tag:theconversation.com,2011:/global/topics/public-schools-11926/articlesPublic schools – The Conversation2024-02-13T13:21:50Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2219342024-02-13T13:21:50Z2024-02-13T13:21:50ZPhiladelphia hopes year-round schooling can catch kids up to grade level – will it make a difference?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/573112/original/file-20240202-17-vr7vpc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Year-round schooling can assist low-income parents in need of child care.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/teacher-helping-elementary-students-writing-in-royalty-free-image/1457744427">kali9/E+ Collection via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Upon becoming mayor of Philadelphia, <a href="https://www.phila.gov/media/20240101180939/First-100-Days-of-Mayor-Cherelle-L.-Parkers-Administration.pdf">Cherelle Parker announced</a> that she will establish a working group on full-day and year-round schooling – an idea she had supported <a href="https://www.cherelleparker.com/253-2/">while campaigning</a>. The group will develop a strategy to keep Philadelphia public schools open for longer hours during the week, from 7:30 a.m. to 6 p.m., as well as over the summer, and to provide “meaningful, instructive out-of-school programming and job opportunities for students.”</em></p>
<p><em>Below, education expert <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=EzLkaxMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Daniel H. Robinson</a> answers five questions about year-round schooling in Philadelphia.</em></p>
<h2>What do we know about the mayor’s plan?</h2>
<p>Parker is proposing to keep Philadelphia public school buildings open longer hours and more days throughout the year. According to Superintendent Tony Watlington’s <a href="https://www.philasd.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/SDP_StrategicPlan_23_July28-3.pdf">Accelerate Philly</a> strategic plan, a year-round and extended-day school calendar will be piloted in up to 10 schools, with the goal of increasing student academic achievement. It does not state how many days or hours will be added to the 180 days Philadelphia currently requires. </p>
<p>This is different from what’s commonly known as <a href="https://theconversation.com/year-round-school-difference-maker-or-waste-of-time-211659">year-round schooling</a>, which doesn’t add extra school days but simply moves the existing days around so that there are multiple short breaks instead of a long summer break. For example, students might have 45 school days followed by 15 days of break, or 60 school days followed by 20 days of break.</p>
<p>The Philadelphia school district plan aligns with a recommendation made over 40 years ago, in 1983, in the <a href="http://edreform.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/A_Nation_At_Risk_1983.pdf">Nation at Risk</a> report commissioned by the Department of Education. The report suggested that the school year should be increased to 200 to 220 days. </p>
<h2>How prevalent is year-round schooling?</h2>
<p>The length of the school day and year varies around the world. Japan and Australia have school for almost the entire year, while the U.S. has school for only about nine months. In contrast, countries like Finland, Iceland and Ireland have shorter school days and years than the U.S. France has a longer school year but similar total hours per year as the U.S. <a href="https://online.ysu.edu/degrees/education/msed/curriculum-instruction-education-literacy/year-round-school-in-the-us/">French students</a> get a two-hour lunch and do not attend school on Wednesdays.</p>
<p>In Philadelphia, <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/philadelphia/2023/8/7/23820472/philadelphia-year-round-school-charter-school-academics-safety-vacation-superintendent-mayor/">some charter schools</a> have added a summer extension program. But they still maintain traditional school hours during the school year.</p>
<p>Several states are participating in an initiative this year called the <a href="https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/longer-school-days-coming-for-thousands-of-students-next-year">Time Collaborative</a>. This three-year initiative involves 40 schools that will add 300 hours to their existing school calendar by having either longer days, longer school years or both.</p>
<h2>Can the mayor legally do this?</h2>
<p>The current minimum number of days that Pennsylvania schools are required to be open is 180 – similar to <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/09/07/in-the-u-s-180-days-of-school-is-most-common-but-length-of-school-day-varies-by-state/">most other states</a>. Districts can decide when they start and finish. The Philadelphia mayor can certainly extend the school day and the school hours since she <a href="https://www.philasd.org/schoolboard/aboutus/">appoints the school board members</a>, who in turn control who is hired or fired as superintendent. And, most importantly, the new superintendent is supportive of the mayor’s plan. </p>
<p>A more important question is: Should the mayor do this? </p>
<p>Parker has said that she wants to catch kids up academically to grade level. Only about <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/subject/publications/dst2022/pdf/2023010xp4.pdf">15% of fourth graders</a> in Philadelphia public schools score at or above the proficient level on standardized reading tests, according to the National Center for Education Statistics.</p>
<p>But what are the additional costs? In addition to possible increased student and teacher fatigue and stress, the main cost is money. Keeping schools open and staffed longer requires more dollars.</p>
<p>Despite the hope that longer school days or years will lead to gains in student achievement, there’s <a href="https://blogs.chicagotribune.com/files/extending-the-school-day-or-school-year-patall-et-al.pdf">little evidence that they will</a>.</p>
<p>If Philly does in fact adopt a longer school day or year, even with just 10 schools on a voluntary basis, it could prove difficult to evaluate the effects.</p>
<p>Foremost among these challenges is <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1156778">selection bias</a>. Schools that have support to opt in are likely different from schools that do not. </p>
<p>A better evaluation plan would be to first solicit applications for the pilot program from the more than 200 Philadelphia schools. Then, from those schools who volunteer to participate, randomly choose 10 for the pilot and then, at the end of the school year, measure the outcomes and compare them to the schools that weren’t chosen.</p>
<h2>What are the potential gains?</h2>
<p>The Accelerate Philly plan cites <a href="https://cepr.harvard.edu/sites/hwpi.harvard.edu/files/cepr/files/explaining_covid_losses_5.23.pdf">a 2023 study</a>, which suggests that “summer and after-school programming can be effective in accelerating learning.”</p>
<p>Adding additional hours for before-school and after-school enrichment, and for more days during the school year, supports parents by providing free and convenient child care. It makes it easier for them to drop off and pick up kids on their way to and from work. </p>
<p>It also provides kids a safe and supportive environment for more hours. Keeping kids at school longer during the day and for more days during the year can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.03.010">lower juvenile crime</a>. More time in school can mean less time on the streets.</p>
<p>There is still no decision on whether student participation will be mandatory. If it is not, some kids who might benefit may not get their parents’ consent to go to school earlier, stay longer and go for more days over the summer.</p>
<h2>What hurdles might year-round schooling face in Philly?</h2>
<p>Funding will be a big hurdle. Keeping school buildings open longer requires more energy. Many Philly public schools <a href="https://www.inquirer.com/news/philadelphia-school-district-early-dismissal-air-conditioning-20220831.html">do not have adequate air conditioning</a> to be open throughout the hot summer months.</p>
<p>More importantly, this plan requires more personnel – particularly teachers who can stay more hours. A January 2024 report from Penn State University’s Center for Evaluation and Education Policy Analysis found that Philadelphia teachers are leaving the profession at “<a href="https://ceepablog.wordpress.com/2024/02/08/where-did-they-go-teacher-attrition-in-philadelphia-county-2018-2022/">relatively high attrition rates</a>” – considerably higher than the rest of Pennsylvania. More Philadelphia teachers are quitting or retiring than those who are being newly trained, according to the report. </p>
<p>It is not clear yet how the <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/philadelphia/2023/5/17/23727637/philadelphia-mayor-primary-elections-2023-cherelle-parker-school-funding-charters-librarians/">teachers union would react</a> to year-round schooling throughout the district or how all the additional hours and programming would fit into the <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/philadelphia/2023/5/26/23738831/philadelphia-school-board-strategic-plan-budget-charter-school-watlington-vote/">annual operating budget</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221934/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel H. Robinson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An education expert explains the potential benefits and drawbacks of year-round schooling in Philadelphia.Daniel H. Robinson, Professor, College of Education, University of Texas at ArlingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2197832023-12-19T13:14:20Z2023-12-19T13:14:20ZFinding objective ways to talk about religion in the classroom is tough − but the cost of not doing so is clear<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565878/original/file-20231214-19-f6dr6k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C3%2C2117%2C1406&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Concerns about what is or isn't legal can hinder objective lessons about religious studies in class.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/students-draw-their-attention-to-the-unseen-royalty-free-image/1430112785?phrase=classroom+u.s.+discussion&searchscope=image%2Cfilm&adppopup=true">SDI Productions/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Despite the holiday season’s calls for joy and peace, <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/02/how-should-faith-communities-halt-the-rise-in-religious-violence/">religious strife</a> continues in many places. While the United States has a great deal of litigation and controversy over religion’s place in public life, it has largely avoided violence. Yet our society often seems unprepared to talk constructively about this contentious topic, especially in schools. </p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.interfaithamerica.org/research/ideals/">the IDEALS survey</a> of college students on 122 U.S. campuses, conducted by researchers at North Carolina State University, Ohio State University and the nonprofit Interfaith America, just 32% of students said they had developed the skills “to interact with people of diverse beliefs.” Although almost three-quarters of students spent time learning about people of different races, ethnicities or countries, less than half of them reported learning about various religions. Most students received “C” grades or below on the survey’s religious literacy quiz.</p>
<p><a href="https://aarweb.org/common/Uploaded%20files/Publications%20and%20News/Guides%20and%20Best%20Practices/AARK-12CurriculumGuidelinesPDF.pdf">Objective education</a> about the world’s religions has <a href="https://www.aspeninstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Religious-Literacy-Imperative-Report.pdf">the potential to foster tolerance and understanding</a>, and various research groups provide guidelines for <a href="https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/what-we-do/our-approach/core-principles">religious literacy education</a>. Yet <a href="https://time.com/4261597/teaching-religion/">the study of religion</a> may be hindered by hesitation about what is and isn’t legal <a href="https://time.com/4261597/teaching-religion/">in public classrooms</a> – a topic I write about often as <a href="https://udayton.edu/directory/education/eda/russo_charles.php">a professor of law and education</a>, with a particular interest in these fields’ relationships to religion. </p>
<p>Other countries also face challenges in deciding what kind of religion-related instruction can or can’t be legally taught in public schools, and each deals with the question in different ways.</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565885/original/file-20231214-29-9k3dgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A peaceful scene inside a sunlit classroom with colorful decorations in the windows." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565885/original/file-20231214-29-9k3dgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565885/original/file-20231214-29-9k3dgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565885/original/file-20231214-29-9k3dgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565885/original/file-20231214-29-9k3dgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=383&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565885/original/file-20231214-29-9k3dgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565885/original/file-20231214-29-9k3dgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565885/original/file-20231214-29-9k3dgx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=481&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Students attend their last class before mid-term holidays begin in April 2023 in Ankara, Turkey.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/students-of-a-primary-school-attend-their-last-class-before-news-photo/1251815172?adppopup=true">Ercin Erturk/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images</a></span>
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<h2>US legal landscape</h2>
<p>Though there have been many Supreme Court cases over issues of church and state in public schools, most deal with the First Amendment freedoms of students, staff and parents rather than what’s officially taught in class.</p>
<p>There has been relatively little litigation about what teachers can and can’t instruct students in matters that touch on religion. Two of the exceptions involved lessons about evolution: <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/393/97">one decided in 1968</a>, <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/482/578">the other in 1987</a>. In both cases, the Supreme Court upheld educators’ right to teach evolution, rather than the biblical accounts of creation, to explain human origins. </p>
<p>Federal trial courts in <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/933/582/1741862/">Mississippi</a> and <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp2/1/1426/2569866/">Florida</a> banned courses in the 1990s that included instruction about the New Testament, ruling that the way they were taught crossed a line and violated the <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-1/">establishment clause</a> of the U.S. Constitution. However, this was because the courts determined instruction was being given from a Christian perspective. The court in Florida did allow teaching about the Hebrew scriptures, because the focus was on the texts’ cultural and literary significance.</p>
<p>In the Supreme Court’s closest response to the question of teaching about religion in public schools, 1963’s <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/374/203">School District of Abington Township v. Schempp</a>, eight of the nine justices agreed that state-sponsored prayer and Bible reading in public schools violates the establishment clause. Yet the court recognized that “<a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/374/203">the Bible is worthy of study</a> for its literary and historic qualities. Nothing we have said here indicates that such study of the Bible or of religion, when presented objectively as part of a secular program of education, may not be effected consistently with the First Amendment.”</p>
<p>The court’s decision “plainly does not foreclose teaching about the Holy Scriptures or about the differences between religious sects in classes in literature or history,” Justice William Brennan <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/374/203">added in a concurrence</a>. Thus, consistent with religious literacy programs’ approach, public schools can teach about religion, but not in ways that seek to instill systems of belief.</p>
<h2>International perspectives</h2>
<p>To place the issue in perspective, it is worth highlighting other countries’ approaches to teaching about religion in the classroom – <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Law-Education-and-the-Place-of-Religion-in-Public-Schools-International/Russo/p/book/9781032064482">the focus of a book I recently edited</a>.</p>
<p>At one end of the 18 countries <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Law-Education-and-the-Place-of-Religion-in-Public-Schools-International/Russo/p/book/9781032064482">examined in the book</a>, educators in Mexico impose significant restrictions on what can be taught about faith-based beliefs. According to <a href="https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mexico_2015">the Mexican Constitution</a>, “State education shall be maintained entirely apart from any religious doctrine.” However, it does allow religious institutions to provide faith-based education through the private schools they sponsor. </p>
<p>Most nations the book analyzes are more open to teaching about religion in public schools as long as instruction remains objective and does not indoctrinate students. Australia, Brazil, Canada, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, South Africa and Sweden all adopt this approach in varying degrees.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.stf.jus.br/arquivo/cms/legislacaoConstituicao/anexo/brazil_federal_constitution.pdf">according to the Brazilian Constitution</a>, optional religious education should be offered during the day for elementary students. The country’s <a href="https://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Leis/L9394.htm">National Education Act</a> describes this as a way of “ensuring respect for Brazil’s religious cultural diversity, and any form of proselytism is prohibited.”</p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565881/original/file-20231214-27-tyer6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Several men in suits stand and smile behind a group of schoolchildren in white t-shirts." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565881/original/file-20231214-27-tyer6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/565881/original/file-20231214-27-tyer6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565881/original/file-20231214-27-tyer6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565881/original/file-20231214-27-tyer6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565881/original/file-20231214-27-tyer6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565881/original/file-20231214-27-tyer6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/565881/original/file-20231214-27-tyer6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva (in tan suit) and Minister of Education Camilo Santana attend the launch of the literacy program for schoolchildren.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/brazilian-president-luiz-inacio-lula-da-silva-and-minister-news-photo/1258642461?adppopup=true">Mateus Bonomi/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>Australia allows <a href="https://www.saasso.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Administrative-Instructions-and-Guidelines-Section-3.pdf">nondenominational classes about religion</a> to help students understand the “influence of religion in life and society and the variety of beliefs by which people live.” In addition, it permits faith-based student clubs, as well as religious seminars that amount to no more than one half day per term. Parents can ask that their children be excused, or students may participate in ethics courses instead.</p>
<p>At the other end, England, Malaysia and Turkey mandate teaching about religion in public schools, though British parents may exempt their children. England’s <a href="https://democraticservices.hounslow.gov.uk/documents/s39772/Updated%20guidance%20on%20RE-FINAL.pdf">Department for Children, Schools and Families</a> strongly encourages that instruction include multiple religious perspectives, while classes in the other two countries are allowed to be more from faith-based perspectives.</p>
<p>Malaysia, which declares Islam <a href="https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Malaysia_2007">the official religion</a>, <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Law-Education-and-the-Place-of-Religion-in-Public-Schools-International/Russo/p/book/9781032064482">mandates faith-based instruction on Islam</a> for Muslim students. Non-Muslims must attend moral studies classes. Turkey, meanwhile, requires religious culture and moral knowledge courses for grades 4-12 that focus on Islam. Parents who belong to other religions have the right <a href="https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/turkey/">to exempt their children</a> from these classes.</p>
<p>What happens in public schools in the U.S. today will significantly shape tomorrow’s society. I believe encouraging teaching about religion can help America’s rapidly diversifying population to understand and respect others’ beliefs or lack thereof. Discussing religions in an inclusive, objective and academic way can certainly be challenging in a classroom, as there is a fine line between teaching about it and proselytizing – but not doing so has risks as well.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/219783/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles J. Russo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Many countries wrestle with whether to include any kind of education about religion in public school lessons, and each one takes its own approach.Charles J. Russo, Joseph Panzer Chair in Education and Research Professor of Law, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2189162023-12-04T19:13:53Z2023-12-04T19:13:53ZWhy do private schools get more holidays than public schools?<p>It’s that time of year when it seems the more school fees parents pay, the less time their children spend in school. </p>
<p>For example, within a few kilometres of each other in Melbourne are an independent school whose last day is December 6, a Catholic school whose last day is December 15, and a government school going through until December 20.</p>
<p>Why the differences? To a casual observer, it seems reasonable every school should have the same start and finish dates.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, like so much across the diverse Australian education landscape, it is more complicated than that. It also prompts serious questions about how well we are doing as a nation, educationally speaking.</p>
<h2>Long holidays equal long juggles</h2>
<p>With parents needing to balance work commitments (and only having so much annual leave), it is not surprising some non-government school families get <a href="https://honey.nine.com.au/parenting/private-schools-on-holidays/13e47d0d-b2cd-4d69-a8ac-0b97b186d812">frustrated</a> their children’s summer holidays are so long. </p>
<p>However, judging by <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/the-sydney-private-school-charging-parents-7275-just-to-secure-enrolment-20230913-p5e49t.html">enrolment demand</a>, this does not seem to dissuade them from sending their children to these kinds of schools. And, granted, public school parents also feel the <a href="https://www.mamamia.com.au/are-the-school-holidays-too-long/">organisational pain</a> of their six-week breaks. </p>
<p>Children can also feel an “unfairness” when they see students from some schools getting a longer break than others. A half-full bus is a stark reminder of this.</p>
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<img alt="A child sits on a couch, hiding behind cushions." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562640/original/file-20231130-27-7zwala.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562640/original/file-20231130-27-7zwala.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562640/original/file-20231130-27-7zwala.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562640/original/file-20231130-27-7zwala.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562640/original/file-20231130-27-7zwala.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562640/original/file-20231130-27-7zwala.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562640/original/file-20231130-27-7zwala.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">What do you with your kids for weeks on end?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/kid-hiding-on-pillows-262103/">Pixabay/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<h2>Traditions are hard to break</h2>
<p>There are some <a href="https://oxfordre.com/education/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264093-e-1459">historical reasons</a> why some non-government schools have longer breaks. </p>
<p>Schools that break up earliest – at the start of December – are almost invariably elite, high-fee (think A$30,000-45,000 per year) schools. Typically, these are schools that would either have had, or still have, boarders. </p>
<p>In the early days of these schools, they needed an earlier finishing date so rural students could return home. And the tradition has stuck. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/should-we-shorten-the-long-summer-break-from-school-maybe-not-92423">Should we shorten the long summer break from school? Maybe not</a>
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<hr>
<h2>Extra-curricular compensation</h2>
<p>Many are also likely to have extensive and compulsory <a href="https://www.afr.com/companies/extracurricular-the-norm-rather-than-exception-at-top-schools-20160811-gqqi61">co-curricular programs</a>. This can involve compulsory weekend sport and before/after school training during the week, as well as music, drama productions or other commitments. </p>
<p>This means “school” <a href="https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/informit.866381394542595">extends well beyond</a> a typical 9am to 3pm day. This places a different time demand on students and their families. So there is argument to say an early mark at the end of the year is a fair trade-off.</p>
