tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/new-research-53456/articlesNew research – The Conversation2024-03-28T12:51:11Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2207592024-03-28T12:51:11Z2024-03-28T12:51:11ZTweaking US trade policy could hold the key to reducing migration from Central America<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/584593/original/file-20240326-28-qixbyn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C53%2C2995%2C1940&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Employees at the K.P. Textil textile plant in Guatemala City.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/workers-wear-face-masks-as-a-preventive-measure-against-the-news-photo/1226220586?adppopup=true">Johan Ordonez/AFP via Getty Images)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Small changes to U.S. trade policy <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4376016">could significantly reduce the number of migrants</a> arriving at the southern border, according to our peer-reviewed study, which was recently published in The World Economy.</p>
<p>Our research delved into the effectiveness of existing trade agreements in creating jobs in migrant-sending countries, with a focus on Central America. We analyzed the impact that the <a href="https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/cafta-dr-dominican-republic-central-america-fta">Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement</a>, or CAFTA-DR, has had on apparel exports and jobs since being ratified by the U.S. and six countries – Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic – from 2005 to 2009.</p>
<p>CAFTA-DR was aimed at encouraging trade and investment ties. But restrictive provisions, particularly its <a href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/roi_e/roi_info_e.htm">rules of origin</a>, have hindered the region’s ability to benefit fully from the agreement. Under a “triple transformation” clause, only garments assembled in one of the countries from fabrics and constituent fibers originating from the region qualify for free-trade benefits.</p>
<p>This significantly limits the scope for trade expansion because of the limited range of fabrics produced in the region compared with the global market. For example, it means that <a href="https://sourcingjournal.com/denim/denim-mills/global-denim-market-105089/">many modern fabrics</a>, like the kinds used in some stretchy jeans, do not qualify.</p>
<p>Loosening the rules to allow for new fabrics would not only attract investment and create more jobs for Central Americans, it could also reduce immigration from the region by as much as 67%, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4376016">according to our estimates</a>. </p>
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<p>At present, about <a href="https://www.hinrichfoundation.com/research/article/ftas/central-american-emigration/">500,000 people work in the apparel industry</a> in Central America. It is labor-intensive, and expanding exports would increase employment. Our research shows that loosening the rules of origin to include new fabrics from outside the region would create about 120,000 direct jobs. </p>
<p>If a stronger relationship between exports and employment is assumed, this figure could even rise to about 257,500 jobs, our figures show. </p>
<p>And these jobs would be boosted by additional indirect employment around the expanding factories in Central America needed to accommodate the increased trade.</p>
<p>If would-be migrants in Central America instead chose the new apparel jobs in their home countries, we estimate that migration from Central America to the U.S. could fall by 30% to 67%.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>The migration crisis has taken <a href="https://apnews.com/article/biden-trump-border-immigration-election-c37b1596ecf27d208e94bef592e7e616">center stage in U.S. political discourse</a>, with Republicans in Congress holding up legislation, including aid to Ukraine, over their demands that tougher border security measures be included as part of any package.</p>
<p>In December 2023, the number of U.S. Border Patrol encounters with migrants at the U.S.-Mexico border <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2024/02/15/migrant-encounters-at-the-us-mexico-border-hit-a-record-high-at-the-end-of-2023/">hit a record high</a> of almost 250,000, and it <a href="https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/national-media-release/cbp-releases-january-2024-monthly-update">remained high</a> during the first few months of 2024.</p>
<p>While human rights violations, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3825251">security issues</a> <a href="https://knowledgehub.transparency.org/assets/uploads/helpdesk/Literature_review_corruption_and_migrations.pdf">and corruption</a> in migrant-sending countries are often cited as driving factors, in many cases, immigrants are <a href="https://www.themarshallproject.org/2023/09/08/migrants-work-permits-adams-asylum">seeking job opportunities</a> that are unavailable in their home countries. </p>
<p>But despite the increased political attention on immigration, trade policy – which could be used to address the scarcity of secure, well-paying jobs in Central American countries with heavy migrant outflows – has largely been absent from either party’s strategy to address the “root causes” of migration.</p>
<p>We believe addressing the root causes of the current border crisis requires creating good jobs in migrant-sending countries. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>We looked only at one industry – apparel – in Central America and the Dominican Republic, a Caribbean nation.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10290-014-0188-3">Academic reviews suggest</a> that as many as half of all trade agreements have no significant effect on trade flows, and only about one-quarter of them increase trade. In fact, trade agreements may even create barriers to trade by adding additional clauses that are complicated or too restrictive.</p>
<p>The key question is how to make all trade agreements more effective at creating jobs in migrant-sending countries. Identifying and relaxing barriers within trade agreements is, we believe, an important first step toward reducing emigration. </p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220759/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>In 2021, the Mosbacher Institute received funding for Bush School student research from the American Apparel and Footwear Association while Raymond Robertson was the director. The AAFA provided neither funding nor any other form of support, including any direct or indirect support, for the research described in this article.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kaleb Girma Abreha does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Relaxing ‘rules of origin’ restrictions in an existing trade deal could add tens of thousands of jobs in Central America.Raymond Robertson, Professor of Economics and Government, Texas A&M UniversityKaleb Girma Abreha, Assistant Research Scientist, Mosbacher Institute for Trade, Economics, and Public Policy, Texas A&M UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2263552024-03-28T12:50:10Z2024-03-28T12:50:10Z69% of US Muslims always give to charities during Ramadan, fulfilling a religious obligation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/583547/original/file-20240321-28-vegr40.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C988%2C5620%2C4421&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Members of the Muslim community gather for the first Taraweeh prayer of Ramadan in New York City in 2024.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/members-of-the-muslim-community-gather-for-the-first-news-photo/2066798836">Adam Gray/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://scholarworks.iupui.edu/items/ecaeeffb-5441-4b96-a2f6-ea8220571f22">Nearly 70% of Muslim Americans</a> say they always <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-zakat-a-scholar-of-islam-explains-170756">give zakat</a>, a yearly donation of 2.5% of one’s wealth that Islam encourages, during Ramadan according to a new study I worked on.</p>
<p>Ramadan is a month-long period of fasting and spiritual growth during which Muslims refrain from all food, beverages and sexual activity from dawn to dusk.</p>
<p>Our <a href="https://lakeinstitute.org/research/muslim-philanthropy-initiative/">Muslim Philanthropy Initiative</a> research team at Indiana University surveyed 1,136 Muslims across the country in 2023 to assess the connection between Ramadan and zakat. We also looked into demographic differences in Muslim giving <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-ramadan-is-called-ramadan-6-questions-answered-77291">tied to Ramadan</a>.</p>
<p>We found that women, married couples, those who consider themselves to be very religious, people with incomes in the US$50,000-$75,000 range, people in their 30s, and those who are registered to vote are most likely to give the bulk of their zakat during Ramadan.</p>
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<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Billions of Muslims across the world observe Ramadan.</p>
<p>Zakat, one of the <a href="https://crestresearch.ac.uk/comment/islam-five-pillars">five pillars of Islam</a>, is aimed at redistributing wealth and alleviating poverty within the Muslim community. Muslims can give to the poor, people who owe big debts, stranded travelers and those <a href="https://www.zakat.org/zakat-foundations-ceo-wins-lincoln-anti-slavery-award">seeking to free people from slavery or captivity</a> to meet the requirements of zakat.</p>
<p>Muslims often offer zakat during Ramadan through fundraising at <a href="https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/iftar-eftari-iftar-iftor-and-its-socio-cultural-traditions-01984">iftars</a>, which are gatherings held at sunset where people break their fast together.</p>
<p>Nonprofits that are not led by Muslims tend to focus their fundraising efforts on <a href="https://neonone.com/resources/blog/year-end-giving-statistics/">giving in December</a> and important secular days for campaigns, such as <a href="https://missionwired.com/insights/giving-tuesday-2023-final-report-11-takeaways/">Giving Tuesday</a>. But if these organizations don’t do outreach to Muslims during Ramadan they are less likely to raise money effectively from a <a href="https://theconversation.com/us-muslims-gave-more-to-charity-than-other-americans-in-2020-170689">small but generous population</a>.</p>
<p>Muslim-led U.S. nonprofits do spend a significant amount of time and money on fundraising during Ramadan. But they may not realize the importance of stepping up their efforts to seek zakat from Muslims in their 30s, women, married couples, active voters and those who regularly pray at a mosque.</p>
<p>In previous research projects, we’ve found that <a href="https://hdl.handle.net/1805/29947">U.S. Muslims support both Muslim and non-Muslim nonprofits</a>, donating at least $4.3 billion in 2021, <a href="https://theconversation.com/us-muslims-gave-more-to-charity-than-other-americans-in-2020-170689">including about $1.8 billion in zakat</a>. </p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>We are partnering with <a href="https://irusa.org/O">Islamic Relief USA</a>, the largest Muslim-led humanitarian charity in the United States which serves people in the United States and internationally, and our colleagues at Indiana University’s <a href="https://philanthropy.indianapolis.iu.edu/institutes/lake-institute/index.html">Lake Institute on Faith and Giving</a> to conduct annual surveys of Muslims in the United States to better understand Muslim giving starting in 2024.</p>
<p>We’re also conducting surveys and focus groups across the world to have a global understanding of Muslim giving. We aim to release data from Pakistan, Kuwait, Jordan, Turkey, Qatar, Indonesia, Malaysia, Japan, South Korea, Bangladesh, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Bahrain, Kyrgyzstan, Italy, Bangladesh and India, in addition to the United States by the end of 2025.</p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Additional research is needed to better understand what motivates these donors to give during Ramadan, how much money U.S. Muslims give to charity during Ramadan and the best ways for nonprofits led by Muslims and non-Muslims to engage donors who are moved to support charitable causes during Ramadan.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/226355/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Shariq Siddiqui receives funding from The John Templeton Foundation, Doris Duke Foundation for Islamic Arts, Pillars Fund, Proteus Fund, Islamic Relief USA, Zakat Foundation of America, PennyAppeal USA, Mirza Family Foundation, Helping Hand Relief and Development, Nama Foundation and WF Fund. This research study was funded by Islamic Relief USA.</span></em></p>During the month-long period of fasting, the obligation of zakat takes on heightened significance.Shariq Siddiqui, Assistant Professor & Director of the Muslim Philanthropy Initiative, Indiana UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2205742024-03-26T12:40:26Z2024-03-26T12:40:26ZTrump-era tax cuts contributed to a decline in higher ed giving, with fewer Americans donating to colleges and universities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580516/original/file-20240307-22-jtbky3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=165%2C141%2C7710%2C4498&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How many college grads will frequently donate to their alma mater?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/los-angeles-ca-ucla-holds-a-commencement-ceremony-in-pauley-news-photo/1499075648?adppopup=true">Sarah Reingewirtz/MediaNews Group/Los Angeles Daily News via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Policy changes brought on by the <a href="https://www.irs.gov/tax-reform">Tax Cuts and Jobs Act</a>, which former President Donald Trump signed into law at the end of 2017, appear to have led many small-dollar donors to give less money to colleges and universities – or to stop giving altogether.</p>
<p>Individual donations, whether from graduates or people who didn’t attend those colleges and universities, declined by 4% from US$44.3 billion in the 2017-2018 academic year to $42.6 billion two years later. That’s what <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=KWFRsxEAAAAJ&hl=en">my colleague</a>, Sungsil Lee, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=_iTiG64AAAAJ&hl=en">and I</a> found when <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080X.2023.2288735">we examined a decade of data</a> regarding charitable contributions to 660 colleges and universities and adjusted the totals for inflation. </p>
<p>We also found that the Trump-era tax reforms led to a 7% decline in the number of individual donors, after controlling for other factors such as enrollment size and tuition. </p>
<p>To estimate the impact of the tax changes, we analyzed data that the Council for Advancement and Support of Education, a nonprofit, collected in its annual <a href="https://www.case.org/research/surveys/case-insights-voluntary-support-education">Voluntary Support of Education Survey</a>.</p>
<p>We analyzed data from 660 public and private colleges and universities from the 2010-2011 to the 2019-2020 academic years – 12-month periods that run from July 1 of a given year through June 30 of the next.</p>
<p>Because we reviewed complete records for the number of donors and the total amount of donations over the decade, we could observe what changes the tax policy reform may have spurred.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Many states have essentially <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/unkept-promises-state-cuts-to-higher-education-threaten-access-and">frozen their spending on higher education since 2008</a>, while the cost of running colleges and universities has increased. As a result, public institutions <a href="https://sheeo.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/SHEEO_SHEF_FY18_Report.pdf">rely more heavily on the money they get from tuition</a> <a href="https://www.clevelandfed.org/publications/economic-commentary/2017/ec-201705-trends-in-revenues-at-us-colleges-and-universities-1987-2013">and donors</a> than they used to. The declines in both the amount donated by individuals and the number of donors, however, fell more sharply for private institutions than for public ones.</p>
<p>Gifts from individuals, rather than organizations or companies, accounted for <a href="https://www.case.org/resources/voluntary-support-education-key-findings-2020-21">more than 40% of all the money donated</a> in the 2020 academic year – with much of that money coming from very wealthy people. Most of the $21 billion from individuals donations came in very large sums.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.irs.gov/newsroom/heres-a-quick-overview-of-tax-reform-changes-and-where-taxpayers-can-find-more-info">The Trump tax reforms</a>, by sharply increasing the standard deduction, led millions of taxpayers to stop itemizing their tax returns. That means far fewer Americans are deducting charitable donations from their taxable income today.</p>
<p>While more than 43% of all taxpayers with an adjusted gross income between $50,000 and $100,000 <a href="https://www.irs.gov/statistics/soi-tax-stats-individual-income-tax-returns-complete-report-publication-1304">filed itemized tax returns for their 2017 earnings</a>, less than 14% itemized in 2018, according to the IRS.</p>
<p>Those who no longer itemize <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/708172">have lost a tax break</a>, and for them, every dollar they give to higher ed or any charity has become more expensive.</p>
<p>Although <a href="https://www.case.org/system/files/media/inline/VSE%202022%20Key%20Findings.pdf">approximately 60% of donations to colleges</a> came from foundations and other philanthropic organizations, <a href="https://doi.org/10.2979/phileduc.1.1.02">these donations are highly concentrated</a> and primarily benefit a few dozen prominent universities. The decline of individual donations can be a particularly big problem for small colleges, we found. </p>
<p>To be sure, other factors, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764018800791">economic trends</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00543-0">the stock market’s performance</a>, can influence giving too. </p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>We are now researching how colleges and universities are responding to the tax changes and whether their fundraising initiatives and promotional efforts are persuading more individual donors to give – even if they no longer can take advantage of the charitable tax deduction.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220574/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jin Lee does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Researchers who analyzed a decade of data detected a reduction in giving after millions of Americans stopped getting a tax break tied to charitable giving.Jin Lee, Associate Professor of Educational Foundations and Leadership, University of Louisiana at LafayetteLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2251572024-03-26T12:39:27Z2024-03-26T12:39:27ZHelping children eat healthier foods may begin with getting parents to do the same, research suggests<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580459/original/file-20240307-24-3kjt9u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=241%2C160%2C6186%2C4255&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Everyone agrees kids should eat healthy foods. But parents are often left out of that message.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/african-american-mother-feeding-her-happy-son-with-royalty-free-image/1126065782?phrase=parent%20feeding%20child">skynesher/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Most parents, educators and policymakers agree that children should eat healthy foods. However, our peer-reviewed paper suggests the strategy adults often use to achieve that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00222437231184830">can sometimes backfire</a>. Fortunately, there’s an easy fix.</p>
<p><a href="https://kelley.iu.edu/faculty-research/faculty-directory/profile.html?id=KGULLO">We</a>, <a href="https://business.pitt.edu/professors/peggy-liu/">along</a> with fellow marketing scholars <a href="https://www.hkubs.hku.hk/people/lingrui-zhou/">Lingrui Zhou</a> and <a href="https://www.fuqua.duke.edu/faculty/gavan-fitzsimons">Gavan Fitzsimons</a>, conducted five experiments with over 3,800 parents as well as 10 in-depth interviews. We found that parents tend to choose unhealthy foods for themselves after choosing a healthy meal for their young children. This happens because parents said they are uncertain whether their child will eat their healthy dishes, and so they use their own meal as backup to share to ensure that their child at least eats something. </p>
<p>This dynamic is not ideal. For one, it could result in parents eating unhealthier foods, and children may also end up eating unhealthily if they eat mostly from their parent’s plate. Additionally, it does not set a good example of healthy eating.</p>
<p>How, then, to change this dynamic?</p>
<p>After testing several interventions, one stood out as particularly simple and effective: nudging parents to think of their meals as their own, rather than backup options for their kids.</p>
<p>We partnered with a nursery school that was interested in promoting healthier eating among children. Parents associated with the school were offered a free family dinner. Parents first chose a meal for their child from a healthy kid’s menu. They then chose a meal for themselves from a menu that had a mix of healthy and unhealthy options. Half of the parents – randomly assigned – saw a menu that prompted them to think of their own meal as “for you and only you!” The other half did not see this additional prompt to think of their own meal as only for them. </p>
<p>This intervention was successful: By encouraging parents to think of their meal as their own, it made about a third more likely to choose the healthy option for themselves.</p>
<p>Our findings suggest policymakers and schools may want to consider the role parents – and their food choices – play in efforts to encourage healthy eating among children. As for parents, we suggest nixing the backup plan and making sure both they and their children are eating nutritiously.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225157/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kelley Gullo Wight receives funding from the Duke-Ipsos Research Center & Think Tank.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Peggy Liu receives funding from the Duke-Ipsos Research Center & Think Tank.</span></em></p>Not knowing whether their children will eat the healthy food put on their plates, parents may prepare a less healthy dish for themselves to serve as backup for the kids too.Kelley Gullo Wight, Assistant Professor of Marketing, Indiana UniversityPeggy Liu, Ben L. Fryrear Chair in Marketing and Associate Professor of Business Administration, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2168922024-03-21T12:23:49Z2024-03-21T12:23:49ZNew studies suggest millions with mild cognitive impairment go undiagnosed, often until it’s too late<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579473/original/file-20240304-18-x3o3fj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C7360%2C4912&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Mild cognitive impairment can be an early sign of Alzheimer's disease or other dementias.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/senior-women-lost-in-thoughts-in-wheel-chair-royalty-free-image/677895828?phrase=mild+cognitive+impairment+&adppopup=true">ivanastar/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Mild cognitive impairment – an early stage of dementia – is widely underdiagnosed in people 65 and older. That is the key takeaway of two recent studies from our team. </p>
