicion by others. For some, the translation of the long-forgotten writings raised the possibility of conflict between cuneiform sources and biblical literature.</p>
<p>Perhaps one of the most overt examples of these tensions in scholarly circles can be seen in the career of Nathaniel Schmidt from Colgate University. Schmidt was tried for heresy in 1895, due to the view that many of his translations of cuneiform appeared contrary to biblical traditions. He was dismissed from his position at Colgate in 1896. Following his dismissal, the eminent scholar was recruited by Cornell University (his <a href="https://middleeast.library.cornell.edu/content/about-collection">controversial departure</a> from Colgate made his appointment something of a “bargain”), where he taught Hebrew, Arabic, Aramaic, Coptic, Syriac and many other ancient languages.</p>
<h2>From cuneiform to the stars</h2>
<p>The recovery of cuneiform has provided access to an embarrassment of textual riches, including hundreds of thousands of legal and economic records, magico-medical texts, <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-eclipses-were-regarded-as-omens-in-the-ancient-world-81248">omens and prophecies</a>, wisdom literature and lullabies. </p>
<p>Masterpieces of ancient literature, such as the Gilgamesh Epic, <a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-the-legend-of-ishtar-first-goddess-of-love-and-war-78468">Ishtar’s Descent to the Underworld and Enuma Elish</a>, have found new audiences in the present day. One can now even find <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/15/science/cuneiform-tablet-cookies.html?mcubz=1">cuneiform cookies</a>. </p>
<p>Cuneiform has also aided scientific mysteries. <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/12/history-eclipse/509891/">Babylonian records</a> of a solar eclipse, written in cuneiform, have helped astronomers figure out how much Earth’s rotation has slowed. </p>
<p>The decipherment of the cuneiform script has reopened a timeless dialogue beyond ancient and modern civilisations, providing continued opportunities to better understand the world around us, and beyond. </p>
<hr>
<p><em><strong>Note:</strong> This essay contains details from the article “Comparative Translations”, in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 18, 1861. My grateful thanks to the Royal Asiatic Society for generously allowing access to their collection.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/82639/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Pryke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Cuneiform was used for over 3,000 years in the Ancient Near East, but was only decoded in the 19th century. The writing form is still revealing amazing stories, from literature to mathematics.
Louise Pryke, Lecturer, Languages and Literature of Ancient Israel, Macquarie University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/81248
2017-08-08T21:10:26Z
2017-08-08T21:10:26Z
How eclipses were regarded as omens in the ancient world
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181225/original/file-20170807-25556-1lixvch.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A solar eclipse observed over Grand Canyon National Park in May 2012.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/grand_canyon_nps/7245482574/in/photolist-c3fZxm-c3fXdW-c3fWx7-c3epum-c3eqTy-c3fY4y-57163S-c3epM9-c3fYVE-c3fXwy-C5XxB-c3g3CG-c3eqhY-fCVGm6-c3fZSh-fDdfNN-6F5DmM-c3g1tA-c3eoRU-c3fZdY-fPPjmU-aYNkx6-c3g3XC-aYNupX-aAEsP-pejVdz-c3g1a7-c3g2Fm-c3er2b-iKxDU4-c3g1RQ-c3g3iu-fF8ZAi-VXgGtY-zaEMKZ-z8mWNC-z8mWQb-7qMunB-ym8ku1-VXgSNA-VL4BXE-yT9Zdt-zaEPmV-VRwoZc-UJqhU9-UJqnCC-VqBEXm-VXgL2Q-VXgLD1-UJtxeq">Grand Canyon National Park </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2024/">April 8</a>, millions of Americans will be able to see the magic of a total solar eclipse.</p>
<p>Humans have been alternatively <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t_hnvgAACAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=strange%20behavior&f=false">amused, puzzled, bewildered and sometimes even terrified</a> at the sight of this celestial phenomenon. A range of social and cultural reactions <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/totality-the-great-american-eclipses-of-2017-and-2024-9780198795698?cc=us&lang=en&">accompanies the observation of an eclipse</a>. In ancient Mesopotamia (roughly modern Iraq), eclipses were in fact regarded as omens, as signs of things to come. </p>
<h2>Solar and lunar eclipses</h2>
<p>For an eclipse to take place, three celestial bodies must find themselves in a straight line within their elliptic orbits. This is called a syzygy, from the Greek word “súzugos,” meaning yoked or paired. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181229/original/file-20170807-25556-99aycz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181229/original/file-20170807-25556-99aycz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181229/original/file-20170807-25556-99aycz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181229/original/file-20170807-25556-99aycz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=299&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181229/original/file-20170807-25556-99aycz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181229/original/file-20170807-25556-99aycz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181229/original/file-20170807-25556-99aycz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=376&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Solar lunar eclipse diagram.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ASolar_lunar_eclipse_diagram.png">Tomruen (Own work) via Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>From our viewpoint on Earth, there are two kinds of eclipses: solar and lunar. In a solar eclipse, the moon passes in between the sun and Earth, which results in blocking our view of the sun. In a lunar eclipse, it is the moon that crosses through the shadow of the Earth. A solar eclipse can completely block our view of the sun, but it is usually a brief event and can be observed only in certain areas of the Earth’s surface; what can be viewed as a total eclipse in one’s hometown may just be a partial eclipse a few hundred miles away.</p>
<p>By contrast, a lunar eclipse can be viewed throughout an entire hemisphere of the Earth: the half of the surface of the planet that happens to be on the night side at the time. </p>
<h2>Eclipses as omens</h2>
<p>More than two thousand years ago, the <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TjiVXdSMRu4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+heavenly+writing&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj3laXx06TVAhUBWz4KHb2yBQwQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=223%20months&f=false">Babylonians</a> were able to <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7hnTZ8tdOS0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=223%20months&f=false">calculate</a> that there were 38 possible eclipses or syzygys within a period of 223 months: that is, about 18 years. This period of 223 months is called a <a href="https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsaros/SEsaros.html">Saros cycle</a> by modern astronomers, and a sequence of eclipses separated by a Saros cycle constitutes a Saros series. </p>
<p>Although scientists now know that the number of <a href="https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/LEsaros/LEperiodicity.html#section103">lunar</a> and <a href="http://www.solar-eclipse.de/en/saros/active/">solar</a> eclipses is not exactly the same in every Saros series, one cannot underplay the achievement of Babylonian scholars in understanding this astronomical phenomenon. Their realization of this <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ih8LAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false">cycle</a> eventually allowed them to <a href="http://www.oocities.org/hazarry/astronomy/eclipse_predction.pdf">predict</a> the occurrence of an eclipse. </p>
<p>The level of astronomical knowledge achieved in ancient Babylonia (southern Mesopotamia) cannot be separated from the astrological tradition that regarded eclipses as omens: Astronomy and astrology were then two sides of the same coin. </p>
<h2>Rituals to preempt royal fate</h2>