<p>Curiously, newer day-only schools without these histories and extensive programs have also shortened their terms, and some even give mid-term breaks. Without these older traditions, the reasons why seem less clear. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="One school boy tackles another in a rugby game." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562870/original/file-20231201-25-nm88jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/562870/original/file-20231201-25-nm88jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562870/original/file-20231201-25-nm88jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562870/original/file-20231201-25-nm88jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562870/original/file-20231201-25-nm88jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562870/original/file-20231201-25-nm88jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/562870/original/file-20231201-25-nm88jp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Private school students often have compulsory sport on the weekends as well as weekday training.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/group-of-men-playing-soccer-in-green-field-3662553/">Patrick Case/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
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<h2>School holidays are not consistent</h2>
<p>For those who want consistency across the nation, aligning end-of-year dates is not the only issue. There is significant variety across different states, including in public schools. </p>
<p>There’s no agreed time for starting the school year, either. Next year, government school starting dates range from <a href="https://education.qld.gov.au/about/Documents/2024-school-calendar.pdf">January 22 (Queensland)</a> to <a href="https://www.decyp.tas.gov.au/learning/term-dates/#at-184880">February 8 (Tasmania)</a>. </p>
<p>Finishing dates are similar, with Western Australia finishing on December 12, 2024, and Victoria and New South Wales carrying on until December 20. </p>
<p>It’s just another of those quirks of a federated nation in which each state and territory dances to its own educational tune. </p>
<p>And spare a thought for families in border communities who live these differences in very practical ways. Consider the parent who is a teacher and lives in Wodonga (Victoria) yet works just across the border in Albury (NSW). They will finish teaching for Term 1 on April 12, a full two weeks after their children finish on March 28. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-double-juggle-how-working-parents-manage-school-holidays-and-their-jobs-108080">The double juggle: how working parents manage school holidays and their jobs</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Different public holidays add to the confusion</h2>
<p>While there is a general pattern of 190-195 school days per year for government schools, public holidays create their own localised interruptions. </p>
<p>Victoria, for example, gives an extra public holiday for the Melbourne Cup. In the ACT, there is Canberra Day in March. </p>
<p>Then there are extra pupil-free days when teachers do professional development. This also varies between states. </p>
<p>Inconsistency of start and finish dates is only one part of a bigger issue, though. The larger question of total time spent in schools is also worth asking.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/set-ground-rules-get-them-outside-and-do-things-together-how-to-navigate-school-holidays-with-high-school-kids-208474">Set ground rules, get them outside and do things together: how to navigate school holidays with high school kids</a>
</strong>
</em>
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<hr>
<h2>So does time in school make any difference?</h2>
<p>Recent <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/399475ac-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/399475ac-en">OECD analysis</a> found Australian students spend more hours in school than any other OECD country. Across primary and lower secondary years, Australian students are in school for more than 11,000 hours, compared with the OECD average of just over 7,600. </p>
<p>Despite this, our PISA (an international test for 15-year-olds) literacy and numeracy results <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/education/alarm-bells-australian-students-record-worst-result-in-global-tests-20191203-p53gie.html#">continue to decline</a>. So more time doesn’t seem to be delivering better results.</p>
<p>It might even contribute to <a href="https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2023/219/10/new-foundations-learning-australia">decreasing engagement by students</a>. </p>
<p>A 2018 pre-COVID <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results-volume-iii-acd78851-en.htm">PISA survey</a> of 15-year-old Australian students found 37% disagreed or strongly disagreed that “my life has meaning and purpose”. A <a href="https://bridges.monash.edu/articles/report/The_2023_Australian_Youth_Barometer/24087186/2">2023 survey</a> of young Australians found only 52% felt their education prepared them for post-school life.</p>
<p>A shorter school year creates challenges for some families and poses ongoing questions about equity. But if we take a broader look we can also see extended time spent in class, on its own, isn’t producing the results. </p>
<p>Shorter time in school could be beneficial, but only if the quality of the time actually spent in school is engaging and valued by students.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/218916/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Kidson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>It’s that time of year when it seems the more school fees parents pay, the less time their children spend in school.Paul Kidson, Senior Lecturer in Educational Leadership, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2171832023-12-04T13:27:05Z2023-12-04T13:27:05ZPhiladelphia reduces school-based arrests by 91% since 2013 – researchers explain the effects of keeping kids out of the legal system<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/563102/original/file-20231203-15-71hdlk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=19%2C24%2C3189%2C2102&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A change in policy means more Philly students are staying in school and out of the legal system.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/PhiladelphiaSchools/32fea4648c1744b99f8f5b78f85ad2a6/photohttps://newsroom.ap.org/detail/PhiladelphiaSchools/32fea4648c1744b99f8f5b78f85ad2a6/photo">AP Photo/Matt Rourke</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Across the United States, arrest rates for young people under age 18 have been declining for decades. However, the proportion of youth arrests associated with <a href="https://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/njcda/pdf/jcs2013.pdf">school incidents</a> <a href="https://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/njcda/pdf/jcs2019.pdf">has increased</a>.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://ocrdata.ed.gov/estimations/2017-2018">the U.S. Department of Education</a>, K-12 schools referred nearly 230,000 students to law enforcement during the school year that began in 2017. These referrals and the 54,321 reported school-based arrests that same year were mostly for minor misbehavior like marijuana possession, as <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1179204">opposed to more serious offenses</a> like bringing a gun to school. </p>
<p>School-based arrests are one part of the <a href="https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/defining-and-redirecting-school-prison-pipeline">school-to-prison pipeline</a>, through which students – especially Black and <a href="https://theconversation.com/stop-using-latinx-if-you-really-want-to-be-inclusive-189358">Latine</a> students and those with disabilities – are pushed out of their schools and into the legal system. </p>
<p>Getting caught up in the legal system has been linked to negative <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2022.08.009">health</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457942000200X">social</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040712448862">academic</a> outcomes, as well as increased risk for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12039">future arrest</a>. </p>
<p>Given these negative consequences, public agencies in states like <a href="https://www.chdi.org/our-work/school-based-mental-health/sbdi/">Connecticut</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204014521249">New York</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.03.022">Pennsylvania</a> have looked for ways to arrest fewer young people in schools. Philadelphia, in particular, has pioneered a successful effort to divert youth from the legal system. </p>
<h2>Philadelphia Police School Diversion Program</h2>
<p>In Philadelphia, police department leaders recognized that the city’s school district was its largest source of referrals for youth arrests. To address this issue, then-Deputy Police Commissioner <a href="https://www.inquirer.com/news/philadelphia/philadelphia-school-diversion-program-kevin-bethel-police-20160926.html">Kevin Bethel developed and implemented</a> a school-based, pre-arrest diversion initiative in partnership with the school district and the city’s department of human services. The program is called the <a href="https://www.jjrrlab.com/uploads/1/2/4/1/124158680/diversion_finalreport_8.2022.pdf">Philadelphia Police School Diversion Program</a>, and it officially launched in May 2014. </p>
<p>Mayor-elect Cherelle Parker named <a href="https://www.inquirer.com/news/philadelphia/kevin-bethel-philadelphia-police-commissioner-cherelle-parker-20231121.html">Bethel as her new police commissioner</a> on Nov. 22, 2023.</p>
<p>Since the diversion program began, when police are called to schools in the city for offenses like marijuana possession or disorderly conduct, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.03.022">they cannot arrest the student involved</a> if that student has no pending court case or a history of adjudication. In juvenile court, an adjudication is similar to a conviction in criminal court. </p>
<p>Instead of being arrested, the diverted student remains in school and school personnel decide how to respond to their behavior. For example, they might speak with the student, schedule a meeting with a parent or suspend the student. </p>
<p>A social worker from the city also contacts the student’s family to arrange a home visit, where they assess youth and family needs. Then, the social worker makes referrals to no-cost community-based services. The student and their family choose whether to attend.</p>
<p>Our team — the <a href="https://www.jjrrlab.com/">Juvenile Justice Research and Reform Lab</a> at Drexel University — evaluated the effectiveness of the diversion program as <a href="https://www.jjrrlab.com/diversion-program.html">independent researchers</a> not affiliated with the police department or school district. We published four research articles describing various ways the diversion program affected students, schools and costs to the city. </p>
<p><iframe id="aeIxt" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/aeIxt/8/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>Arrests dropped</h2>
<p>In our evaluation of the diversion program’s first five years, we reported that the annual number of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000440">school-based arrests in Philadelphia decreased by 84%</a>: from nearly 1,600 in the school year beginning in 2013 to just 251 arrests in the school year beginning in 2018. </p>
<p>Since then, school district data indicates the annual number of school-based arrests in Philadelphia has continued to decline — dropping to just 147 arrests in the school year that began in 2022. That’s a 91% reduction from the year before the program started.</p>
<p>We also investigated the number of serious behavioral incidents recorded in the school district in the program’s first five years. Those <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000440">fell as well</a>, suggesting that the diversion program effectively reduced school-based arrests without compromising school safety.</p>
<p>Additionally, data showed that city social workers successfully contacted the families of <a href="https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/304409.pdf">74% of students diverted</a> through the program during its first five years. Nearly 90% of these families accepted at least one referral to community-based programming, which includes services like academic support, job skill development and behavioral health counseling. </p>
<h2>Fewer suspensions and expulsions</h2>
<p>We compared data from 1,281 students diverted in the first three years of the school-based program to data from 531 similar students who were arrested in schools before the program began but who would have been eligible if the diversion program existed.</p>
<p>Diverted students were <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000453">significantly less likely</a> to be suspended, expelled or required to transfer to another school in the year following their school-based incident.</p>
<h2>Long-term outcomes</h2>
<p>To evaluate a longer follow-up period, we compared the 427 students diverted in the program’s first year to the group of 531 students arrested before the program began. Results showed arrested students were significantly more likely to be arrested again <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000397">in the following five years</a>. </p>
<p>Although we observed impacts on arrest outcomes, the diversion program did not appear to affect long-term educational outcomes. We looked at four years of school data and found no significant differences in suspension, dropout or on-time graduation between diverted and arrested students. </p>
<p>Finally, a cost-benefit analysis revealed that the program saves taxpayers <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paac061">millions of dollars</a>. </p>
<p>Based on its success in Philadelphia, several other cities and counties across Pennsylvania have begun replicating the Police School Diversion Program. These efforts could further contribute to a nationwide movement to safely keep kids in their communities and out of the legal system.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217183/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Research reported in this article was supported by funding from the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (2014-JZ-FX-K0003; 2017-JF-FX-0055), the National Institute of Justice (NIJ; 2017-CK-BX-0001), and the Stoneleigh Foundation. The content of this article is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the views of the United States Department of Justice, its agencies, the Stoneleigh Foundation, or other funding organizations. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Naomi Goldstein receives funding from the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) and previously received funding from the NIJ,Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and Stoneleigh Foundation.</span></em></p>Drexel researchers evaluated a 2014 program implemented by Kevin Bethel when he was deputy police commissioner that led to fewer arrests of students in schools.Amanda NeMoyer, Assistant Research Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Drexel UniversityNaomi Goldstein, Professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Drexel UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2100952023-10-27T12:18:10Z2023-10-27T12:18:10ZLouisiana’s ‘In God We Trust’ law tests limits of religion in public schools<p>When Louisiana passed a law in August 2023 requiring public schools to post “<a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2023/08/03/louisiana-in-god-we-trust-law/70519434007/">In God We Trust</a>” in every classroom – from elementary school to college – <a href="https://www.theadvertiser.com/story/news/2023/01/19/louisiana-lawmaker-files-bill-to-put-god-in-every-school-classroom/69821507007/">the author of the bill claimed</a> to be following a long-held tradition of displaying the <a href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/in-god-we-trust-reaffirmed-as-national-motto-again/">national motto</a>, most notably on U.S. currency. </p>
<p>But even under recent Supreme Court precedents, the Louisiana law may violate the <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-1/">establishment clause of the First Amendment</a>, which prohibits the government from promoting religion. I make this observation as one who has researched and <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=XoV15X_SoA4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Frank+Ravitch&ots=scSow4fFWy&sig=5kTKn_GYJGWmnVY4Paj1XGg_TAI#v=onepage&q=Frank%20Ravitch&f=false">written extensively on issues of religion</a> in the public schools.</p>
<p>The Louisiana law specifies that the motto “shall be displayed on a poster or framed document that is at least 11 inches by 14 inches. The motto shall be the central focus … and shall be printed in a large, easily readable font.” The law also states that teachers should instruct students about the phrase as a way of teaching “patriotic customs.”</p>
<p>Similar bills are being promoted by groups like the <a href="https://cpcfoundation.com/about/">Congressional Prayer Caucus Foundation</a>, a nonprofit that supports members of Congress who meet regularly to <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2015/09/28/prayer-caucus-funded-taxpayers-defends-faith-government-policy/72428692/">defend the role of prayer in government</a>. To date, 26 states have considered bills requiring public schools to display the national motto. Seven states, including Louisiana, <a href="https://www.blitzwatch.org/in-god-we-trust-school-displays">have passed laws</a> in this regard.</p>
<h2>Recent shift in the law</h2>
<p>The Supreme Court has long treated public schools as an area where government-promoted religious messaging is unconstitutional under the First Amendment’s <a href="https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/first-amendment-and-religion">establishment clause</a>. For example, the Supreme Court held in <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1961/468">1962</a>, <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1962/142">1963</a>, <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1991/90-1014">1992</a> and <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1999/99-62">2000</a> that prayer in public schools is unconstitutional either because it favored or endorsed religion or because it created coercive pressure to religiously conform. In <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1980/80-321">1980</a>, the court also struck down a Kentucky law requiring the Ten Commandments to be posted in classrooms.</p>
<p>At the same time, the court has protected private religious expression for individual students and teachers in public schools. </p>
<p>The Louisiana law comes at a time of <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/events/understanding-the-threat-of-white-christian-nationalism-to-american-democracy-today/">rising concerns about Christian nationalism</a> and on the heels of a pivotal court case. In the 2022 case <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2021/21-418">Kennedy v. Bremerton School District</a>, the court overturned more than 60 years of precedent when it ruled that a public school football coach’s on-field, postgame prayer did not violate the establishment clause. In doing so, the court rejected long-standing legal tests, holding instead that courts should look to <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2021/21-418">history and tradition</a>.</p>
<p>The problem with using history and tradition as a broad test is that it can change from one context to the next. People – including lawmakers – are apt to ignore the negative and troubling lessons of U.S. religious history. Prior to the Kennedy decision, history and tradition were used by a majority of the court to decide establishment clause cases only in specific contexts, such as <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2013/12-696">legislative prayer</a> and <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2018/17-1717">war memorials</a>.</p>
<p>Now, states like Louisiana are trying to use history and tradition to bring religion into public school classrooms.</p>
<h2>A history of ‘In God We Trust’</h2>
<p>Contrary to what people often assume, the phrase “In God We Trust” has not always been the national motto. It <a href="https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2013/04/in-god-we-trust/">first appeared on coins</a> in 1864, during the Civil War, and in the following decades it sparked controversy. In 1907, President Theodore Roosevelt urged Congress to <a href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1907/11/14/106767538.html?pageNumber=1">drop the phrase from new coins</a>, saying it “does positive harm, and is in effect irreverence, which comes dangerously close to sacrilege.”</p>
<p>In 1956, amid the Cold War, “<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-complex-history-of-in-god-we-trust-91117">In God we Trust</a>” became the national motto. The phrase first appeared on paper money the next year. It was a time of significant fear about communism and the Soviet Union, and atheism was viewed as part of the “communist threat.” Atheists were <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Anti-Atheist-Nation-Religion-and-Secularism-in-the-United-States/Klug/p/book/9781032310107">subject to persecution</a> during the <a href="https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/research/online-documents/mccarthyism-red-scare">Red Scare</a> and afterward. </p>
<p>Since then, the motto has stuck. Over the years, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-religion-motto-idUSKCN1LD24K">legal challenges</a> attempting to remove the phrase from money have failed. Courts have generally understood the term as a form of <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1983/82-1256">ceremonial deism or civic religion</a>, meaning religious practices or expressions that are viewed as being merely customary cultural practices.</p>
<h2>The future of the law</h2>
<p>Even after the Kennedy ruling, the Louisiana law may still be unconstitutional because students are a captive audience in the classroom. Therefore, the mandate to hang the national motto in classrooms could be interpreted as a form of religious coercion. </p>
<p>But because the law requires a display rather than a religious exercise like school prayer, it may not violate what has come to be known as the <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1991/90-1014">indirect coercion test</a>. This test prevents the government from conducting a formal religious exercise that places strong social or peer pressure on students to participate. </p>
<p>The outcome of any constitutional challenge to the Louisiana law is far from clear. Prior cases involving the Pledge of Allegiance offer one example. Though the Supreme Court dismissed on standing grounds the <a href="https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-latest-controversy-about-under-god-in-the-pledge-of-allegiance">only establishment clause challenge to the pledge</a> it has considered, lower courts have held that reciting the pledge in schools is constitutional for a variety of reasons.</p>
<p>These reasons include the idea that it is a form of <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2008/08/28/on-ceremonial-occasions-may-the-government-invoke-a-deity/">ceremonial deism</a> and the fact that since 1943 students have been <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2019/02/19/us/pledge-of-allegiance-explainer-trnd/index.html">exempt from having to say the pledge</a> if it violates their faith to do so. </p>
<p>The Louisiana law, however, requires instruction about the national motto. </p>
<p>If the law is challenged in court and upheld, teachers could teach that the motto was adopted when the nation was emerging from <a href="https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/educational-resources/age-of-eisenhower/mcarthyism-red-scare">McCarthyism</a> and fear of communism was widespread. Moreover, they could teach that many people of faith throughout U.S. history would have viewed this sort of display as against U.S. ideals.</p>
<h2>Division is likely</h2>
<p>More than two centuries before Roosevelt argued that it was sacrilegious to put “In God We Trust” on coins, the Puritan minister and Colonist Roger Williams famously proclaimed that “<a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9780429054860-4/forced-worship-stinks-god-nostrils-margaret-mur%C3%A1nyi-manchester">forced worship stinks in God’s nostrils</a>.” Williams founded the colony of Rhode Island, at least in part, to promote religious freedom.</p>
<p>Additionally, there is no prohibition on alternative designs for the national motto posters as long as the motto is “the central focus of the poster.” In Texas, a parent donated rainbow-colored “In God We Trust” signs and others written in Arabic, which were subsequently <a href="https://www.dallasnews.com/news/education/2022/08/29/southlake-schools-rejects-in-god-we-trust-signs-featuring-rainbows-arabic/">rejected by a local school board</a>. This situation, which gained significant media attention, brought the exclusionary impact of these laws <a href="https://theconversation.com/uncivil-obedience-becomes-an-increasingly-common-form-of-protest-in-the-us-209928">into public view</a>.</p>
<p>It could be argued that accepting wall hangings that favor Christocentric viewpoints – and rejecting those that reflect other religions or add symbols such as the rainbow – is <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2021/20-1088">religious discrimination by government</a>. If so, schools might be required to post alternative motto designs that meet the letter of the new law in order to uphold free speech rights and prevent religious discrimination. </p>
<p>The Louisiana law would have been brazenly unconstitutional just two years ago. But after the Kennedy decision, the law may survive a potential legal challenge. Even if it does, one thing is for certain: It will be divisive.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210095/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frank S. Ravitch does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Does Louisiana’s requirement for public schools to post ‘In God We Trust’ in all classrooms violate the doctrine of separation of church and state? A legal scholar weighs in.Frank S. Ravitch, Professor of Law & Walter H. Stowers Chair of Law and Religion, Michigan State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2124972023-10-02T19:44:25Z2023-10-02T19:44:25ZWhere the Supreme Court stands on banning books<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547624/original/file-20230911-15667-2dgyh5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C8%2C2968%2C1985&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A display of books that have been banned in various places is on view at a community gathering space in Washington, D.C.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/case-showing-books-that-have-been-banned-in-different-news-photo/1647500963">Craig Hudson for The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Efforts to ban books in public schools and public libraries reached an <a href="https://www.ala.org/news/press-releases/2023/03/record-book-bans-2022">all-time high in 2022</a> and show few signs of abating for 2023, according to the American Library Association.</p>