<p>In the first study, we used Medicare data for about 40 million beneficiaries age 65 and older from 2015 to 2019 to estimate the prevalence of mild cognitive impairment in that population and to identify what proportion of them had actually been diagnosed. </p>
<p>Our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-023-01272-z">finding was sobering</a>: A mere 8% of the number of cases with mild cognitive impairment that we expected based on a statistical model had actually been diagnosed. Scaled up to the general population 65 and older, this means that approximately 7.4 million cases across the country remain undiagnosed. </p>
<p>In the second study, we analyzed data for 226,756 primary care clinicians and found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.14283/jpad.2023.131">over 99% of them underdiagnosed mild cognitive impairment</a> in this population. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Mild cognitive impairment is an early symptom of Alzheimer’s disease in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.2000">about half of cases</a> and progresses to dementia <a href="https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/what-is-dementia/related_conditions/mild-cognitive-impairment">at a rate of 10% to 15% per year</a>. It includes symptoms such as losing the ability to remember recent events and appointments, make sound decisions and master complex tasks. Failure to detect it might deprive patients of an opportunity to get treated and to slow down disease progression. </p>
<p>Mild cognitive impairment can sometimes be caused by easily addressable factors, such as medication side effects, thyroid dysfunction or <a href="https://theconversation.com/vitamin-b12-deficiency-is-a-common-health-problem-that-can-have-serious-consequences-but-doctors-often-overlook-it-192714">vitamin B12 deficiency</a>. Since mild cognitive impairment has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjopharm.2008.06.004">the same risk factors as cardiovascular disease</a>, such as high blood pressure and cholesterol, medication management of these risks combined with diet and exercise <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60461-5">can reduce the risk of progression</a>.</p>
<p>In 2023, the Food and Drug Administration <a href="https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-converts-novel-alzheimers-disease-treatment-traditional-approval">approved the drug lecanemab</a> as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-the-fdas-accelerated-approval-of-a-new-alzheimers-drug-could-mean-for-those-with-the-disease-5-questions-answered-about-lecanemab-197460">first disease-modifying treatment</a> <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-causes-and-risk-factors/what-happens-brain-alzheimers-disease">for Alzheimer’s disease</a>, the most common cause of mild cognitive impairment. In contrast to previous drugs, which can temporarily improve symptoms of the disease, such as memory loss and agitation, this new treatment addresses the underlying cause of the disease. </p>
<p>Lecanemab, a monoclonal antibody, <a href="https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-are-Amyloid-Plaques.aspx#">reduces amyloid plaques</a> in the brain, which are toxic protein clumps that are believed to contribute to the progression of the disease. In a large clinical trial, lecanemab was able to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2212948">reduce the progression</a> of early-stage Alzheimer’s disease. A similar drug, donanemab, also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2023.13239">succeeded in a clinical trial</a> and is expected to be <a href="https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/fda-delays-approval-of-alzheimers-drug-donanemab-what-experts-think">approved sometime in 2024</a>. </p>
<p>However, these drugs must be used in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease, ideally when a patient has only mild cognitive impairment, as there is <a href="https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/treatments/lecanemab-leqembi#">no evidence that they are effective in advanced stages</a>.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/w3IbAscNjsQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">An earlier diagnosis leads to early treatment and better outcomes.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Many factors contribute to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.13051">lack of timely detection</a>. But researchers don’t have a good understanding of the relative importance of those individual factors or how to reduce the high rate of underdiagnosis.</p>
<p>While distinct, symptoms are subtle and their slow progression means that they can be overlooked or misinterpreted as normal aging. A neurologist in China told our research team that diagnosis rates spike in China after the New Year’s holiday, when children who haven’t seen their parents for a year notice changes that are harder to pick up when interacting with someone daily. </p>
<p>Doctors also commonly discount memory concerns as normal aging and doubt that much can be done about it. While cognitive tests to distinguish mild cognitive impairment from pathologic decline do exist, they take about 15 minutes, which can be hard to come by during the limited time of a doctor’s visit and may require a follow-up appointment. </p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>People, particularly those in their 60s and beyond, as well as their families and friends need to be vigilant about cognitive decline, bring it up during doctor’s appointments and insist on a formal assessment. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.medicare.gov/coverage/yearly-wellness-visits">Medicare yearly “wellness” visit</a> is an opportunity to explore such concerns, but only about half of beneficiaries <a href="https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2019.01795">take advantage of it</a>. </p>
<p>Just as physicians ask patients about unexplained weight loss and take those concerns seriously, we believe questions that explore a patient’s cognitive state need to become the norm. </p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/216892/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Soeren Mattke receives funding from Alzheon, Biogen, C2N, Eisai, Lilly and Roche/Genentech through the University of Southern California. He consults to Biogen, C2N, Eisai, Novartis, Novo Nordisk and Roche/Genentech. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ying Liu receives funding from Genentech, a member of the Roche Group, through the University of Southern California. </span></em></p>Medicare covers an annual well-check visit that could potentially identify cognitive issues, but only about half of beneficiaries take advantage of them.Soeren Mattke, Director of the USC Dornsife Brain Health Observatory, University of Southern CaliforniaYing Liu, Research Scientist, Center for Economic and Social Research, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and SciencesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256372024-03-20T12:21:04Z2024-03-20T12:21:04ZAI can help predict whether a patient will respond to specific tuberculosis treatments, paving way for personalized care<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582664/original/file-20240318-30-l7zhd0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2121%2C1412&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tuberculosis typically infects the lungs but can spread to the rest of the body.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/pulmonary-tuberculosis-royalty-free-image/468719560">stockdevil/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Tuberculosis is the <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis">world’s deadliest bacterial infection</a>. It afflicted over 10 million people and took 1.3 million lives in 2022. These numbers are predicted to increase dramatically because of the spread of multidrug-resistant TB. </p>
<p>Why does one TB patient recover from the infection while another succumbs? And why does one drug work in one patient but not another, even if they have the same disease?</p>
<p>People have been <a href="https://globaltb.njms.rutgers.edu/abouttb/historyoftb.php">battling TB for millennia</a>. For example, researchers have found Egyptian mummies from 2400 BCE that show signs of TB. While TB infections occur worldwide, the countries with the highest number of multidrug-resistant TB cases are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30568-7">Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus and Russia</a>. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/umfQyVT9Fg0?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The COVID-19 pandemic set back progress in addressing many health conditions, including TB.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Researchers predict that the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(22)00214-6">ongoing war in Ukraine</a> will result in an increase in multidrug-resistant TB cases because of health care disruptions. Additionally, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS2213-2600(21)00496-3">COVID-19 pandemic</a> reduced access to TB diagnosis and treatment, reversing decades of progress worldwide. </p>
<p>Rapidly and holistically analyzing available medical data can help optimize treatments for each patient and reduce drug resistance. In our recently published research, <a href="https://systemsbiologylab.org/">my team</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=3xkdD2AAAAAJ&hl=en">and I</a> describe a new <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2024.109025">AI tool</a> we developed that uses worldwide patient data to guide more personalized and effective treatment of TB.</p>
<h2>Predicting success or failure</h2>
<p>My team and I wanted to identify what variables can predict how a patient responds to TB treatment. So we analyzed more than 200 types of clinical test results, medical imaging and drug prescriptions from over 5,000 TB patients in 10 countries. We examined demographic information such as age and gender, prior treatment history and whether patients had other conditions. Finally, we also analyzed data on various TB strains, such as what drugs the pathogen is resistant to and what genetic mutations the pathogen had.</p>
<p>Looking at enormous datasets like these can be overwhelming. Even most existing AI tools have had difficulty analyzing large datasets. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-044687">Prior studies</a> using AI have focused on a single data type – such as imaging or age alone – and had limited success predicting TB treatment outcomes. </p>
<p>We used an approach to AI that allowed us to analyze a large and diverse number of variables simultaneously and identify their relationship to TB outcomes. Our <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-black-box-a-computer-scientist-explains-what-it-means-when-the-inner-workings-of-ais-are-hidden-203888">AI model was transparent</a>, meaning we can see through its inner workings to identify the most meaningful clinical features. It was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01981-2">also multimodal</a>, meaning it could interpret different types of data at the same time. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582665/original/file-20240318-18-yertme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Microscopy image of rod-shaped TB bacteria stained green" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582665/original/file-20240318-18-yertme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/582665/original/file-20240318-18-yertme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582665/original/file-20240318-18-yertme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582665/original/file-20240318-18-yertme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582665/original/file-20240318-18-yertme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=689&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582665/original/file-20240318-18-yertme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=689&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/582665/original/file-20240318-18-yertme.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=689&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><em>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</em> spreads through aerosol droplets.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/nihgov/52730545339/">NIAID/NIH via Flickr</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Once we trained our AI model on the dataset, we found that it could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2024.109025">predict treatment prognosis with 83% accuracy</a> on newer, unseen patient data and outperform existing AI models. In other words, we could feed a new patient’s information into the model and the AI would determine whether a specific type of treatment will either succeed or fail.</p>
<p>We observed that clinical features <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2024.109025">related to nutrition</a>, particularly lower BMI, are associated with treatment failure. This supports the use of interventions to improve nourishment, as TB is typically <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jctube.2022.100311">more prevalent in undernourished populations</a>. </p>
<p>We also found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2024.109025">certain drug combinations</a> worked better in patients with certain types of drug-resistant infections but not others, leading to treatment failure. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2022.04.006">Combining drugs that are synergistic</a>, meaning they enhance each other’s potency in the lab, could result in better outcomes. Given the complex environment in the body compared with conditions in the lab, it has so far been unclear whether synergistic relationships between drugs in the lab hold up in the clinic. Our results suggest that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.02627-19">using AI to weed out antagonistic drugs</a>, or drugs that inhibit or counteract each other, early in the drug discovery process can avoid treatment failures down the line. </p>
<h2>Ending TB with the help of AI</h2>
<p>Our findings may help researchers and clinicians meet the World Health Organization’s goal to <a href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-HTM-TB-2015.19">end TB by 2035</a>, by highlighting the relative importance of different types of clinical data. This can help prioritize public health efforts to mitigate TB. </p>
<p>While the performance of our AI tool is promising, it isn’t perfect in every case, and more training is needed before it can be used in the clinic. Demographic diversity can be high within a country and may even vary between hospitals. We are working to make this tool more generalizable across regions. </p>
<p>Our goal is to eventually tailor our AI model to identify drug regimens suitable for individuals with certain conditions. Instead of a one-size-fits-all treatment approach, we hope that studying multiple types of data can help physicians personalize treatments for each patient to provide the best outcomes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225637/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sriram Chandrasekaran receives funding from the US National Institutes of Health. </span></em></p>People have been battling tuberculosis for thousands of years, and drug-resistant strains are on the rise. Analyzing large datasets with AI can help humanity gain a crucial edge over the disease.Sriram Chandrasekaran, Associate Professor of Biomedical Engineering, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243502024-03-15T12:11:36Z2024-03-15T12:11:36ZPacemaker powered by light eliminates need for batteries and allows the heart to function more naturally − new research<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580746/original/file-20240308-16-3gcx17.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2000%2C1500&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Scientists have designed a solar panel-like pacemaker that can precisely control heartbeats.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/female-silhouett-and-heart-with-pacemaker-royalty-free-image/1490726996">Eugene Mymrin/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>By harnessing light, my colleagues <a href="https://scholar.google.com.sg/citations?user=hO6bRlwAAAAJ&hl=en">and I</a> designed a wireless, ultrathin pacemaker that operates like a solar panel. This design not only eliminates the need for batteries but also minimizes disruptions to the heart’s natural function by molding to its contours. Our research, recently <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07016-9">published in the journal Nature</a>, offers a new approach to treatments that require electrical stimulation, such as heart pacing.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-pacemakers-and-defibrillators-work-a-cardiologist-explains-how-they-interact-with-the-electrical-system-of-the-heart-217429">Pacemakers are medical devices</a> implanted in the body to regulate heart rhythms. They’re composed of electronic circuits with batteries and leads anchored to the heart muscle to stimulate it. However, leads can fail and damage tissue. The location of the leads can’t be changed once they’re implanted, limiting access to different heart regions. Because pacemakers use rigid, metallic electrodes, they may also damage tissue when <a href="https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/heart-surgery/during">restarting the heart after surgery</a> or <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/heart-arrhythmia/symptoms-causes/syc-20350668">regulating arrhythmia</a>.</p>
<p>Our team envisioned a leadless and more flexible pacemaker that could precisely stimulate multiple areas of the heart. So we designed a device that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07016-9">transforms light into bioelectricity</a>, or heart cell-generated electrical signals. Thinner than a human hair, our pacemaker is made of an optic fiber and silicon membrane that the <a href="https://tianlab.uchicago.edu/">Tian lab</a> and colleagues at the University of Chicago <a href="https://pme.uchicago.edu/">Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering</a> have spent years developing. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/KG_M7iD90CQ?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Like solar panels, this pacemaker is powered by light.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Unlike <a href="https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/solar-photovoltaic-cell-basics">conventional solar cells</a> that are usually designed to collect as much energy as possible, we tweaked our device to generate electricity only at points where light strikes so it can precisely regulate heartbeats. We did this by using a layer of very small pores that can trap light and electrical current. Only cardiac muscles exposed to light-activated pores are stimulated.</p>
<p>Because our device is so small and light, it can be implanted without opening the chest. We were able to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07016-9">successfully implant it</a> in the hearts of rodents and an adult pig, pacing the beats of different heart muscles. Because <a href="https://theconversation.com/organs-from-genetically-engineered-pigs-may-help-shorten-the-transplant-wait-list-175893">pig hearts</a> are anatomically similar to human hearts, this accomplishment shows our device’s potential to translate to people.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Heart disease is the <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death">leading cause of death around the world</a>. Annually, <a href="https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/heart-surgery">over 2 million people</a> undergo open-heart surgery to treat heart problems, including to <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-do-pacemakers-and-defibrillators-work-a-cardiologist-explains-how-they-interact-with-the-electrical-system-of-the-heart-217429">implant devices</a> that regulate heart rhythms and prevent heart attacks.</p>
<p>Our ultralight device gently conforms to the surface of the heart, enabling less invasive stimulation and improved pacing and synchronized contraction. To reduce postoperative trauma and recovery time, our device can be implanted with a minimally invasive technique.</p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Currently, our technology is best first used for urgent heart conditions, including restarting the heart after surgery, heart attack and ventricular defibrillation. We continue to explore its long-term effects and durability in the human body.</p>
<p>The body’s internal environment is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2022.272">rich in fluids</a> that are disturbed by the heart’s constant mechanical motion. This could potentially compromise the device’s functionality over time. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580750/original/file-20240308-28-ptbgx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="ECG reading of patient with pacemaker syndrome" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580750/original/file-20240308-28-ptbgx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580750/original/file-20240308-28-ptbgx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580750/original/file-20240308-28-ptbgx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580750/original/file-20240308-28-ptbgx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580750/original/file-20240308-28-ptbgx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580750/original/file-20240308-28-ptbgx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580750/original/file-20240308-28-ptbgx3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=380&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pacemaker syndrome is a condition that develops from stimulating heart muscles in isolation.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:E00031141_(CardioNetworks_ECGpedia).jpg">Michael Rosengarten BEng, MD.McGill/EKG World Encyclopedia via Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Moreover, researchers don’t fully understand how the body reacts to prolonged exposure to medical devices. The formation of <a href="https://theconversation.com/implants-like-pacemakers-and-insulin-pumps-often-fail-because-of-immune-attacks-stopping-them-could-make-medical-devices-safer-and-longer-lasting-211090">scar tissue</a> around the device after implantation can diminish its sensitivity. We are developing special surface treatments and biomaterial coatings to decrease the likelihood of rejection. </p>
<p>Although the breakdown of our device results in a nontoxic substance the body can safely absorb called <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41578-020-0230-0">silicic acid</a>, evaluating how the body responds to extended implantation is essential to ensure safety and effectiveness.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>To achieve long-term implantation and tailor the device to each patient, we are refining the rate at which it dissolves naturally in the body. We are exploring enhancements to make the device compatible as a wearable pacemaker. This involves integrating a wireless light-emitting diode, or LED, beneath the skin that is connected to the device via an optical fiber.</p>