<p>According to Babylonian scholars, eclipses could foretell the death of the king. The conditions for an omen to be considered as such were not simple. For instance, according to a famous astronomical work known by its initial words, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JimYncnzaOkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=letters+from+assyrian+scholars+parpola&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi_6quU2KTVAhWG4D4KHa3EBz0Q6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=substitute%20king&f=false">“Enūma Anu Enlil”</a> – “When (the gods) Anu and Enlil” – if Jupiter was visible during the eclipse, the king was safe. Lunar eclipses seem to have been of particular concern for the well-being and <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TjiVXdSMRu4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+heavenly+writing&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj3laXx06TVAhUBWz4KHb2yBQwQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=substitute%20king&f=false">survival of the king</a>.</p>
<p>In order to preempt the monarch’s fate, a mechanism was devised: the “<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JimYncnzaOkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=letters+from+assyrian+scholars+parpola&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi_6quU2KTVAhWG4D4KHa3EBz0Q6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=substitute%20king&f=false">substitute king ritual</a>,” or “šar pūhi.” There are over 30 mentions of this ritual in various letters from <a href="http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-111871816X.html">Assyria</a> (northern Mesopotamia), dating to the first millennium B.C. Earlier references to a similar <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_4NSAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA208&dq=hittites+%22substitute+king%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjE3JH5zrHVAhWJez4KHb9LB8MQ6AEIKzAB#v=onepage&q=hittites%20%22substitute%20king%22&f=false">ritual</a> have also been found in <a href="https://secure.aidcvt.com/sbl/ProdDetails.asp?ID=061707P">texts in Hittite</a>, the Indo-European language for which we have the earliest written records, dating to second-millennium Anatolia – modern-day Turkey. </p>
<h2>Saving the king</h2>
<p><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JimYncnzaOkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=letters+from+assyrian+scholars+parpola&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi_6quU2KTVAhWG4D4KHa3EBz0Q6AEILTAB#v=onepage&q=substitute%20king&f=false">In this ritual</a>, a person would be chosen to replace the king. He would be dressed like the king and placed on the throne. To avoid confusion with a real coronation, all this would occur alongside the recitation of the negative omen triggered by the observation of the eclipse.</p>
<p>The real king would keep a low profile and avoid being seen. If no additional negative portents were observed, the substitute king was put to death, therefore fulfilling the prophetic reading of the celestial omen while saving the life of the real king. This ritual would take place when an eclipse was observed or even <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JimYncnzaOkC&pg=PA177&lpg=PA177&dq=%22substitute+king%22+eclipse+predict&source=bl&ots=bgfVsOicV4&sig=YoNxzkQjXjw1wRun_hQkPGkPpFo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjHl7z25rHVAhWD1CYKHQJiBngQ6AEIKzAB#v=onepage&q=%22substitute%20king%22%20eclipse%20predict&f=false">predicted</a>, something that became possible to do in <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7hnTZ8tdOS0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=predict&f=false">later periods</a>. </p>
<p>The presence of this ritual among the corpus of Hittite texts in second-millennium Anatolia has led to the assumption that it must have existed already in Mesopotamia during the first half of the second millennium B.C. </p>
<h2>A legend</h2>
<p>Although omens predicting the death of the king are already known for this earlier
period, the truth is that the main basis for such an assumption is an interesting story preserved only in a much later, first-millennium composition known by modern scholars as the <a href="http://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-20-chronicle-of-early-kings/">“Chronicle of Early Kings</a>.” </p>
<p>According to this <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NGwYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA334&lpg=PA334&dq=%22erra-imitti%22+%22enlil-bani%22+chronicle+isin&source=bl&ots=tPoVh86MF_&sig=dG7kHKpKYQlXB5N1fkUG3dQPdxw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwir7MHX4qTVAhWDNT4KHafzAwYQ6AEINDAD#v=onepage&q=%22erra-imitti%22%20%22enlil-bani%22%20chronicle%20isin&f=false">late chronicle</a>, a king of the city of Isin (modern Išān Bahrīyāt, about 125 miles to the southeast of Baghdad), Erra-imitti, was replaced by a gardener called Enlil-bani as part of a substitute king ritual. Luckily for this gardener, the real king died while eating hot soup, so the gardener remained on the throne and became king for good. </p>
<p>The fact is that these two kings, Erra-imitti and Enlil-bani, did exist and reigned successively in Isin during the 19th century B.C. The story, however, as told in the late “Chronicle of Early Kings,” bears all the trademarks of a legend. The story was probably devised to explain a dynastic switch, in which the royal office passed from one family or lineage to another, instead of following the usual father-son line of succession.</p>
<h2>Looking for meaning in the skies</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181236/original/file-20170807-25500-1euuy6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/181236/original/file-20170807-25500-1euuy6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181236/original/file-20170807-25500-1euuy6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181236/original/file-20170807-25500-1euuy6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181236/original/file-20170807-25500-1euuy6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181236/original/file-20170807-25500-1euuy6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/181236/original/file-20170807-25500-1euuy6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A lunar eclipse.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nsaunders/15298803219/in/photolist-piUnci-Caqqo-9TRc5w-4tvD3z-9TMW7i-CbjUN-4uXRdv-4vnQYS-93Km6N-cbAJLo-4tvsvc-9YzeKV-4tzkmj-4tMwJD-5dDoQa-4tRumf-4w4Zxp-9Zz58F-9rFvro-4tzjvW-dDmiBU-pApZyi-9rCxh2-D6bJg-5esUbp-4tv5na-5esUgn-4tyS1j-4tv6zD-4viMF8-2V6TTC-9TVYRJ-2VX6qr-4tz8eL-2VaKBf-CbjGD-2V8xKY-pifSiD-5dPPWw-4tvdgR-nbXQeb-baDGZx-9rFvRN-2VQVBd-9G9PX5-Cecor-baDGWV-n8q5e6-baDH2n-93yiu1">Neil Saunders</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Mesopotamia was not unique in this regard. For instance, a chronicle of early China known as the “Bamboo Annals” (竹書紀年 Zhúshū Jìnián) refers to a total lunar eclipse that took place in <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wUuyAAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=pankenier+astrology+china&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiDzqWU6KTVAhUTID4KHb4EB2gQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=1059&f=false">1059 B.C.</a>, during the reign of the last king of the Shang dynasty. This eclipse was regarded as a sign by a vassal king, Wen of the Zhou dynasty, to challenge his Shang overlord.</p>
<p>In the later <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wUuyAAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=pankenier+astrology+china&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiDzqWU6KTVAhUTID4KHb4EB2gQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=1059&f=false">account</a> contained in the “Bamboo Annals,” an eclipse would have triggered the political and military events that marked the transition from the Shang to the Zhou dynasty in ancient China. As in the case of the Babylonian “Chronicle of Early Kings,” the “Bamboo Annals” are a history of earlier periods compiled at a later time. The “<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2JNV_j-q64IC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=the%20editing%20and%20editions&f=false">Bamboo Annals</a>” were allegedly found in a tomb about A.D. 280, but they purport to date to the reign of the King Xiang of Wei, who died in 296 B.C.</p>
<p>The complexity of human events is rarely constrained and determined by one single factor. Nevertheless, whether in ancient Mesopotamia or in early China, eclipses and other omens provided contemporary justifications, or after-the-fact explanations, for an entangled set of variables that decided a specific course of history. </p>
<p>Even if they mix astronomy and astrology, or history with legend, humans have been preoccupied with the inescapable anomaly embodied by an eclipse for as long as they have looked at the sky.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/81248/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gonzalo Rubio does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
More than 2,000 years ago, the Babylonians understood the cycle of eclipses. They also regarded them as signs that could foretell the death of a king.