<p>The recent movement to remove books appears to be a <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/09/19/1123156201/new-report-finds-a-coordinated-rise-in-attempted-book-bans">coordinated campaign</a> taking place at both the state and local levels; it often targets books that address race, gender or both. Some of these efforts have resulted in <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2023/05/18/school-librarians-jailed-banned-books/">laws that threaten to jail librarians</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2023/05/gop-book-bans-democrats-state-legislation/674003/">Most Americans oppose</a> removing books from libraries. That may explain why Illinois recently enacted a law that outlaws banning books: If any public library in the state bans materials because of “<a href="https://apnews.com/article/book-ban-library-lgbtq-illinois-f5516941473e474712eaaafda084de76">partisan or doctrinal</a>” disapproval, it will be ineligible for state funds.</p>
<p>Bans – and the banning of bans – have already ended up in the courts. For example, in a <a href="https://pen.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/1-Complaint.pdf">lawsuit in Florida</a>, a First Amendment advocacy group, a publisher, parents and authors whose books have been targeted filed suit against the Escambia County School District’s removal of 10 books and restriction of 100 others in the school library. They alleged that school officials violated students’ First Amendment rights when they removed books that discussed, race, racism and LGBTQ+ people. The case is ongoing.</p>
<p>One or more of these sorts of cases could end up at the Supreme Court – but until then, the lower courts will look to existing precedent, set in a legal ruling that dates back to 1982. In that ruling, the court declared that school personnel have a lot of discretion related to the content of their libraries, but this “<a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1981/80-2043">discretion may not be exercised in a narrowly partisan or political manner</a>.”</p>
<h2>Encounters with new ideas</h2>
<p>My analysis of that 1982 case, <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1981/80-2043">Board of Education, Island Trees Union Free School District v. Pico</a>, finds useful information that can help put these <a href="https://www.nassp.org/publication/principal-leadership/volume-22-2021-2022/principal-leadership-may-2022/legal-matters-may-2022/">book ban lawsuits in context</a>. </p>
<p>The case specifically focused on the school library and was not about curriculum in the classroom. A school board on Long Island, New York, wanted certain books removed from the shelves of the junior high and high school libraries because board members believed the books to be, they said, “<a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/457/853/">anti-American, anti-Christian, anti-Semitic, and just plain filthy</a>.”</p>
<p>The banned titles originated in a list compiled by a conservative organization that deemed them objectionable.</p>
<p>One student, on behalf of four other students in the school district, filed a lawsuit in U.S. District Court. The suit claimed that removing the books from the library infringed upon the students’ First Amendment rights to freely access ideas and information.</p>
<p>The school board prevailed in U.S. District Court because the judge found that school boards should have discretion in those matters. But the appeals court overturned that ruling, saying the fact that the school board’s reasoning relied in part on external evaluations of the books raised concerns about censorship.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547608/original/file-20230911-21-p7xqw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person standing at a lectern gestures and makes an emotional facial expression." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547608/original/file-20230911-21-p7xqw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/547608/original/file-20230911-21-p7xqw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547608/original/file-20230911-21-p7xqw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547608/original/file-20230911-21-p7xqw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547608/original/file-20230911-21-p7xqw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547608/original/file-20230911-21-p7xqw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/547608/original/file-20230911-21-p7xqw9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=512&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A speaker at a California school board meeting objects to book bans, a topic that has raised passions nationwide.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/retired-police-sgt-gia-rueda-speaks-out-against-book-news-photo/1541835489">Gina Ferazzi / Los Angeles Times via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>An unclear ruling</h2>
<p>When the case came before the Supreme Court in 1982, the justices agreed to analyze whether the school board’s decision to bar certain books from its libraries, based on the books’ content, violated the students’ rights.</p>
<p>The ruling was divided – five justices affirmed the appeals court’s decision in favor of the students, though not all of them agreed on exactly why. </p>
<p>Justice William Brennan Jr. wrote that the First Amendment does limit school officials’ authority to remove books from school libraries, because that authority infringes on <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/457/853/#tab-opinion-1954633">students’ rights to receive ideas and information</a>. Justices Thurgood Marshall and John Paul Stevens signed on to this opinion, which was not a majority opinion. Two justices wrote concurring decisions, but only one agreed with the trio’s overall conclusion that the board had unconstitutionally infringed on students’ rights. Justice Harry Blackmun said the government – the school board – could not deny students access to ideas based on political reasons. Justice Byron White agreed with the conclusion, but did not express a view on the First Amendment question. </p>
<p>Four justices dissented. Chief Justice Warren Burger wrote the main dissent, which was joined by Justices Lewis Powell, William Rehnquist and Sandra Day O'Connor. Their opinion focused more on the issue of accessing books than it did on the First Amendment questions the case raised.</p>
<h2>The current state of the law</h2>
<p>Though there was not a clear majority opinion, the case suggests that school boards have broad discretion over library books but do not have unlimited authority to remove books from library shelves.</p>
<p>The justices agreed that a school library is a place where important information is disseminated to learners – and is a unique place for students to engage in inquiry related to their interests and passions. Therefore, they ruled, school officials may remove books only for sound educational reasons or legitimate purposes – such as pervasive vulgarity or lack of educational suitability.</p>
<p>As a result, school personnel are likely limited in their power to restrict books’ availability simply because they or other officials disagree with the books’ content. </p>
<p>If any of the current cases reach the Supreme Court, the current justices could rule differently, of course. But in the meantime, lower courts hearing book-banning cases will be guided by that precedent.</p>
<p><em>High school student Ian Shaw contributed to the research and writing of this article.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212497/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Suzanne Eckes does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Current precedent relies on a 1982 case in which five justices generally agreed there were limits on a school’s power to ban books, but they didn’t agree on why.Suzanne Eckes, Susan S. Engeleiter Professor of Education Law, Policy and Practice, University of Wisconsin-MadisonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2134332023-09-28T05:39:02Z2023-09-28T05:39:02ZIn fractious debate, GOP candidates find common ground on cause of inflation woes and need for school choice<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/550803/original/file-20230928-19-kzxcm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C2634%2C1825&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Florida Gov. Ron DeSantis and entrepreneur Vivek Ramaswamy debate the finer points.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/republican-presidential-candidates-florida-gov-ron-desantis-news-photo/1705132466?adppopup=true">Justin Sullivan/Getty Images.</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>It was a night in which even “<a href="https://www.reaganfoundation.org/education/virtual-learning-hub/the-great-communicator/">the great communicator</a>” himself may have struggled to be heard.</em></p>
<p><em>At the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in California on Sept. 27, 2023, seven Republican candidates looking to become the leading challenger to the absent GOP front-runner Donald Trump <a href="https://www.npr.org/2023/09/27/1201848640/second-republican-debate-california">interrupted, cross-talked and bickered</a> – often to the exasperation of the presidential debate moderators.</em></p>
<p><em>And yet, between the heated exchanges, important economic and business issues were discussed – from national debt and government shutdowns to labor disputes and even school choice. One thing the candidates agreed on: They aren’t fans of <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/energy/2023/08/15/what-is-bidenomics-president-biden-s-economic-philosophy-explained/e9ba8398-3b9b-11ee-aefd-40c039a855ba_story.html">Bidenomics</a>.</em></p>
<p><em>Listening in for The Conversation were economists <a href="https://www.gonzaga.edu/school-of-business-administration/faculty/detail/herzogr">Ryan Herzog</a> of Gonzaga University and University of Tennessee’s <a href="https://web.utk.edu/%7Eccarrut1/">Celeste K. Carruthers</a>. Here are their main takeaways from the debate.</em></p>
<h2>Inflation talk assigns blame, falls flat on solutions</h2>
<p><strong>Ryan Herzog, Gonzaga University</strong></p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/official-polls/fox-news-poll-voters-white-house-doing-more-harm-than-good-inflation">most recent Fox News survey</a> showed that 91% of Americans are worried about inflation and 80% about rising housing costs. I tuned into the second GOP debate hoping to hear how the candidates would solve these problems. I was left disappointed. </p>
<p>Not a single candidate mentioned rising housing costs, and few even acknowledged inflation. Given how much the issue has dominated the news, I assumed the candidates would mention it more than the <a href="https://rollcall.com/2023/08/24/transcript-gop-presidential-hopefuls-debate-in-milwaukee">eight times</a> they did in the prior debate. I was wrong. </p>
<p>First, let’s check some inflation facts. Former South Carolina Gov. Nikki Haley claimed that the average household is spending US$7,000 more per year on groceries and gas because of inflation. I believe she also meant to include <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2023/08/11/economy/inflation-rate-spending/index.html">housing costs</a>. The latest data shows the annual inflation for food at home – as opposed to restaurant meals – is rising less than 3% per year. While that’s up 24% <a href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=19mVB">since the start of the pandemic</a>, it’s far below what you’d need for an increase of nearly $600 per month. </p>
<p>Next, former Vice President Mike Pence said that recent wage gains have not kept up with inflation. But according to the most recent data, average wage growth has actually <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/01/business/economy/wage-growth-inflation.html">outpaced inflation</a>. Indeed, workers in lower-wage industries that are seeing labor shortages, such as the leisure and hospitality sector, have seen <a href="https://www.politico.com/news/2023/05/29/low-income-wages-employment-00097135">very substantial pay increases</a>. </p>
<p>Nearly every candidate blamed inflation on <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/government-spending-fuels-inflation-covid-relief-pandemic-debt-federal-reserve-stimulus-powell-biden-stagflation-11645202057">excessive federal spending</a>. Under Presidents Donald Trump and Joe Biden, the total level of U.S. government debt increased by nearly $8 trillion and $4.5 trillion, <a href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=18YJx">respectively</a>. As expected, most candidates proposed cutting government spending and taxes to help struggling families. But it’s unclear whether those policies, taken together, would be effective at lowering inflation.</p>
<p>The candidates also agreed on the need to promote U.S. energy independence – through drilling, fracking and coal – to promote low and stable inflation. But while reducing energy costs would support lower inflation, there was zero discussion of how new technologies like artificial intelligence could be used to fight inflation – for example, by improving productivity. In the end, most candidates resorted to old arguments and avoided debate on 21st-century solutions.</p>
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<h2>School choice is common refrain, but evidence on impact is mixed</h2>
<p><strong>Celeste K. Carruthers, University of Tennessee</strong> </p>
<p>Before a commercial break midway through the debate, moderators teased viewers to return for questions on education in the U.S. It’s understandable that voters would want to hear what candidates have to say on the issue. Younger students have <a href="https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/highlights/ltt/2022/">a long way to go</a> to recover from COVID-era learning losses, and many families are dissatisfied with public education to the point that they are <a href="https://www.urban.org/research/publication/where-kids-went-nonpublic-schooling-and-demographic-change-during-pandemic">leaving public schools</a> for home school and private school options. The education portion of the debate ended up being a short exchange, however, with more focus on immigration, inflation, border security, foreign policy and the opioid epidemic. </p>
<p>One common theme across candidates was at least a brief mention of school choice. School choice describes a variety of different policies that give the parents of pre-K-12 students more options for where they send their kids to school. These options can include charter schools, magnet schools, public schools outside of a student’s school zone or in another district, or even private schools. </p>
<p>Gov. Haley voiced a <a href="https://www.hoover.org/research/school-vouchers-next-great-leap-forward">commonly held view</a> among school choice supporters that providing students with more schooling options improves education by encouraging competition. Gov. DeSantis referenced “universal school choice” in his home state of Florida, which <a href="https://www.the74million.org/article/florida-just-became-the-nations-biggest-school-choice-laboratory/">recently passed legislation</a> that allows any student to apply for several thousand dollars in state funds that can be used toward private school tuition. </p>
<p>Researchers have found that earlier phases of private school vouchers in Florida led to <a href="https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w26758/w26758.pdf">improvements</a> in public school student test scores, absenteeism and suspensions, which supports the idea that competition from private schools can benefit students who opt not to use vouchers and stay in public schools.</p>
<p>Private school vouchers are, however, a contentious topic. Opponents of vouchers and school choice policies more generally argue that they put traditional public schools at a <a href="https://www.cbpp.org/research/state-budget-and-tax/state-policymakers-should-reject-k-12-school-voucher-plans">financial disadvantage</a>. Critics have also noted that some of the early voucher advocates viewed them as a way to <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/2017/7/23/21107262/critics-of-vouchers-say-they-re-marred-by-racism-and-exacerbate-segregation-are-they-right">avoid racial integration</a>. </p>
<p>Additionally, school choice can theoretically lead to sorting, where higher-achieving or higher-income students group together, and this can be detrimental to lower-achieving students who are left behind. There is <a href="https://www.doi.org/10.1257/jel.20150679">evidence of sorting like this</a>, particularly in large-scale voucher systems outside the U.S. </p>
<p>Florida’s newly expanded model of school choice is <a href="https://www.the74million.org/article/florida-just-became-the-nations-biggest-school-choice-laboratory/">one of the most comprehensive</a> in the country. <a href="https://www.vox.com/politics/23689496/school-choice-education-savings-accounts-american-federation-children">Several other states</a> have also recently revised their school choice policies, generally extending eligibility for vouchers and education savings accounts beyond needy populations. In time, we can expect the evidence on school choice to grow substantially and perhaps occupy more attention in future debates.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213433/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>With Donald Trump absent again, Republican presidential hopefuls took potshots at each other but agreed that Bidenomics isn’t cutting it.Ryan Herzog, Associate Professor of Economics, Gonzaga UniversityCeleste K. Carruthers, Professor of Economics, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2131372023-09-25T21:23:02Z2023-09-25T21:23:02ZNational Day for Truth and Reconciliation: Exhibit features stolen Kainai children’s stories of resilience on Treaty 7 lands<iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/national-day-for-truth-and-reconciliation-exhibit-features-stolen-kainai-childrens-stories-of-resilience-on-treaty-7-lands" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>In Canada, when we talk about truth and reconciliation we have a tendency to focus on the Indian residential school system (IRS). </p>
<p>While engaging with knowledge about <a href="https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1450124405592/1529106060525">residential schools and their legacies is an important facet of truth and reconciliation</a>, there are other colonial school systems that we also need to acknowledge, consider and remember. </p>
<p>In addition to Survivors of the IRS, we have Survivors of other colonial school systems the Canadian government initiated and implemented for over a century and a half.</p>
<p>As a member of the Kainai (Blood Tribe) of the Blackfoot Confederacy <a href="https://www.treaty7.org/">in Treaty 7 territory</a> in Alberta, part of my research has analyzed the educational policies behind the IRS and other colonial schooling models, and how these policies have influenced my own Blood People. As my chapter in the collection <a href="https://www.diopress.com/product-page/brave-work-in-indigenous-education"><em>Brave Work in Indigenous Education</em></a> examines, multiple school models existed at the same time. </p>
<h2>Multiple colonial schooling models</h2>
<p>The Canadian government initiated and implemented multiple colonial schooling models for over a century and a half beyond the IRS, such as: </p>
<ul>
<li><p><a href="https://data2.archives.ca/rcap/pdf/rcap-126.pdf">the industrial school system</a> and <a href="https://ehprnh2mwo3.exactdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Volume_1_History_Part_1_English_Web.pdf">boarding schools</a>, the precursor for residential schools; </p></li>
<li><p>the residency system: some residential schools became places where students lived while bussed off-reserve to attend public school. For example, <a href="https://nctr.ca/residential-schools/alberta/st-pauls-blood/">St. Paul’s on the Blood Reserve</a> became a residency or hostel while Blood children were bussed to the nearest public school; </p></li>
<li><p><a href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/indian-day-schools-in-canada#">the day school system</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/reckoning-with-the-history-of-public-schooling-and-settler-colonialism-190386">the public school system</a>. </p></li>
</ul>
<p>Where one system failed, the government designed a new school system based on the failure of the previous school model to try and assimilate Indigenous children.</p>
<h2>Survivors from many school models</h2>
<p>Murray Sinclair, former chair of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) said, “<a href="https://macleans.ca/politics/for-the-record-justice-murray-sinclair-on-residential-schools/">The Survivors need to know before they leave this Earth that people understand what happened and what the schools did to them</a>.” </p>
<p>As a society, it is important that we remember Survivors from each school model and their many impacts on Survivors, their descendants and society as a whole. </p>
<p>As I have worked in this area, and spoken to Survivors across Canada, I have learned that educational policy was never explained to children and their families in these systems. Addressing this gap in knowledge is imperative for Survivors, their descendants and Canadians. People need to know and understand the truth about what happened to Survivors and why this happened to them in order to heal and walk the path of reconciliation.</p>
<h2>Addressing gaps in knowledge</h2>
<p>When the <a href="https://www.galtmuseum.com/">Galt Museum & Archives</a> in Lethbridge, Alta. (also known as Akaisamitohkanao’pa, or gathering place) approached me to be a guest curator and create a traveling museum exhibit based on my TRC research, I decided to use the opportunity to rectify the gap of knowledge so many of us have about educational policy. </p>
<p>The exhibit is called <a href="https://www.galtmuseum.com/events/b68m7o1etf098f1a0alhdvqs9zllhc"><em>Stolen Kainai Children: Stories of Survival</em></a>. It presents photographs and stories from Survivors, the Canadian government, the Christian religions and their missionaries, the Indian Agents and Indian school inspectors. </p>
<p>The exhibit shows the evolution of the colonial school system from mission schools to band-controlled education, and a timeline examining the difference between the school models, with photographs of each model and educational policy accompanying it. Most importantly, the exhibit is filled with stories from Survivors. </p>
<h2>Right to know the truth</h2>
<p>The exhibit is motivated by the TRC’s 2015 Calls to Action, <a href="https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/british-columbians-our-governments/indigenous-people/aboriginal-peoples-documents/calls_to_action_english2.pdf">specifically number 69, which called for museums and archives to</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“i.) fully adopt and implement the … United Nations Joinet-Orentlicher Principles, as related to Aboriginal peoples’ inalienable right to know the truth about what happened and why,” and “iii.) Commit more resources to its public education materials and programming on residential schools.” </p>
</blockquote>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The Kainai Stolen Children Era: Lecture with author Tiffany Dionne Prete.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Multiple Christian churches</h2>
<p>The exhibit introduces the different Christian churches who created missions on the Blood Reserve, and shows Survivor experiences of missions’ different characteristics. For example, as Survivor Jim Young Pine shares about attending <a href="https://nctr.ca/residential-schools/alberta/st-marys-blood/">St. Mary’s School</a>: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The nuns at the school were French and always spoke French. As a result, I didn’t learn English very well. The St. Paul’s Anglican Residential School students spoke better English than we did. Their teachers and supervisors spoke only English all the time. It was while working outside Kainaisskahoyi that I learned English from non-Natives.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Young Pine’s account is from a collection of 1995 interviews from my community documented in the collection, <a href="https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Kitomahkitapiiminnooniksi/D4fRtwAACAAJ?hl=en"><em>Stories from our Elders</em></a>. </p>
<p>Churches opened several of the different schools the Canadian government devised to try and assimilate Indigenous children. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-donors-from-canada-and-europe-helped-fund-indian-residential-schools-164028">How donors from Canada and Europe helped fund Indian Residential Schools</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Stories from Survivors of institutions</h2>
<p>The stories allow viewers to glimpse what it was like to attend these schools. The stories are also a testament to the survival of the Blood People. </p>
<p>Despite all of the acts, legislation and educational policy that was created with the intention to assimilate us into a Eurocentric way of life, we are still here. We are still Indigenous. We continue to retain our identities as Siksikaitsitapi (Blackfoot People). </p>
<p>We have <a href="https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/ari/index.php/ari/article/view/29419/21591">resisted the governments’ call to assimilate us. We have persevered and fought back to retain our identities</a>. We continue today to practice and live our ways of knowing, being and doing as Siksikaitsitapi. </p>
<p>The exhibit concludes on a note of hope by highlighting the resiliency of the Kainai People. </p>
<h2>Maintaining our identities as Siksikaitsitapi</h2>
<p>In 1988, the Blood Tribe took control of tribal education. Today, the Blood Tribe runs its own education programs from early childhood education to post-secondary education. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.kainaied.ca/">Kainai Board of Education</a> operates five schools (Saipoyi Community School, Aahsaopi Elementary School, Tatsikiisaapo’p Middle School, Kainai High School and Kainai Alternate Academy). </p>
<p><a href="https://www.redcrowcollege.com/">Mi’kai’sto (Red Crow Community College)</a> has been operating since 1986 and has a satellite campus in Lethbridge, Alta. Originally, Mi’kai’sto opened in the St. Mary’s IRS that burned down in 2015. <a href="https://entro.com/project/mikaisto-red-crow-community-college/">Mi’kai’sto was rebuilt in Standoff</a>, Alta., and opened in 2022. </p>
<p>The Blood Reserve has worked hard to create education that works towards maintaining our identities as Siksikaitsitapi. Kainai values are taught and Elders and knowledge holders are a regular part of a student’s learning journey. </p>
<h2>Education as ‘new buffalo’</h2>
<p>To many Indigenous Peoples across plains regions in Canada, <a href="https://uofmpress.ca/books/detail/the-new-buffalo">education has become the “new buffalo</a>.” This means just as the buffalo once sustained us for our needs, Indigenous Peoples are adapting education to meet our needs today. </p>
<p>To observe the National Day for Truth and Reconciliation, and all year,
let us be reminded of Survivors’ voices from the past century and a half, and as Sinclair said, re-commit our reconciliation efforts to “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/radio/thecurrent/the-current-for-april-4-mmiwg-ottawa-public-forum-1.4053431/how-senator-murray-sinclair-responds-to-why-don-t-residential-school-survivors-just-get-over-it-1.4053522">act to ensure the repair of damages done</a>.”