<p>Our ultimate goal is to broaden the scope of what we call photoelectroceuticals beyond cardiac care. This includes <a href="https://theconversation.com/brain-stimulation-can-rewire-and-heal-damaged-neural-connections-but-it-isnt-clear-how-research-suggests-personalization-may-be-key-to-more-effective-therapies-182491">neurostimulation</a>, neuroprostheses and pain management to treat neurodegenerative conditions such as <a href="https://www.parkinson.org/understanding-parkinsons/statistics">Parkinson’s disease</a>. </p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224350/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Pengju Li consults to the Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering. He receives funding from the University of Chicago.</span></em></p>Researchers designed an ultrathin pacemaker that can be implanted via minimally invasive techniques, potentially improving recovery time and reducing the risk of complications.Pengju Li, Ph.D. Candidate in Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago Pritzker School of Molecular EngineeringLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2243192024-03-15T12:10:14Z2024-03-15T12:10:14ZThe hostility Black women face in higher education carries dire consequences<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581998/original/file-20240314-24-v5d9s0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2110%2C1412&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Isolation can make opportunities elusive. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-woman-holding-a-highlighter-and-reading-a-royalty-free-image/1446120435?adppopup=true">fotostorm via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Isolated. Abused. Overworked. </p>
<p>These are the themes that emerged when I invited nine Black women to chronicle their professional experiences and relationships with colleagues as they earned their Ph.D.s at a public university in the Midwest. I featured their writings in <a href="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/3150/AYA_THIS.pdf?1710504520">the dissertation I wrote</a> to get my Ph.D. in curriculum and instruction. </p>
<p>The women spoke of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-2001.2011.01177.x">being silenced</a>.</p>
<p>“It’s not just the beating me down that is hard,” one participant told me about constantly having her intelligence questioned. “It is the fact that it feels like I’m villainized and made out to be the problem for trying to advocate for myself.”</p>
<p>The women told me they did not feel like they belonged. They spoke of routinely being isolated by peers and potential mentors. </p>
<p>One participant told me she felt that peer community, faculty mentorship and cultural affinity spaces were lacking.</p>
<p>Because of the isolation, participants often felt that they were missing out on various opportunities, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.9707/2168-149X.2388">funding and opportunities to get their work published</a>.</p>
<p>Participants also discussed the ways they felt they were duped into taking on more than their fair share of work.</p>
<p>“I realized I had been tricked into handling a two- to four-person job entirely by myself,” one participant said of her paid graduate position. “This happened just about a month before the pandemic occurred so it very quickly got swept under the rug.” </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>The hostility that Black women face in higher education can be hazardous to their health. The women in my study told me they were struggling with depression, had thought about suicide and felt physically ill when they had to go to campus.</p>
<p>Other studies have found similar outcomes. For instance, a 2020 study of 220 U.S. Black college women ages 18-48 found that even though being seen as a strong Black woman came with its benefits – such as being thought of as resilient, hardworking, independent and nurturing – it also came at a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01170-w">cost to their mental and physical health</a>. </p>
<p>These kinds of experiences can take a toll on women’s bodies and can result in <a href="https://www.vox.com/the-weeds/24079547/weathering-black-health-outcomes-women-dr-uche-blackstock">poor maternal health, cancer, shorter life expectancy</a> and other symptoms that impair their ability to be well.</p>
<p>I believe my research takes on greater urgency in light of the recent death of <a href="https://www.highereddive.com/news/lincoln-university-candia-bailey-death-investigation/705101/">Antoinette “Bonnie” Candia-Bailey</a>, who was <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/nbcblk/lincoln-university-president-paid-leave-days-vp-student-affairs-dies-s-rcna133723">vice president of student affairs</a> at Lincoln University. Before she <a href="https://www.newsnationnow.com/us-news/education/lincoln-university-students-vp-dies-by-suicide/">died by suicide</a>, she reportedly wrote that she felt she was suffering abuse and that the university <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/feb/28/antoinette-candia-bailey-lincoln-university-death">wasn’t taking her mental health concerns seriously</a>.</p>
<h2>What other research is being done</h2>
<p>Several anthologies examine the negative experiences that Black women experience in academia. They include education scholars Venus Evans-Winters and Bettina Love’s edited volume, “<a href="https://www.peterlang.com/document/1118277">Black Feminism in Education</a>,” which examines how Black women navigate what it means to be a scholar in a “white supremacist patriarchal society.” Gender and sexuality studies scholar <a href="https://upf.com/book.asp?id=9780813032689">Stephanie Evans</a> analyzes the barriers that Black women faced in accessing higher education from 1850 to 1954. In “<a href="https://www.broadleafbooks.com/store/product/9781506489834/Black-Women-Ivory-Tower">Black Women, Ivory Tower</a>,” African American studies professor Jasmine Harris recounts her own traumatic experiences in the world of higher education.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>In addition to publishing the findings of my research study, I plan to continue exploring the depths of Black women’s experiences in academia, expanding my research to include undergraduate students, as well as faculty and staff. </p>
<p>I believe this research will strengthen this field of study and enable people who work in higher education to develop and implement more comprehensive solutions.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224319/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ebony Aya received funding from the Black Collective Foundation in 2022 to support the work of the Aya Collective. </span></em></p>9 Black women who were working on or recently earned their PhDs told a researcher they felt isolated and shut out.Ebony Aya, Program Manager at the Jan Serie Center for Scholarship and Teaching, Macalester CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2232592024-03-11T12:23:54Z2024-03-11T12:23:54ZHow ‘hometown associations’ help immigrants support their communities in the US and back in their homelands<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580317/original/file-20240307-26-6881fx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=84%2C53%2C5028%2C3119&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many Mexican immigrants stay connected to communities in their country of origin.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/merged-flags-of-usa-and-mexico-painted-on-concrete-royalty-free-image/640127588?adppopup=true">ronniechua/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>“<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24357864">Hometown associations</a>,” also known as migrant clubs, are nonprofits formed by immigrants who are originally from the same place in their country of origin. They serve as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2024.2313386">channels through which immigrants make charitable gifts</a> that help people settle in their new country while also aiding communities back in their homelands. Many <a href="https://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/mexican-hometown-associations-in-chicagoacan/9780813564920/">were created in the 1990s</a>.</p>
<p>Mexican hometown associations are the most widely established. </p>
<p>But <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0374.2006.00130.x">Turkish</a>, <a href="https://ideas.repec.org/p/pri/cmgdev/wp11-03aagarwala-india-report-march-2011.pdf.html">Indian</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13691830500178147">Filipino, Guatemalan, Salvadoran</a>, <a href="https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/the-global-ethiopian-diaspora-shimelis-bonsa-gulema/1144167013">Ethiopian</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2013.871492">Bolivian</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1515/9781782387350-005">Colombian and Dominican</a> immigrants, among others, have created them too. </p>
<h2>Why hometown associations matter</h2>
<p>I’m a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=a8EwKzoAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">scholar of philanthropy</a> who has recently studied the Mexican hometown associations that support causes on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2024.2313386">both sides of the U.S. southern border</a>.</p>
<p>In particular, I researched the associations that make up the <a href="https://www.facebook.com/FederacionZacatecanaEnIllinois/?locale=es_LA">Federación de Clubes Unidos Zacatecanos en Illinois</a>. </p>
<p>This federation, formed by immigrants from towns in the Mexican state of Zacatecas who moved to Illinois, includes 15 active associations. Each has between 20 and 500 members.</p>
<p>Since 1995, these nonprofits have helped newly arrived Mexican immigrants in the communities where they now live and residents of their original Zacatecan hometowns. For example, they help Mexican American students in Illinois pay for college, as well as chip in to cover some higher-ed costs for Mexican students back in Zacatecas.</p>
<p>The associations also contribute to projects that benefit their communities back in Zacatecas. Examples include paving roads, establishing athletic fields, installing electricity, increasing access to clean water and building everything from churches to health clinics. </p>
<p>The groups raise money by holding member breakfasts, mariachi concerts, raffles and other events in Chicago and elsewhere in Illinois. <a href="https://www.facebook.com/FederacionZacatecanaEnIllinois/videos/rifa-fcuzi/248498930146336/?locale=es_LA">Their fundraisers can generate</a> anywhere from a couple of thousand dollars to tens of thousands annually. </p>
<p>Many of these groups have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.1958">informal origins</a>. Some got their start when immigrants were gathering for other reasons, such as <a href="https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&u=anon%7Ec73a92bc&id=GALE%7CA282581052&v=2.1&it=r&sid=googleScholar&asid=86ff5d91">taking part in local soccer and baseball games</a>. Today, most hometown associations remain led by volunteers. </p>
<p>Even with volunteer leadership, in the Mexican case, these associations have adopted more formal approaches to their operations over the years. They gather in local community centers, which they often own. </p>
<h2>Collective remittances</h2>
<p>Hometown associations are an example of what’s known as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0012-155X.2004.00380.x">collective remittances</a>, the technical term for immigrants pooling money earned abroad and sending it back to their homelands.</p>
<p>All told, immigrants around the world <a href="https://www.migrationdataportal.org/themes/remittances">send about US$860 billion</a> back to their homelands every year through remittances. This money flows directly to family and friends, helping them pay for housing, food and other expenses.</p>
<p>This estimate leaves out collective philanthropy, including the money that hometown associations send back to their homelands. I’ve never found a reliable estimate of the scale of hometown associations’ charitable contributions. Even the number of associations across immigrant groups is not fully determined, making estimates of their collective donations hard to calculate. </p>
<p>But what I have observed is how the members of hometown associations team up to serve their communities in ways that don’t involve only money. They voluntarily devote their time, labor and knowledge to help their countries of origin for the public good.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223259/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Susan Appe's research was supported by the U.S. Fulbright Program and The U.S.-Mexico Commission for Educational Exchange (COMEXUS).</span></em></p>Mexican groups are the most common, but immigrants from Turkey, Bolivia and many more countries have formed their own.Susan Appe, Associate Professor of Public Administration and Policy, University at Albany, State University of New YorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2219392024-03-08T13:38:13Z2024-03-08T13:38:13ZTeenagers often know when their parents are having money problems − and that knowledge is linked to mental health challenges, new research finds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576103/original/file-20240216-28-neuioj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=120%2C77%2C5609%2C3736&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Teens are more clued in to family finances than many people think.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/single-working-mother-and-her-teenage-girl-talking-royalty-free-image/1457103190">Olga Rolenko/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When parents try to shield their kids from financial hardship, they may be doing them a favor: Teens’ views about their families’ economic challenges are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579423001451">connected to their mental health and behavior</a>.</p>
<p>That’s the main finding of a study into household income and child development that I recently conducted with my colleagues.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&oi=ao&user=--zcHSQAAAAJ">professor of psychology</a>, I know there’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01210-4">a good deal of research</a> showing that young people who experience more household economic hardship <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00833-y">tend to have more behavioral problems</a>.</p>
<p>But most studies on this issue rely heavily on caregiver reports – that is, what adults say about their kids. Fewer researchers have asked young people themselves. </p>
<p>To fill this gap, my colleagues and I asked more than 100 Pittsburgh-area teenagers, as well as their parents, about their family income, their views about their financial challenges, and their mental health. We checked in with them multiple times over nine months. </p>
<p>Doing this, we found a few important things. First, we found that many families’ economic situations varied over time – they were doing fine with money in some months and struggling during others. And second, we found that when teenagers said they and their family were experiencing hardship, those teens had more behavioral problems.</p>
<p>For example, many teens said that they couldn’t afford school supplies or that their caregivers worried because they lacked money for necessities. In the months when teens reported experiencing these hardships, they were more likely to feel depressed and get in trouble at school.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Other researchers have found that economic hardship is related to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00986.x">differences in parenting</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/children9070981">academic achievement</a> and many <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106400">other developmental outcomes</a> – but prior studies haven’t always captured the complexities and challenges that struggling families face. </p>
<p>For example, researchers studying links between economic hardship and youth behavioral development have historically looked at family income on a yearly basis. But bills come due weekly or monthly. Our work shows that looking at the annual data alone risks missing an important part of the story: Many families experience brief spells of financial instability.</p>
<p>Our work also shows that teens are acutely affected by economic conditions in their daily lives and understand their families’ circumstances. This has important implications for research. Given that adolescence is a time of major emotional and cognitive changes, our team believes that researchers should center on the perspectives of young people directly affected by economic challenges. For example, we have previously found that how young people view stress and support in their lives may have <a href="https://theconversation.com/positive-parenting-can-help-protect-against-the-effects-of-stress-in-childhood-and-adolescence-new-study-shows-208268">implications for their brain development</a>.</p>
<p>This work also has important implications for public policy. For example, lawmakers assume that economic hardship is fairly stable and set anti-poverty policies accordingly. Our research offers fresh evidence that many people see <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/05/31/business/31-volatility.html">large income swings throughout the year</a>. This kind of economic instability has been found to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0181-5">affect child development</a>, especially when families <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419001494">lose large amounts of income</a>. To lessen the impact of poverty, policymakers may need to think about economic hardship more dynamically.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>Our research team wants to continue putting young people’s voices front and center. We’re also interested in more complex ways to make sense of socioeconomic status. While we know that income matters for families, we’re increasingly focused on household wealth, which is a household’s assets minus its debts. Wealth may influence child development in ways that are different from income. We’re just starting to collect data for a new project examining how both of these factors <a href="https://sanford.duke.edu/story/nichd-awards-grant-sanford-partnership-focused-adolescent-wellness-factors/">affect teen mental health</a>.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221939/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jamie Hanson and his colleagues receive funding from the National Institutes of Health. Hanson is also a board member of the Pittsburgh Non-Profit, Project Destiny.</span></em></p>A study of more than 100 teens and their caregivers showed a unique link between hardship and behavior problems.Jamie Hanson, Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of PittsburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2235232024-03-08T13:37:11Z2024-03-08T13:37:11ZImmune cells can adapt to invading pathogens, deciding whether to fight now or prepare for the next battle<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579022/original/file-20240229-16-4ad8vr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2000%2C1500&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Understanding the flexibility of T cell memory can lead to improved vaccines and immunotherapies.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/maturing-t-lymphocyte-illustration-royalty-free-illustration/1489195717">Juan Gaertner/Science Photo Library via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>How does your immune system decide between fighting invading pathogens now or preparing to fight them in the future? Turns out, it can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2023.12.006">change its mind</a>.</p>
<p>Every person has <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1409155111">10 million to 100 million unique T cells</a> that have a critical job in the immune system: patrolling the body for invading pathogens or cancerous cells to eliminate. Each of these T cells has a unique receptor that allows it to recognize foreign proteins on the surface of infected or cancerous cells. When the right T cell encounters the right protein, it rapidly forms many copies of itself to destroy the offending pathogen. </p>
<p>Importantly, this process of proliferation gives rise to both short-lived effector T cells that shut down the immediate pathogen attack and long-lived memory T cells that provide protection against future attacks. But how do T cells decide whether to form cells that kill pathogens now or protect against future infections?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580789/original/file-20240308-16-w72oqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Diagram of cytotoxic T cell killing a target cell" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580789/original/file-20240308-16-w72oqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580789/original/file-20240308-16-w72oqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580789/original/file-20240308-16-w72oqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580789/original/file-20240308-16-w72oqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=418&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580789/original/file-20240308-16-w72oqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580789/original/file-20240308-16-w72oqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580789/original/file-20240308-16-w72oqc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=526&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Cytotoxic T cells bind to foreign proteins on infected or cancerous cells and subsequently destroy those target cells by releasing molecules like granzyme and perforin.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://pressbooks.ccconline.org/bio106/chapter/lymphatic-levels-of-organization/">Anatomy & Physiology/SBCCOE</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/">CC BY-NC-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Kathleen-Abadie-2232092055">We are</a> <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Elisa-Clark-2148857839">a team</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ckyY7T8AAAAJ&hl=en">of bioengineers</a> studying how immune cells mature. In our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2023.12.006">recently published research</a>, we found that having multiple pathways to decide whether to kill pathogens now or prepare for future invaders boosts the immune system’s ability to effectively respond to different types of challenges.</p>
<h2>Fight or remember?</h2>
<p>To understand when and how T cells decide to become effector cells that kill pathogens or memory cells that prepare for future infections, we <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2023.12.006">took movies of T cells dividing</a> in response to a stimulus mimicking an encounter with a pathogen. </p>