Gonzalo Rubio, Associate Professor of Classics & Ancient Mediterranean Studies, History, and Asian Studies, Penn State
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/78468
2017-06-22T20:03:04Z
2017-06-22T20:03:04Z
Friday essay: the legend of Ishtar, first goddess of love and war
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175079/original/file-20170621-30161-19y1ok4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ishtar (on right) comes to Sargon, who would later become one of the great kings of Mesopotamia. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/internetarchivebookimages/14783163205/">Edwin J. Prittie, The story of the greatest nations, 1913</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As singer Pat Benatar once noted, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CjY_uSSncQw">love is a battlefield</a>. Such use of military words to express intimate, affectionate emotions is likely related to <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2017/04/26/heartbreak-placebo-effect_n_16261856.html">love’s capacity to bruise and confuse</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175088/original/file-20170622-25561-115v9mc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175088/original/file-20170622-25561-115v9mc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175088/original/file-20170622-25561-115v9mc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=928&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175088/original/file-20170622-25561-115v9mc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=928&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175088/original/file-20170622-25561-115v9mc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=928&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175088/original/file-20170622-25561-115v9mc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1166&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175088/original/file-20170622-25561-115v9mc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1166&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175088/original/file-20170622-25561-115v9mc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1166&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ishtar holding a symbol of leadership. Terracotta relief, early 2nd millennium BC. From Eshnunna. Held in the Louvre.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Marie-Lan Nguyen</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So it was with the world’s first goddess of love and war, Ishtar, and her lover Tammuz. In ancient Mesopotamia - roughly corresponding to modern Iraq, parts of Iran, Syria, Kuwait and Turkey - love was a powerful force, capable of upending earthly order and producing sharp changes in status. </p>
<p>From Aphrodite to <a href="https://theconversation.com/wonder-women-have-been-smashing-the-patriarchy-since-classical-times-77695">Wonder Woman</a>, we continue to be fascinated by powerful female protagonists, an interest that can be traced back to our earliest written records. Ishtar (the word comes from the Akkadian language; she was known as Inanna in Sumerian) was the first deity for which we have written evidence. She was closely related to romantic love, but also familial love, the loving bonds between communities, and sexual love. </p>
<p>She was also a warrior deity with a potent capacity for vengeance, as her lover would find out. These seemingly opposing personalities have raised scholarly eyebrows both ancient and modern. Ishtar is a love deity who is terrifying on the battlefield. Her beauty is the subject of love poetry, and her rage likened to a destructive storm. But in her capacity to shape destinies and fortunes, they are two sides of the same coin.</p>
<h2>Playing with fate</h2>
<p>The earliest poems to Ishtar were written by Enheduanna — the <a href="http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section4/tr4072.htm">world’s first individually identified author</a>. Enheduanna (circa 2300 BCE) is generally considered to have been an historical figure living in Ur, one of the <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/03/160311-ur-iraq-trade-royal-cemetery-woolley-archaeology/">world’s oldest urban centres</a>. She was a priestess to the moon god and the daughter of Sargon of Akkad (“Sargon the Great”), the first ruler to unite northern and southern Mesopotamia and found the powerful Akkadian empire. </p>
<p>The sources for Enheduanna’s life and career are historical, literary and archaeological: she commissioned an alabaster relief, the <a href="https://www.penn.museum/blog/museum/ur-digitization-project-item-of-the-month-june-2012/">Disk of Enheduanna</a>, which is inscribed with her dedication.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175082/original/file-20170621-19084-1h0x7a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175082/original/file-20170621-19084-1h0x7a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175082/original/file-20170621-19084-1h0x7a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=767&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175082/original/file-20170621-19084-1h0x7a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=767&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175082/original/file-20170621-19084-1h0x7a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=767&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175082/original/file-20170621-19084-1h0x7a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=964&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175082/original/file-20170621-19084-1h0x7a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=964&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175082/original/file-20170621-19084-1h0x7a6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=964&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Disk of Enheduanna.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Object B16665. Courtesy of the Penn Museum.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In her poetry, Enheduanna reveals the diversity of Ishtar, including her superlative capacity for armed conflict and her ability to bring about abrupt changes in status and fortune. This ability was well suited to a goddess of love and war — both areas where swift reversals can take place, utterly changing the state of play. </p>
<p>On the battlefield, the goddess’s ability to fix fates ensured victory. In love magic, Ishtar’s power could alter romantic fortunes. In ancient love charms, her influence was invoked to win, or indeed, capture, the heart (and other body parts) of a desired lover.</p>
<h2>Dressed for success</h2>