As the former TRC chair also said, until people show they have learned from this, we will never forget.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/213137/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tiffany Dionne Prete does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Survivors of multiple colonial school systems need their voices to be heard. An exhibit examines how colonial schooling policies over a century and a half influenced the Blood People.Tiffany Dionne Prete, Assistant Professor, Sociology Department, University of LethbridgeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1998862023-06-14T20:09:07Z2023-06-14T20:09:07ZThe type of school does matter when it comes to a child’s academic performance<p>School choice is enormously important to families. Some spend <a href="https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/8042455/heres-how-much-canberra-private-school-fees-will-cost-in-2023/">tens of thousands of dollars</a> per year to send their children to private schools, in the belief this will provide a better education and future. </p>
<p>Figures released in <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/parents-opt-for-religious-schools-as-student-enrolments-soar-20230427-p5d3vh.html">May 2023</a> noted Australia’s private school enrolments have grown by 35% over the past decade. We also know families <a href="https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/popular-schools-slapped-with-restrictions-to-control-runaway-demand-20230531-p5dcoi.html">seek out areas</a> where there are high-status public schools. </p>
<p>Recent <a href="https://theconversation.com/going-to-private-school-wont-make-a-difference-to-your-kids-academic-scores-175638">research has argued</a> once you account for socioeconomic factors, private schools don’t outperform public schools. In other words, the school does not really matter, it’s a student’s family background that counts. </p>
<p>My <a href="https://largescaleassessmentsineducation.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40536-022-00142-8">research</a> shows the type of school does matter. And the way Australia’s school system is structured is especially unfair on students from disadvantaged backgrounds.</p>
<h2>Why school segregation is a problem</h2>
<p>Decades of <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/00346543075003417">research</a> has shown how family social background is a strong predictor of a child’s educational outcomes. Parents’ education and occupation are associated with student learning differences in Australia and many other countries. </p>
<p>Governments across the world have responded with policies directing resources to students from disadvantaged backgrounds. An example is Australia’s “Gonski” school funding model, which targets additional resources to First Nations, rural and remote, and low socioeconomic students. </p>
<p>But the issue of school segregation is largely ignored by Australian governments. </p>
<p>School segregation occurs when socially disadvantaged students are not evenly spread across schools. Rather, students tend to enrol in different types of schools according to their social backgrounds. This means advantaged children are concentrated in certain schools and disadvantaged students are concentrated in others. </p>
<p>Research has <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/016146810510700905">also shown</a> the social background of a student’s peers influences their learning just as much as their own social background. So when disadvantaged students are concentrated into disadvantaged schools, they are doubly disadvantaged.</p>
<p>Australian secondary schools are the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results-volume-ii-b5fd1b8f-en.htm">ninth</a> most socially segregated among wealthy countries. We also have the <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results-volume-v-ca768d40-en.htm">fourth-highest</a> proportion of private school attendance in the OECD. </p>
<h2>Our research</h2>
<p>Last year, my colleagues and I <a href="https://largescaleassessmentsineducation.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40536-022-00142-8">examined</a> the effects of school segregation on students in Australia. </p>
<p>We used NAPLAN results from a nationally representative sample of students in years 5 and 9 to explore the relationship between average school socioeconomic status and an individual students’ academic growth. This involved students from public, private and Catholic schools.</p>
<p>We also examined the effects of parental education and occupation, Indigenous status, language, gender, school sector and the academic achievement of peers on a students’ academic growth.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-students-in-rural-areas-are-not-behind-their-city-peers-because-of-socioeconomic-status-there-is-something-else-going-on-207007">Australian students in rural areas are not 'behind' their city peers because of socioeconomic status. There is something else going on</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Our findings</h2>
<p>We found a school’s socioeconomic status predicts the likelihood a student will achieve minimum literacy and numeracy benchmarks. </p>
<p>This means a disadvantaged student attending a disadvantaged school is unlikely to achieve minimum academic benchmarks. The same type of student attending an advantaged school is twice as likely to reach minimum standards. </p>
<p>Attending a disadvantaged primary school costs half a term of learning per year for every student. This grows to one term of learning per year in secondary schools. </p>
<p>The stronger high school effect is likely due to higher levels of segregation at the secondary level (that is, more students go to private high schools than private primary schools). </p>
<p>This shows going to a private school can benefit a students’ academic performance when it has higher concentrations of socioeconomically advantaged students than nearby public schools. </p>
<p>The outcome is a schooling system that excludes many students from academic excellence. In other words, Australia’s schooling system exacerbates social inequality. </p>
<iframe src="https://flo.uri.sh/visualisation/14071421/embed" title="Interactive or visual content" class="flourish-embed-iframe" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" style="width:100%;height:600px;" sandbox="allow-same-origin allow-forms allow-scripts allow-downloads allow-popups allow-popups-to-escape-sandbox allow-top-navigation-by-user-activation" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<div style="width:100%!;margin-top:4px!important;text-align:right!important;"><a class="flourish-credit" href="https://public.flourish.studio/visualisation/14071421/?utm_source=embed&utm_campaign=visualisation/14071421" target="_top"><img alt="Made with Flourish" src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/made_with_flourish.svg"> </a></div>
<h2>What now?</h2>
<p>The federal government is currently reviewing school reform approaches as part of the next National School Reform Agreement, which is due to begin in 2025. </p>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="A jar of pencils." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/531821/original/file-20230613-1792-3up398.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The next National School Reform Agreement provides an opportunity to look at fairness in the school system.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Pixabay/Pexels</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This is an opportunity to begin to address socioeconomic achievement gaps caused by Australia’s schooling system. </p>
<p>This could be achieved by the National Assessment Program (the body that runs NAPLAN testing) reporting the impact of segregation on learning outcomes. The MySchool website could publish how well schools are contributing to the education of disadvantaged children in their communities. </p>
<p>Students disadvantaged by Australia’s schooling system should also be compensated for the public policy failure. Students enrolled in schools with high concentrations of disadvantaged students could have their tertiary entrance ranks increased. A similar policy occurs in some US <a href="https://news.rice.edu/news/2022/automatic-admissions-policies-increased-diversity-rural-texas-high-schools-says-report">states</a> where students in racially segregated schools are guaranteed places in high status colleges.</p>
<p>But much more substantial reforms are needed to ensure every school is playing its part in educating all young Australians. </p>
<p>This would require schools to be representative of their communities in proportion to their public funding. Secondary private schools <a href="https://www.acara.edu.au/reporting/national-report-on-schooling-in-australia/national-report-on-schooling-in-australia-data-portal/school-funding/school-income-and-capital-expenditure-for-government-and-non-government-schools-(calendar-year)">receive</a> 80-90% of the government funding public schools receive. They should enrol a similar percentage of the disadvantaged students that nearby public schools enrol. </p>
<p>Government regulation of enrolment and exclusion procedures should also remove discrimination against poverty, religion, disability, gender, and sexuality. </p>
<p>Some of the highest performing education systems in the world are also the most <a href="https://www.oecd.org/publications/pisa-2015-results-volume-i-9789264266490-en.htm">equitable</a>. No education system has achieved excellence for all students by separating them by family backgrounds. </p>
<p>Australia’s schooling system requires substantial structural reforms if it is going to lift the achievement of disadvantaged students.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-national-school-reform-agreement-and-what-does-it-have-to-do-with-school-funding-202847">What is the National School Reform Agreement and what does it have to do with school funding?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199886/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael Sciffer works for the NSW Department of Education. He is a member of the executive of the NSW Teachers Federation. This analysis is based on his academic work as a PhD candidate of Murdoch University and is not associated with his employer. </span></em></p>The way Australia’s school system is structured is especially unfair on students from disadvantaged backgrounds.Michael Sciffer, PhD candidate, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2006932023-05-15T12:34:08Z2023-05-15T12:34:08ZSuperintendent turnover is increasing and gender gaps are barely budging, but accurately assessing the consequences remains a challenge<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525405/original/file-20230510-29-xk9zkv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1395%2C127%2C3600%2C3075&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A crowd of parents in Orange County, Calif., protest the firing of Superintendent Gunn Marie Hansen.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/concerned-parent-jessica-nettles-speaks-in-front-of-large-news-photo/1246397773?adppopup=true">Gina Ferazzi / Los Angeles Times via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Public school superintendents are having a moment, and for many of them, the moment is neither super nor what they intended.</p>
<p>During the last several years, tense school board meetings where superintendents were fired erupted in <a href="https://www.12news.com/article/news/local/arizona/casa-grande-school-superintendent-anna-battle-abruptly-fired-without-cause/75-91a63f19-02ab-47a5-967c-31fb5401b713">Arizona</a>, <a href="https://www.spotlightschools.com/articles/news/superintendents-ousted-by-two-school-boards-in-oc">California</a>, <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2022/02/05/colorado-conservative-school-board-fires-superintendent/">Colorado</a>, <a href="https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2022/12/06/xmnk-d06.html">Florida</a>, <a href="https://www.opb.org/article/2021/07/16/albany-oregon-superindendent-fired-covid-19-race-culture-wars/">Oregon</a>, <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/moms-liberty-berkeley-county-school-board-superintendent-rcna57528">South Carolina</a> and <a href="https://fredericksburg.com/news/local/spotsylvania-superintendent-fired-without-cause-by-new-school-board/article_4f027548-26cf-5849-9716-698c1d3f6994.html">Virginia</a>.</p>
<p>Contributing to this tension are <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/top-superintendents-detail-the-toll-of-divisive-politics-and-how-theyve-responded/2023/01">politically divisive issues</a> that many school superintendents have had to navigate over the last three years, including the teaching of race, <a href="https://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/heres-whats-in-14-books-removed-from-schools-in-spotsylvania-county-virginia/3321813/#:%7E:text=The%20school%20superintendent%20of%20Spotsylvania%20County%2C%20Virginia%2C%20ordered%20high%20school,explicit%20books%20should%20be%20burned.">book bans</a> and <a href="https://www.13abc.com/2023/04/06/transgender-bathroom-policy-causes-backlash-among-some-parents-anthony-wayne/">providing access</a> to athletics and bathrooms for students who identify as transgender.</p>
<p>Within this tense environment, <a href="https://kappanonline.org/political-battles-in-suburbia-white-evans-malin/">a recent study</a> found that nearly 40% of superintendents reported being threatened or feeling threatened on the job. And, 63% of superintendents reported feeling worried about their mental health and well-being over the past two years.</p>
<p>But while superintendents are feeling the heat, policymakers are unable to accurately determine the <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2022/05/13/restoring-pandemic-losses-will-require-major-changes-in-schools-and-classrooms-superintendents-say/">impact of pressure</a> on superintendent well-being, performance and willingness to stay on the job.</p>
<p>In fact, the U.S. Department of Education does not collect such data on superintendents, and a nationally comprehensive, annually updated superintendent database has never existed.</p>
<p>As an <a href="https://elps.utk.edu/people/rachel-s-white/">education researcher who studies superintendents</a>, I decided to create the data set myself by collecting data, one district at a time.</p>
<h2>New insights into superintendent turnover</h2>
<p>Since 2019, my research team has dedicated as many as 400 hours each year to collect the names of superintendents of nearly all traditional public school districts in the United States.</p>
<p>And for a newly <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X2311631">published research study</a> in the academic journal Educational Researcher, I conducted a comprehensive, national analysis of superintendent turnover in over 12,500 public school districts since 2019.</p>
<p>My analyses revealed an increase in turnover of nearly 3 percentage points – from 14.2% between 2019-20 and 2020-21 to 17.1% between 2021-22 and 2022-23. More than one out of every three states (37%) had a turnover rate greater than 20% between the last two school years.</p>
<p>A superintendent change occurred at least one time in 35% of districts nationwide, and 6% of districts experienced two or more turnover events.</p>
<p>Though we are unable to determine the exact cause, my research also shows that districts serving larger proportions of students of color were significantly more likely to experience superintendent turnover.</p>
<p>This finding is especially troubling given that frequent churn of leadership can disrupt a school district’s stability and culture, ultimately impacting students’ academic performance.</p>
<h2>The role of gender</h2>
<p>Superintendent turnover rates vary tremendously across states and districts. </p>
<p>Town and suburban districts were significantly more likely to experience superintendent turnover than urban and rural districts. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00317217231156223">New research</a> suggests that contentious politics may contribute to superintendent fatigue.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman and a man chat as they sit underneath a television screen." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525727/original/file-20230511-19-7dmkwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525727/original/file-20230511-19-7dmkwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525727/original/file-20230511-19-7dmkwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525727/original/file-20230511-19-7dmkwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525727/original/file-20230511-19-7dmkwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525727/original/file-20230511-19-7dmkwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525727/original/file-20230511-19-7dmkwl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Virginia state superintendent Lisa Coons chats with state Board of Education President Daniel Gecker during a public meeting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/state-superintendent-dr-lisa-coons-and-president-mr-daniel-news-photo/1252522240?adppopup=true">Carlos Bernate for The Washington Post via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Sixty-five percent of suburban superintendents, for instance, agreed or strongly agreed that school board meetings have become more contentious, compared to 55% of urban superintendents and 47% of rural superintendents. </p>
<p>My research also revealed that superintendent turnover rates for men increased at nearly twice the rate of that for women.</p>
<p>The turnover rate for men jumped 3.2 percentage points, from 13.8% to 17.0%, while the increase for women was 1.8 percentage points, from 15.3% to 17.1%.</p>
<p>Though the jump in turnover rate for men could have narrowed the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2021.1965169">superintendent gender gap</a>, the gap barely budged. Among districts that experienced turnover, very few hired a new superintendent who was a different gender than their prior superintendent. </p>
<p>As it is currently, the ratio between male and female superintendents nationally is 3-to-1. In some states, that ratio is as large as 8-to-1.</p>
<p>There are also differences in the characteristics of districts where superintendent jobs turned over.</p>
<p>Among districts led by men, those that experienced turnover had significantly larger proportions of students receiving free or reduced price lunches, students of color and students classified as English language learners </p>
<p>Women-led districts that experienced turnover had significantly smaller proportions of students classified as English language learners and students receiving free or reduced-price lunches.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A man dressed in a business suit stands outside of a building." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525728/original/file-20230511-24-rrqsl2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525728/original/file-20230511-24-rrqsl2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525728/original/file-20230511-24-rrqsl2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525728/original/file-20230511-24-rrqsl2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525728/original/file-20230511-24-rrqsl2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525728/original/file-20230511-24-rrqsl2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525728/original/file-20230511-24-rrqsl2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Shawn C. Petretti, superintendent of schools for the Mattituck-Cutchogue School District in New York, stands outside the district’s administration building.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/shawn-c-petretti-superintendent-of-schools-for-the-news-photo/1486809930?adppopup=true">John Paraskevas/Newsday RM via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Moreover, districts that experienced superintendent turnover involving either a man or woman with larger proportions of white students were consistently more likely to hire a man to be their next leader.</p>
<h2>Why superintendent data matters</h2>
<p>This research only begins to fill an expansive void in our basic understanding of American superintendency.</p>
<p>Currently, the most commonly referenced data or reports on superintendents come from the <a href="https://www.aasa.org/resources/resource/the-high-price-of-superintendent-turnover">American Association of School Administrators</a>; the <a href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA956-12.html">RAND Corporation</a>, a nonprofit research institution; and the <a href="https://www.ilogroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/The-Superintendent-Research-Project_-April-2022-Update.pdf">ILO Group</a>, a women-owned national education strategy and policy firm.</p>
<p>These sources do provide valuable insight into the superintendency.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://www.ilogroup.com/news/press-release-updated-analysis-shows-leadership-disruption-impacts-almost-half-of-nations-largest-school-districts/">ILO Group’s analyses</a> show that half of the nation’s largest 500 districts have experienced superintendent turnover since March 2020.</p>
<p>Based on a survey of 222 district leaders, <a href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA956-12.html">the RAND Corporation found</a> that 13% of superintendents planned to leave their position after the 2020-21 school year.</p>
<p>Yet, this source is quite restricted in what it can reveal about superintendent turnover due to low response rates, small samples and respondent anonymity that does not allow superintendents to be linked to districts.</p>
<p>Additionally, the <a href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA956-12.html">RAND</a> <a href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA956-9.html">surveys</a> asked about superintendents’ intentions to leave their current position, a measure known to be <a href="https://www.edworkingpapers.com/sites/default/files/ai22-537.pdf">largely</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2023.104156">inaccurate</a> for determining actual turnover.</p>
<p>Due to the limitations of existing data, divergent claims have emerged of both “<a href="https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA956-12.html">projected normal turnover rates</a>” and a “<a href="https://www.educationnext.org/school-superintendents-head-for-the-exits-big-districts-new-leaders-fill-vacancies/">mass</a> <a href="https://www.the74million.org/article/in-the-crosshairs-beleaguered-district-leaders-face-covid-wave-of-firings/">exodus</a>” of superintendents.</p>
<p>Some states are making an effort to support the collection and analysis of data on superintendents. However, states often make it incredibly challenging for researchers, for example, by charging a substantial fee for data access – in some cases as much as $10,000 a year.</p>
<p>Having this data would provide a timely, comprehensive picture of the superintendency – not just a brief snapshot of a few superintendents at a point in time. Moreover, national, longitudinal superintendent data would allow for deeper examination of the contributors to and consequences of superintendent turnover. </p>
<p>If ensuring some teachers and students are not disproportionately at risk of undesirable superintendent churn, sustained support for and efforts to collect and analyze national longitudinal superintendent data must be prioritized.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200693/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel S. White does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>New research on school superintendent turnover rates reveals that divisive political issues are contributing to the problem of instability among school leadership across the US.Rachel S. White, Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, University of TennesseeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2038402023-04-18T20:01:41Z2023-04-18T20:01:41ZA new report proposes full public funding for private schools, but there’s a catch<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/521484/original/file-20230418-24-ivxgck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C16%2C5395%2C3594&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There are multiple signs the Australian education system is in crisis. This includes <a href="https://grattan.edu.au/news/australian-school-education-is-falling-short/">declining academic outcomes</a>, <a href="https://www.theeducatoronline.com/k12/news/opinion-no-quick-fix-for-teacher-shortages-we-need-a-longterm-strategy/281939">teacher shortages</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/school-principals-are-reaching-crisis-point-pushed-to-the-edge-by-mounting-workloads-teacher-shortages-and-abuse-201777">principals facing abuse</a>, and an upswing in <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-03-20/three-in-four-act-school-principals-subject-to-violence-survey/102119620">school violence</a>. </p>
<p>Hanging over these is the Productivity Commission’s <a href="https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/school-agreement/report">January 2023 assessment</a> that what we’ve done with Australian education over the past decade has done “little, so far, to improve student outcomes”. </p>
<p>Education authors Tom Greenwell and Chris Bonnor agree. In an ambitious new report for education initiative <a href="https://all-learning.org.au/about-all/">Australian Learning Lecture</a>, they offer a way forward. </p>
<p>They <a href="https://all-learning.org.au/?page_id=2613&preview=true">propose a framework</a> for Australian schools to increase parental choice (including for religious-based schools) and improve the inequity that afflicts the system.</p>
<h2>What’s the problem?</h2>
<p>Greenwell and Bonnor say too many disadvantaged students are being concentrated into communities of disadvantage. This results in </p>
<blockquote>
<p>unacceptable gaps in learning [that] separate disadvantaged students from their more privileged peers. </p>
</blockquote>
<p>Since the introduction of government funding to non-government schools in the 1960s, we have seen an increased concentration of advantaged students in some schools, and the same for disadvantaged students. The <a href="https://www.oecd.org/pisa/Equity-in-Education-country-note-Australia.pdf">OECD has been warning Australia</a> about this for some time. But current policy settings offer little incentive for change.</p>
<p>As Greenwell and Bonnor argue, achieving our national educational goals is unlikely when:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>we are stacking the odds against the children who have the least luck in terms of the circumstances they are born into.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-productivity-commission-says-australian-schools-fall-short-on-quality-and-equity-what-happens-now-190646">The Productivity Commission says Australian schools 'fall short' on quality and equity. What happens now?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>There is also a conflict here with the <a href="https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights">United Nations Declaration of Human Rights</a>, which affirms that education at least at primary level should be free and compulsory. Crucially, parents have “a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children”.</p>
<p>Australian non-government schools do provide opportunity for parents to exercise this right, but even the lowest level of fees charged by some Catholic system schools can still be <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/parents-face-sos-plea-as-battlers-left-behind-20040811-gdjj0e.html">beyond the reach</a> of some parents. </p>
<p>As the authors note, this is not a problem for non-government schooling alone. Segregation within government schools exacerbates the situation. <a href="https://theconversation.com/nsw-is-trying-to-make-the-selective-school-application-process-fairer-but-is-it-doing-enough-187283">Selective schools</a> (government schools that select students on their academic or performing arts ability):</p>
<blockquote>
<p>draw in a high proportion of advantaged students, compounding the concentrations of the strugglers in comprehensive public schools.</p>
</blockquote>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-the-national-school-reform-agreement-and-what-does-it-have-to-do-with-school-funding-202847">What is the National School Reform Agreement and what does it have to do with school funding?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What’s their proposal?</h2>
<p>Greenwell and Bonnor offer a five-point plan, the first three of which are relatively uncontentious. </p>
<p>First, they want to fully fund school entitlements under the so-called “<a href="https://www.education.gov.au/school-funding/resources/review-funding-schooling-final-report-december-2011">Gonski model</a>”. This would ensure all schools get the funding resources they need to deliver quality learning. <a href="https://saveourschools.com.au/funding/labor-kicks-the-public-school-funding-can-down-the-road/">Some estimates</a> show government schools currently receive less than 90% of their entitlements.</p>
<p>Second, they call for a frank conversation on a new common framework for Australian education. This would include not only funding arrangements, but “commensurate obligations and responsibilities” on schools.</p>
<p>Third, convene a national summit at which “common interests are identified and areas of agreement are developed”. Greenwell and Bonnor are at pains to point out their suggestion is not to prescribe the total solution. Rather, they invite stakeholders to come together and design a system in which “equity and choice can be expanded in a win-win manner”.</p>