<p>Specifically, we tracked the activity of a gene called T cell factor 1, or TCF1. This gene is essential for the longevity of memory cells. We found that stochastic, or probabilistic, silencing of the TCF1 gene when cells confront invading pathogens and inflammation <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2023.12.006">drives an early decision</a> between whether T cells become effector or memory cells. Exposure to higher levels of pathogens or inflammation increases the probability of forming effector cells.</p>
<p>Surprisingly, though, we found that some effector cells that had turned off TCF1 early on were able to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2023.12.006">turn it back on</a> after clearing the pathogen, later becoming memory cells. </p>
<p>Through mathematical modeling, we determined that this flexibility in decision making among memory T cells is critical to generating the right number of cells that respond immediately and cells that prepare for the future, appropriate to the severity of the infection. </p>
<h2>Understanding immune memory</h2>
<p>The proper formation of persistent, long-lived T cell memory is critical to a person’s ability to fend off diseases ranging from the common cold to COVID-19 to cancer.</p>
<p>From a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-2217(93)E0210-O">social and cognitive science perspective</a>, flexibility allows people to adapt and respond optimally to uncertain and dynamic environments. Similarly, for immune cells responding to a pathogen, flexibility in decision making around whether to become memory cells may enable greater responsiveness to an evolving immune challenge.</p>
<p>Memory cells can be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2018.02.010">subclassified into different types</a> with distinct features and roles in protective immunity. It’s possible that the pathway where memory cells diverge from effector cells early on and the pathway where memory cells form from effector cells later on give rise to particular subtypes of memory cells. </p>
<p>Our study focuses on T cell memory in the context of acute infections the immune system can successfully clear in days, such as cold, the flu or food poisoning. In contrast, chronic conditions such as HIV and cancer require persistent immune responses; long-lived, memory-like cells are critical for this persistence. Our team is investigating whether flexible memory decision making also applies to chronic conditions and whether we can leverage that flexibility to improve cancer immunotherapy.</p>
<p>Resolving uncertainty surrounding how and when memory cells form could help improve vaccine design and therapies that boost the immune system’s ability to provide long-term protection against diverse infectious diseases.</p>
<p><em>This article was updated to replace a figure of T cell differentiation with cytotoxic T cell activity.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223523/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kathleen Abadie was funded by a NSF (National Science Foundation) Graduate Research Fellowships. She performed this research in affiliation with the University of Washington Department of Bioengineering. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elisa Clark performed her research in affiliation with the University of Washington (UW) Department of Bioengineering and was funded by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship (NSF-GRFP) and by a predoctoral fellowship through the UW Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine (ISCRM). </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hao Yuan Kueh receives funding from the National Institutes of Health.</span></em></p>When faced with a threat, T cells have the decision-making flexibility to both clear out the pathogen now and ready themselves for a future encounter.Kathleen Abadie, Ph.D. Candidate in Bioengineering, University of WashingtonElisa Clark, Ph.D. Candidate in Bioengineering, University of WashingtonHao Yuan Kueh, Associate Professor of Bioengineering, University of WashingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2232672024-03-08T13:36:46Z2024-03-08T13:36:46ZRare access to hammerhead shark embryos reveals secrets of its unique head development<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575205/original/file-20240213-26-2257zy.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=558%2C0%2C9359%2C6223&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The characteristic hammer-shaped head is just becoming visible in this image of an embryonic bonnethead shark. Scale bar = 1 cm.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steven Byrum and Gareth Fraser, Department of Biology, University of Florida</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Scientists very rarely get access to most sharks, the development of their young or the nursery grounds where they grow. So seeing a <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/sphyrna-tiburo/">hammerhead shark</a> (<em>Sphyrna tiburo</em>) embryo, halfway through its five-month development, is very unusual.</p>
<p>Access to growing embryos is key for <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=J5qu-2gAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">developmental biologists like me</a> as we try to understand the diversity of animals on Earth. Usually the fishes I study, including other shark species, lay eggs, which allows us to easily watch development in real time.</p>
<p>Hammerhead sharks don’t lay eggs, though. They gestate their pups in utero. A pregnant shark carries up to 16 embryos, each nourished by an umbilical cord, just like human embryos are. Then the mother gives birth to live young, and these babies are self-sufficient with teeth and jaws, ready to survive on their own.</p>
<p>Access to a hammerhead embryo is very rare, which is what makes this image so special.</p>
<h2>Access to a very rare resource</h2>
<p>In order to make this image, my colleagues and I salvaged embryos from adult female sharks that had been caught as part of population surveys off both the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of Florida. Usually these sharks are tagged and released. But a small number die during this process and are then studied for insights about diet, age, growth, reproduction and toxicology. No sharks were sacrificed just for our study. The embryos would have otherwise been wasted when the mothers died.</p>
<p>For this work, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=GAE2Hi8AAAAJ&hl=en">Steven Byrum</a>, a graduate student <a href="https://www.fraser-lab.net/">in my lab</a>, was able to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/dvdy.658">document the entire set of developmental stages</a> using a total of 177 bonnethead shark embryos.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579899/original/file-20240305-20-2yce7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="composite image of six shark embryos at advancing stages of development" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579899/original/file-20240305-20-2yce7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579899/original/file-20240305-20-2yce7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579899/original/file-20240305-20-2yce7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579899/original/file-20240305-20-2yce7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=849&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579899/original/file-20240305-20-2yce7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579899/original/file-20240305-20-2yce7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579899/original/file-20240305-20-2yce7q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1067&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Images of embryos of different ages reveal how the sharks develop in utero.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Steven Byrum and Gareth Fraser, Department of Biology, University of Florida</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>We were able to assemble a kind of visual growth chart, from the earliest embryos – they look nothing like hammerheads – to the specific point in development when the hammerhead takes shape, through the rest of development before birth. No scientists had ever before charted the development of hammerhead sharks in this way.</p>
<p>This research allows us to study crucial stages in hammerhead development and, importantly, the precise moments – like this one pictured – when the embryo develops the characteristic head shape.</p>
<h2>Adding to what’s known about hammerheads</h2>
<p>Hammerheads are a peculiar group of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2010.01.037">only eight species of sharks</a> that uniquely develop a hammer-shaped head known as a cephalofoil, named for its hydrodynamic design used for <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1446449">quick turns and pinning down prey</a>. This particular species is known as the bonnethead because of its relatively small, rounded “hammer.” </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579876/original/file-20240305-28-sk4tsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="view from above of grayish fish swimming just above sandy seafloor" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579876/original/file-20240305-28-sk4tsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579876/original/file-20240305-28-sk4tsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579876/original/file-20240305-28-sk4tsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579876/original/file-20240305-28-sk4tsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=395&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579876/original/file-20240305-28-sk4tsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579876/original/file-20240305-28-sk4tsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579876/original/file-20240305-28-sk4tsz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=497&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A grown bonnethead shark has sensory advantages from its hammer-shaped head.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/bonnethead-shark-underwater-bahamas-west-indies-royalty-free-image/200351925-001">Tom Brakefield/Stockbyte via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Scientists think the wide, flattened head shape with eyes on each side evolved to enhance the animals’ senses. Wide positioning of the eyes allows for an increased field of vision, and wide, expanded nasal capsules provide enhanced olfactory capability.</p>
<p>The hammer-shaped heads are covered with expanded electric detector organs that support the sharks’ “sixth sense.” They can detect even the smallest electrical signals, such as the pulses from a prey fish’s heartbeat, or the Earth’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2004.0021">magnetic fields, which they can use to navigate</a> during migration.</p>
<p>Access to these amazing shark pup embryos allows us to compare their development with other regular-headed sharks and ask how and why hammerheads grow these wonderful noggins.</p>
<p>The ocean hides a wealth of weird and wonderful fishes, most of which are inaccessible, and studies of their development are impossible. My lab continues to uncover insights into the evolution of life on Earth thanks to these fortuitous opportunities.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223267/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Gareth J. Fraser receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Because hammerhead sharks give birth to live young, studying their embryonic development is much more complicated than harvesting some eggs and watching them develop in real time.Gareth J. Fraser, Associate Professor of Evolutionary Developmental Biology, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2237332024-03-04T19:22:13Z2024-03-04T19:22:13ZDreading footy season? You’re not alone – 20% of Australians are self-described sport haters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579440/original/file-20240303-24-8u9369.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=198%2C33%2C7150%2C4528&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>With the winter AFL and NRL seasons about to start, Australia’s sporting calendar is once again transitioning from its quietest to busiest period. </p>
<p>For many, the return of the AFL and NRL competitions is highly anticipated. But there is one group whose experience is very different: the approximately 20% of Australians who hate sport. </p>
<p>We are currently conducting research to better understand why people feel this way about sport and what their experiences are like living in a nation where sport is so <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1329878x15616515">culturally central</a>. We have completed surveys with thousands of Australians and are now beginning to interview those who have described themselves as “sport haters”. </p>
<h2>Australia, a ‘sports mad’ nation</h2>
<p>Australia has long been described as a “<a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14660970902955588">sports mad nation</a>”, a reasonable assertion given the Melbourne Cup attracted crowds of <a href="https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/catalog/2178266">more than 100,000 people</a> as far back as the 1880s.</p>
<p>Australia’s sport passion is perhaps most evident today from the number of professional teams we support for a nation of 26 million people, one of the highest per capita <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Heath-Mcdonald/publication/326140082_Are_Sport_Consumers_Unique_Consumer_Behavior_Within_Crowded_Sport_Markets/links/5e9465fd92851c2f529c4322/Are-Sport-Consumers-Unique-Consumer-Behavior-Within-Crowded-Sport-Markets.pdf">concentrations</a> in the world. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1365191195647877124"}"></div></p>
<p>In addition to our four distinct football codes – Australian rules football, rugby league, rugby union and soccer – we have professional netball, basketball, cricket and tennis. In all, there are more than <a href="https://www.clearinghouseforsport.gov.au/kb/structure-of-australian-sport">130 professional sport teams in Australia</a> today (across both genders).</p>
<p>Australia also hosts – and Australians attend – major sport events at a rate wildly disproportionate to the size of our population and economy. <a href="https://www.blackbookmotorsport.com/news/f1-australian-grand-prix-record-crowd-melbourne-albert-park/">Formula One</a>, the <a href="https://ausopen.com/articles/news/record-breaking-australian-open-ao-2024-numbers">Australian Open</a>, the <a href="https://nbl.com.au/news/nbl-sets-new-season-attendance-record">National Basketball League</a>, the <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/nrl-attendance-records-tumble-as-fans-flock-back-to-footy-20230902-p5e1ib.html">National Rugby League</a> and <a href="https://mumbrella.com.au/64-of-aussie-population-watched-matildas-new-deakin-research-claims-797902">Matildas</a> have all recently broken attendance or television viewership records.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-barassi-line-a-globally-unique-divider-splitting-australias-footy-fans-185132">The Barassi Line: a globally unique divider splitting Australia's footy fans</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why people hate sport</h2>
<p>The ubiquity of sport in our culture, however, conceals the fact that a significant portion of people strongly and actively dislike sport. Recent <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14413523.2023.2233342">research</a> by one of the co-authors here (Heath McDonald) has begun to shine light on this cohort, dubbed “sport haters”.</p>
<p>Sport haters account for approximately 20% of the Australian population, according to two surveys we have conducted of nearly 3,500 and more than 27,000 adults. Demographically, this group is significantly more likely to be female, younger and more affluent than other Australians. </p>
<p>Their strong negative sentiments are reflected in the most common word associations <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14413523.2023.2233342">study participants</a> used to describe sport. In the case of AFL, these were: “boring”, “overpaid”, “stupid/dumb”, “rough”, “scandal” and “alcohol”.</p>
<p>While the reasons for disliking sport vary from person to person, research shows there are some common themes. The first is in childhood, where negative experiences participating in sport or attending games or matches can lead to a life-long dislike of all sport. As one professed sport hater said in an <a href="https://www.reddit.com/r/AskMen/comments/1zxfyt/guys_who_do_not_like_sports_can_you_explain_why/">online forum devoted to men who don’t like sport</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>My brother would force me to play soccer against my will all the time as children. I think that is where my resentment for physical sport comes from because the choice was taken away from me by my twat of a brother.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Sport hatred can also derive from social exclusion or marginalisation. Sport has historically been a male-centric domain that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0277539587900525">celebrates</a> masculinity and can lead to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-02-20/taylor-swift-effect-sports-fandom-nfl/103486274">toxic behaviour</a>, which can exclude many women and some men. </p>
<p>Sport has also had to overcome racism, perhaps most symbolically visible by AFL player Nicky Winmar’s <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-04-17/nicky-winmar-indigenous-afl-racism-anniversary/102222960">iconic protest</a> in 1993. In addition, individuals with a disability still face <a href="https://www.sportaus.gov.au/integrity_in_sport/inclusive-sport/understanding-our-diverse-audiences/people-with-disability#:%7E:text=People%20with%20disability%20receive%20the,than%20adults%20who%20don't.">barriers</a> that result in lower rates of sport participation. </p>
<p>Here, the current <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-02-20/taylor-swift-effect-sports-fandom-nfl/103486274">Taylor Swift effect</a> is noteworthy. The singer’s attendance at National Football League games, including the Superbowl, resulted in huge spikes in television viewership. Through her association, Swift helped make the sport more <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096969892300317X#bib122">psychologically accessible</a> for many women and girls.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="TiktokEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.tiktok.com/@thetoddkale/video/7328856199506513183?embed_source=71929435%2C121374463%2C121351166%2C121331973%2C120811592%2C120810756%3Bnull%3Bembed_blank\u0026refer=embed\u0026referer_url=www.smh.com.au%2Fsport%2Fnfl%2Fthe-taylor-effect-more-women-than-ever-are-watching-nfl-it-s-bringing-in-a-huge-profit-20240130-p5f0zr.html\u0026referer_video_id=7328856199506513183"}"></div></p>
<p>The <a href="https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=AvjrDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT125&dq=Contesting+national+Culture&ots=1_lQuBpKK7&sig=dMb-5s0PgpUumUTSFeEKZiNq0dg#v=onepage&q=Contesting%20national%20Culture&f=false">cultural dominance</a> of sport also fuels its detractors, with many critical of sport’s media saturation and its broader social and even political prioritisation. (The <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-02-16/macquarie-point-stadium-dominates-election-campaign-day-one/103473124">debate in Tasmania</a> over the controversial AFL stadium proposal is a good case in point.)</p>
<p>From a media perspective, Australia’s particularly strict <a href="https://theconversation.com/regardless-of-the-rules-sport-is-fleeing-free-tv-for-pay-and-it-might-be-an-avalanche-154640">anti-siphoning</a> laws have ensured that sport remains front and centre on free-to-air television programming. </p>
<p>Sport’s cultural dominance also fosters resentment for overshadowing people’s non-sporting passions and pursuits, as well as creating societal out-groups. Journalist Jo Chandler’s <a href="https://libraryedition.smedia.com.au/lib_a/Default.aspx#panel=document">2010</a> description of moving to Melbourne is no doubt shared by many:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>In the workplace, to be unaligned is deeply isolating. Team tribalism infects meetings, especially when overseen by male chiefs. In shameful desperation, I’ve played along.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In life, it’s fairly easy to avoid most products you might dislike. But given sport’s ubiquity, simply tuning out is sometimes not an option.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/on-the-eve-of-an-aflm-grand-final-like-no-other-can-the-shadow-of-the-pandemic-make-us-strive-for-something-better-167792">On the eve of an AFLM grand final like no other, can the shadow of the pandemic make us strive for something better?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The Anti-Football League, a club for haters</h2>
<p>In 1967, two Melbourne journalists, Keith Dunstan and Douglas Wilkie, launched an anti-sport club in response to this growing cultural dominance. In his founding address to the <a href="https://www.academia.edu/7584522/Football_is_a_Fever_Disease_Like_Recurrent_Malaria_and_Evidently_Incurable_Passion_Place_and_the_Emergence_of_an_Australian_Anti_Football_League">Anti-Football League</a>, Wilkie made clear who the club was for: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>All of us who are tired of having football personalities, predictions and post mortems cluttering our newspapers, TV screens and attempts at alternative human converse – from beginning-of-morning prayers to the last trickle of bed time bathwater – should join at once.</p>
</blockquote>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1319729053180583936"}"></div></p>
<p>Membership quickly reached the thousands. Soon, a Sydney branch was launched, bringing national membership to a high of around 7,000. According to sport historian Matthew Klugman, members found joy in being “haters”. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>…they wanted to find a shared meaning in their suffering, not to extinguish it, but to better enjoy it. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>This led to some curious rituals, with members ceremonially cremating footballs or burying them. An Anti-Football Day was also launched, taking place on the eve of the Victorian Football League Grand Final. </p>
<p>The club would go on to experience periods of both prosperity and hiatus over the years, but has been dormant since <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/vale-keith-dunstan-gentle-footy-hater-cyclist-and-master-of-words-20130911-2tklh.html">Dunstan’s death</a> in 2013.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1573431131147730944"}"></div></p>
<p>With eight more years to go in Australia’s so-called “<a href="https://this.deakin.edu.au/career/golden-decade-of-sport-ahead-for-australia">golden decade of sport</a>”, which began with <a href="https://www.fiba.basketball/womensbasketballworldcup/2022">2022 Women’s Basketball World Cup in Sydney</a> and culminates with the 2032 Brisbane Olympics, it may be time sport haters to start a new support group. </p>