<p>Ishtar is described (by herself in love poems, and by others) as a beautiful, young woman. Her lover, Tammuz, compliments her on the beauty of her eyes, a seemingly timeless form of <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/flattery-will-get-you-far/">flattery</a>, with a literary history stretching back to around 2100 BCE. Ishtar and Tammuz are the protagonists of one of the world’s first love stories. In love poetry telling of their courtship, the two have a very affectionate relationship. But like many great love stories, their union ends tragically. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174880/original/file-20170621-8977-jqhc90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174880/original/file-20170621-8977-jqhc90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174880/original/file-20170621-8977-jqhc90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=859&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174880/original/file-20170621-8977-jqhc90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=859&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174880/original/file-20170621-8977-jqhc90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=859&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174880/original/file-20170621-8977-jqhc90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1080&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174880/original/file-20170621-8977-jqhc90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1080&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174880/original/file-20170621-8977-jqhc90.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1080&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ishtar’s Midnight Courtship, from Ishtar and Izdubar, the epic of Babylon, 1884.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/britishlibrary/11170021403">The British Library/flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The most famous account of this myth is Ishtar’s Descent to the Underworld, author unknown. This ancient narrative, surviving in <a href="http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr141.htm">Sumerian and Akkadian versions</a> (both <a href="http://www.bbc.com/news/business-39870485">written in cuneiform</a>),
was only deciphered in the 19th Century. It begins with Ishtar’s decision to visit the realm of her sister, Ereshkigal, Queen of the Underworld. </p>
<p>Ostensibly, she is visiting her sister to mourn the death of her brother-in-law, possibly the Bull of Heaven who appears in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-the-epic-of-gilgamesh-73444?sr=1">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>. But the other gods in the story view the move as an attempt at a hostile takeover. Ishtar was known for being extremely ambitious; in another myth she storms the heavens and stages a divine coup.</p>
<p>Any questions over Ishtar’s motives are settled by the description of her preparation for her journey. She carefully applies make-up and jewellery, and wraps herself in beautiful clothing. Ishtar is frequently described applying cosmetics and enhancing her appearance before undertaking battle, or before meeting a lover. Much as a male warrior may put on a breast plate before a fight, Ishtar lines her eyes with mascara. She’s the original power-dresser: her enrichment of <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/dress-for-success-how-clothes-influence-our-performance/">her beauty and her choice of clothes</a> accentuate her potency.</p>
<p>Next, in a humorous scene brimming with irony, the goddess instructs her faithful handmaiden, Ninshubur, on how to behave if Ishtar becomes trapped in the netherworld. First, Ninshubur must clothe herself in correct mourning attire, such as sackcloth, and create a dishevelled appearance. Then, she must go to the temples of the great gods and ask for help to rescue her mistress. Ishtar’s instructions that her handmaiden dress in appropriately sombre mourning-wear are a stark contrast to her own flashy attire.</p>
<h2>‘No one comes back from the underworld unmarked’</h2>
<p>But when Ereshkigal learns that Ishtar is dressed so well, she realises she has come to conquer the underworld. So she devises a plan to literally strip Ishtar of her power.</p>
<p>Once arriving at Ereshkigal’s home, Ishtar descends through the seven gates of the underworld. At each gate she is instructed to remove an item of clothing. When she arrives before her sister, Ishtar is naked, and Ereshkigal kills her at once. </p>
<p>Her death has terrible consequences, involving the cessation of all earthly sexual intimacy and fertility. So on the advice of Ishtar’s handmaiden, Ea - the god of wisdom - facilitates a plot to revive Ishtar and return her to the upper world. His plot suceeds, but there is an ancient Mesopotamian saying: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>No one comes back from the underworld unmarked.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Once a space had been created in the underworld, it was thought that it couldn’t be left empty. Ishtar is instructed to ascend with a band of demons to the upper world, and find her own replacement. </p>
<p>In the world above, Ishtar sees Tammuz dressed regally and relaxing on a throne, apparently unaffected by her death. Enraged, she instructs the demons to take him away with them. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174876/original/file-20170621-4662-ap6nig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=158%2C134%2C3784%2C2512&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174876/original/file-20170621-4662-ap6nig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=158%2C134%2C3784%2C2512&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174876/original/file-20170621-4662-ap6nig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174876/original/file-20170621-4662-ap6nig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174876/original/file-20170621-4662-ap6nig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=409&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174876/original/file-20170621-4662-ap6nig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174876/original/file-20170621-4662-ap6nig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174876/original/file-20170621-4662-ap6nig.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=514&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Ishtar Gate to the city of Babylon, was dedicated to the Mesopotamian goddess. Reconstruction in the Pergamon Museum, Berlin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/danielmennerich/14269318954/in/photolist-nJVZoA-iKzbN-pJEhzP-SxCEvG-7S7oBC-hsBd1V-DpJ4N-DpJHX-nDNppx-9cyc7j-4MHms9-3VNhLD-jwYBs-847gkt-4MHkqb-jFrAzg-z7md5-nKW7LE-nuWJgj-nxLsSc-UVvx8a-obntFg-oa1L4C-nU1xnx-nNDLVn-UgKq-e8zY23-oaGd32-3VNi1g-2jS23n-o8DT7o-zTasT2-76dVv6-zzCmz3-Co1av-hx2mEz-arZpTK-8Kj5jv-oejCVr-9LBYRa-eng9X-5ZT2Vk-aoUXBr-nQUsVs-giYos-opXNJc-oayhuU-7kYmuN-ggQtu7-eng9Z">Daniel Mennerich/flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A goddess scorned</h2>