<h2>A change to school funding</h2>
<p>Greenwell and Bonnor’s fourth point is likely to be a catalyst for much debate: they propose full public funding for all non-government schools, within a commonly agreed regulatory framework. </p>
<p>Yes, this means non-government schools would be fully funded by the taxpayer. But they would not be able to charge their own fees. </p>
<p>The authors argue this would remove the fee barrier for non-government schools and open the possibility for any family to choose a non-government school without the impost of fees. It expands, rather than restricts, parental choice. And the bonus is non-government schools “could continue to apply enrolment and other policies necessary to promote their specific religious or educational ethos”.</p>
<p>If non-government schools don’t want to do this, they don’t have to, but there’s a catch. Schools that “continue to charge fees or reject inclusive enrolment obligations would no longer receive any public funding”. </p>
<p>Their fifth point is the creation of a new authority to oversee implementation and monitoring of the new framework.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/still-waiting-for-gonski-a-great-book-about-the-sorry-tale-of-school-funding-178016">Still 'Waiting for Gonski' – a great book about the sorry tale of school funding</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Can it work?</h2>
<p>The Albanese government has committed to “work with” state and territory governments to get every school “on a path to 100% of its fair funding level”, as per the Gonski model. </p>
<p>This will come under the microscope as the next National School Reform Agreement is developed. This ties school reforms to the funding the federal government provides the states and territories. The <a href="https://ministers.education.gov.au/clare/expert-panel-inform-better-and-fairer-education-system">next agreement</a> is due to begin in January 2025 and is currently the subject of a review. </p>
<p>Whole holding a national summit should be straightforward, a national common framework has substantially more barriers to overcome. The multiple sectors of education governance in Australia (state/territory, Catholic, independent), and the multiple legal instruments that govern them, <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-uk-labour-party-wants-to-abolish-private-schools-could-we-do-that-in-australia-124271">make this very difficult</a>, even from a practical perspective.</p>
<p>At the simplest level, education remains a state/territory constitutional responsibility that seems unlikely to be collectively ceded back to the federal government any time soon. </p>
<p>The idea that non-government schools would have to choose between government funding or charging their own fees is also likely to be politically difficult. This is not to say the proposal is far-fetched. UNESCO, in its <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379875">Global Education Monitoring Report</a> has noted </p>
<blockquote>
<p>publicly funded education does not have to be publicly provided.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>As the review into the next National School Reform Agreement gathers pace, Greenwell and Bonnor’s invitation is for us all to come together with a vision for something different in Australian education. </p>
<p>Certainly the evidence strongly suggests what we are doing right now is not working.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203840/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Paul Kidson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In a new report, education authors Tom Greenwell and Chris Bonnor propose a framework to increase parental choice and improve equity in the school system.Paul Kidson, Senior Lecturer in Educational Leadership, Australian Catholic UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2035412023-04-17T12:44:43Z2023-04-17T12:44:43ZPlans for religious charter school, though rejected for now, are already pushing church-state debates into new territory<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520120/original/file-20230411-24-1a1qsx.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C9%2C2106%2C1398&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Would religious charter schools be constitutional? More advocates are pushing to find out.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/praying-together-in-a-bible-study-royalty-free-image/505827292?phrase=god%20school&adppopup=true">FatCamera/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>An updated version of this article was published on June 7, 2023. <a href="https://theconversation.com/oklahoma-oks-the-nations-first-religious-charter-school-but-litigation-is-likely-to-follow-207103">Read it here</a>.</em></p>
<p>U.S. courts have long wrestled with the extent to which government funding can be used at private religious schools. School-choice advocates <a href="https://theconversation.com/state-funds-for-students-at-religious-schools-supreme-court-says-yes-in-maine-case-but-consequences-could-go-beyond-184618">have won key cases at the Supreme Court</a> in recent years, opening up more ways for public dollars to support faith-based education. But Oklahoma <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/us/oklahoma-eyes-first-us-religious-charter-school-after-supreme-court-rulings-2023-04-06/">pushed the debate into unchartered territory</a> this spring with a proposal for a school that would have been the first of its kind: a Catholic charter, primarily paid for by taxpayers.</p>
<p>On April 11, 2023, the five-person board responsible for approving Oklahoma charters unanimously voted <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2023/04/12/oklahoma-religious-charter-school-catholic/">to reject the proposal</a>, due to concerns about its governance structure and plans for special education students, <a href="https://www.oklahoman.com/story/news/education/2023/04/11/oklahoma-statewide-virtual-charter-school-board-rejects-catholic-school-vote/70100040007/">among other issues</a>. However, it gave organizers 30 days to <a href="https://www.koco.com/article/oklahoma-state-board-rejects-proposal-public-catholic-charter-school/43570335">revise the proposal and try again</a>.</p>
<p>Charter schools, which are publicly funded but generally run by independent organizations, have attracted ardent fans and foes <a href="https://www.npr.org/2012/09/02/160409742/from-a-single-charter-school-a-movement-grows">since they started in the early 1990s</a>. Yet the key question in this case is not whether a charter would help or harm local education, but whether explicitly religious instruction at charter schools is constitutional, given <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-1/">the First Amendment’s</a> protections against government establishment of religion.</p>
<p>In late 2022, the then-attorney general of Oklahoma <a href="https://www.oklahoman.com/story/news/education/2022/12/02/oklahoma-ag-releases-opinion-on-religious-charter-schools/69695429007/">argued that</a> a state law barring faith-based charter schools was actually unconstitutional. The new attorney general who took office in January 2023 <a href="https://kfor.com/news/local/ag-drummond-rescinds-oconnor-era-opinion-on-religious-institution-charter-schools/">soon rescinded the opinion</a>, leaving the charter school proposal in legal limbo – and making it even more likely to wind up at the Supreme Court if the school board eventually approves the charter.</p>
<h2>Recent trend</h2>
<p>Advocates of <a href="https://www.the74million.org/article/analysis-opening-the-door-to-faith-based-charter-schools/">expanding public funding to faith-based schools</a> were encouraged by three recent Supreme Court cases that upheld greater aid to their students. All three of these cases relied on a legal idea <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/872266049">I have written about</a> called the “child benefit test.” Essentially, according to this concept, it is constitutional under some circumstances to provide public funds to students who attend faith-based private schools, or their parents – but not directly to the schools.</p>
<p>The first of these decisions, 2017’s <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/15-577">Trinity Lutheran Church of Columbia v. Comer</a>, dealt with a private Christian preschool that was denied public grants to update its playground. School administrators sued, arguing that to deny generally available funding constituted religious discrimination, in violation of the First Amendment’s protections for freedom of religion. The high court agreed.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520124/original/file-20230411-20-plpe9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A man in a suit speaks in front of a crowd in front of the Supreme Court, with people holding up balloons that spell out 'fair play' behind him." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520124/original/file-20230411-20-plpe9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520124/original/file-20230411-20-plpe9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520124/original/file-20230411-20-plpe9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520124/original/file-20230411-20-plpe9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=436&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520124/original/file-20230411-20-plpe9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520124/original/file-20230411-20-plpe9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520124/original/file-20230411-20-plpe9a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=548&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Faith & Freedom Coalition Chairman Ralph Reed speaks in front of the Supreme Court before arguments in Trinity Lutheran Church of Columbia v. Comer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/faith-freedom-coalition-chairman-ralph-reed-speaks-during-a-news-photo/670245268?adppopup=true">Mark Wilson/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Three years later, <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/18-1195">Espinoza v. Montana Department of Revenue</a> further opened up government aid to private religious school pupils, relying on the Trinity Lutheran decision. A 5-4 majority ruled that Montana’s tax credit program for parents sending their children to independent schools must apply even if those schools are faith-based.</p>
<p>In 2022, the Court extended this perspective in a case from Maine, <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/20-1088">Carson v. Makin</a>. Maine, with its low population density, pays parents in areas lacking their own public schools to either transport their children to nearby public schools or a secular private school. The Supreme Court found that <a href="https://theconversation.com/state-funds-for-students-at-religious-schools-supreme-court-says-yes-in-maine-case-but-consequences-could-go-beyond-184618">this program should apply</a> to parents without a local public school who wish to send their child to a religious school, as well.</p>
<h2>Rethinking church and state?</h2>
<p>By expanding the boundaries of permissible aid, these three cases have boosted proponents’ hopes for even greater public funding for private faith-based schools – and now, with the charter proposal, hopes that there might be a path ahead for public religious schools, entirely paid for with taxpayer money. Yet, it is important to keep in mind what likely prompted these changes in the first place: new faces on the Supreme Court. A majority of today’s justices tend to favor an “<a href="https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/825/accommodationism-and-religion#:%7E:text=Accommodationism%20rests%20on%20the%20belief,or%20government%20hostility%20toward%20religion.">accommodationists</a>” interpretation of the First Amendment, meaning they largely reject the idea that it demands a “<a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/separation_of_church_and_state">wall of separation</a>” between church and state, so long as the government is not privileging one faith over another. </p>
<p>Nevertheless, the parameters of the “child benefit test” often used to justify greater public funding has been evolving for years. The concept – which is one that legal scholars use to describe the Supreme Court’s arguments, not a term the court has used itself – first emerged in a 1947 dispute from New Jersey, <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/330/1">Everson v. Board of Education</a>. In that case, the court upheld a state statute that allowed local school boards to transport students to faith-based schools – mostly Roman Catholic ones – reasoning that the students, not the schools themselves, were the primary beneficiaries of state aid.</p>
<p>In another illustrative case, 2002’s <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/00-1751.ZO.html">Zelman v. Simmons-Harris</a>, the Supreme Court allowed parents whose children attended Cleveland’s public school system, which was then failing state standards, to use public vouchers to attend faith-based schools. A majority of justices upheld the program’s constitutionality because, again, students were the primary beneficiaries, not the religious schools themselves. Moreover, students attended these schools as a result of their parents’ free choices, not because doing so was required by the state.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520126/original/file-20230411-28-2y20ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two rows of people in black robes pose for a formal portrait in front of red velvety curtains." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520126/original/file-20230411-28-2y20ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/520126/original/file-20230411-28-2y20ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520126/original/file-20230411-28-2y20ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520126/original/file-20230411-28-2y20ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=413&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520126/original/file-20230411-28-2y20ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520126/original/file-20230411-28-2y20ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/520126/original/file-20230411-28-2y20ky.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=519&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A changing court means changing interpretations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/justices-of-the-us-supreme-court-pose-for-their-official-news-photo/1243795466?adppopup=true">Olivier Douliery/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Eyes on Oklahoma</h2>
<p>Now, in what may be the largest expansion of the child benefit test, legislators in various states are considering laws to <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2023/02/08/school-choice-vouchers-private-religious-school-huckabee-sanders/">expand how parents can participate in public education fund programs</a> even if their children attend private religious schools, such as by broadening voucher or tax-credit programs. The Oklahoma proposal, however, had been the first to consider establishing a charter school with religious instruction and standards. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/charter-school">Charters</a>, which trace their origins to Minnesota in 1991, are publicly funded and part of local school districts, yet free from many regulations, such as standards about curricular content and teacher qualifications. The idea of <a href="https://fordhaminstitute.org/national/commentary/why-not-religious-charter-schools">faith-based charters</a> has attracted proponents for more than 20 years, but they have had little success. If the proponents of the Catholic proposal in Oklahoma reapply to the school board and eventually succeed, it would likely encourage similar approaches elsewhere.</p>
<p>If states authorize faith-based charters, the new schools will likely be a boon to their religious groups and facilitate more students’ ability to attend. Proponents of charters, whether traditional or faith-based, support them as part of the larger school choice movement that seeks to give parents in failing districts opportunities to move their children into better schools without paying private school tuition.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, faith-based charters are likely to raise new headaches for their supporters, too. Charters are largely exempt from some state standards, but not all, and faith-based schools that converted into charters could be subject to greater government oversight about issues such as policies on LGBTQ+ students and staff – <a href="https://hechingerreport.org/supreme-court-ruling-brings-an-altered-legal-landscape-for-school-choice/">a longtime sticking point</a> – or having to accept <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/charter-schools-more-likely-to-ignore-special-education-applicants-study-finds/2018/12">students with disabilities</a>, just as all public schools do.</p>
<p>While this legal battle is just heating up, it has the potential to reshape public education as we have known it.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203541/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles J. Russo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Using public funds to support students at private religious schools is one thing, but establishing faith-based institutions within public districts is another.Charles J. Russo, Joseph Panzer Chair in Education in the School of Education and Health Sciences and Research Professor of Law, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1978452023-03-21T12:42:20Z2023-03-21T12:42:20ZRamadan finds greater recognition in America’s public schools<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516502/original/file-20230320-2667-t1lhni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C26%2C5879%2C3895&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Muslim students may request special accommodations during the Islamic month of fasting.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/side-view-of-asian-beautiful-young-muslim-student-royalty-free-image/1213143339?phrase=Muslim%20students%20pray&adppopup=true">mkitina4 via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Ramadan – the Islamic month of fasting – is expected to begin at sunset on <a href="https://www.moonsighting.com/ramadan-eid.html">March 10, 2024</a>. The likely first day of fasting will be Monday, March 11. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=COz6BG8AAAAJ&hl=en">Amaarah DeCuir</a>, who researches Muslim student experiences, offers insights into how public schools can move toward greater recognition of the sacred Islamic month.</em></p>
<h2>How many Muslim students are enrolled in public schools in the US?</h2>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/09/01/muslims-are-a-growing-presence-in-u-s-but-still-face-negative-views-from-the-public/">3.85 million</a> Muslims in the United States. Of that number, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/07/26/demographic-portrait-of-muslim-americans">1.35 million</a> are children.</p>
<p>Although this may only represent a small portion of public school students nationwide – and many Muslim children attend private Islamic schools – Muslim students are a part of a <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2020/09/10/u-s-teens-take-after-their-parents-religiously-attend-services-together-and-enjoy-family-rituals/">60% majority</a> of students in public schools who say that religion is important in their lives.</p>
<h2>What are public schools legally obligated to do for Ramadan?</h2>
<p>Federal law – specifically <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/ocr-factsheet-shared-ancestry-202301.pdf">Title VI</a> of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 – protects all students from discrimination based on race, color or national origin. This includes students of any religion.</p>
<p>In 2023, the U.S. Department of Education <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/religionandschools/prayer_guidance.html">reissued guidance</a> on constitutionally protected prayer and religious expression. This gave school leaders detailed information on federal protections for students who seek to practice their religion during the school day.</p>
<p>These guidelines help schools prepare adequate accommodations for Muslim students year-round. The guidance <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/religionandschools/prayer_guidance.html">specifically mentions Ramadan</a> stating Muslim students also have constitutional protections that <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/religionandschools/prayer_guidance.html">permit them to pray</a> during non-instructional time, as long as it doesn’t disturb other students.</p>
<h2>What are the benefits when schools recognize Ramadan?</h2>
<p>Research shows that students <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.13141">have a stronger sense of belonging</a>, have better <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02482">well-being</a> and <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1158154.pdf">do better academically</a> when they attend a school that fosters a positive environment that recognizes the diversity of the student body. </p>
<p>By contrast, students who experience discrimination and bias tend to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01712-3">suffer academically</a>. High-quality, supportive school environments create excellent teaching and learning for all students.</p>
<h2>What are specific ways that schools accommodate students who fast?</h2>
<p>During Ramadan, Muslims abstain from food and drink during daylight hours. Muslim students who fast may request <a href="https://ing.org/resources/for-educators/other-educator-resources/religious-practices-of-muslim-students-in-public-schools">to sit away from the school cafeteria</a> to avoid the sights and smells of food.</p>
<p>Alternate seating minimizes physical discomfort and supports other experiences like reading, quiet play or rest during lunchtime. Muslim students often prefer to sit in the library or a favorite classroom during their lunchtime, ideally with other Muslim students observing the fast.</p>
<p>Students who have not reached puberty, female students who are menstruating at the time and students who are ill or traveling <a href="https://www.islamicfinder.org/news/who-is-exempt-from-fasting-in-ramadan/">are exempt</a> from fasting during Ramadan. </p>
<h2>How have Muslim students experienced Ramadan in public schools?</h2>
<p>Although fasting does not prohibit studying and completing schoolwork, some fasting students may notice that <a href="https://www.unboundmedicine.com/medline/citation/14681711/abstract/Effects_on_health_of_fluid_restriction_during_fasting_in_Ramadan_">they experience fatigue</a>, <a href="https://headachejournal.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1526-4610.1999.3907490.x">headaches</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/1601899.epdf">daytime dehydration</a> when fasting. <a href="https://www.healththoroughfare.com/food/ramadan-and-intermittent-fasting-how-it-boosts-your-well-being/60573">Others notice increased</a> energy and focus and better sleep. </p>
<p>Muslims begin abstaining from food and drink at dawn, typically one hour before sunrise. The exact time changes with the seasons and geographic location. During Ramadan 2024, which falls in March and April, fasting students may wake up as early as 5 a.m. to eat, drink and pray. By the end of the day, studies have shown that students may have less <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22375233/">cognitive focus</a>, in addition to fatigue and exhaustion.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.12.005">Some Muslim students struggle</a> with academic assessments and complicated tasks scheduled in the late afternoon during Ramadan. <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2019/05/14/colleges-try-accommodate-muslim-students-fasting-ramadan">They may seek permission</a> to take tests early in the school day when they are more alert and able to focus on complex tasks. </p>
<p>Muslim students break their fast at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan">home</a> or the mosque at sunset. After the meal, families may join nighttime community prayers at the local mosque, for about two hours. These traditions and routines limit students’ abilities to complete typical homework assignments and after-school activities. Some students opt to do homework early in the morning when they are more alert, but some after-school programs like athletics and clubs are not easily postponed. Schools can support Muslim students by modifying expectations for after-school engagement during Ramadan.</p>
<h2>Does the Israel-Palestine conflict raise any particular concerns?</h2>
<p>The U.S. Department of Education <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/religionandschools/prayer_guidance.html">2023 Guidance on Constitutionally Protected Prayer and Religious Expression</a> states that school officials are required to make accommodation “on the basis of requests.” But since Oct. 7, 2023, American Muslims have faced <a href="https://www.cair.com/press_releases/cair-received-1283-complaints-over-past-month-an-unprecedented-increase-in-complaints-of-islamophobia-anti-arab-bias/">increased anti-Muslim bias and hate</a>, creating a climate of fear that leads Muslims to hide their identity or censor their speech. A <a href="https://belonging.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/2021-09/Islamophobia%20Through%20the%20Eyes%20of%20Muslims.pdf">2020 national survey</a> found that 44.6% of Muslim young people were most likely to conceal their religious identity. </p>
<p>As educators prepare for Ramadan, they can advance <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000248254">inclusive</a> practices that offer schoolwide accommodations to minimize the need to make requests that reveal students’ religious identity. Similar to <a href="https://www.cast.org/news/2020/community-driven-process-update-udl-guidelines?_gl=1*1xdgz59*_ga*MTIzNDMwODA2Ni4xNzA5MTc5MTcw*_ga_C7LXP5M74W*MTcwOTE3OTE2OS4xLjAuMTcwOTE3OTE2OS4wLjAuMA..">universal design</a> principles, educators can offer alternative lunch seating, low-intensity physical education and multiple assessment schedules to support any student who might be observing the fast.</p>
<h2>What about doing physical education or sports during Ramadan?</h2>
<p>Muslim students who have physical education classes during Ramadan <a href="https://www.healthwellbeing.com/how-to-exercise-safely-during-ramadan/">may ask to avoid</a> cardio-intensive activities when fasting to avoid exhaustion and dehydration. Instead, <a href="https://www.menshealth.com/uk/fitness/a36074589/training-during-ramadan/">they may opt for moderate</a> strength training with periods of rest. </p>
<p>Young Muslim athletes <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260436485_Effects_of_Ramadan_fasting_on_physical_performance_and_psychological_characteristics_in_youth_soccer_players">might not perform</a> as well as they <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0765159711001717">usually do</a> at the start of Ramadan, until their bodies get <a href="https://www.omahacentralregister.com/8804/sports/muslim-student-athletes-observe-ramadan/">used to fasting</a>. Older student-athletes <a href="https://spectator.cuchicago.edu/5437/sports/cuc-muslim-student-athletes-celebrate-the-month-of-ramadan/">adjust their workout schedule</a> during Ramadan to prepare for competitions. Muslim student-athletes <a href="https://usatodayhss.com/2019/ramadan-and-the-muslim-student-athlete">rely upon coaches</a> to adapt physical training during Ramadan.</p>
<h2>How have college students recognized Ramadan on their campuses?</h2>
<p>Muslim students in higher education have long traditions of hosting annual Fast-A-Thons to invite fellow students to fast in community with them for one day in Ramadan. Dating back to 2001 at the <a href="https://volopedia.lib.utk.edu/entries/fast-a-thon/">University of Tennessee</a>, Muslim Student Associations, known as MSAs, <a href="https://events.islamicity.org/events/9th-annual-fastathon/">continue</a> to promote <a href="https://thebutlercollegian.com/2022/04/muslim-student-association-hosts-campus-wide-fast-a-thon/">Fast-A-Thons</a> to raise <a href="https://calendar.uab.edu/event/fast-a-thon_fundraiser_8894#.ZBSwChTMI2w">awareness</a> of Ramadan and Muslims. Occasionally, groups fund-raise for social justice causes like local and global hunger. Today, many college campus MSAs invite other students to fast for a day and host events to enjoy the sunset meal together.</p>
<h2>How many school districts close for the end-of-Ramadan festival?</h2>
<p>By my count, at least 19 U.S. public school districts were closed in 2023 <a href="https://theconversation.com/students-lead-more-public-schools-to-close-for-islamic-holidays-182197">for Eid al-Fitr</a>, the holiday that follows the month of Ramadan.</p>
<p>This now includes <a href="https://www.mycentraljersey.com/story/news/education/2023/02/01/watchung-nj-school-district-eid-al-fitr/69854266007/">Watchung, New Jersey</a>,<a href="https://www.browardschools.com/Page/68992">Broward County, Florida</a>, <a href="https://www.10tv.com/article/news/local/hilliard-becomes-first-school-district-recognize-eid/530-57af0792-8dce-4ecc-a821-d7691313f33a">Hilliard, Ohio</a>, and <a href="https://www.stamfordadvocate.com/news/article/stamford-schools-pass-calendar-eid-al-fitr-new-17741279.php">Stamford, Connecticut</a>. </p>