<p>If you consider yourself a sport hater, and are interested in contributing your experience to our ongoing research, please provide your contact information <a href="https://researchsurveys.deakin.edu.au/jfe/form/SV_a4CqHyqipjYj5SC">here</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223733/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Heath McDonald is a consultant to a range of professional sport teams in the AFL, NRL and cricket. He receives funding from the Australian Research Council.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Hunter Fujak does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research sheds light on the reasons why many people dislike sport in a sport-mad nation.Hunter Fujak, Senior Lecturer in Sport Management, Deakin UniversityHeath McDonald, Dean of Economics, Finance and Marketing and Professor of Marketing, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2224732024-02-21T13:22:53Z2024-02-21T13:22:53ZAre our fears of saying ‘no’ overblown?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576255/original/file-20240216-28-feso3m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=50%2C8%2C5540%2C3724&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">We can be unduly hard on ourselves as we grapple with the implications of declining an invitation.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/man-using-cell-phone-behind-translucent-glass-royalty-free-image/1015918742?phrase=typing%2Bno%2Bthank%2Byou%2Binto%2Bphone">Yifei Fang/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Everyone has been there. You get invited to something that you absolutely do not want to attend – a holiday party, a family cookout, an expensive trip. But doubts and anxieties creep into your head as you weigh whether to decline.</p>
<p>You might wonder if you’ll upset the person who invited you. Maybe it’ll harm the friendship, or they won’t extend an invite to the next get-together.</p>
<p>Should you just grit your teeth and go? Or are you worrying more than you should about saying “no”? </p>
<h2>An imaginary faux pas</h2>
<p>We explored these questions <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000443">in a recently published study</a>.</p>
<p>In a pilot study that we ran ahead of the main studies, we found that 77% of our 51 respondents had accepted an invitation to an event that they didn’t want to attend, fearing blowback if they were to decline. They worried that saying no might upset, anger or sadden the person who invited them. They also worried that they wouldn’t be invited to events down the road and that their own invitations would be rebuffed.</p>
<p>We then ran a series of studies in which we asked some people to imagine declining an invitation, and then report their assumptions about how the person extending the invite would feel. We asked other participants to imagine that someone had declined invitations they had extended themselves. Then we asked them how they felt about the rejection. </p>
<p>We ended up finding quite the mismatch. People tend to assume others will react poorly when an invitation isn’t accepted. But they’re relatively unaffected when someone turns down an invite they’ve extended.</p>
<p>In fact, people extending invites were much more understanding – and less upset, angry or sad – than invitees anticipated. They also said they would be rather unlikely to let a single declined invitation keep them from offering or accepting invitations in the future.</p>
<p>We found that the asymmetry between people extending and receiving invites occurred regardless of whether it involved two friends, a new couple or two people who had been in a relationship for a long time.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="One speech bubble with a question mark in it, and another with an ellipses, indicating contemplation or a brief moment of speechlessness." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576254/original/file-20240216-16-93bp3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576254/original/file-20240216-16-93bp3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576254/original/file-20240216-16-93bp3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576254/original/file-20240216-16-93bp3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576254/original/file-20240216-16-93bp3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576254/original/file-20240216-16-93bp3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576254/original/file-20240216-16-93bp3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">People are pretty understanding when their invitations are rebuffed.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/question-bubble-and-chatting-bubble-royalty-free-image/1448380909?phrase=saying+No&adppopup=true">Carol Yepes/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Why does this happen? </p>
<p>Our findings suggest that when someone declines an invitation, they think the person who invited them will focus on the cold, hard rejection. But in reality, the person extending the invite is more likely to focus on the thoughts and deliberations that ran through the head of the person who declined. They’ll tend to assume that the invitee gave due consideration to the prospect of accepting, and this generally leaves them less bothered than might be expected.</p>
<p>Interestingly, while our research examined invitations to fun events – dinners out to restaurants with a visiting celebrity chef and trips to quirky museum exhibits – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000457">other studies</a> have found that the same pattern emerges when someone is asked to do a favor and they decline. </p>
<p>Even with these less enjoyable requests, people overestimate the negative implications of saying no.</p>
<h2>Lay the groundwork for future invites</h2>
<p>There are a few things you can do to make things easier on yourself as you grapple with whether to decline an invitation.</p>
<p>First, imagine that you were the one extending the invitation. Our research shows that people are less likely to overestimate the negative implications of declining an invitation after they envision how they would feel if someone turned down their invite.</p>
<p>Second, if money is a reason you’re considering passing on a dinner or a trip, share that with the person who invited you – as long as you feel comfortable doing so, of course. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1226">Other research</a> has found that people are especially understanding when people cite finances as their reason for declining.</p>
<p>Third, consider the “no but” strategy <a href="https://www.self.com/story/saying-no-to-invitations">that some therapists suggest</a>. Decline the invitation, but offer to do something else with the person who invited you.</p>
<p>With this method, you’re making it clear to the person who invited you that you’re not rejecting them; rather, you’re declining the activity. A bonus with this strategy is that you have the opportunity to suggest doing something that you actually want to do. </p>
<p>Of course, there’s a caveat to all of this: If you decline every invitation sent your way, at some point they’ll probably stop coming.</p>
<p>But assuming you aren’t a habitual naysayer, don’t beat yourself up if you end up declining an invitation every now and then. Chances are that the person who invited you will be less bothered than you think.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222473/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Nearly 80% of people have accepted invitations to events they didn’t want to attend.Julian Givi, Assistant Professor of Marketing, West Virginia UniversityColleen P. Kirk, Assistant Professor of Marketing, New York Institute of TechnologyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2228312024-02-21T13:18:19Z2024-02-21T13:18:19ZMaking it personal: Considering an issue’s relevance to your own life could help reduce political polarization<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576054/original/file-20240215-28-zbjze5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C7%2C1720%2C1732&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Thinking about issues’ impact on their own lives can help people envision more common ground.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/polarization-in-the-united-states-royalty-free-image/1436162554?phrase=political+polarization&adppopup=true">wildpixel/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Political polarization can be reduced when people are told to think about the personal relevance of issues they might not care about at first glance.</p>
<p>We, <a href="https://www.hamilton.edu/academics/our-faculty/directory/faculty-detail/Rebecca-Dyer">a social psychologist</a> and <a href="https://www.hamilton.edu/academics/our-faculty/directory/faculty-detail/keelah-williams">an evolutionary psychologist</a>, decided to investigate this issue with two of our undergraduate students, and recently published <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296177">our results</a> in the science journal PLOS One.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015141">Previous research</a> has found that conservatives tend to judge “disrespecting an elder” to be more morally objectionable behavior than liberals do. But when we had liberals think about how “disrespecting an elder” could be personally relevant to them – for example, someone being mean to their own grandmother – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296177">their immorality assessments increased</a>, becoming no different than conservatives’.</p>
<p>When people consider how an issue relates to them personally, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000567">an otherwise neutral event seems more threatening</a>. This, in turn, increases someone’s perception of how morally objectionable that behavior is.</p>
<p>The pattern was different with conservative participants, however. When conservatives considered the personal relevance of what is typically considered a more “liberal” issue – a company lying about how much it is contributing to pollution – their judgments of how immoral that issue is did not significantly change. </p>
<p>Contrary to what we expected, both conservatives and liberals cared relatively equally about this threat even without thinking about its personal relevance. While some people did focus on the environmental aspect of the threat, as we intended, others focused more on the deception involved, which is less politically polarized. </p>
<p>All participants, no matter their politics, consistently rated more personally relevant threats as more immoral. The closer any threat feels, the bigger – and more wrong – someone considers it to be.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>In the United States today, it can feel like conservatives and liberals are <a href="https://insight.kellogg.northwestern.edu/article/political-divide-america-beyond-polarization-tribalism-secularism">living in different realities</a>. Our research speaks to a possible pathway for narrowing this gap. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576815/original/file-20240220-22-4q8cod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two rows of seated people, seen from the back, listen to four people speaking as they face the audience." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576815/original/file-20240220-22-4q8cod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/576815/original/file-20240220-22-4q8cod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576815/original/file-20240220-22-4q8cod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576815/original/file-20240220-22-4q8cod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576815/original/file-20240220-22-4q8cod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576815/original/file-20240220-22-4q8cod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/576815/original/file-20240220-22-4q8cod.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Thinking about issues as closer to your own life – happening sooner, nearer or to people you care about – can change how you view them.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/rear-view-photo-of-audience-listening-to-panel-royalty-free-image/1179025358?phrase=%22town+hall%22+meeting&adppopup=true">SDI Productions/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>People often think of moral beliefs as relatively fixed and stable: Moral values feel ingrained in who you are. Yet our study suggests that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0296177">moral beliefs may be more flexible</a> than once thought, at least under certain circumstances. </p>
<p>To the extent that people can appreciate how important issues – like climate change – could affect them personally, that may lead to greater agreement from people across the political spectrum.</p>
<p>From a broader perspective, personal relevance is just one dimension of something called “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963">psychological distance</a>.” People may perceive objects or events as close to or far away from their lives in a variety of ways: for example, whether an event occurred recently or a long time ago, and whether it is real or hypothetical.</p>
<p>Our research suggests that psychological distance could be an important variable to consider in all kinds of decision-making, including financial decisions, deciding where to go to college or what job to take. Thinking more abstractly or concretely about what is at stake might lead people to different conclusions and improve the quality of their decisions.</p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Several important questions remain. One relates to the differing pattern that we observed with conservative participants, whose assessments of a stereotypically “liberal” threat did not change much when they considered its relevance to their own lives. Would a different threat – maybe gun violence or mounting student loan debt – lead to a different pattern? Alternatively, perhaps conservatives tend to be more rigid in their beliefs than liberals, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000446">as some studies have suggested</a>.</p>
<p>In addition, how might these findings contribute to actual problem-solving? Is increasing the personal relevance of otherwise-neutral threats the best way to help people see eye to eye?</p>
<p>Another possibility might be to push things in the opposite direction. Making potential threats seem less personally relevant, not more, might be an effective way to bring people together to work toward a realistic solution.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/222831/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Changing the ‘psychological distance’ someone feels toward an issue can shift their attitudes in ways that might help people on opposite sides of an issue see more eye to eye.Rebecca Dyer, Visiting Assistant Professor of Psychology, Hamilton CollegeKeelah Williams, Associate Professor of Psychology, Hamilton CollegeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2209352024-02-15T13:34:14Z2024-02-15T13:34:14ZBacteria in your gut can improve your mood − new research in mice tries to zero in on the crucial strains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569636/original/file-20240116-23-4k79iu.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3295%2C2549&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The difference between one mouse's fear and another mouse's calm might be in their gut bacteria.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Katriel Cho</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Probiotics-Consumer/">Probiotics</a> have been getting a lot of attention recently. These bacteria, which you can consume from fermented foods, yogurt or even pills, are linked to a number of <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/14598-probiotics">health and wellness benefits</a>, including reducing gastrointestinal distress, urinary tract infections and eczema. But can they improve your mood, too?</p>
<p>Behavior and mental health are complicated. But the short answer, according to my team’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2023.11.001">recently published research</a>, is likely yes.</p>
<p>The beneficial bacteria in probiotics become part of a community of other microscopic organisms living in your digestive system called the <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/science/microbiome">gut microbiome</a>. Your gut microbiome contains trillions of a diverse range of bacteria, fungi and viruses. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.02029">Hundreds of species of bacteria</a> are native to the intestinal tract. Each species can be broken down into hundreds of strains that can also be dramatically different from each other in their metabolism, byproducts and environmental preferences.</p>
<p>This bacterial diversity is why not all probiotics are built the same. Many research groups have shown that specific strains of <em>Lactobacillus</em> have <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15143258">mood-enhancing effects</a>. </p>
<p>But these effects seem to happen only with the right mix of bacteria in the right conditions. For example, a probiotic that can reduce symptoms of stress in someone who is worried about their calculus final may not work in someone with symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575084/original/file-20240212-16-hxn0sy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Yogurt parfair on a tablecloth" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575084/original/file-20240212-16-hxn0sy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/575084/original/file-20240212-16-hxn0sy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575084/original/file-20240212-16-hxn0sy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575084/original/file-20240212-16-hxn0sy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575084/original/file-20240212-16-hxn0sy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575084/original/file-20240212-16-hxn0sy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/575084/original/file-20240212-16-hxn0sy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=584&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The probiotics in your yogurt may play a role in boosting mood.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/shallow-focus-photo-of-clear-drinking-glass-GbCEo-Nwyj4">Tanaphong Toochinda/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Studying mood in mice</h2>
<p>In my work <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=X8XcETAAAAAJ&hl=en">as a neuroscientist</a>, I study how the gut influences the brain. My team and I recently <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2023.11.001">conducted experiments</a> in mice that support the idea that gut microbiota play a role in regulating stress.</p>
<p>So how do you measure the mood of mice? </p>
<p>First, we needed to understand how stressed mice behave. So we placed them under <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2023.11.001">short periods of stress</a>: They are restrained for two hours each day, given enough room to move around but not enough to groom or stand up. We envision this as the same type of stress people experience when they’re confined to a car or cubical for hours at a time. </p>
<p>Stressed mice soon exhibited depression- and anxiety-like behaviors, which we measured by monitoring how much time they spent hiding when placed in a new environment or how quickly they try to right themselves when flipped upside down.</p>
<p>While it isn’t surprising that stressed mice hide longer and are slower to right themselves, the power of their poop to change their behavior was. </p>
<p>To see if stressed behavior could be transferred through the microbiome, we used another group of mice that were entirely clean. These mice were free from any bacteria, fungi or viruses and lived in a rubber bubble. They essentially had no microbiome at all.</p>
<p>We exposed them to poop from either stressed mice or normal mice by sprinkling soiled bedding in their enclosures. Microbes from the donor mice started to populate the gut microbiomes of the clean mice.</p>
<p>Within a few weeks, the clean mice exposed to poop from stressed mice started to develop stress- and anxiety-like behavior, even though nothing else had changed. Meanwhile, clean mice exposed to poop from normal mice had no differences in their behavior. This finding suggests that the microbes in poop changed the mice’s behavior.</p>
<h2>Which bacteria affect mood?</h2>
<p>The results of our experiments led us back to our original question: Which bacteria can change your mood? </p>
<p>We started by comparing the microbes in the poop of stressed and normal mice. In our analysis, we found that a group of bacteria called <em>Lactobacillus</em> was greatly reduced in the stressed mice. Research has linked this group of bacteria to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbih.2020.100169">stress reduction</a> before. However, <em>Lactobacillus</em> contains over 170 different species and even more strains. </p>
<p>Currently, the probiotic supplements available to patients are <a href="https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/probiotics-what-you-need-to-know">unregulated and often untested</a>. In order to reliably get the most effective strains to patients, they need to be properly tested. So we had to come up with a way to test how different strains affect anxious behavior. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574702/original/file-20240209-28-2yorsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Microscopy image of rod-shaped Lactobacillus stained blue" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574702/original/file-20240209-28-2yorsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/574702/original/file-20240209-28-2yorsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574702/original/file-20240209-28-2yorsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574702/original/file-20240209-28-2yorsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=358&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574702/original/file-20240209-28-2yorsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574702/original/file-20240209-28-2yorsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/574702/original/file-20240209-28-2yorsd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption"><em>Lactobacillus</em> are a diverse range of bacteria that can provide potential health benefits in people.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lactobacillus_paracasei.jpg">Dr. Horst Neve/Max Rubner-Institut via Wikimedia Commons</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Instead of tackling this colossal task alone, we created a method that other microbiome scientists can also use to look at this group of bacteria as systematically as possible. </p>
<p>To recreate the same experimental conditions for each species of microbe, we created a group of mice with only six species of bacteria in their microbiome, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ilar/ilv012">bare minimum needed</a> for normal and healthy development, which did not include <em>Lactobacillus</em>. This way, we could add individual strains of <em>Lactobacillus</em> back into the mice’s gut microbiome and observe the effects of each strain on their behavior and biology. </p>
<p>We’ve <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2023.11.001">tested two strains</a> so far: <em>Lactobacillus intestinalis</em> ASF360 and <em>Lactobacillus murinus</em> ASF361. Mice with these two strains of <em>Lactobacillus</em> are more resilient to stress and have quieted neural pathways associated with fear.</p>
<h2>What’s next?</h2>
<p>Our study on how different strains of <em>Lactobacillus</em> affect mood is just the beginning. We hope that our research will open avenues for other scientists to test different probiotics. </p>
<p>While researchers are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.023">reaching a consensus</a> that the bacteria in your digestive tract can influence your mood, and vice versa, there is still a lot of testing to be done in both animals and in people.</p>