<p>Ishtar’s role in her husband’s demise has earned her a reputation as being somewhat fickle. But this assessment does not capture the complexity of the goddess’s role. Ishtar is portrayed in the myth of her Descent and elsewhere as capable of intense faithfulness: rather than being fickle, her role in her husband’s death shows her vengeful nature.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/11/books/review/house-of-names-colm-toibin-bright-air-black-david-vann.html">Women and vengeance</a> proved a popular combination in the myths of ancient Greece and Rome, where powerful women such as Electra, Clytemnestra and Medea brought terrible consequences on those who they perceived as having wronged them. This theme has continued to fascinate audiences to the present day. </p>
<p>The concept is encapsulated by the line, often misattributed to Shakespeare, from <a href="http://archives.cjr.org/language_corner/language_corner_092914.php">William Congreve’s The Mourning Bride</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Heaven has no rage like love to hatred turned, nor hell a fury like a woman scorned.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Before she sees her husband relaxing after her death, Ishtar first encounters her handmaiden Ninshubur, and her two sons. One son is described as the goddess’s manicurist and hairdresser, and the other is a warrior. All three are spared by the goddess due to their faithful service and their overt expressions of grief over Ishtar’s death — they are each described lying in the dust, dressed in rags. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175089/original/file-20170622-30227-125o8ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175089/original/file-20170622-30227-125o8ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/175089/original/file-20170622-30227-125o8ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175089/original/file-20170622-30227-125o8ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175089/original/file-20170622-30227-125o8ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175089/original/file-20170622-30227-125o8ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175089/original/file-20170622-30227-125o8ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/175089/original/file-20170622-30227-125o8ry.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Botticelli’s Birth of Venus, depicting the Roman goddess of love.</span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The diligent behaviour of Ishtar’s attendants is juxtaposed against the actions of Tammuz, a damning contrast that demonstrates his lack of appropriate mourning behaviour. Loyalty is the main criteria Ishtar uses to choose who will replace her in the underworld. This hardly makes her faithless. </p>
<p>Ishtar’s pursuit of revenge in ancient myths is an extension of her close connection to the dispensation of justice, and the maintenance of universal order. Love and war are both forces with the potential to create chaos and confusion, and the deity associated with them needed to be able to restore order as well as to disrupt it.</p>
<p>Still, love in Mesopotamia could survive death. Even for Tammuz, love was salvation and protection: the faithful love of his sister, Geshtinanna, allowed for his eventual return from the underworld. Love, as they say, never dies — but in the rare cases where it might momentarily expire, it’s best to mourn appropriately.</p>
<h2>Ishtar’s legacy</h2>
<p>Ishtar was one of the most popular deities of the Mesopotamian pantheon, yet in the modern day she has slipped into almost total anonymity. Ishtar’s legacy is most clearly seen through her influence on later cultural archetypes, with her image contributing to the development of the most famous love goddess of them all, <a href="http://www.theoi.com/Summary/Aphrodite.html">Aphrodite</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174883/original/file-20170621-30161-1d0jpuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174883/original/file-20170621-30161-1d0jpuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/174883/original/file-20170621-30161-1d0jpuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174883/original/file-20170621-30161-1d0jpuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174883/original/file-20170621-30161-1d0jpuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174883/original/file-20170621-30161-1d0jpuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174883/original/file-20170621-30161-1d0jpuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/174883/original/file-20170621-30161-1d0jpuh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">There are intriguing similarities between Ishtar and Wonder Woman.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0451279/mediaviewer/rm1936796160">Atlas Entertainment</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ishtar turns up in science fiction, notably as a beautiful yet self-destructive stripper in Neil Gaiman’s comic <a href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/25105.Brief_Lives">The Sandman: Brief Lives</a>. Gaiman’s exceptional command of Mesopotamian myth suggests the “stripping” of Ishtar may involve a wink to the ancient narrative tradition of her Descent. </p>
<p>She is not directly referenced in the <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0093278/">1987 film</a> that carries her name (<a href="http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/ishtar-1987">received poorly</a> but now something of a <a href="http://flavorwire.com/605847/bad-movie-night-the-unsung-charms-of-ishtar">cult classic</a>), although the lead female character Shirra, shows some similarities to the goddess. </p>
<p>In the graphic novel tradition, Aphrodite is credited with shaping the image of Wonder Woman, and Aphrodite’s own image was influenced by Ishtar. This connection may partially explain the intriguing similarities between Ishtar and the modern superhero: both figures are represented as warriors who grace the battlefield wearing bracelets and a tiara, brandishing a rope weapon, and demonstrating love, loyalty and a fierce commitment to justice.</p>
<p>Ishtar, like other love goddesses, has been linked to in <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/sacred-prostitution-overview-120992">ancient sexual and fertility rituals</a>, although the evidence for this is up for debate, and frequently overshadows the deity’s many other fascinating qualities. </p>
<p>Exploring the image of the world’s first goddess provides an insight into Mesopotamian culture, and the enduring power of love through the ages. In the modern day, <a href="https://theconversation.com/there-are-six-styles-of-love-which-one-best-describes-you-72664">love is said to conquer all</a>, and in the ancient world, Ishtar did just that.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>The author’s book, <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Ishtar/Pryke/p/book/9781138860735">Ishtar</a>, will be published this month by Routledge.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/78468/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Pryke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Love, it is said, is a battlefield, and it was no more so than for the first goddess of love and war, Ishtar. Her legend has influenced cultural archetypes from Aphrodite to Wonder Woman.