<p>Eid ul Fitr this year is expected to be observed on <a href="https://www.moonsighting.com/ramadan-eid.html">Wednesday, April 10</a>.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of <a href="https://theconversation.com/ramadan-finds-greater-recognition-in-americas-public-schools-197845">an article</a> originally published on March 21, 2023.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197845/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amaarah DeCuir does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Federal law protects students’ rights to request some religious accommodations, including during the month of Ramadan.Amaarah DeCuir, Senior Professorial Lecturer in Education, American UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1999652023-02-19T19:10:32Z2023-02-19T19:10:32ZShould private schools share their facilities with public students?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510509/original/file-20230216-22-brcvgt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C47%2C6310%2C4089&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Cottonbro Studio/Pexels</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is a <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/top-private-schools-face-pressure-to-open-grounds-to-public-students-20230202-p5cheu.html">new push</a> for private schools to open their grounds and facilities to the broader community. North Sydney mayor Zoe Baker, wants to ask top private schools in her area to share their green spaces and other facilities. </p>
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<p>For so much of the year, schools sit unused and most campuses close at 4pm. We should search for opportunities where space can be shared where it is suitable.</p>
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<p>Along with opening up space for the public, she also suggests public school students could use the playing fields, halls and performing arts centres after-hours. </p>
<p>Amid headlines about private schools building <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/politics/nsw/king-s-school-ordered-to-immediately-cease-plans-for-headmaster-s-plunge-pool-20230213-p5ck5f.html">plunge pools</a> and A$125 million <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/exclusive-private-school-s-new-sporting-facilities-cause-diplomatic-row-20220706-p5azn1.html">sports centres</a> and a <a href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/the-gap-between-wealthy-and-disadvantaged-schools-is-widening-research-shows/gunvsohvb">widening gap</a> in results between students between high and low socioeconomic backgrounds, could this be a way to make the education system fairer and improve outcomes for all students? </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australian-private-high-school-enrolments-have-jumped-70-since-2012-195714">Australian private high school enrolments have jumped 70% since 2012</a>
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<h2>The idea isn’t new</h2>
<p>The idea to open up grounds and facilities is not new.</p>
<p>In 2018, former New South Wales education minister Rob Stokes said both public and private schools <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/education/nsw-could-pilot-morning-and-afternoon-schools-rob-stokes-says-20181204-p50k41.html">should be opened up</a> to the community as they were “public spaces”. </p>
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<p>We pay for them, I feel the same way about private schools as well, a lot of money goes into them and a way they can get a social licence to operate in the local community is to let the community utilise them.</p>
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<p>The NSW government also introduced a <a href="https://www.schoolinfrastructure.nsw.gov.au/content/infrastructure/www/what-we-do/we-support-communities/share-our-space.html">Share Our Space</a> program where schools received a grant to upgrade their facilities for both community and school use during the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-12-15/nsw-schools-open-playgrounds-for-summer-holidays/9260508">school holidays</a>. </p>
<p>In Victoria, <a href="https://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/school/principals/management/Improving_together.pdf">schools have been encouraged</a> to consider partnerships with other school sectors to improve education and opportunities for students since 2016.</p>
<p>However, partnerships are only formed in an ad hoc way, relying on schools to develop their own relationships. Current sharing arrangements between public and private schools mainly focus on infrastructure. This includes access to sporting grounds, theatre spaces, and specialist learning environments, such as STEM centres. </p>
<h2>Could sharing be expanded?</h2>
<p>So far, this debate has underestimated what government schools could bring to the equation. The traffic tends to be one way from private to public. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Swimmers in lanes in a pool." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510510/original/file-20230216-16-lnvjn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/510510/original/file-20230216-16-lnvjn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510510/original/file-20230216-16-lnvjn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510510/original/file-20230216-16-lnvjn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510510/original/file-20230216-16-lnvjn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510510/original/file-20230216-16-lnvjn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/510510/original/file-20230216-16-lnvjn9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Sharing between schools could go beyond just using facilities.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nick Rush/Pexels</span></span>
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<p>Public schools could also share their teaching expertise, professional learning opportunities and curriculum resources with nearby private schools. As a result, more subject areas and elective options could be offered. </p>
<p>This could equally include partnering with other public schools to expand opportunities for their students. It is interesting to consider how this approach may have better supported schools and teachers throughout pandemic lockdowns. </p>
<p>The Victorian government has begun some work in this area. It has a toolkit which <a href="https://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/school/principals/management/Improving_together.pdf">highlights the possibilities</a> of sharing teaching and curriculum ideas. But again, this continues to be ad hoc and more formalised mechanisms are needed to build partnerships. </p>
<h2>Is this a good idea?</h2>
<p>Firstly, care must be taken to not overestimate the value of private schooling on learning. While access to state-of-the-art facilities is understandably attractive, <a href="https://theconversation.com/going-to-private-school-wont-make-a-difference-to-your-kids-academic-scores-175638">research suggests</a> there is little evidence a private school education ultimately makes a difference to students academically, once socio-economic status is taken into account.</p>
<p>A possible sticking point in any sharing arrangements is that existing partnership models have traditionally involved payment. Arguably if one school is simply paying another a fee to use their resources or facilities it may not really be classified as “sharing”. </p>
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<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/australia-has-a-new-online-only-private-school-what-are-the-options-if-the-mainstream-system-doesnt-suit-your-child-189138">Australia has a new online-only private school: what are the options if the mainstream system doesn't suit your child?</a>
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<p>If sharing occurred between schools, rather than just public students using private schools’ facilities, it may be possible to rethink this approach. Thinking needs to move from a focus on physical resources and facilities to include the sharing of curriculum and teaching expertise in both directions. </p>
<p>While there may be some resistance from school communities where parents are paying <a href="https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/cost-of-private-education-for-two-children-hits-1m-in-sydney-20230124-p5cezy.html">large school fees</a>, the benefit for private schools is building local goodwill which may prove useful in seeking to expand their brand in the community. </p>
<p>Of course, we are still left with the issue of why some private schools have the facilities they have in comparison with other schools and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/more-money-for-private-schools-wont-make-australias-education-fairer-no-matter-how-you-split-it-132769">funding system</a> that allows this to happen. </p>
<p>This debate is a vexed one. But there is an opportunity here if school communities are prepared to work together to share their strengths and resources.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/199965/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>There is a new push for private schools to open their grounds and facilities to the broader communityAnge Fitzgerald, Professor, Associate Dean (Education) and Director (Initial Teacher Education), RMIT UniversityThembi Mason, Lecturer, RMIT UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1987682023-02-09T13:35:09Z2023-02-09T13:35:09ZPublic school enrollment dropped by 1.2M during the pandemic – an expert discusses where the students went and why it matters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508483/original/file-20230206-17-8m0130.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C4025%2C2679&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Some parents decided to continue home-schooling their kids even after public schools resumed in-person classes.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirusOutbreakSchools/645e25ea11a34a59983949f05e8fbe0a/photo">AP Photo/Sarah Blake Morgan</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Student learning took a big hit during the COVID-19 pandemic. Just how much is only becoming clear nearly three years after the World Health Organization declared the pandemic and nearly all U.S. public schools pivoted to online instruction for at least several months in March 2020.</p>
<p>However, the data guiding the nation’s efforts to help kids catch up does not generally include the students who experienced the most dramatic learning disruptions.</p>
<p>Nationwide testing results released in the fall of 2022 revealed that the <a href="https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/highlights/reading/2022/">reading</a> and <a href="https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/highlights/mathematics/2022/">math</a> performance on standardized tests of students who were in fourth and eighth grades in the U.S. in the 2021-2022 school year declined by <a href="https://ies.ed.gov/director/remarks/11-2-2022.asp">historic amounts</a>.</p>
<p>This dramatic evidence of learning loss has <a href="https://www.ed.gov/news/media-advisories/us-department-education-hold-first-several-sessions-strategies-and-programs-boost-academic-recovery-impact-pandemic">mobilized federal, state and local education leaders</a>. The federal government has allocated US$122 billion to support state and local efforts to help students “<a href="https://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/department-hosts-raising-bar-literacy-math-series-address-academic-recovery">catch up in the classroom</a>.”</p>
<p>Public school districts are using these resources to fund <a href="https://www.k12dive.com/news/report-40-of-districts-plan-to-spend-esser-funds-on-tutoring/621740/">tutoring</a> and <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/how-are-schools-spending-esser-funds-4-takeaways-from-a-new-report/2022/05">extended learning time</a>. And <a href="https://caldercenter.org/publications/challenges-implementing-academic-covid-recovery-interventions-evidence-road-recovery">researchers are assessing</a> the effects of these investments on standardized test scores.</p>
<p>However, these efforts do little to identify or target support to the children whose learning environments were most disrupted by the pandemic. This is especially so for the youngest students, who aren’t yet old enough for most standardized testing.</p>
<h2>Enrollment decline and the ‘streetlight effect’</h2>
<p>During the pandemic, public school enrollment in grades K through 12 fell by <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/17/us/public-schools-falling-enrollment.html">1.2 million</a> students. These declines were concentrated among <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/07/us/covid-kindergarten-enrollment.html">kindergarten students</a> and in schools that <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312221140029">offered only remote instruction</a>.</p>
<p>Similarly dramatic enrollment losses among even younger learners <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/04/26/1094781782/preschool-enrollment-pandemic">erased a decade of progress</a> in boosting preschool education enrollment.</p>
<p>These declines indicate that the pandemic caused students to miss instructional time or undertake disruptive school switches, often in their developmentally critical early years.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://network.asbointl.org/viewdocument/asbo-international-survey-report-h-1">school officials</a> list early-childhood programs among the least popular use of available federal funds and provide no indication of targeted academic-recovery efforts for younger or truant students.</p>
<p>This is an example of what scholars call the “<a href="https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/why-scientific-studies-are-so-often-wrong-the-streetlight-effect">streetlight effect</a>,” in which people focus their attention on easily visible evidence – such as the test scores available for older, currently enrolled students – rather than other relevant data that are more obscured and harder to identify.</p>
<p>And long lags in national data reporting mean little is yet known about the learning environments of the disproportionately young children whose families avoided public schools during the pandemic. Currently, official federal statistics do not even provide basic data on <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d21/tables/dt21_205.10.asp?current=yes">private school</a> or <a href="https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d21/tables/dt21_206.10.asp?current=yes">home-school</a> enrollment beyond 2019.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508506/original/file-20230206-17-bdqtil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A child sits at a desk marking a paper with a pencil." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508506/original/file-20230206-17-bdqtil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/508506/original/file-20230206-17-bdqtil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508506/original/file-20230206-17-bdqtil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508506/original/file-20230206-17-bdqtil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508506/original/file-20230206-17-bdqtil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508506/original/file-20230206-17-bdqtil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/508506/original/file-20230206-17-bdqtil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In most schools, standardized tests don’t start until well beyond kindergarten.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/exam-time-royalty-free-image/679376636">FatCamera/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Where the kids went</h2>
<p>My <a href="https://www.urban.org/research/publication/where-kids-went-nonpublic-schooling-and-demographic-change-during-pandemic">research</a>, done collaboratively with <a href="https://apnews.com/article/enrollment-missing-kids-homeschooling">The Associated Press</a> and data journalists at Stanford University’s <a href="https://biglocalnews.org/">Big Local News</a>, addresses this issue. </p>
<p>For our analysis, we gathered <a href="https://purl.stanford.edu/sb152xr1685">state-level data</a> on public, private and home-school enrollment for the school years from 2019-20 through 2021-22. We also used U.S. Census Bureau estimates to identify the school-age population in each state over this time period. These combined data provide insights into where the students who avoided public schools went and what it means for the nation’s academic-recovery efforts. </p>
<p>Complete data aren’t available in every state, but we have good data on more than half of the school-age population in the U.S. at the onset of the pandemic. These states also experienced public school enrollment declines that are representative of the national trend.</p>
<p>Some students, particularly the youngest, clearly turned to private schools during the pandemic. In the 34 jurisdictions with available data, private school enrollment grew by over 140,000 students between the 2019-20 and 2021-22 school years. However, this increase only explains a modest amount – roughly 14% – of the corresponding decline in public school enrollment.</p>
<p>A more surprising finding is the robust growth of home-schooling during this period. An <a href="https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/03/homeschooling-on-the-rise-during-covid-19-pandemic.html">early Census Bureau survey</a> reported that home-schooling increased soon after the pandemic began. Our data show this initial increase endured into the 2021-22 school year when most public schools returned to in-person instruction.</p>
<p>In the 22 jurisdictions with data, home-school enrollment increased by over 184,000 students between the 2019-20 and 2021-22 school years – a 30% increase. For every additional student enrolled in private school over this period, nearly two entered home-schooling. This sustained growth in home-schooling explains 26% of the corresponding losses in public school enrollment.</p>
<p>Roughly a quarter of the public school enrollment loss simply reflects the pandemic decline in the number of school-age children in the U.S. However, <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/covid-states-migration-lockdowns-census-11640733268">people moving to new homes during the pandemic</a> means this demographic impact varied considerably by state. In states like California and New York, which saw their overall <a href="https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/2021-population-estimates.html">populations fall dramatically</a>, the percentage declines in public school enrollment were at least six times those in states like Texas and Florida, where populations grew.</p>
<h2>New questions for academic recovery</h2>
<p>These findings raise several new questions about what help American students will need to get their education back on track. For instance, researchers know little about the learning opportunities available to children who switched to home-schooling, or the effects of this choice on families.</p>
<p>Our data is also unable to locate more than one-third of the students who left public schools. That could mean that some children are not going to school at all – or that even more families started home-schooling but did so without notifying their state.</p>
<p>A third possibility is that the pandemic led more families to have their kids skip kindergarten. Our data indirectly supports this conjecture. The unexplained declines in public school enrollment are concentrated in <a href="https://reports.ecs.org/comparisons/state-k-3-policies-06">states that do not require kindergarten attendance</a>, like California and Colorado.</p>
<p>What we do know is the pandemic’s learning disruptions occurred disproportionately among the nation’s youngest learners. </p>
<p>Our work to understand and respond to this situation is just beginning. One possible response is to refocus some federal funding on the broad use of early screening tools to reliably identify – and address – learning setbacks years before students are old enough to take the current battery of standardized tests, which often begins in the third grade. Policymakers can also do more to locate students who are missing and to understand the educational needs of those outside the light of conventional data systems.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198768/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Thomas Dee does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Federal, state and local efforts to help students recover learning they missed or lost during the pandemic are underway. But those projects don’t include the youngest students.Thomas Dee, Barnett Family Professor, Stanford UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1986442023-02-06T13:29:53Z2023-02-06T13:29:53ZRights of transgender students and their parents are a challenge for schools, courts<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/507694/original/file-20230201-17339-vyv5pl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5852%2C3291&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The rights of transgender people are often in dispute, including in schools.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/TransgenderYouthUtah/c0c366c44c6343c8915f5fd59c22a34d/photo">AP Photo/Rick Bowmer</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>As an <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/10/science/transgender-teenagers-national-survey.html">increasing number</a> of elementary, middle and high school students in the U.S. have begun to identify as transgender, school leaders have struggled to figure out how to respond, and how – and whether – to communicate about their actions to parents. </p>
<p>In Maryland, for instance, <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/maryland/mddce/8:2020cv03552/487743/60/">three sets of parents filed a federal lawsuit</a> in 2020 that challenged school guidelines allowing students to express their gender identities at school. In some situations teachers and other school staff are asked not to notify parents they are doing so.</p>
<p>The federal trial court ruling, which has been appealed, determined that parents did not have a fundamental right to be informed promptly if their children chose to identify as another gender while at school.</p>
<p>The judge tried to balance both parents’ rights under the <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/due_process">due process clause</a> of the Constitution and states’ <a href="https://www.americanbar.org/groups/crsj/publications/human_rights_magazine_home/2014_vol_40/vol_40_no_2_civil_rights/educational_rights_states/">rights to regulate public education</a>, even if they conflict with parental wishes.</p>
<p>The judge found that while school board officials intended to ultimately inform parents, if educators had concerns about a child’s safety they would hold off on doing so.</p>
<p>The board’s rules, the judge wrote, “<a href="https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/23201110-parents-v-montgomery-county_opinion#page=11">keep a student’s gender identity confidential</a> … out of concern for the student’s well-being.” The rules also call for a “comprehensive gender support plan that anticipates and encourages eventual familial involvement wherever possible.”</p>
<p>In short, parents have a general right to know about their children’s activity in school. However, parental rights can be limited by students’ rights to privacy and personal safety.</p>
<p>The Maryland case is by no means the only case in which school officials have been caught between students’ right to privacy and parents’ right to know. As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=T3b-g5YAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">researchers</a> <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=k_GuRaYAAAAJ">who</a> specialize in education law, we have analyzed similar cases in <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/iowa/iandce/1:2022cv00078/62349/38/">Iowa</a>, <a href="https://legalinsurrection.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Foote-v.-Ludlow-School-Committee-%20Complaint.pdf">Massachusetts</a>, <a href="https://law.justia.com/cases/wisconsin/supreme-court/2022/2020ap001032.html">Wisconsin</a> and <a href="https://www.whsv.com/2022/12/08/pieces-lawsuit-against-harrisonburg-city-schools-dismissed/">Virginia</a>. </p>
<p>Regardless of how the cases from Maryland and elsewhere play out, this issue is likely to continue to generate additional controversy and litigation.</p>
<h2>Parents’ rights vs. schools’ obligations</h2>
<p>Disagreements between parents and schools over education are not new. In 1925, in <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/268/510">Pierce v. Society of Sisters</a>, a dispute from Oregon, the Supreme Court upheld the rights of parents to send their children to schools run outside the public education system.</p>
<p>The justices famously wrote: “The child is not the mere creature of the state; those who nurture him and direct his destiny have the right, coupled with the high duty, to recognize and prepare him for additional obligations.” This signaled clearly that parents have rights over how their children are raised and educated. </p>
<p>But the U.S. Supreme Court has not yet decided clearly where the rights of parents end and the rights of their children begin. As a result, an appellate court in New Jersey observed that courts have held that “<a href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/nj-superior-court-appellate-division/1473672.html">in certain circumstances</a> the parental right to control the upbringing of a child must give way to a school’s ability to control curriculum and the school environment.”</p>
<p>Courts have even decided that there may be times when school or other public officials have legitimate interests in intervening where parents would typically have free rein, to assist or protect children. For example, educators might choose to keep information about students’ gender identity from parents if school staff members have reason to believe the students would be kicked out of their houses, physically abused, or forced to participate in abusive counseling programs, such as <a href="https://www.aacap.org/aacap/Policy_Statements/2018/Conversion_Therapy.aspx">conversion therapy</a>.</p>
<h2>The role of students’ rights</h2>
<p>At the same time, school officials must ensure protection of students’ rights. In particular, many states have laws requiring school board officials to <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/22/us/gender-identity-students-parents.html">protect their students from discrimination</a> and violations of privacy.</p>
<p>In the wake of the Supreme Court’s decision in <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/17-1618">Bostock v. Clayton County</a>, interpreting <a href="https://www.eeoc.gov/statutes/title-vii-civil-rights-act-1964">Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> as applying to people who are gay or transgender, the U.S. Department of Education told school boards across the country that they <a href="https://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/us-department-education-confirms-title-ix-protects-students-%20discrimination-based-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity">cannot allow discrimination</a> on the basis of sex, sexual orientation or gender identity.</p>
<p>School staff members have legal obligations to protect students’ privacy. According to the 3rd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, “<a href="https://casetext.com/case/sterling-v-borough-of-minersville">It is difficult to imagine a more private matter than one’s sexuality</a> and a less likely probability that the government would have a legitimate interest in disclosure of sexual identity.”</p>
<p>Even so, schools often want <a href="https://safesupportivelearning.ed.gov/training-technical-assistance/education-level/early-learning/family-school-community-partnerships">parents to be involved</a> in their children’s education and the wider school community. This regularly puts educators in the sensitive position of having to protect student privacy while respecting parental rights to raise their children in accordance with their values.</p>
<p>It remains to be seen how courts will balance parental rights to direct the lives of their children and the role of educators in safeguarding the privacy rights of students – and whether the Supreme Court can, or will, ever set clearer rules in this important topic.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198644/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Parents have a general right to know about their children’s activities in school, but that can be limited by students’ rights to privacy and personal safety.Charles J. Russo, Joseph Panzer Chair in Education in the School of Education and Health Sciences and Research Professor of Law, University of DaytonMaggie Paino, Ph.D. Student in Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis, University of Wisconsin-MadisonSuzanne Eckes, Susan S. Engeleiter Professor of Education Law, Policy and Practice, University of Wisconsin-MadisonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1961042022-12-21T20:08:06Z2022-12-21T20:08:06ZShould you answer a call to crowdfund our under-resourced teachers?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502233/original/file-20221220-13-vpj8cs.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=114%2C13%2C1418%2C1004&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Quinta Brunson, creator and actor of the show 'Abbott Elementary,' uses TikTok to fundraise for school supplies. Although it's a sitcom, it's talking about the real-life needs of under-resourced teachers.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Quinta Brunson for ABC)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/should-you-answer-a-call-to-crowdfund-our-under-resourced-teachers" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>In an episode of <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt15715994/"><em>Abbott Elementary</em></a>, the sitcom about a group of teachers in an under-resourced Philadelphia school, novice teacher Janine takes to TikTok. The joke is that she needs to use TikTok to fundraise to get her classroom much needed school supplies.</p>