<p>Our team is starting to develop ways to systematically test which bacteria may provide the best health outcomes in people and which probiotics are the most effective. In the meantime, give the <em>Lactobacillus</em> in your gut some love through a healthy, probiotics-rich diet.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220935/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrea Merchak has received funding from the National Institutes of Health (T32 NS115657, F31 AI174782).</span></em></p>The organisms living in your gut microbiome can influence your mental and physical health. Researchers have developed a way to better test for those biological effects.Andrea Merchak, Postdoctoral Associate in Neuroscience, University of FloridaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2205872024-02-01T13:32:23Z2024-02-01T13:32:23ZAI can help − and hurt − student creativity<p>Teachers across the country are grappling with whether to view AI tools like ChatGPT as friend or foe in the classroom. My research shows that the answer isn’t always simple. It can be both.</p>
<p>Teaching students to be creative thinkers rather than rely on AI for answers is the key to answering this question. That’s what my team and I found in our study on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yjoc.2023.100072">whether AI affects student creativity</a>, published in the Journal of Creativity and representing scholars from the University of South Carolina, the University of California, Berkeley and Emerson College. </p>
<p>In the study, we asked college students to brainstorm – without technology – all the ways a paper clip can be used. A month later, we asked them to do the same, but using ChatGPT. We found that AI can be a useful brainstorming tool, quickly generating ideas that can spark creative exploration. But there are also potential negative effects on students’ creative thinking skills and self-confidence. While students reported that it was helpful to “have another brain,” they also felt that using AI was “the easy way out” and didn’t allow them to think on their own. </p>
<p>The results call for a thoughtful approach to using AI in classrooms and striking a balance that nurtures creativity while <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100056">utilizing AI’s capabilities</a>. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Increasingly, students are using <a href="https://aiindex.stanford.edu/report/">AI for help with their schoolwork</a>. Whether it’s for drafting essays, learning new languages or studying history and science, AI tools are becoming a staple in students’ academic toolkit. </p>
<p>Students tend to view AI as having a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10030065">positive impact on their creativity</a>. In our study, 100% of participants found AI helpful for brainstorming. Only 16% of students preferred to brainstorm without AI. </p>
<p>The good news is that the students in our study generated more diverse and detailed ideas when using AI. They found that AI was useful for kick-starting brainstorming sessions. Other research has shown that AI can also serve as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2022.880673">nonjudgmental partner for brainstorming</a>, which can prompt a free stream of ideas they might normally withhold in a group setting. </p>
<p>The downside of brainstorming with AI was that some students voiced concerns about overreliance on the technology, fearing it might undermine their own thoughts and, consequently, confidence in their creative abilities. Some students reported a “fixation of the mind,” meaning that once they saw the AI’s ideas, they had a hard time coming up with their own.</p>
<p>Some students also questioned the originality of ideas generated by AI. Our research supported these hunches. We noted that while using ChatGPT improved students’ creative output individually, the AI ideas tended to be repetitive overall. This is likely due to generative AI recycling existing content rather than creating original thought.</p>
<p>The study results indicate that allowing students to practice creativity independently first will <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100966">strengthen their belief in themselves and their abilities</a>. Once they accomplish this, AI can be useful in furthering their learning, much like teaching long division to students before introducing a calculator.</p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Our study primarily explored AI’s application in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326934CRJ1334_07">idea-generation phase of creativity</a>, but we also emphasized the importance of developing skills at the start and end of the creative process. The essential tasks of defining problems and critically evaluating ideas still rely heavily on human input.</p>
<p>The creative process typically involves three phases, such as problem identification, idea generation and evaluation. AI shows promise in aiding students in the idea generation phase of the creative process, according to our study. However, the current generation of AI, such as ChatGPT-3, lacks the capacity for defining the problem and refining ideas into something actionable. </p>
<p>AI’s <a href="https://tech.ed.gov/ai-future-of-teaching-and-learning/">growing role in education</a> brings many advantages, but keeping the human element at the forefront is crucial.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>Content ownership, plagiarism and false or misleading information are among the current challenges for implementing AI in education. As generative AI gains popularity, schools are pressed to set guidelines to ensure these tools are used responsibly. Some states, such as <a href="https://www.edweek.org/technology/schools-desperately-need-guidance-on-ai-who-will-step-up/2023/11">California and Oregon</a>, have already developed guidelines for AI in education. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iotcps.2023.04.003">Ethical considerations</a> are vital for a positive relationship between creativity and AI.</p>
<p>Our team will continue to research the effect of AI on creativity, exploring its impact on agency, confidence and other phases of the creative process. AI in education is not just about the latest technology. It’s about shaping a future where human creativity and technological advancement progress hand in hand.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220587/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sabrina Habib does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A study in which students brainstormed all the uses of a paper clip shows that AI can both enhance and harm the creative process.Sabrina Habib, Associate Professor, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2190762024-01-30T13:35:16Z2024-01-30T13:35:16ZTelehealth makes timely abortions possible for many, research shows<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570966/original/file-20240123-19-9zfcc4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=60%2C0%2C6649%2C4466&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The COVID-19 pandemic brought telehealth into the mainstream. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/telemedicine-royalty-free-image/1390865559?phrase=telehealth+abortion+care&adppopup=true">Sladic/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Access to telehealth abortion care can determine whether a person can obtain an abortion in the United States. For young people and those living on low incomes, telehealth makes a critical difference in getting timely abortion care. </p>
<p>These are the key findings from our recent studies published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2023.307437">American Journal of Public Health</a> and the <a href="https://doi.org/10.2196/45671">Journal of Medical Internet Research</a>.</p>
<p>We surveyed 1,600 people across the country who accessed telehealth abortion in 2021 and 2022, prior to the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/06/24/us/politics/supreme-court-dobbs-jackson-analysis-roe-wade.html">Dobbs v. Jackson Supreme Court decision</a> in June 2022 that led to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/us/abortion-laws-roe-v-wade.html">abortion bans in much of the U.S. South and Midwest</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/abortion-pills-are-safe-to-prescribe-without-in-person-exams-new-research-finds-179622">Telehealth abortion</a>, which has been widely available in the U.S. only since 2021, allows patients to be evaluated remotely by a licensed provider and, if medically eligible, receive abortion medications in the mail. Our research has shown that this <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjamanetworkopen.2021.22320">type of abortion care is extremely safe</a>.</p>
<p>Nearly all the patients we surveyed had positive experiences with telehealth abortion: They were satisfied, trusted their telehealth provider, felt cared for and felt telehealth was the right decision. Our research shows that for many patients, telehealth offers important benefits over abortion care from a clinic. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Since 14 states have banned abortion as of January 2024 following the Dobbs decision, patients have been <a href="https://doi.org/doi:10.1001/jama.2022.20424">traveling long distances to access care</a>. This puts increased pressure on clinics in states where abortion remains legal. </p>
<p>Research has shown that the consequences of abortion bans are highly unequal. People of color, young people and those living on lower incomes are <a href="https://www.guttmacher.org/node/300256/printable/print">disproportionately affected by abortion restrictions</a>. These are the same people who stand to benefit the most from access to telehealth abortion. </p>
<p>Nearly 1 in 10 abortions in the U.S. <a href="https://doi.org/10.46621/218569qkgmbl">are now done via telehealth</a>. At the same time, access to telehealth abortion is under threat. The Supreme Court will decide on the <a href="https://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/food-and-drug-administration-v-alliance-for-hippocratic-medicine-2/">Alliance for Hippocratic Medicine v. FDA case</a> in 2024, which could limit access to telehealth abortion across the country.</p>
<p>While there will always be a need for in-person abortion care, and many patients prefer it, our research shows that telehealth can make a critical difference for many. Telehealth can bring an otherwise impossible abortion within reach, especially for people who have been underserved in health care. Restrictions on telehealth abortion threaten equitable abortion access.</p>
<p>Telehealth allows patients to avoid a significant amount of travel to an abortion clinic, which has become prohibitively difficult as abortion clinics <a href="https://www.guttmacher.org/2022/10/100-days-post-roe-least-66-clinics-across-15-us-states-have-stopped-offering-abortion-care">have closed in record numbers</a>. Avoiding travel can make abortion care much more accessible without the need to arrange for transport, time off from work and child care. Telehealth abortion appointments are usually available sooner, and in many cases they are more affordable than abortion care from a clinic. Telehealth also allows patients to tell fewer people about their abortion decision.</p>
<p>When we asked people what would have happened if they had not been able to have a telehealth abortion, 43% of those we surveyed said they would not have been able to get a timely abortion without telehealth. </p>
<p>This was more likely to be true for young people, those living on lower incomes, those living in rural areas and those who lived far from an abortion clinic. While only 2% of patients said they would have continued the pregnancy if they had not had access to telehealth abortion, we expect that this proportion would have been substantially higher if we replicated this study after Dobbs.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/pUjiu_AcehE?wmode=transparent&start=15" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">New York City’s public health system offers telehealth visits to pregnant patients, who then can receive abortion pills by mail.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>Our future research will look at the structural changes necessary to ensure that the benefits of telehealth abortion are available equitably. We will also test how to tailor telehealth abortion so that it reaches people historically excluded from health care. </p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219076/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Leah Koenig receives funding from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the Society of Family Planning.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ushma Upadhyay receives funding from the BaSe Family Fund, Erik E. and Edith H. Bergstrom Foundation, Isabel Allende Foundation, Lisa and Douglas Goldman Fund, Preston-Werner Ventures, and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development under Award Number 1R01HD110659-01A1.
She is a member of the Society of Family Planning, the Population Association of America, and the South Asian Public Health Association. </span></em></p>People of color, young people and those with low incomes tend to benefit most from telehealth abortion.Leah Koenig, PhD Candidate in Public Health, University of California, San FranciscoUshma Upadhyay, Professor of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Science, University of California, San FranciscoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2212842024-01-22T20:05:54Z2024-01-22T20:05:54ZTiny water-walking bugs provide scientists with insights on how microplastics are pushed underwater<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570372/original/file-20240119-29-p4evyd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=242%2C9%2C5985%2C4146&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">You may hardly feel a raindrop, but for some tiny insects, one drop can have an intense impact. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/raindrop-royalty-free-image/682204834?phrase=raindrop+falling&adppopup=true">Mendowong Photography/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.06.074">Microplastics are tiny plastic particles</a> that can cause <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410821">big problems</a> when they enter the water supply. One way my <a href="https://www.dickersonlab.com/">fluid dynamics lab</a> explores microplastic movement is by studying how tiny water-walking insects are pushed underwater by raindrops.</p>
<p>Exposure to microplastic pollution can pose health risks, such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11020496">respiratory and digestive problems</a>, increased <a href="https://doi.org/10.5334/aogh.4056">risk of diabetes</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041212">disrupted sleep</a>. But <a href="https://mabe.utk.edu/people/andrew-dickerson/">physicists like me</a> can study how they move through water to learn how to clean them up. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/water-strider">Water striders</a> are tiny insects that can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01793">walk on water</a>. They’re abundant in humid, rainy areas, and some species go their entire lives without ever touching land. Raindrops can weigh more than 40 times a water strider, and during storms they occasionally strike striders directly. The drops form a tiny crater under the surface of the water that envelops the strider before jettisoning it out as the crater collapses back to the surface. </p>
<p>The water striders have strong exoskeletons that allow them to survive being hit by a raindrop. Because these insects are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.901">water-repellent</a> and very lightweight, they usually bounce right back. But sometimes the raindrops will form a second, smaller crater right below the surface. The second crater usually forms from a large, fast drop.</p>
<p>If the water strider finds itself inside this second crater, it could get trapped under the water. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570376/original/file-20240119-18-v7fklk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four photos showing a raindrop colliding with the surface of the water, the first showing a dip below the surface in which a small, long-legged insect floats, the second showing the insect meeting the surface, and the third showing another small sip with the insect inside, and the fourth showing the insect submerged under the water." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570376/original/file-20240119-18-v7fklk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570376/original/file-20240119-18-v7fklk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=606&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570376/original/file-20240119-18-v7fklk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=606&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570376/original/file-20240119-18-v7fklk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=606&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570376/original/file-20240119-18-v7fklk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570376/original/file-20240119-18-v7fklk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570376/original/file-20240119-18-v7fklk.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=761&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Raindrops form two craters, the second of which can submerge striders.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daren A. Watson and Andrew K. Dickerson, from the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In my lab’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2315667121">latest study</a>, we captured water striders from local ponds and released falling drops above their tanks. We used high-speed videography and image analysis to see how fast the insects submerged when the raindrops hit them.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I also measured the acceleration of the second, smaller crater. This crater retracts quickly – according <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2315667121">to our measurements</a>, 50 times the acceleration due to gravity. Water striders cannot support themselves inside this second bubble, as the surface they’re on moves upward so quickly, and they might fall underwater and become submerged. If that happens, the water striders make powerful swimming strokes to try to resurface.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570392/original/file-20240119-25-h4qkfd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two illustrations show the process of a strider underwater using its legs to kick up to the water's surface." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570392/original/file-20240119-25-h4qkfd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/570392/original/file-20240119-25-h4qkfd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=121&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570392/original/file-20240119-25-h4qkfd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=121&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570392/original/file-20240119-25-h4qkfd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=121&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570392/original/file-20240119-25-h4qkfd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=153&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570392/original/file-20240119-25-h4qkfd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=153&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/570392/original/file-20240119-25-h4qkfd.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=153&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Striders can often kick back up to the surface if they get submerged, unlike plastic particles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Daren A. Watson and Andrew K. Dickerson, from the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Like water striders, microplastics are very light and often water-repellent. They tend to move on top of the water in a similar way, and raindrops can submerge them. When pollutants get submerged, they’re <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-00983-1">harder to clean up</a>, and <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/5257">marine life might consume</a> them.</p>
<p>Our research tells us that the second crater’s quick acceleration toward the water’s surface plays a big part in sinking tiny particles – water striders and microplastics alike.</p>
<p>Studying how small particles and organisms disperse in water could help scientists figure out how to prevent and mediate microplastic pollution. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Water striders are so water-repellent that they carry a bubble around them <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022112008002048">called a plastron</a> when pushed underwater.</p>
<p>In the lab, the more times they are struck by drops before repelling away the water, the more likely water striders are to remain submerged <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2315667121">for extended periods</a>.</p>
<p>Raindrop impacts seem to deplete the plastron. We don’t yet know how many repeated impacts striders can tolerate and how chemical pollutants in waterways affect their resistance to submersion. </p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>Future work will replace the water striders in our experiments with floating particles that mimic microplastics, with a range of size, density and water-repellency. We expect larger particles to make the drops break apart upon contact, while the smaller particles will likely get carried into the air, or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s43591-021-00018-8">aerosolized</a>, by the splash.</p>
<p>And the striders aren’t just good models for microplastic movement. Studying water striders’ legs as they swim could also help researchers design underwater robots.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221284/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Dickerson receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>Microplastic pollution is a growing problem − one lab is looking at tiny insects as inspiration for how these pollutants might move through water.Andrew Dickerson, Assistant Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2193872024-01-22T13:24:01Z2024-01-22T13:24:01ZUntrained bystanders can administer drone-delivered naloxone, potentially saving lives of opioid overdose victims<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569922/original/file-20240117-23-cg30az.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C0%2C3285%2C2198&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Drone deliveries would be particularly effective in places where emergency responders can't respond quickly.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://engineering.purdue.edu/AAE/Aerogram/2023-2024/articles/28-narcan-delivery-by-drone">Vincent Walter/Purdue University</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>An onlooker – even one without prior training – can successfully administer <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/stopoverdose/naloxone/index.html">naloxone</a> to an overdose victim within about a minute of a drone delivering the lifesaving opioid reversal agent. That’s the key finding of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/11782218231211830">my team’s newly published study</a>.</p>