Louise Pryke, Lecturer, Languages and Literature of Ancient Israel, Macquarie University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/73444
2017-05-07T19:38:11Z
2017-05-07T19:38:11Z
Guide to the classics: the Epic of Gilgamesh
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161928/original/image-20170322-27966-yag6gc.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Gilgamesh explores what it means to be human, and questions the meaning of life and love.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wikimedia Commons</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>“Forget death and seek life!” With these encouraging words, Gilgamesh, the star of the eponymous 4000-year-old epic poem, coins the world’s first heroic catchphrase.</p>
<p>At the same time, the young king encapsulates the considerations of mortality and humanity that lie at the heart of the world’s most ancient epic. While much has changed since, the epic’s themes are still remarkably <a href="https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/05/16/editorial-contest-winner-the-resurrection-of-gilgamesh/?_r=0">relevant to modern readers</a>.</p>
<p>Depending upon your point of view, Gilgamesh may be considered a myth-making biography of a legendary king, a love story, a comedy, a tragedy, a cracking adventure, or perhaps an anthology of origin stories. </p>
<p>All these elements are present in the narrative, and the diversity of the text is only matched by its literary sophistication. Perhaps surprisingly, given the extreme antiquity of the material, the epic is a masterful blending of complex existential queries, rich imagery and dynamic characters.</p>
<p>The narrative begins with Gilgamesh ruling over the city of Uruk as a tyrant. To keep him occupied, the Mesopotamian deities create a companion for him, the hairy wild man Enkidu. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161900/original/image-20170321-5391-188gvhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161900/original/image-20170321-5391-188gvhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161900/original/image-20170321-5391-188gvhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161900/original/image-20170321-5391-188gvhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161900/original/image-20170321-5391-188gvhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161900/original/image-20170321-5391-188gvhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1040&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161900/original/image-20170321-5391-188gvhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1040&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161900/original/image-20170321-5391-188gvhk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1040&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gilgamesh in his lion-strangling mode.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Enkidu.jpg">TangLung, Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Gilgamesh sets about civilising Enkidu, a feat achieved through the novel means of a week of sex with the wise priestess, Shamhat (whose very name in Akkadian suggests both beauty and voluptuousness). </p>
<p>Gilgamesh and Enkidu become inseparable, and embark on a quest for lasting <a href="https://aeon.co/essays/why-on-earth-would-we-sacrifice-our-lives-for-lasting-fame">fame and glory</a>. The heroes’ actions upset the gods, leading to Enkidu’s early death.</p>
<p>The death of Enkidu is a pivotal point in the narrative. The love between Gilgamesh and Enkidu transforms the royal protagonist, and Enkidu’s death leaves Gilgamesh bereft and terrified of his own mortality. </p>
<p>The hero dresses himself in the skin of a lion, and travels to find a long-lived great flood survivor, Utanapishtim (often compared with the biblical Noah). After a perilous journey over the waters of death, Gilgamesh finally meets Utanapishtim and asks for the secret to immortality.</p>
<p>In one of the earliest literary anti-climaxes, Utanapishtim tells him that he doesn’t have it. The story ends with Gilgamesh returning home to the city of Uruk.</p>
<h2>Mesopotamian mindfulness</h2>
<p>Gilgamesh and his adventures can only be described in superlative terms: during his legendary journeys, the hero battles <a href="https://theconversation.com/fantastic-beasts-and-where-to-find-them-a-history-of-monsters-from-werewolves-to-hippogriffs-68526">deities and monsters</a>, finds (and loses) the secret to eternal youth, travels to the very edge of the world — and beyond. </p>
<p>Despite the fantastical elements of the narrative and its protagonist, Gilgamesh remains a very human character, one who experiences the same heartbreaks, limitations and simple pleasures that shape the universal quality of the human condition.</p>
<p>Gilgamesh explores the nature and meaning of being human, and asks the questions that continue to be debated in the modern day: what is <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/feb/07/go-for-walk-discover-meaning-life">the meaning of life and love</a>? What is life really — and am I doing it right? How do we cope with life’s brevity and uncertainty, and how do we deal with loss? </p>
<p>The text provides multiple answers, allowing the reader to wrestle with these ideas alongside the hero. Some of the clearest advice is provided by the beer deity, Siduri (yes, a goddess of beer), who suggests Gilgamesh set his mind less resolvedly on extending his life.</p>
<p>Instead, she urges him to enjoy life’s simple pleasures, such as the company of loved ones, good food and clean clothes — perhaps giving an example of a kind of Mesopotamian mindfulness.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161918/original/image-20170322-27966-1rijvb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161918/original/image-20170322-27966-1rijvb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161918/original/image-20170322-27966-1rijvb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=733&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161918/original/image-20170322-27966-1rijvb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=733&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161918/original/image-20170322-27966-1rijvb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=733&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161918/original/image-20170322-27966-1rijvb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=921&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161918/original/image-20170322-27966-1rijvb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=921&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161918/original/image-20170322-27966-1rijvb9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=921&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The king-hero Gilgamesh battling the ‘Bull of Heaven’.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:O.1054_color.jpg">Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The epic also provides the reader with a useful case study in what not to do if one is in the exceptional circumstance of reigning over the ancient city of Uruk. In ancient Mesopotamia, the correct behaviour of the king was necessary for maintaining earthly and heavenly order.</p>
<p>Despite the gravity of this royal duty, Gilgamesh seems to do everything wrong. He kills the divinely-protected environmental guardian, Humbaba, and ransacks his precious Cedar Forest. He insults the beauteous goddess of love, Ishtar, and slays the mighty Bull of Heaven. </p>
<p>He finds <a href="https://theconversation.com/rising-life-expectancy-and-why-we-need-to-rethink-the-meaning-of-old-age-64990">the key to eternal youth</a>, but then loses it just as quickly to a passing snake (in the process explaining the snake’s “renewal” after shedding its skin). Through these misadventures, Gilgamesh strives for fame and immortality, but instead finds love with his companion, Enkidu, and a deeper understanding of the limits of humanity and the importance of community.</p>
<h2>Reception and recovery</h2>
<p>The Epic of Gilgamesh was wildly famous in antiquity, with its impact traceable to the later literary worlds of the Homeric epics and <a href="http://www.reed.edu/reed_magazine/june2013/articles/eliot_circular/gilgamesh.html">the Hebrew Bible</a>. Yet, in the modern day, even the most erudite readers of ancient literature might struggle to outline its plot, or name its protagonists.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161902/original/image-20170321-5408-12bnkph.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161902/original/image-20170321-5408-12bnkph.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161902/original/image-20170321-5408-12bnkph.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161902/original/image-20170321-5408-12bnkph.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161902/original/image-20170321-5408-12bnkph.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161902/original/image-20170321-5408-12bnkph.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1341&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161902/original/image-20170321-5408-12bnkph.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1341&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161902/original/image-20170321-5408-12bnkph.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1341&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A statue of Gilgamesh at the University of Sydney.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gilgamesh_Statue_Sydney_University_Statue2.14th.JPG">Gwil5083, Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To what might we owe this modern-day cultural amnesia surrounding one of the world’s greatest works of ancient literature? </p>