<p>Although played for laughs in <a href="https://www.emmys.com/shows/abbott-elementary">this award-winning</a> show created by Quinta Brunson, one education <a href="https://theeducatorsroom.com/abbott-elementary-the-dreaded-teacher-wishlist/">blogger</a> wrote: “In tonight’s episode … we learned the lesson that all teachers know — schools are underfunded, and [supply] wishlists have the ability to make teachers REALLY happy.”</p>
<p>Actually, crowdfunding for schools in real life can provide immediate and necessary resources. There is even early research to say that crowdfunding leads to better learning outcomes for students. </p>
<p>In this season of giving, that is something to think about as you decide where to put your money.</p>
<p>Although individual donations cannot compensate for the structural conditions of general underfunding and inequitable funding of public schools, a crowdfunded teacher’s classroom may have better outcomes than one that is not.</p>
<h2>Diverse learning needs</h2>
<p>One study from California showed how extra funds from teacher crowdfunding efforts allowed teachers to run projects that fully address the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/00222437211033536">diverse learning needs of their students</a>.</p>
<p>Another study shows how educators’ crowdfunding efforts are linked to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.2020.0968">higher test scores</a> for students, even when the crowdfunding is unsuccessful.</p>
<p>However, any benefits of crowdfunding in education should not gloss over the fact that there is a systematic lack of public support for public education teachers. <a href="https://www.epi.org/publication/public-education-funding-in-the-us-needs-an-overhaul/">This is especially relevant for the most under-resourced schools: those that serve low-income communities,</a> both urban and <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1286832.pdf">rural.</a></p>
<p>This is part of the broader crisis in public education.</p>
<h2>Pervasive under-resourcing of schools</h2>
<p>To meet the needs of their students and classrooms, educators in the United States have been paying out-of-pocket or using private sponsors to pay for books, <a href="https://marketbrief.edweek.org/marketplace-k-12/teachers-paying-ed-tech-pockets-survey-finds/">software</a>, pencils and paper, classroom decorations, prizes, snacks and even <a href="https://www.epi.org/blog/teachers-pay-out-of-pocket-to-keep-their-classrooms-clean-of-covid-19-teachers-already-spend-on-average-450-a-year-on-school-supplies/">cleaning supplies</a>. </p>
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<img alt="A teacher seen sitting at a desk cutting things with a laptop behind her on a desk." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501688/original/file-20221218-26-qlfedr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C1219%2C3842%2C2703&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501688/original/file-20221218-26-qlfedr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501688/original/file-20221218-26-qlfedr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501688/original/file-20221218-26-qlfedr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501688/original/file-20221218-26-qlfedr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501688/original/file-20221218-26-qlfedr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501688/original/file-20221218-26-qlfedr.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A teacher sits in her classroom.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Matt Rourke)</span></span>
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<p><a href="https://www.nea.org/advocating-for-change/new-from-nea/out-pocket-spending-school-supplies-adds-strain-educators">According to an estimate by the National Education Association,</a> 90 per cent of teachers spend money on their students. This year, many will spend an average of US$820, which is a $500 increase since before the pandemic.</p>
<p>No wonder educators are turning to crowdfunding sites, like <a href="https://www.fox17online.com/news/local-news/michigan/19-michigan-educators-chosen-for-clear-the-list-campaign">Amazon Wishlists</a> and DonorsChoose, the not-for-profit crowdfunder which makes “it easy for anyone to <a href="https://www.donorschoose.org/about">help a teacher in need</a>.” </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/tiktok-is-more-than-just-a-frivolous-app-for-lip-syncing-and-dancing-podcast-182264">TikTok is more than just a frivolous app for lip-syncing and dancing – Podcast</a>
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<p>In a sign of support for teachers, as well as to take a stand on the dismal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cars.12210">state of funding for education in the U.S.</a>, the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) <a href="https://www.aft.org/press-release/aft-fulfills-400000-donorschoose-requests-school-supplies-teachers">donated $400,000</a> to educators through DonorsChoose in March 2022. </p>
<p>At the time of the donation, AFT President Randi Weingarten said: </p>
<blockquote>
<p>“We’re spreading hope and expressing gratitude to teachers and school staff who’ve sacrificed so much to ensure a better life for our children and our communities. And we’re also shining a spotlight on decades of underfunding and the urgent need to invest in our kids and the schools they attend.”</p>
</blockquote>
<h2>Job satisfaction is dropping; strikes are increasing</h2>
<p>The teaching profession was already facing challenges before the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic intensified stressors on educators and the public school system. Similar to Canada, teachers in the U.S. face <a href="https://files.epi.org/pdf/165729.pdf">low salaries</a> as well as inadequate resources for academic programming, <a href="https://okpolicy.org/support-staff-pay-raise-and-restoring-cuts-is-key-to-improving-oklahomas-schools/">support staff</a> and social supports. Staffing shortages among teachers that began prior to the pandemic are now reaching <a href="https://www.nea.org/sites/default/files/2022-10/29302-solving-educator-shortage-report-final-oct-11-2022.pdf">crisis</a> levels. </p>
<p>Contributing to these challenges is the fact that public schools are increasingly sites of <a href="https://idea.gseis.ucla.edu/publications/educating-for-a-diverse-democracy/publications/files/diverse-democracy-report">political conflict</a>, as conservative activists and state legislatures take aim at, among other things, how to teach about race and LGBTQ+ rights and contest books stocked in classrooms and libraries.</p>
<p>Among public educators, job satisfaction is low. </p>
<p>As a testament to the dissatisfaction of educators being asked to do too much with too little, 2022 saw another <a href="https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/why-teachers-are-going-on-strike-this-fall-and-what-could-come-next/2022/09">wave of strikes</a> among K-12 teachers’ unions. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Striking education workers seen with picket signs walking on a sidewalk." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501686/original/file-20221218-20-g9ikip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/501686/original/file-20221218-20-g9ikip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501686/original/file-20221218-20-g9ikip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501686/original/file-20221218-20-g9ikip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501686/original/file-20221218-20-g9ikip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501686/original/file-20221218-20-g9ikip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/501686/original/file-20221218-20-g9ikip.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Teachers from Roosevelt High School in Seattle picket during a strike over pay, mental health support and staffing ratios, September 2022.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Jason Redmond)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Strike demands include pay increases; resources for academic programming; smaller class sizes; investment in counsellors, nurses and social workers; and addressing <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/teacher-strike-columbus-ohio-air-conditioning-students-rcna44849">hot and poorly ventilated classrooms</a>, among other issues. </p>
<p>Educators also continue to leave the profession. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.nea.org/advocating-for-change/new-from-nea/out-pocket-spending-school-supplies-adds-strain-educators">report</a> from the National Education Association identifies under-resourcing and the expectation that educators will spend their personal money as factors driving educators away from the profession.</p>
<h2>Public school system needs investments</h2>
<p>Canada is also <a href="https://theconversation.com/provinces-should-act-fast-to-avert-a-teacher-shortage-now-and-after-covid-19-154930">seeing educators leaving the profession</a> and increased strike mobilization. In both countries, these are signs that the people doing the critical work of education feel that their conditions of work are unsustainable. </p>
<p>The benefits of a good public education system include a healthy community and democracy and therefore we need to ensure that students have access to them. Crowdfunding is one solution to help fill immediate resource shortages. At the same time, we also need to demand policies that make necessary investments in our public schools.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/196104/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rachel K. Brickner does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Gifting teachers through crowdfunding sites may make an immediate difference but can’t compensate for underfunding and inequitable funding of public schools.Rachel K. Brickner, Professor of Politics, Acadia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1938172022-11-14T13:26:48Z2022-11-14T13:26:48ZHow much can public schools control what students wear?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/493929/original/file-20221107-3609-gsgzt4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=15%2C20%2C3346%2C1900&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Are some shirts too distracting for school?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/RelaxingSchoolDressCodes/b94019590f444249a31ec8b0a5033257/photo">AP Photo/Gillian Flaccus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>School dress codes can be <a href="https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-23-105348.pdf">harmful to LGBTQ students and students of color</a>, according to the U.S. Government Accountability Office, the investigative arm of Congress. These codes can lead school officials to punish these two groups for simply who they are or for expressing themselves.</p>
<p>However, it has long been held by the Supreme Court that students do not “<a href="https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/facts-and-case-summary-tinker-v-des-moines">shed their constitutional rights</a> to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate,” as a 1969 ruling put it. But that’s not carte blanche for students to go wild and wear just anything.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=jtyw3-sAAAAJ">professor of education policy</a> who studies students’ constitutional rights – such as <a href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/hplp43&div=5&id=&page=">their expressions through clothing</a> – I believe it’s important for students, parents and school staff to know what the law says about how much control a school can have over the kinds of clothes a student may decide to wear.</p>
<h2>Federal and state jurisdiction</h2>
<p>Public education is not mentioned in the U.S. Constitution, so it falls to the states to regulate, under the <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/tenth_amendment">10th Amendment</a>. But since the <a href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2016/11/29/2016-27985/elementary-and-secondary-education-act-of-1965-as-amended-by-the-every-student-succeeds">Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965</a>, Congress has provided federal funding for education in exchange for states and school districts enacting certain policies. An example is <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/programs/titleiparta/index.html">Title I funding to boost education in schools</a> that serve low-income communities.</p>
<p>The Bill of Rights, including the <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-1/">First Amendment</a>, governs publicly funded efforts, such as public education. </p>
<p>The legal standard for dress codes is, therefore, that amendment’s declaration that citizens’ free expression should generally be free from government regulation – and therefore, students’ appearances should largely be outside school officials’ jurisdiction.</p>
<h2>Tinkering with education</h2>
<p>But the First Amendment wasn’t always applied. It was only a few decades ago that federal courts debated whether students in public schools had any rights at all under the Constitution. In 1965, five students wore black armbands – a form of silent political protest – to school, objecting to the Vietnam War. The oldest three students were <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1968/21">suspended from school for wearing them</a> and refusing to take them off when ordered to do so by their schools’ principals.</p>
<p>That case, Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District, made its way to the Supreme Court, which in a 1969 ruling declared that <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1968/21">students do have First Amendment rights</a> as long as their exercise of those rights does not disrupt teaching or learning.</p>
<p>In subsequent cases, courts clarified what those educational disruptions were. They included promoting illegal behavior, such as <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2006/06-278">drug use</a>, and using <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/478/675/">profane or vulgar language</a>. </p>
<p>In addition, courts allowed schools to restrict student publications that were <a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1987/86-836">school-sponsored or school-promoted</a>, because courts deemed that speech to belong to the school, not the students. </p>
<p>Those cases arose because the Supreme Court viewed those rights as expansive, but schools tended to take a narrower view. As I have found, principals and superintendents were <a href="https://open.mitchellhamline.edu/policypractice/vol43/iss1/3">quick to prohibit expression they disliked</a>, on the grounds that it was disruptive.</p>
<h2>Are blue jeans really an expression of rights?</h2>
<p>Generally, the Supreme Court has declined to take up issues of dress codes and has largely left those issues to state courts. This means there is not any binding federal case law to follow, and different states have applied the law differently. </p>
<p>However, one federal case is binding on schools in Michigan, Kentucky, Ohio and Tennessee – states under the jurisdiction of the <a href="https://www.ca6.uscourts.gov/">U.S. 6th Circuit Court of Appeals</a> – though not necessarily in other states. That case, decided in 2005, is <a href="https://casetext.com/case/blau-v-fort-thomas-public-school-dist">Blau v. Fort Thomas Public School District</a>. A parent had objected to a new school dress code because, as the complaint said, their child “wants to be able to wear clothes that ‘look nice on [her],’ that she ‘feel[s] good in’ and that express her individuality.”</p>
<p>Ultimately, the 6th Circuit held that students could largely wear what they wanted, so long as it was making a statement – as was the case with the armbands opposing the Vietnam War. But they were not protected by the First Amendment for wearing something they just felt like wearing. The court concluded the claim was a “<a href="https://casetext.com/case/blau-v-fort-thomas-public-school-dist">generalized and vague desire</a> to express her middle-school individuality” and said the First Amendment does not protect every piece of clothing that an adolescent may choose to wear on any given day.</p>
<h2>Gender identity expression</h2>
<p>There have not been any U.S. Supreme Court cases on gender expression and dress. However, a 2001 ruling from the Superior Court of Massachusetts might shed some light on how a court may treat a case.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://casetext.com/case/pat-doe-v-yunits">Doe v. Yunits</a>, a student at South Junior High School in Brockton, Massachusetts, had been diagnosed with a gender identity disorder – as the court put it, “<a href="https://icj2.wpenginepowered.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Doe-v.-Yunits-et-al-Superior-Court-of-Massachusetts-United-States.pdf">which means that, although she was born biologically male, she has a female gender identity</a>.” She sought to wear the clothing conforming to her gender identity. However, the principal sent the student home to change when she arrived wearing girls’ clothing. The school cited incidents between the student and male students such as blowing kisses as disruptive.</p>
<p>The court concluded that the student intended to send a message, and by virtue of the hostility she received from the faculty and student body, that message was received. Second, the court stated the school intended to suppress the speech itself, but had no substantial government interest in doing so. Finally, the court held that the student’s manner of dress, as a form of expression, was separate from her disruptive conduct. </p>
<p>The school contended that it would discipline other students who dressed in this manner. However, the court disagreed because the school’s argument hinged on gender orientation: A student born female and wearing the same clothing as this student would go unnoticed, so this student’s clothes should not have been a distraction either.</p>
<h2>No real certainty</h2>
<p>Ultimately, how people dress is a form of self-expression, but students’ choices <a href="https://open.mitchellhamline.edu/policypractice/vol43/iss1/3">may not always be protected</a>. It is important to realize that students in a public school are not entitled to the same freedoms of speech and expression as adults in a public space.</p>
<p>Schools can enforce a dress code if they have sound reasoning to do so, especially when the rules are legitimately tied to preventing disruption and protecting health and safety. However, with expanded definitions of gender and identity, more court cases are on the horizon.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193817/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Brian Boggs does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Supreme Court has yet to rule on whether school dress codes are protected under the law.Brian Boggs, Assistant Professor of Policy and Educational Leadership, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1924902022-11-01T20:16:59Z2022-11-01T20:16:59ZWhy attending publicly funded schools may help students become more culturally sensitive<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492625/original/file-20221031-25-klp6rc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C148%2C4712%2C2341&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A new study found that graduates of publicly funded schools were more likely to disagree with statements such as 'discrimination is no longer a major problem.'</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Allison Shelley/The Verbatim Agency for EDUimages)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Being an intercultural citizen — someone who supports the principle of a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878503001002001">multicultural state and also demonstrates positive personal attitudes towards diversity</a>
— is considered essential <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000147878&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_c86aa337-73af-4adb-bbe3-f7ae0e8126cc%3F_%3D147878eng.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000147878/PDF/147878eng.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A89%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2C-75%2C627%2C0%5D">from a human rights perspective</a>. What kind of learning best supports its development? </p>
<p>To try to answer this question, I surveyed close to 400 recent Ontario high school graduates who attended regular and specialized programs in public and private schools and interviewed 14 students. </p>
<p>My survey questions sought to gauge the extent to which graduates demonstrated openness, interest, positivity and comfort with others. My study defined this as having <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878503001002001">an open intercultural</a> orientation.</p>
<p>I found that graduates who attended publicly funded schools were more likely to have open intercultural orientations than those who attended private schools. I also found positive associations between those who attended schools with students of different backgrounds and experiences. </p>
<p>Yet despite these positive associations, my research also suggested that learning environments may constrain intercultural relationships and fail to support racialized students, LGBTQ+ students and students from non-Christian religious backgrounds in expressing their views.</p>
<h2>Gauging perspectives</h2>
<p>To gauge the intercultural orientations of graduates, I used survey questions developed by the Ontario Human Rights Commission for <a href="https://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/taking-the-pulse-peoples-opinions-human-rights-ontario">a 2017 survey that took the pulse on people’s opinions on human rights in the province</a>. </p>
<p>These questions presented graduates with examples of human rights accommodations and discriminatory statements and asked respondents the extent to which they agreed with them. I also asked graduates about the characteristics of the high schools they attended.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Students seen congregating on steps in dicussion." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492619/original/file-20221031-25-ibj2i0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492619/original/file-20221031-25-ibj2i0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492619/original/file-20221031-25-ibj2i0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492619/original/file-20221031-25-ibj2i0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492619/original/file-20221031-25-ibj2i0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492619/original/file-20221031-25-ibj2i0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492619/original/file-20221031-25-ibj2i0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students were asked their opinions concerning discrimination and human rights accommodations.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Allison Shelley/The Verbatim Agency for EDUimages)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Of the 390 survey respondents, graduates self-identified their backgrounds, based on categories from the Ontario Human Rights Commission, as: British (84); other European ancestry (49); Chinese (50); South Asian (47); Black (30); Arab (19); Latin American (13); French (11); South East Asian (14); Indigenous (10); West Asian (7); Multiple (8); Filipino (6); Korean (6); Japanese (1). Thirty-five respondents preferred not to say.</p>
<p>Study participants were more likely to disagree with statements such as “we would be better off in Ontario if we stopped letting in so many immigrants,” “some jobs are better suited for men, some are better suited for women,” “discrimination is no longer a major problem,” if they attended schools that were publicly funded. </p>
<p>They were also more likely to disagree if they attended schools where many or most other students did not share their ethnicity or belong to their religious group.</p>
<h2>Friendships across differences</h2>
<p>My study, drawing on both survey questions and interviews, found that higher levels of diversity in school enrolment and graduates’ relationships — the friendships they had with people from different ethnicities and faiths — were related to higher levels of interculturalism. </p>
<p>Thirteen students I interviewed attended public schools throughout all or most of high school; one interviewee attended a private school. Eight interviewees self-identified as having European ancestry, four identified as Black and two as Asian. </p>
<p>Six of the seven interviewed graduates with higher levels of interculturalism had attended schools they reported had diverse enrolments and the seventh attended a school with a significant number of Indigenous students. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Students seen working at a table." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492621/original/file-20221031-16-c0j3b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492621/original/file-20221031-16-c0j3b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492621/original/file-20221031-16-c0j3b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492621/original/file-20221031-16-c0j3b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492621/original/file-20221031-16-c0j3b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492621/original/file-20221031-16-c0j3b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492621/original/file-20221031-16-c0j3b8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The study found an association between diversity in a school, the students’ interpersonal relationships and higher levels of intercultural openness.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Allison Shelley/The Verbatim Agency for EDUimages)</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Marginalized perspectives in classrooms</h2>
<p>Graduates who had regular contact with or were members of groups that are often the target of discrimination — people of colour, LGBTQ+ graduates, those with disabilities and women — held fewer discriminatory views. </p>
<p>However, surveyed graduates who were Buddhist, Hindu, Jewish, Muslim or Sikh, and interviewed graduates who were people of colour or LGBTQ+, reported less comfort expressing their views in their high schools. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/schools-need-to-step-up-to-address-islamophobia-169937">Schools need to step up to address Islamophobia</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>This suggests that students who are racialized, from non-Christian faiths and LGBTQ+ may be more open to others, while experiencing more exclusion themselves. </p>
<p>It also suggests schools have work to do in order to make all students comfortable enough to share their perspectives. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-spark-change-within-our-unequal-education-system-dont-call-me-resilient-ep-3-152355">school teaching and learning environment, curricula and how teachers engage students in discussion all impact</a> what students learn and how they affirm cross-group relationships and perspectives.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Students seen drawing on a disc in a science demo." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492617/original/file-20221031-13-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/492617/original/file-20221031-13-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492617/original/file-20221031-13-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492617/original/file-20221031-13-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492617/original/file-20221031-13-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492617/original/file-20221031-13-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/492617/original/file-20221031-13-zornp6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=505&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Study participants who were members of groups more likely to have experienced discrimination had fewer discriminatory attitudes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Allison Shelley/The Verbatim Agency for EDUimages)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Programs of choice</h2>
<p>My research also found that students developed relationships with those they interacted with on a daily basis at school. In specialized programs, this often meant only with others in their program.</p>
<p>As education researchers Gillian Parekh and Rubén Gaztambide-Fernández have found, students within <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40317-5_43">specialized arts, gifted and French immersion programs are disproportionately white and wealthy</a>. This should make us question whether such programs help graduates adapt successfully to environments of increasing diversity.</p>
<p>It is also a reason to ask whether such programs will build the more inclusive, innovative and safer future societies we want, or serve to rationalize and perpetuate division, inequality, distrust and violence.</p>