<p>Naloxone is also known by the <a href="https://theconversation.com/fda-approval-of-over-the-counter-narcan-is-an-important-step-in-the-effort-to-combat-the-us-opioid-crisis-198497**">name brand Narcan</a>.</p>
<p>The study involved 17 participants responding to a simulated overdose. Each simulation included an untrained participant who portrayed a bystander, a box of naloxone delivered by drone, a mannequin as the overdose victim, and a panicked observer. The latter added a sense of urgency by continually shouting at the bystander throughout the simulation. </p>
<p>Via a video playing on a screen carried by the drone, the bystander received instructions on how to use the naloxone, which is administered as a nasal spray. We timed each participant on how long it took them to correctly give the medication during this crisis moment.</p>
<p>Our trial revealed that the average time for someone to remove the naloxone from the drone, view the video and administer the medication was 62 seconds. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tc-zNiwN4Zg?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Simulation of the first demonstration flight of the drone’s delivery of naloxone to an overdose victim.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Such a scenario could be a lifesaver, particularly in places where an emergency medical services, or EMS, team is either not available or slower than a drone delivery. This includes not only densely populated cities with traffic congestion, but more remote areas. </p>
<p>The average response time for an ambulance in rural America is <a href="https://www.hrsa.gov/sites/default/files/hrsa/advisory-committees/rural/access-to-ems-rural-communities.pdf">14 minutes</a>. Nationally, the average ambulance response time <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamasurg.2017.2230">is seven minutes</a>. </p>
<p>Either way, it’s too late to help an opioid user who has stopped breathing. Brain damage occurs in about four minutes, and death in six. </p>
<p>But get a drone to an overdose victim within three minutes, and add one more minute for someone to remove and administer the drug, and there’s a chance to save their life and even prevent brain injury. </p>
<p>More than 75,000 people in the U.S. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/17/us/politics/drug-overdose-deaths.html">died in 2022 from an opioid overdose</a>. A drone network that could deliver naloxone fast enough to ensure quick administration of the drug could save thousands of lives every year.</p>
<p>The technology, although nascent, is here. Amazon is already using drones to <a href="https://www.aboutamazon.com/news/transportation/amazon-prime-air-drone-delivery-mk30-photos">deliver packages</a> in select U.S. cities and in other countries. Since 2011, drones have been <a href="https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.109-5541">delivering blood</a> to remote hospitals in Africa. </p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Deciding where to distribute drone stations across an area is the next step. But if emergency service planners can first determine how long it takes to dispense the medication, informed by our study and others, then they will know how much time a drone has to get to the scene. </p>
<p>Our trial provides a template for future studies – and it comes closer than other controlled trials to simulating the surprise and anxiety experienced by a bystander during an overdose incident. </p>
<p>To the best of our knowledge, there are two previous human trials from the U.S. using drones for medical intervention. But both studies <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.resuscitation.2020.10.006">used trained participants</a> who were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2020.05.103">familiar with the interventions</a> and did not require in-the-moment training on how to use the device.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>As this technology matures, engineering teams will continue to improve the drone’s design and its methods of instruction.</p>
<p>Replicating this study with a diverse population and larger groups of people will be crucial to confirm the time needed to administer the drug after the drone lands. </p>
<p>Another issue for future study will be addressing community acceptance of medical drones. As they fly over houses, drones still cause <a href="https://dronesurveyservices.com/drone-statistics/">fear and uncertainty</a> in many neighborhoods. Adequate education will be needed to prepare communities for these potentially life-saving deliveries.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219387/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nicole Adams has received funding from the Substance Use and Mental Health Service Administration (SAMHSA), the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), the National Council of State Boards of Nursing (NCSBN), as well as internal University seed grants. </span></em></p>The study discovered that nonmedical personnel can provide the naloxone to an overdose victim in about one minute.Nicole Adams, Clinical Associate Professor of Nursing, Purdue UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2178552024-01-16T13:41:43Z2024-01-16T13:41:43ZMiami residents believe Biscayne Bay is ‘healthy,’ despite big declines in water quality and biodiversity, new study finds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/567784/original/file-20240103-17-ykl3se.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Biscayne Bay is home to more than 30 endangered or at-risk species.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/biscayne-bay-skyline-news-photo/635713316">Jeff Greenberg/Universal Images Group/Getty Images </a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Residents of Miami-Dade County appreciate Biscayne Bay for its ecological, cultural, recreational and economic offerings, but they see the estuary as “moderately healthy” – despite a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-019-00610-5">significant decline</a> in water quality and habitat health in recent decades. </p>
<p>That’s according to an online <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0287930">survey of more than 1,000 Miami-Dade residents</a> I conducted in 2022 to understand how locals use, think about and value Biscayne Bay. The bay borders 35 miles of Miami’s coastline and is made up of <a href="https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/13120">diverse ecosystems</a>, including mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reefs. </p>
<p>I research <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=h2VJ1p4AAAAJ&hl=en">public attitudes toward the environment</a>, and I currently work with an interdisciplinary team of scientists who analyze the health and composition of local marine ecosystems. We spend more than 100 days a year on Biscayne Bay.</p>
<p>My survey findings reveal that Miami residents interact with Biscayne Bay regularly and in a variety of ways. Residents spend time on the beach, out on the water boating, and fishing for both food and fun. </p>
<p>Respondents were concerned about a range of threats to the bay. However, highly visible impacts like plastic pollution were much more worrisome to them than less discernible or slower-moving threats, such as persistent algal blooms. Participants were also more troubled by loss of coral reefs than loss of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-008-9038-7">less popular habitats</a> such as seagrass. </p>
<p>While plastic pollution and coral reef loss are indeed concerning, algal blooms and seagrass loss also represent a fundamental shift in the makeup and health of the bay. </p>
<p>Overall, my research found that support for local policy actions to protect and restore the bay was extremely high. Such policy actions include new regulations on fishing and pollution from septic tanks and fertilizers, greater public investment in water treatment infrastructure and direct efforts to restore ecosystems. </p>
<p>Every policy option listed on my survey had an average rating between four and five on a five-point scale, where four corresponded to “support” and five corresponded to “strongly support.” Importantly, this support was high regardless of political party affiliation.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Biscayne Bay is home to more than <a href="https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/13120">30 endangered species or species of special concern</a>, such as the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/smalltooth-sawfish">smalltooth sawfish</a> and the <a href="https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Mammals/West-Indian-Manatee">West Indian manatee</a>. It is also home to more than 100 species <a href="https://www.miamidade.gov/environment/library/reports/2023-biscayne-bay-economic-study-update.pdf">important to recreational and commercial fisheries</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A West Indian manatee underwater" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568311/original/file-20240108-23-q0vbik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568311/original/file-20240108-23-q0vbik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568311/original/file-20240108-23-q0vbik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568311/original/file-20240108-23-q0vbik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568311/original/file-20240108-23-q0vbik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568311/original/file-20240108-23-q0vbik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568311/original/file-20240108-23-q0vbik.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The West Indian manatee is listed as threatened under the federal Endangered Species Act.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/endangered-florida-manatee-at-three-sisters-spring-in-news-photo/1912450529">Dave Fleetham/Design Pics Editorial/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>A 2019 government report describes Biscayne Bay as being “<a href="https://environment.fiu.edu/where-we-work/biscayne-bay/_assets/bague-et-al.---biscayne-bay-task-force-report-and-recommendations.pdf">at a tipping point</a>.” It has experienced dramatic declines in water quality – due to pollution from sewage, fertilizers and other sources – and major die-offs of fish and seagrass beds <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-019-00610-5">since the 1990s</a>.</p>
<p>Miami is on the front line of emerging issues facing coastal urban communities around the globe – <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04496.x">from sea level rise to overfishing</a>. In order to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.07.005">make effective management decisions</a> regarding Biscayne Bay, local policymakers need a clear understanding of how the public perceives and interacts with its resources and what is important to them. This knowledge can help them prioritize actions and better understand potential consequences of policy decisions.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>My findings could provide a road map for other coastal communities that want to explore local sentiments in order to improve conservation efforts. Approximately <a href="https://aambpublicoceanservice.blob.core.windows.net/oceanserviceprod/facts/coastal-population-report.pdf">40% of the global population</a> lives in the 5% of land located within 100 kilometers (62 miles) of a coastline. </p>
<p>While I found that the public is supportive of new efforts to protect and restore Biscayne Bay, public outreach may be needed to make the impacts of new laws clear. This includes educating locals about the degree to which the bay’s health has declined, the importance of mangroves and seagrasses, and how choices made on land affect habitats in the water.</p>
<p>My research now includes working with local environmental and community organizations to understand grassroots public engagement with the local political process. I hope to understand how local groups are collaborating – or failing to collaborate – in their advocacy efforts to protect and restore Biscayne Bay, and how their work affects civic engagement. </p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217855/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julia Wester receives funding from the Save Our Seas Foundation and National Geographic. She is affiliated with the University of Miami, Field School and the Field School Foundation.</span></em></p>A survey of Miami-Dade residents found bipartisan support for protecting Biscayne Bay − though most locals were not aware of the extent of its decline in recent years.Julia Wester, Lecturer in Ecosystem Science and Policy, University of MiamiLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2158662024-01-16T13:41:32Z2024-01-16T13:41:32ZCongress is failing to deliver on its promise of billions more in research spending, threatening America’s long-term economic competitiveness<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569192/original/file-20240114-27-122rn5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=107%2C116%2C5883%2C3871&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Federal funding was essential to the development of the COVID-19 vaccine.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirusOutbreakMalaysia/581dec54b4fa47c1a85266ebf75aadff/photo?Query=covid%20mrna%20vaccine&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=248&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=NaN&vs=true">AP Photo/Vincent Thian</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/government-shutdown-debate-fuels-house-republican-civil-war-1859677">battle to keep the government open</a> may feel just like the crisis of the day. But these fights pose immediate and long-term risks for the U.S. </p>
<p>The federal government spends tens of billions of dollars every year to support fundamental scientific research that is mostly conducted at universities. For instance, the basic discoveries that made the <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2023/press-release/">COVID-19 vaccine possible</a> stretch back to the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-02483-w">early 1960s</a>. Such research investments contribute to the health, wealth and well-being of society, <a href="https://new.nsf.gov/tip/updates/nsf-pilot-assess-impact-strategic-investments-regional-jobs">support jobs and regional economies</a> and are vital to the U.S. economy and national security.</p>
<p>If Congress can’t reach an agreement, then a temporary government shutdown <a href="https://www.govexec.com/management/2024/01/new-turmoil-over-possible-government-shutdown/393314/">could happen on Jan. 19, 2024</a>. If lawmakers miss a second Feb. 2 deadline, then <a href="https://www.aaas.org/news/what-fiscal-responsibility-act-means-rd-funding">automatic budget cuts</a> will hit future research hard. </p>
<p>Even if lawmakers <a href="https://ww2.aip.org/fyi/the-week-of-january-8-2024">avoid a shutdown</a> and pass a budget, America’s future competitiveness could suffer because federal research investments are on track to be <a href="https://fas.org/publication/fy24-chips-short-7-billion/">billions of dollars below</a> targets Congress set for themselves less than two years ago.</p>
<p><a href="https://public.websites.umich.edu/%7Ejdos/">I am a sociologist</a> who studies how <a href="https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=26387">research universities contribute to the public good</a>. I’m also the executive director of the <a href="https://iris.isr.umich.edu/">Institute for Research on Innovation and Science</a>, a national university consortium whose members share data that help us understand, explain and work to amplify those benefits. </p>
<p>Our data shows how endangering basic research harms communities across the U.S. and can limit innovative companies’ access to the skilled employees they need to succeed. </p>
<h2>A promised investment</h2>
<p>Less than two years ago, in August 2022, university researchers like me had reason to celebrate. </p>
<p>Congress had just <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/08/09/fact-sheet-chips-and-science-act-will-lower-costs-create-jobs-strengthen-supply-chains-and-counter-china/">passed the bipartisan CHIPS and Science Act</a>. The “science” part of the law promised <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-02086-z">one of the biggest federal investments</a> in the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov">National Science Foundation</a> – America’s premier basic science research agency – in its 74-year history.</p>
<p>The CHIPS act authorized US$81 billion for the agency, promised to double its budget by 2027 and directed it to “address societal, national, and geostrategic challenges for the <a href="https://www.congress.gov/117/plaws/publ167/PLAW-117publ167.pdf">benefit of all Americans</a>” by investing in research.</p>
<p>But there was one very big snag. The money still has to be appropriated by Congress every year. Lawmakers haven’t been good at doing that recently. The government is again poised to shut down. As lawmakers struggle to keep the lights on, fundamental research is likely to be a casualty of political dysfunction. The budget proposals released so far <a href="https://fas.org/publication/fy24-chips-short-7-billion/">fall $5 billion to $7.5 billion short</a> of what the CHIPS act called for in fiscal year 2024. Deal or no deal, science is on the chopping block in Washington. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569123/original/file-20240112-29-o5dds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=380%2C171%2C7799%2C4831&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569123/original/file-20240112-29-o5dds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569123/original/file-20240112-29-o5dds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569123/original/file-20240112-29-o5dds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569123/original/file-20240112-29-o5dds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569123/original/file-20240112-29-o5dds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569123/original/file-20240112-29-o5dds.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A lag or cut in federal research funding would harm U.S. competitiveness in critical advanced technologies like artificial intelligence and robotics.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/teacher-in-a-stem-class-at-the-lab-developing-a-royalty-free-image/1348130740?phrase=research%20lab%20ai">Hispanolistic/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Research’s critical impact</h2>
<p>That’s bad because fundamental research matters in more ways than you might expect. </p>
<p>Lagging research investment will hurt U.S. leadership in critical technologies like artificial intelligence, advanced communications, clean energy and biotechnology. Less support means less new research work gets done, fewer new researchers are trained and important new discoveries are made elsewhere. </p>
<p>But disrupting federal research funding also directly <a href="https://theconversation.com/who-feels-the-pain-of-science-research-budget-cuts-75119">affects people’s jobs, lives and the economy</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://nyuscholars.nyu.edu/en/publications/proximity-and-economic-activity-an-analysis-of-vendor-business-tr">Businesses nationwide thrive</a> by selling the goods and services – everything from pipettes and biological specimens to notebooks and plane tickets – that are necessary for research. Those vendors include high-tech startups, manufacturers, contractors and even Main Street businesses like your local hardware store. They employ your neighbors and friends and contribute to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/when-the-federal-budget-funds-scientific-research-its-the-economy-that-benefits-80651">economic health of your hometown and the nation</a>. </p>
<p>Nearly a third of the $10 billion in federal research funds that 26 of the universities in our consortium used in 2022 directly <a href="https://irisweb.isr.umich.edu/reports/spending_report/15114/53a139385e/5293dc024f/ne">supported U.S. employers</a>, including:</p>
<ul>
<li>A Detroit welding shop that sells gasses many labs use in experiments funded by the National Institutes of Health, National Science Foundation, Department of Defense and Department of Energy. </li>
<li>A Dallas-based <a href="https://www.beckgroup.com/projects/texas-university-systems-national-center-innovation-advanced-development-manufacturing/">construction company</a> that is building an advanced vaccine and drug development facility paid for by the Department of Health and Human Services.</li>
<li>More than a dozen Utah businesses, including surveyors, engineers and construction and trucking companies, working on a <a href="https://utahforge.com/">Department of Energy project</a> to develop breakthroughs in geothermal energy.</li>
</ul>
<p>When Congress’ problems endanger basic research, they also damage businesses like these and people you might not usually associate with academic science and engineering. Construction and manufacturing companies earn more than $2 billion each year from <a href="https://irisweb.isr.umich.edu/reports/new-vendor-report/15115/24ae1564e6/3be59f6032/ne">federally funded research</a> done by our consortium’s members.</p>
<h2>Jobs and innovation</h2>
<p>Disrupting or decreasing research funding also slows the flow of STEM – science, technology, engineering and math – talent from universities to American businesses. Highly trained people are essential to <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1126/science.aac5949">corporate innovation</a> and to U.S. leadership in key fields, like AI, where companies depend on hiring to secure <a href="https://www.aei.org/research-products/report/the-industry-of-ideas-measuring-how-artificial-intelligence-changes-labor-markets/">research expertise</a>. </p>
<p>In 2022, federal research grants paid wages for about 122,500 people at universities that shared data with my institute. More than half of them were students or trainees. <a href="https://irisweb.isr.umich.edu/reports/employee-report/15110/e656278fea/1c4bfff4a0">Our data shows</a> that they go on to many types of jobs, but are particularly important for leading tech companies like Google, Amazon, Apple, Facebook and Intel.</p>
<p>More comprehensive numbers don’t exist, but that same data lets me estimate that over 300,000 people who worked at U.S. universities in 2022 were paid by federal research funds. Threats to federal research investments put academic jobs at risk. They also hurt private-sector innovation because even the most successful companies need to hire people with expert research skills. Most people learn those skills by working on university research projects, and most of those projects are federally funded.</p>
<h2>High stakes</h2>
<p>The last shutdown was the <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/29/politics/last-federal-government-shutdown-longest-dg/index.html">longest in 40 years</a>, but even short delays in research funding have <a href="https://weiyangtham.com/files/tcps_funding-delays.pdf">big negative effects</a> on the scientific workforce and lead expert researchers to look outside the U.S. for jobs. Temporary cuts to research funding hurt too because they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjac046">reduce high-tech entrepreneurship and decrease publication</a> of new findings. </p>