<p>The answer lies in the history of the narrative’s reception. While many of the great literary works of ancient Greece and Rome were studied continuously throughout the development of Western culture, the Epic of Gilgamesh comes from a forgotten age. </p>
<p>The story originates in Mesopotamia, an area of the Ancient Near East thought to roughly correspond with modern-day Iraq, Kuwait and parts of Syria, Iran and Turkey, and frequently noted as “the cradle of civilisation” for its early agriculture and cities. </p>
<p>Gilgamesh was written in cuneiform script, the world’s oldest known form of writing. The earliest strands of Gilgamesh’s narrative can be found in five Sumerian poems, and other versions include those written in Elamite, Hittite and Hurrian. The best-known version is the Standard Babylonian Version, written in Akkadian (a language written in cuneiform that functioned as the language of diplomacy in the second millennium BCE). </p>
<p>The disappearance of the cuneiform writing system around the time of the 1st century CE accelerated Gilgamesh’s sharp slide into anonymity.</p>
<p>For almost two millennia, clay tablets containing stories of Gilgamesh and his companions lay lost and buried, alongside many tens of thousands of other cuneiform texts, beneath the remnants of the great <a href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/research_projects/all_current_projects/ashurbanipal_library_phase_1.aspx.">Library of Ashurbanipal</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161905/original/image-20170321-5408-1ec8fta.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161905/original/image-20170321-5408-1ec8fta.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/161905/original/image-20170321-5408-1ec8fta.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161905/original/image-20170321-5408-1ec8fta.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161905/original/image-20170321-5408-1ec8fta.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161905/original/image-20170321-5408-1ec8fta.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161905/original/image-20170321-5408-1ec8fta.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/161905/original/image-20170321-5408-1ec8fta.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tablet V of the Epic of Gilgamesh.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tablet_V_of_the_Epic_of_Gligamesh.JPG">Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin, Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The modern rediscovery of the epic was a watershed moment in the understanding of the Ancient Near East. The <a href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/epic-hero-153362976/">eleventh tablet of the Epic</a> was first translated by self-taught cuneiform scholar George Smith of the British Museum in 1872. Smith discovered the presence of an ancient Babylonian flood narrative in the text with striking parallels to the biblical <a href="http://time.com/44631/noah-christians-flood-aronofsky/">flood story of the Book of Genesis</a>. </p>
<p>The story is often repeated (although it may be apocryphal) that when Smith began to decipher the tablet, he became so excited that he began to remove all his clothing. From these beginnings in the mid-19th century, the process of recovering the cuneiform literary catalogue continues today.</p>
<p>In 2015, the publication of a new fragment of Tablet V by Andrew George and Farouk Al-Rawi made <a href="http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/18512/1/jcunestud.66.0069_w-footer.pdf">international news</a>. The fragment’s discovery coincided with increased global sensitivity to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/ancient-cities-are-being-bulldozed-by-islamic-state-heres-what-the-world-is-losing-38548">destruction of antiquities in the Middle East</a> in the same year. The Washington Post juxtaposed the “<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/10/06/a-new-chapter-in-the-worlds-oldest-story/?utm_term=.3ca1a2d4fc62">heart-warming story</a>” of the find against the destruction and looting in Syria and Iraq.</p>
<h2>Ancient ecology</h2>
<p>The new section of Tablet V contains ecological aspects that resonate with modern day concerns over environmental destruction. Of course, there are potential anachronisms in projecting environmental concerns on an ancient text composed thousands of years prior to the industrial revolution. </p>
<p>Yet, the undeniable sensitivity in the epic’s presentation of the wilderness is illuminating, considering the long history of humanity’s interaction with our environment and its animal inhabitants.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162097/original/image-20170322-31219-1rznxvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162097/original/image-20170322-31219-1rznxvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/162097/original/image-20170322-31219-1rznxvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162097/original/image-20170322-31219-1rznxvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162097/original/image-20170322-31219-1rznxvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162097/original/image-20170322-31219-1rznxvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162097/original/image-20170322-31219-1rznxvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/162097/original/image-20170322-31219-1rznxvy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A cedar forest in Turkey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cedar_forest.jpg">Zeynel Cebeci, Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In Gilgamesh, the wilderness is a place of beauty and purity, as well as home to a wild abundance. The splendour and grandeur of the Cedar Forest is described poetically in Tablet V:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>They (Gilgamesh and Enkidu) stood marvelling at the forest,</p>
<p>Observing the height of the cedars …</p>
<p>They were gazing at the Cedar Mountain, the dwelling of the gods, the throne-dais of the goddesses …</p>
<p>Sweet was its shade, full of delight.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>While the heroes pause to admire the forest’s beauty, their interest is not purely aesthetic. Gilgamesh and Enkidu are aware of the economic value of the cedars, and the text provides a clear picture of competing commercial and ecological interests.</p>
<h2>Where to read Gilgamesh</h2>
<p>Since Gilgamesh’s reappearance into popular awareness in the last hundred years, the Standard Babylonian Version of the epic has become accessible in numerous translations. This version was originally compiled by the <a href="https://www.soas.ac.uk/nme/research/gilgamesh/standard/">priest, scribe and exorcist, Sin-leqi-uninni</a>, around 1100 BCE.</p>
<p>The scholarly standard among modern translations is Andrew George’s The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts (2003). </p>
<p>Despite its all-around excellence, the two-volume work is decidedly unwieldly, and the less muscle-bound reader would be well directed to The Epic of Gilgamesh: A New Translation (1999), by the same author. Most readable among modern treatments is David Ferry’s <a href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poems/detail/57374">Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse</a> (1992), which gives a potent, poetic interpretation of the material.</p>
<p>Like the snake that steals Gilgamesh’s rejuvenation plant, the Epic of Gilgamesh has aged well. Its themes - exploring the tension between the natural and civilised worlds, the potency of true love, and the question of what makes a good life – are as relevant today as they were 4,000 years ago.</p>
<p><em>Note: Translations are sourced from Andrew R. George 2003. The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts, Volume 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/73444/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Louise Pryke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
From environmentalism to the meaning of life, the themes of the world’s most ancient epic are still remarkably relevant to modern readers.