<p>Lasting stagnation or shrinking investments would have even more pronounced effects. Over time, companies would see fewer skilled job candidates, academic and corporate researchers would produce fewer discoveries, and fewer high-tech startups would mean slower economic growth. America would become less competitive in the age of AI. This would make one of the fears that led lawmakers to pass the CHIPS and Science Act into a reality.</p>
<p>Ultimately, it’s up to lawmakers to decide whether to fulfill their promise to invest more in the research that supports jobs across the economy and American innovation, competitiveness and economic growth. Whether the current budget deal succeeds or fails, basic research is on the table and the stakes are high.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/215866/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jason Owen-Smith's research is supported by grants from the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and Wellcome Leap. He is executive director of the Institute for Research on Innovation and Science (IRIS).</span></em></p>The latest government showdown over the budget risks not only a shutdown but jobs, regional economies and America’s competitiveness in AI and other advanced fields.Jason Owen-Smith, Professor of Sociology, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2197852024-01-11T13:24:53Z2024-01-11T13:24:53ZOtters, beavers and other semiaquatic mammals keep clean underwater, thanks to their flexible fur<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566392/original/file-20231218-18-2f1ege.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2136%2C1467&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Otters and other semiaquatic mammals can keep clean even in dirty water. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/ANIMALSINTROUBLE/88740e31a4f1471ea8048eda247fbceb/photo?Query=otter&mediaType=photo&sortBy=&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=191&digitizationType=Digitized&currentItemNo=13&vs=true&vs=true">AP Photo/Kirsty Wigglesworth</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Underwater surfaces can get grimy as they accumulate dirt, algae and bacteria, a process <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/biofouling">scientists call “fouling</a>.” But furry mammals like beavers and otters that spend most of their lives wet manage to avoid getting their fur slimy. These anti-fouling abilities come, in part, from one of fur’s unique properties — that each hair can bend and flex as an animal moves.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/_ev_ukj9HCU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Fouling on boats and machinery can be a big problem, and scientists are searching for ways to prevent it.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://www.dickersonlab.com/">I’m a mechanical engineer</a> who studies fluid dynamics, or how liquids behave. My team recently <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2023.0485">published a study</a> showing that fur that was allowed to move back and forth in a flow of dirty water accumulated less than half the amount of dirt as fur that was <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2021.0904">held stiff from both ends</a>.</p>
<p>While lots of animals have <a href="https://theconversation.com/body-hair-helps-animals-stay-clean-and-could-inspire-self-cleaning-technologies-50445">fur that seems to clean itself</a>, semiaquatic mammals have the most grime-resistant, or “anti-fouling,” fur.</p>
<p>Our recent study compared fur fibers from beavers, otters, springbok, coyotes and more using a flow of water containing <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Titanium-Dioxide">titanium dioxide</a>, a common additive in cosmetics. Titanium dioxide readily attaches to surfaces like skin. Our team pumped the dirty water over individual fibers in a closed loop for 24 hours, then cleaned the fibers to measure how much titanium dioxide they’d accumulated.</p>
<p>My colleagues and I then used mathematical techniques to combine all of fur’s properties into a single number that predicts its anti-fouling behavior. We considered each fur strand’s ability to bend, how fluid flows over it and other unique features of each species. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2023.0485">We found</a> that the ability to flex was critical for keeping the animal’s fur clean. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Fouling can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2020.102336">damage the affected surface</a>. When fur fouls, the arrangement of individual strands across the animal’s pelt is disrupted, and the animal might struggle to stay warm or dry.</p>
<p><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym13060846">Industrial repellent methods</a> used to protect the bottom of ships and the insides of pipes often <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.02.034">employ harmful chemicals</a> and consume energy and materials, unlike naturally evolved solutions.</p>
<p>Figuring out how fur stays clean naturally could lead to more environmentally friendly solutions for repelling fouling in the water supply, in marine environments and even in the medical field. Solutions could include surfaces with parts that can flex and move or that have little hairs on a surface. </p>
<p>Research into fur also reveals more about how these mammals have evolved to survive across a variety of environments.</p>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>Animal fur and the fouling process <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2020.102336">are both complex</a>, so we still don’t fully understand how all the intricate properties of fur, from texture and length to cross-sectional shape and environmental conditions, contribute to cleanliness. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566393/original/file-20231218-23-v903xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A close-up of an otter's coat, with lots of brown fur packed closely together." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566393/original/file-20231218-23-v903xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/566393/original/file-20231218-23-v903xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566393/original/file-20231218-23-v903xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566393/original/file-20231218-23-v903xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566393/original/file-20231218-23-v903xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566393/original/file-20231218-23-v903xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/566393/original/file-20231218-23-v903xy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Since hairs in fur are packed densely, they brush against each other and don’t always move individually.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/otter-fur-close-up-royalty-free-image/691551942?phrase=fur%2Bup%2Bclose%2Botter">Hailshadow/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The strands of hair in fur don’t always move individually. On an animal, the hairs are packed tightly, and they likely clean each other by rubbing as their host moves. We can’t yet tell if rubbing and moving affect the host animal’s cleanliness. </p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>My colleagues and I have just scratched the surface of the mystery of furry mammal cleanliness, and there’s plenty more we can test. Future work could expose fur to biological foulers like bacteria and algae, or look at the role patches of fur play in cleanliness. </p>
<p>The only known mammal that does succumb to fouling is the sloth – <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2014/03/sloths-moths-and-algae-a-surprising-partnership-sheds-light-on-a-mystery/">algae grows on their fur</a>. </p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take on interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219785/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrew Dickerson receives funding from the National Science Foundation. </span></em></p>The bottoms of boats and docks can accumulate lots of dirt, but semiaquatic animals like otters avoid having ‘fouled’ fur. Their secret could one day help keep underwater infrastructure clean.Andrew Dickerson, Assistant Professor of Mechanical, Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2207562024-01-09T20:18:23Z2024-01-09T20:18:23ZWhy don’t fruit bats get diabetes? New understanding of how they’ve adapted to a high-sugar diet could lead to treatments for people<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568452/original/file-20240109-23-jjo6l0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2376%2C1442&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fruit bats have honed their sweet tooth through adaptive evolution.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/fruit-bat-feeding-in-a-tree-royalty-free-image/1293525000">Keith Rose/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>People around the world eat too much sugar. When the body is unable to process sugar effectively, leading to excess glucose in the blood, this can result in diabetes. According to the World Health Organization, diabetes became the <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death">ninth leading cause of death</a> in 2019.</p>
<p>Humans are not the only mammals that love sugar. Fruit bats do, too, eating up to <a href="https://dem.ri.gov/sites/g/files/xkgbur861/files/programs/bnatres/fishwild/outreach/critter-kits/bat-ex-benefits.pdf">twice their body weight</a> in sugary fruit a day. However, unlike humans, fruit bats thrive on a sugar-rich diet. They can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00360-019-01242-8">lower their blood sugar faster</a> than bats that rely on insects as their main food source.</p>
<p>We are a team of <a href="https://www.menlo.edu/about/find-an-expert/wei-gordon/">biologists</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=kkrPGvcAAAAJ&hl=en">bioengineers</a>. Determining how fruit bats evolved to specialize on a high-sugar diet sent us on a quest to approach diabetes therapy from an unusual angle – one that sent us all the way to Lamanai, Belize, for the <a href="https://www.batcon.org/belize-bat-a-thon/">Belize Bat-a-thon</a>, an annual gathering where researchers collect and study bats.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568470/original/file-20240109-29-2hgb6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two people wearing face masks, one with a headlamp and one holding a small bat up to the camera" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568470/original/file-20240109-29-2hgb6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568470/original/file-20240109-29-2hgb6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568470/original/file-20240109-29-2hgb6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568470/original/file-20240109-29-2hgb6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568470/original/file-20240109-29-2hgb6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568470/original/file-20240109-29-2hgb6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568470/original/file-20240109-29-2hgb6j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Authors Nadav Ahituv, left, and Wei Gordon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Wei Gordon</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In our <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44186-y">newly published research</a> in Nature Communications, we and colleagues <a href="https://netbiolab.org/w/People:SB_Baek">Seungbyn Baek</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=H4jO_DQAAAAJ&hl=en">Martin Hemberg</a> used a technology that analyzes the DNA of individual cells to compare the unique metabolic instructions encoded in the genome of the Jamaican fruit bat, <em>Artibeus jamaicensis</em>, with those in the genome of the insect-eating big brown bat, <em>Eptesicus fuscus</em>. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11247">Approximately 2% of DNA</a> is composed of genes, which are segments of DNA that contain the instructions cells use to create certain traits, such as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acthis.2020.151503">longer tongue in fruit bats</a>. The other 98% are segments of DNA that regulate genes and determine the presence and absence of the traits they encode.</p>
<p>To understand how fruit bats evolved to consume so much sugar, we wanted to identify the genetic and cellular differences between bats that eat fruit and bats that eat insects. Specifically, we looked at the genes, regulatory DNA and cell types in two significant organs involved in metabolic disease: the pancreas and the kidney. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568363/original/file-20240109-25-d0snov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Four male *Artibeus jamaicensis* and four male *Eptesicus fuscus* bats were put in a fast then fed fruit or worms, respectively, or no meal before analyzing the cells and genes of their kidney and pancreas." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568363/original/file-20240109-25-d0snov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/568363/original/file-20240109-25-d0snov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=244&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568363/original/file-20240109-25-d0snov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=244&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568363/original/file-20240109-25-d0snov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=244&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568363/original/file-20240109-25-d0snov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568363/original/file-20240109-25-d0snov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/568363/original/file-20240109-25-d0snov.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=306&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">This flowchart outlines the authors’ study methodology.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44186-y">Wei Gordon, created with BioRender.com/Nature Communications</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41580-020-00317-7">The pancreas</a> regulates blood sugar and appetite by secreting hormones like insulin, which lowers your blood sugar, and glucagon, which raises your blood sugar. We found Jamaican fruit bats have <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44186-y">more insulin-producing and glucagon-producing cells</a> than big brown bats, along with regulatory DNA that primes fruit bat pancreatic cells to initiate production of insulin and glucagon. Together these two hormones work to keep blood sugar levels balanced even when the fruit bats are eating large amounts of sugar.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fndt%2Fgfx027">The kidney</a> filters metabolic waste from the blood, maintains water and salt balance and regulates blood pressure. Fruit bat kidneys need to be equipped to remove from their bloodstreams the large amounts of water that come from fruit while retaining the low amounts of salt in fruit. We found Jamaican fruit bats have adjusted the compositions of their kidney cells in accordance with their diet, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44186-y">reducing the number of urine-concentrating cells</a> so their urine is more diluted with water compared with big brown bats.</p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Diabetes is one of the most expensive chronic conditions in the world. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.2337/dci23-0085">U.S. spent US$412.9 billion</a> in 2022 on direct medical costs and indirect costs related to diabetes.</p>
<p>Most approaches to developing new treatments for diabetes are based on traditional laboratory animals such as mice because they are easy to reproduce and study in a lab. But outside the lab, there exist mammals like fruit bats that have actually evolved to withstand high sugar loads. Figuring out how these mammals deal with high sugar loads can help researchers identify new approaches to treat diabetes.</p>
<p>By applying new cell characterization technologies on these <a href="https://theconversation.com/e-coli-is-one-of-the-most-widely-studied-organisms-and-that-may-be-a-problem-for-both-science-and-medicine-206045">nonmodel organisms</a>, or organisms researchers don’t usually use for research in the lab, we and a growing body of researchers show that nature could be leveraged to develop novel treatment approaches for disease. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/QIBMyj8ebRU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">The authors disentangle a fruit bat from a net during the Belize Bat-a-thon.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What still isn’t known</h2>
<p>While our study revealed many potential therapeutic targets for diabetes, more research needs to be done to demonstrate whether our fruit bat DNA sequences can help understand, manage or cure diabetes in humans.</p>
<p>Some of our fruit bat findings may be unrelated to metabolism or are specific only to Jamaican fruit bats. There are <a href="https://www.britannica.com/animal/Old-World-fruit-bat">close to 200 species</a> of fruit bats. Studying more bats will help researchers clarify which fruit bat DNA sequences are relevant for diabetes treatment. </p>
<p>Our study also focused only on bat pancreases and kidneys. Analyzing other organs involved in metabolism, such as the liver and small intestine, will help researchers more comprehensively understand fruit bat metabolism and design appropriate treatments.</p>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>Our team is now testing the regulatory DNA sequences that allow fruit bats to eat so much sugar and checking whether we can use them to better regulate how people respond to glucose.</p>
<p>We are doing this by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cv59sjupd1Y&t=77s">swapping the regulatory DNA sequences</a> in mice with those of fruit bats and testing their effects on how well these mice manage their glucose levels.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/220756/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wei Gordon receives funding from NSF. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nadav Ahituv is a cofounder and on the scientific advisory board of Regel Therapeutics and also received funding from BioMarin Pharmaceutical Incorporate.
Funding for this research was supported by the National Human Genome Research Institute grant R01HG012396.
</span></em></p>Fruit bats can eat up to twice their body weight in fruit a day. But their genes and cells evolved to process all that sugar without any health consequences − a feat drug developers can learn from.Wei Gordon, Assistant Professor of Biology, Menlo CollegeNadav Ahituv, Professor, Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences; Director, Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San FranciscoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2096632024-01-09T13:26:26Z2024-01-09T13:26:26ZTake laughter, add tears − the secret recipe for the most-liked Super Bowl ads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/545127/original/file-20230828-254480-xdlb1f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C15%2C5207%2C3445&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Emotions often run high during the Super Bowl -- and that includes during the commercial breaks.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/SuperBowlPhiladelphiaReaxFootball/592cb6e493034287be3e6e2a58eed36e/photo?Query=fans%20watch%20football%20on%20TV&mediaType=photo&sortBy=creationdatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=649&currentItemNo=14&vs=true">Nathan Howard/Associated Press</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Viewers gravitate toward Super Bowl commercials that incorporate both happiness and sadness, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2023.2218896">our 2023 study shows</a>. </p>
<p>On the other hand, advertisements that blend happiness and fear turn people off.</p>
<p>And people are indifferent to ads that pair happiness with either anger or disgust.</p>
<p>As researchers with <a href="https://www.boisestate.edu/cobe-marketing/niusha-jones-ph-d/">extensive experience</a> in <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=LTR4szEAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">consumer behavior</a>, we’ve had the opportunity to delve into the compelling emotional narratives television advertisers try to portray in less than 30 seconds. </p>
<p>Heartwarming ads that also have moments of fear or sadness are quite common, we’ve learned, especially during the Super Bowl. </p>
<h2>Why it matters</h2>
<p>Our research reveals part of the secret sauce behind what makes an advertisement loved or disliked. This finding could help advertisers craft ads that resonate more effectively with their audience. </p>
<p>Raising awareness of what works in advertising also helps viewers understand how they are being manipulated by what they see on the screen.</p>
<h2>How we did our work</h2>
<p>Using <a href="https://www.noldus.com/facereader">technology that reads viewers’ expressions</a>, our research team scrutinized the emotional layers of 296 ads aired during Super Bowls from 2018 to 2022. </p>
<p>This annual NFL championship game draws a <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/216526/super-bowl-us-tv-viewership/">huge audience on TV</a>. The costs to broadcast an ad – and the financial stakes for brands paying for air time – are high. For example, a <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/217134/total-advertisement-revenue-of-super-bowls/">30-second ad during the 2023 Super Bowl cost US$7 million</a>. </p>
<p>Our analysis wasn’t just a superficial look at the commericial’s storyline. Instead, we delved into the emotions displayed by the actors throughout the ad and measured their effects on how much the audience liked what they saw.</p>
<p>The blend of emotions you witness in commercials during the big game isn’t a coincidence. It’s part of advertisers’ calculated strategy. Combinations of emotions are meticulously orchestrated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-017-0551-8">to capture viewers’ attention and get them shopping</a> – sometimes even before the ad has finished airing.</p>
<p>Happiness was the most common emotion portrayed, but we were surprised to learn that 80% of these ads featured at least one negative emotion in addition to happiness. For example, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aBDKM_qfCMk">a clip reel of U.S. Olympian skier Lindsey Vonn</a> evoked both sadness and happiness and deeply resonated with viewers.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/aBDKM_qfCMk?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">This 2018 Super Bowl commercial featuring Olympic skier Lindsey Vonn skillfully combines happiness and sadness, a winning combination.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What’s next</h2>
<p>There is still a big question mark on why certain emotional mixtures work while others don’t. It is also not clear whether the popularity of an advertisement is directly linked to its effectiveness as a sales tool.</p>
<p><em>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/research-brief-83231">Research Brief</a> is a short take about interesting academic work.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/209663/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Researchers examined the emotional content of nearly 300 Super Bowl ads that aired from 2018 to 2022.Niusha Jones, Assistant Professor of Marketing, Boise State UniversityAnne Hamby, Associate Professor of Marketing, Boise State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.