Louise Pryke, Lecturer, Languages and Literature of Ancient Israel, Macquarie University
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/38548
2015-03-09T18:09:19Z
2015-03-09T18:09:19Z
Ancient cities are being bulldozed by Islamic State – here’s what the world is losing
<p>Within days of Islamic State (IS) releasing a video showing their destruction of sculptures in the <a href="http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/03/full-story-isil-takeover-mosul-museum-150309053022129.html">Mosul museum</a> and the ancient city of <a href="http://www.theartnewspaper.com/articles/Nineveh-gate-and-Mosul-museum-attacked-by-Islamic-State-fanatics/37106">Nineveh</a>, reliable reports emerged that the obliteration of Iraq’s past had expanded to include the architectural treasures of <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-31777696">Nimrud</a> and, most recently, <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-31779484">Hatra</a>.</p>
<p>Lying to the south of the modern city of Mosul, these two archaeological sites were among the best preserved in Iraq. There was only a slim chance that these impressive archaeological remains would be overlooked by IS since an attack on them would guarantee world attention. These acts are not only an attack on the people of Iraq but also on the roots of our modern, urbanised world. So what exactly are we losing?</p>
<h2>The first cities</h2>
<p>Iraq occupies the territories described by Greek geographers of the early centuries BC as Mesopotamia, the land between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. It was here that the world’s first cities, such as <a href="http://www.ancient.eu/uruk/">Uruk</a> and <a href="http://www.ancient.eu/ur/">Ur</a>, emerged around 3500 BC on the fertile plains at the head of the Persian Gulf, along with the invention of writing and the codification of laws. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74177/original/image-20150309-13559-1uofe4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74177/original/image-20150309-13559-1uofe4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74177/original/image-20150309-13559-1uofe4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74177/original/image-20150309-13559-1uofe4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74177/original/image-20150309-13559-1uofe4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74177/original/image-20150309-13559-1uofe4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74177/original/image-20150309-13559-1uofe4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74177/original/image-20150309-13559-1uofe4d.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Map of Mesopotamia.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia#mediaviewer/File:N-Mesopotamia_and_Syria_english.svg">Goran tek-en</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In north Mesopotamia, the kingdom of Assyria developed as a powerful state. Between 900 and 620 BC it established itself as the world’s first extensive empire, unifying a region reaching from the Persian Gulf to Egypt. Nimrud was the empire’s first great capital city.</p>
<p>Although an immensely ancient town dating back to 5500 BC, Nimrud was developed into an imperial centre by King Ashurnasirpal II from about 880 BC. The result was a walled city covering some 3.5 sq km, with a prominent “citadel” mound on which were erected enormous administrative and religious buildings. These structures included the palaces of several Assyrian kings as well as temples, including that of Nabu, the god of writing. </p>
<p>Indeed, it was scribal administration as much as military might that held the Assyrian empire together. These buildings were centres of learning, gathering knowledge into libraries. Information was written on clay tablets in the cuneiform script of Mesopotamia and thousands of such texts were discovered by archaeologists at the later Assyrian capital of Nineveh. Such was its importance and splendour that the city, known to the Assyrians as Kalhu, that it appears in the Old Testament as Calah.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74185/original/image-20150309-13585-7sr1vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74185/original/image-20150309-13585-7sr1vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74185/original/image-20150309-13585-7sr1vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74185/original/image-20150309-13585-7sr1vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74185/original/image-20150309-13585-7sr1vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74185/original/image-20150309-13585-7sr1vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74185/original/image-20150309-13585-7sr1vm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An example of cuneiform from the West Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, Nimrud.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/pahudson/3235689232">pahudson</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Astonishing carvings</h2>
<p>The greatest of the buildings at Nimrud was undoubtedly the Palace of Ashurnasirpal. This was a huge mud brick structure with many rooms ranged around open courtyards. The walls of the most significant rooms were lined with huge slabs of gypsum carved in relief with images of the king hunting dangerous wild animals, defeating hostile people, and undertaking religious rituals. These were some of the earliest visual representations of historical narratives, carved with astonishing attention to detail. </p>
<p>Archaeologists call this building the North-West Palace. It was first excavated by the British explorer Austen Henry Layard between 1845 and 1851. Layard’s work was supported by the British government and the majority of his finds, including many examples of the carved stone panels and sculpted gate colossi, were transported to the <a href="http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/middle_east/room_7-8_assyria_nimrud.aspx">British Museum</a>. While examples of relief slabs were also sent to museums and institutions around the world, many were left where they were found and reburied. </p>
<p>Further excavations at Nimrud took place in the 1950s and 1960s by Max Mallowan, husband of the crime writer Agatha Christie. This work reconstructed the complex plans of the palace, and other buildings on the citadel. </p>
<p>Large parts of Ashurnasirpal’s palace were then investigated by Iraqi archaeologists during the 1970s and 1980s, and their work included the re-installation and repair of fallen stone reliefs, many with traces of the original paint that covered them. The winged bull statues that guard the entrances to the most important rooms and courtyards were also re-erected. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74186/original/image-20150309-13543-1xws57z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74186/original/image-20150309-13543-1xws57z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/74186/original/image-20150309-13543-1xws57z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74186/original/image-20150309-13543-1xws57z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74186/original/image-20150309-13543-1xws57z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=474&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74186/original/image-20150309-13543-1xws57z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74186/original/image-20150309-13543-1xws57z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/74186/original/image-20150309-13543-1xws57z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=595&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A winged human headed lion from Nimrud, now in the British Museum.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/71279764@N00/5963639224">71279764@N00</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This restoration project also revealed several tombs of Assyrian queens that lay below the floors in one area of the palace. The finds, which are now securely stored in Baghdad, were truly astonishing and included gold jewellery and crowns, bronze and gold bowls, and ivory vessels. The technical skill and aesthetic sense of the artisans responsible are unrivalled in the ancient world. </p>
<p>The reconstruction of the palace also allowed visitors, including regular parties of school children, to experience the buildings’ scale and beauty, as well as bringing scholars closer to understanding its role in the lives of the ancient Assyrians.</p>
<h2>The merchant city</h2>
<p>While Nimrud represents the glories of empire, Hatra reflects mercantile enterprise. The city flourished in the first two centuries AD as part of an extensive trade network that connected it with Palmyra and Petra. It was the centre of one of the region’s first Arab kingdoms and its massive walls withstood attacks by the armies of the Roman emperors Trajan and Septimius Severus. Behind the enclosing walls of the city were constructed architectural gems, including a number of spectacular temples erected on a massive platform. The compelling fusion of Greek and Mesopotamian art and architecture made it an especially beautiful place. Its importance was recognised in 1985 when Hatra was designated a <a href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/277">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>. </p>
<p>Iraqis are justifiably proud of this ancient heritage and its innovations and impact on the world. The intellectual and cultural achievements of Mesopotamia were shared with ancient Greece and then expanded by the scholars of Baghdad during the 8th to 13th centuries in a golden age of Islamic art and learning. </p>
<p>We are witnessing the destruction of this priceless legacy – and these stories mean that Libyan are now also <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/07/isis-destroy-libya-cultural-treasures">fearing for their own rich heritage</a>. The international community must act to support the government of Iraq in stopping further terrible violence against such unique and irreplaceable heritage that holds so much meaning for us all.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/38548/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Collins does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
It was in Mesopotamia that the world’s first cities emerged, along with the invention of writing and the codification of laws.
Paul Collins, Curator for Ancient Near East, Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.