<p>Research shows that when parents choose educational programs based on large scale assessments and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2020.1843112">measurable achievement</a> outcomes, they are often choosing programs that rank <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.18546/LRE.14.3.06">racialized</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.12.005">socio-economic privilege</a> rather than quality teaching and learning. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/school-choice-policies-are-associated-with-increased-separation-of-students-by-social-class-149902">'School choice' policies are associated with increased separation of students by social class</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Graduates who attended specialized programs felt they were more academically inclined and motivated than those in regular programs, and graduates in regular programs had <a href="https://doi.org/10.7202/1011668ar">internalized the view that</a> these programs were for students who were smart. </p>
<p>Taken together with <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831212468290">existing research</a>, the intercultural associations in this study suggest that enrolment in specialized programs, schools ranked by standardized assessments and private schools may work to <a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1312139">silence minority voices</a> and help <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2013.816037">maintain cultures of privilege and power</a>.</p>
<h2>More research needed</h2>
<p>My study calls for more research on <a href="https://www.un.org/youthenvoy/2013/08/unesco-united-nations-educational-scientific-and-cultural-organization/">intercultural dialogue through education</a>, one of the objectives of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.</p>
<p>It asks how our publicly funded schools can move towards contextualizing academic merit and away from specialized programs and schools of choice. It also asks how these schools can ensure more students are comfortable in their classrooms and all student voices are heard.</p>
<p>Doing so would mean all students experience a sense of belonging and could provide Ontario high school students with greater understanding of the full range of cultural perspectives that exist in society.</p>
<p>This will be important for <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/10888683114111">creating intercultural citizens</a> poised to contribute to our societies, and enhancing the intercultural understanding and co-operation so urgently needed to tackle the democratic and climate crises that threaten our collective future.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/192490/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Wendy Hughes does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A study finds that graduates who attended publicly funded schools were more likely to have open intercultural orientations than those who attended private schools.Wendy Hughes, EdD student, OISE, University of TorontoLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1911022022-10-20T19:59:07Z2022-10-20T19:59:07ZEven school boards are now experiencing severe political polarization<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490967/original/file-20221020-19-hip9f8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C361%2C3214%2C1865&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">School trustees play an important role in shaping education, yet during election time voters often have little awareness of trustee candidates.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Recently there has been a resurgence of movements across North America resisting anti-racist reforms such as the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-critical-race-theory-should-inform-schools-185169">use of critical race theory in schools</a>. </p>
<p>These movements are often organized covertly, <a href="https://blueprintforcanada.ca/">using social justice language</a> and describing themselves <a href="https://ottawacitizen.com/news/polar-opposites-zone-6s-school-board-trustee-race-pits-woke-against-anti-woke">as “anti-woke.”</a></p>
<p>Groups that oppose the teaching of critical race theory and 2SLGBTQ+ supports in schools often position themselves as truly or more accurately in favour of social justice by co-opting social justice language, alleging <a href="https://www.thestar.com/local-perth/news/2022/05/16/2-lfk-candidates-vow-opposition-to-teaching-critical-race-theory-in-ontario-schools-oppose-bill-67.html?itm_source=parsely-api">critical race theory discriminates against white people</a>. School boards have been at the centre of these attacks. </p>
<p>As Ontario residents prepare to go to the polls in municipal elections on Oct. 24, CBC reports that “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ontario-school-board-trustee-investigation-1.6622705">dozens of candidates are running on promises to roll back protections for transgender students</a>, part of a concerted effort by conservative lobby groups to undo policies aimed at addressing systemic discrimination.”</p>
<p>Currently, school boards are bearing the brunt of backlash because their role in the public education system is the most accessible for members of the public to voice their concerns and try to have direct influence over policy and practice. </p>
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<h2>Sites of contestation</h2>
<p>While school boards have always been sites of contestation, there has been a recent rise in hate directed at those in the system working towards social justice. This includes <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-why-a-waterloo-ont-school-board-has-emerged-as-a-battleground-for/">school board directors</a> and <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/tdsb-racist-hate-mail-newtonbrook-black-teachers-anti-black-racism-1.5922976">teachers</a> who have tried to enact anti-racist reforms in Ontario schools. </p>
<p>In Waterloo Region, the chairperson of the public district school board <a href="https://www.therecord.com/news/waterloo-region/2022/08/20/nails-in-tires-hate-mail-death-threats-public-school-board-chair-facing-continued-abuse-over-transgender-book-meeting.html">received death threats</a> and <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-why-a-waterloo-ont-school-board-has-emerged-as-a-battleground-for/">hate mail</a> after disallowing a now-retired teacher from presenting on books she felt weren’t age-appropriate that discussed asexuality and transgender identity. </p>
<p>In Chilliwack, B.C., a trustee received a message threatening to <a href="https://www.theprogress.com/news/chilliwack-school-trustees-encourage-filing-of-police-reports-as-book-debate-escalates/">report her to the RCMP sex crimes unit</a> after she argued against banning books with LGBTQ+ and anti-racist content.</p>
<p>This pushback against social justice work in schools is not new. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-07-2016-0075">Principals in Ontario</a> have been experiencing it for years. </p>
<h2>Political will of the public?</h2>
<p>School trustees occupy a space between politics and administration. They represent the political will of the public but are supposed to leave the actual running of the school district to the director of education and other education professionals. </p>
<p>Under this dichotomy, politics and policy are the domain of the school board, whereas the director and other district staff have authority over administration. In practice, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2019.1585548">these boundaries are often blurred</a>. </p>
<p>Part of what complicates matters is the governance structure of school boards. School trustees (elected school board members) are <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3516033">locally elected but are tasked with working “as one body representing the entire community</a>.” </p>
<p>But given that they are each individually accountable to their constituents, some trustees prefer to take a hand-ons approach to addressing issues of local concern. </p>
<p>This complicates what might ordinarily be considered a <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027683">“politics-administration dichotomy”</a> — a divide that some researchers note is questionable and contentious. </p>
<h2>Elected school boards in Canada</h2>
<p>Elected school boards have a history in Canada <a href="https://books-scholarsportal-info.proxy.bib.uottawa.ca/uri/ebooks/ebooks2/ogdc/2014-02-10/1/269864">that predates Confederation</a>. The idea behind the creation of school boards was for civic leaders to gather and decide how best to educate the children of the local community. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/quebecs-bill-40-further-undermines-the-provinces-english-language-school-system-131595">Québec's Bill 40 further undermines the province's English-language school system</a>
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<p>Historically, boards governed relatively small geographic areas and only a handful of schools. For example, in 1969, <a href="https://utorontopress.com/9780802081254/from-hope-to-harris">Ontario had around 3,500 school boards</a>.</p>
<p>In the 1960s, proponents of larger school systems argued that amalgamation would increase the financial resources of school boards which would <a href="https://www.biblio.com/book/how-big-too-big-problems-organization/d/521828576">allow for the hiring of specialized staff and an increase in the quality of services they could provide</a>.</p>
<p>From the 1960s to 1990s, Ontario went from over 3,500 school boards, to 230 county school boards, and finally down to the 72 district school boards that exist today. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A teen with blue hair seen facing a car with a rainbow poster." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490898/original/file-20221020-17-ep9n4a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">A teenager receives a card from a motorist during an anti-bullying parade in Mission, B.C., Jan. 17, 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Darryl Dyck</span></span>
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<h2>Board mandates shifted</h2>
<p>During this time, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2019.1585548">mandate of school boards has grown considerably</a>. For much of their history, school boards were legally responsible for hiring teachers and furnishing schools.</p>
<p>Today’s school boards are also responsible for promoting student achievement, well-being, equity and inclusion, preventing bullying, providing for students with special education needs, ensuring community input through school councils, scheduling busing, establishing student dress codes and co-ordinating with child-care centres, among many other things. In Ontario, all of these responsibilities are highlighted in the <a href="https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/90e02">Ontario Education Act</a>. </p>
<p>As a result of these changes, school boards have become large and complex administrative units. This makes effective governance of school boards both challenging and important. </p>
<h2>Contentious position of board trustees</h2>
<p>Local school boards in Ontario are responsible for much of what happens in the day-to-day operation of schools, with members of the school board receiving their positions through municipal elections, a process that is often misunderstood. </p>
<p>The position of the school board trustee is contentious. Almost anyone <a href="https://elections.ontarioschooltrustees.org/BecomeATrustee/CandidateFAQs.aspx#:%7E:text=When%20filing%20a%20nomination%20a%20candidate%20must%20meet,by%20any%20legislation%20from%20holding%20school%20board%20office.">qualifies for a role</a> and obtains great power to influence educational policy and practice, raising questions about the tension between democratic control and expert authority. </p>
<p>While it’s clear that school trustees play an important role in shaping the education that children receive, during election time voters often have little awareness of their trustee candidates. </p>
<p>According to the Canadian Anti-Hate Network, this has provided an opening <a href="https://www.antihate.ca/confronting_preventing_hate_canada_school_boards">for far-right groups to try to stack school boards with candidates that harbour anti-equity ideologies</a>.</p>
<p>To help prevent this, the organization has come up with a framework for asking trustee candidates important questions that are centred around children’s rights. </p>
<h2>Student well-being</h2>
<figure class="align-left ">
<img alt="A student seen walking in a hallway" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490896/original/file-20221020-1694-zk2zb1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=535&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">What about student well-being?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Graham Hughes</span></span>
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<p>While local democratic engagement is necessary, it is important that politics not be allowed to subsume school districts and distract from the core purpose of schooling — student learning and well-being. </p>
<p>Checks and balances are required to ensure that the focus remains on creating and sustaining a school system that all students deserve. </p>
<p>As our society rethinks possibilities for critical democratic engagement in schooling that attends to issues of power and identity, we invite rethinking school boards. Communities need to imagine decision-making structures that include students, community organizations, educational experts and elected officials.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191102/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sachin Maharaj receives funding from SSHRC.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stephanie Tuters receives funding from SSHRC. </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Vidya Shah receives funding from SSHRC. </span></em></p>According to the Canadian Anti-Hate Network, far-right groups have been trying to stack school boards with candidates harbouring anti-equity ideologies.Sachin Maharaj, Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership, Policy and Program Evaluation, Faculty of Education, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of OttawaStephanie Tuters, Assistant Professor, Teaching Stream in the Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE), University of TorontoVidya Shah, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education, York University, CanadaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1856592022-08-17T12:39:03Z2022-08-17T12:39:03ZElectric school buses are taking students back to school – bringing cleaner air and lower maintenance costs to school districts across the country<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/479196/original/file-20220815-5636-zluoni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=35%2C7%2C4756%2C2716&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A new EV schoolbus from an all-electric fleet parked beside charging stations at South El Monte High School in California, Aug. 18, 2021. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/new-ev-schoolbus-from-an-all-electric-fleet-is-parked-news-photo/1234752434">Frederic J. Brown/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Each weekday, more than half of the K-12 students in the U.S. – <a href="https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/2022/06/22/can-school-buses-improve-access-for-students-without-driving-down-academic-outcomes/">over 25 million pupils</a> – ride a school bus. Until very recently, nearly all of these <a href="https://time.com/6117544/electric-school-buses/">500,000 buses</a> ran on diesel fuel. </p>
<p>Nationwide, diesel-powered school buses produce <a href="https://time.com/6117544/electric-school-buses/">more than 5 million tons</a> of carbon dioxide emissions. They also generate <a href="https://www.epa.gov/diesel-fuel-standards/about-diesel-fuels">air pollutants</a> that are harmful to children’s health – especially <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/resources/summary-diesel-particulate-matter-health-impacts">fine particulates</a>. Studies show that exposure to diesel tailpipe emissions <a href="https://www.epa.gov/dera/learn-about-impacts-diesel-exhaust-and-diesel-emissions-reduction-act-dera">worsens respiratory conditions, decreases lung function</a> and can lead to increased hospital admissions and emergency room visits. </p>
<p>Shifting to cleaner buses is especially important for low-income students. Across the U.S., <a href="https://www.bts.gov/topics/passenger-travel/back-school-2019">60% of low-income students</a> ride the school bus, compared with 45% of other students. School buses often <a href="https://www.epa.gov/dera/school-bus-idle-reduction">idle their engines</a> while they are loading or unloading, which exposes children directly to exhaust fumes.</p>
<p>I study issues at the intersection of <a href="https://www.urbandrea.com/about">infrastructure, policy and place</a>, including sustainability and equity in transportation. While electrifying school bus fleets requires big investments, I believe the evidence makes clear that it will more than pay off over the long term in health and economic benefits, and I am encouraged to see public and private investments moving in that direction.</p>
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<h2>Early movers</h2>
<p>Decisions about switching from diesel to electric school buses typically lie with cities and school districts, although state governments are getting involved. As of <a href="https://www.wri.org/research/electric-school-bus-us-market-study-and-buyers-guide-resource-school-bus-operators">March 2022</a>, 415 school districts or contracted fleet operators had committed to deploy 12,275 electric school buses in a wide range of settings, from large cities to rural counties, across 38 states and lands of two Native American tribes. </p>
<p>California, a <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/about/history">longtime leader</a> in clean vehicle policy, acquired its first electric school buses in 2014. Now the state is spending nearly US$70 million to <a href="https://www.energy.ca.gov/news/2019-07/energy-commission-awards-nearly-70-million-replace-polluting-diesel-school-buses">replace more than 200 diesel buses with electric versions</a> to advance its climate and air-quality goals.</p>
<p>Another notable case is Montgomery County, the largest school district in Maryland, which is <a href="https://news.montgomeryschoolsmd.org/staff-bulletin/mcps-replacing-326-diesel-school-buses-with-electric-buses-over-next-four-years/">replacing 326 diesel buses with electric buses by 2025</a> and building five charging depots. The district serves a diverse population of <a href="https://www.montgomeryschoolsmd.org/">160,000 students in 210 schools</a>.</p>
<p>In Virginia, the utility company Dominion Energy <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/22/business/energy-environment/electric-school-buses.html">announced in 2019</a> that it would provide 50 electric buses for 16 school districts across the state as one of its initiatives to reduce pollution and promote sustainability. Dominion is paying for infrastructure costs and absorbing the cost difference between a diesel and an electric bus. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The town of Chesapeake, Va., takes delivery of its first electric school buses, funded by the utility Dominion Energy.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>The biggest obstacles: Funding and space</h2>
<p>As Dominion’s gesture suggests, converting bus fleets isn’t an easy step for many school districts. An electric school bus <a href="https://electrek.co/2022/03/29/us-school-bus-maker-blue-bird-receives-its-largest-ever-order-of-electric-school-buses/">can cost up to $400,000</a>, <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/cost-electric-school-buses-diesel-2022-6">two to three times the price</a> of a diesel bus. </p>
<p>But electric buses have <a href="https://cleantechnica.com/2022/02/02/the-real-cost-of-electric-school-buses-is-lower-than-you-think/">lower operating costs</a>, so they save districts an estimated $4,000 to $11,000 per bus per year compared with diesel versions. That can make the costs of electric buses comparable over their lifetimes. </p>
<p>Electric bus motors have about 20 parts, compared with 2,000 in a diesel engine, and require far fewer maintenance steps such as regular fluid changes. And because many of their mechanical systems, such as braking and steering, are similar to those in diesel buses, electric buses are relatively easy to service, especially in districts where both bus types operate.</p>
<p>Charging stations also require money and space, especially in areas where bus routes are long and battery range is a constraint. Most buses now on the market have ranges of about <a href="https://securefutures.solar/do-electric-school-buses-have-a-long-enough-range-to-be-practical/">100</a> to <a href="https://www.blue-bird.com/buses/electric-school-buses">120 miles</a> (160-190 kilometers) on a single charge. </p>
<p>In a 2013 study, analysts at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory reviewed school bus drive cycles in Colorado, New York and Washington and found that the average school bus was typically in operation for <a href="https://doi.org/10.4271/2013-01-2400">5.26 hours per day</a>. Driving distance averaged about 32 miles, (50 kilometers), with some buses traveling over 127 miles (200 kilomaters) daily.</p>
<p>School districts need places to charge buses easily and efficiently, especially between morning and afternoon routes. Building this infrastructure, especially as diesel buses continue to operate concurrently with growing electric fleets, can pose a challenge in school districts where <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/schools-can-access-tons-of-money-for-electric-buses-will-they-use-it/2022/06">space is limited</a>. </p>
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<h2>Buses as power sources</h2>
<p>At the same time, charging infrastructure can make school bus fueling and management more efficient. Today’s <a href="https://stnonline.com/partner-updates/four-drawbacks-of-electric-buses-what-you-can-do-about-them/">managed charging infrastructure</a> allows districts to plug in a bus whenever it is parked at the depot but have the bus charge only when needed. Chargers can be programmed to function at times of day when energy demand is lowest and power is less expensive. </p>
<p>Manufacturers are introducing buses equipped with <a href="https://chargedevs.com/newswire/byd-introduces-type-a-electric-school-bus-with-v2g-tech/">bidirectional charging capability</a> that can send stored electricity back to the grid when they are not in service. During summer months, when many school buses are not in use and power usage often peaks, utilities soon may be able to call on school districts to make charged buses available to help ease demand load. These buses can also <a href="https://files.wri.org/d8/s3fs-public/2022-06/esb-us-market-buyers-guide.pdf?VersionId=Be6NI4mvnt0iF8M3oiGFMvrW3OQY.4SO">be used as mobile generators</a> during power outages and emergencies.</p>
<p>In a 2022 study, researchers at the University of North Carolina analyzed how the state’s utilities could use school buses with vehicle-to-grid charging to manage peak power demand while taking the buses’ schedules into account. They estimated that a fleet of 14,000 buses could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2021.11.029">provide about 2.6 gigawatt-hours of electricity to the grid</a> on an average winter weekend day in North Carolina, reducing utilities’ dependence on natural gas and avoiding up to 1,130 tons of carbon dioxide emissions per day. </p>
<p>Cleaner air is likely to pay off in improved student performance. In a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2019.03.002">2019 study</a>, researchers found that <a href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/Environment/air_quality/cmaq/reference/cmaq_diesel_retrofits/cmaqdiesel.pdf">retrofitting</a> 2,656 diesel buses in Georgia – adding new components to reduce the buses’ emissions – was associated with positive effects on students’ respiratory health, and that districts with retrofitted diesel buses experienced test score gains in English and math. Since even modernized diesel vehicles still generate air pollutants, shifting to electric buses would likely produce even larger increases.</p>
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<h2>Spreading the benefits</h2>
<p>Federal and state agencies are moving to speed up the transition to electric school buses. The American Rescue Plan, enacted in 2021 to provide economic relief during the COVID-19 pandemic, included <a href="https://www.epa.gov/dera/2021-american-rescue-plan-arp-electric-school-bus-rebates">$7 million in rebates</a> for school districts in underserved communities, Tribal schools and private fleets serving schools that purchase electric buses. </p>
<p>In March 2022 the Environmental Protection Agency <a href="https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-awards-rebates-totaling-17-million-fund-clean-school-buses-reduce-diesel-emissions">awarded funding</a> for 23 electric school bus replacement programs and associated charging infrastructure in 11 states. And New York state’s <a href="https://electrek.co/2022/04/08/new-york-state-governor-100-electric-school-buses-2035/">fiscal 2023 budget</a> includes a nation-leading requirement that all new school bus purchases must be electric starting in July 2027, and that all school buses in service must be zero-emission by 2035. The budget allocates $500 million in potential state funding for school bus electrification as part of a larger environmental bond act, which will be on the ballot in November 2022.</p>
<p>Riding the iconic yellow school bus is a formative experience for millions of kids across the U.S. If more districts make the shift away from diesel, I believe it will become a greener and healthier trip and a step toward the zero-emissions future our nation’s children deserve.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185659/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Andrea Marpillero-Colomina does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>They look like conventional school buses, but electric versions are cleaner, quieter and cheaper to maintain. States, utilities and federal agencies are helping school districts make the switch.Andrea Marpillero-Colomina, Adjunct Lecturer in Urban Studies, The New SchoolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1762252022-04-13T12:14:06Z2022-04-13T12:14:06ZWhen are book bans unconstitutional? A First Amendment scholar explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457690/original/file-20220412-16-tgco41.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=3%2C17%2C2238%2C1514&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">There was a surge in book banning in 2021.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/forbidden-knowledge-royalty-free-image/532190567?adppopup=true">valmas/ iStock / Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The United States has become a nation divided over <a href="https://www.edweek.org/leadership/what-is-critical-race-theory-and-why-is-it-under-attack/2021/05">important</a> <a href="https://www.change.org/p/district-administration-and-school-committee-please-do-not-remove-dedicated-honors-classes-at-bhs">issues</a> in K-12 education, including which books students should be able to read in public school. </p>
<p>Efforts to ban books from <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/04/books/banned-books-libraries.html">school curricula</a>, remove books from <a href="https://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/classics">libraries</a> and keep lists of books that some find inappropriate for students are increasing as Americans become more polarized in their views. </p>
<p>These types of actions are being called “book banning.” They are also often labeled “censorship.” </p>
<p>But the concept of censorship, as well as legal protections against it, are often highly misunderstood.</p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A 2021 campaign ad for Virginia GOP gubernatorial candidate Glenn Youngkin focuses on a book with what one mother claimed was “explicit material.”</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Book banning by the political right and left</h2>
<p>On the right side of the political spectrum, where much of the book banning is happening, bans are <a href="https://www.findlaw.com/legalblogs/law-and-life/book-banning-efforts-are-on-the-rise-what-does-the-law-say/#:%7E:text=That%20is%20because%20the%20U.S.,on%20content%20is%20unconstitutional%20censorship.">taking the form</a> of school boards’ <a href="https://www.tennessean.com/story/news/local/williamson/2022/01/25/williamson-county-schools-committee-removes-book-elementary-curriculum/9217318002/">removing books</a> from class curricula. </p>
<p>Politicians have also proposed legislation banning books that are what some legislators and parents consider <a href="https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/why-toni-morrisons-novel-the-bluest-eye-was-banned-from-classrooms.html/">too mature</a> for school-age readers, such as “<a href="https://time.com/6120915/george-m-johnson-all-boys-arent-blue-book-bans/">All Boys Aren’t Blue</a>,” which explores queer themes and topics of consent. Nobel Prize-winning author Toni Morrison’s classic “<a href="https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/books/story/2020-10-01/banned-book-reinstated-toni-morrison-the-bluest-eye">The Bluest Eye</a>,” which includes themes of rape and incest, is also a frequent target. </p>
<p>In some cases, politicians have proposed <a href="https://www.ottumwacourier.com/news/local-gop-reps-back-prosecution-for-librarians-under-new-bill/article_de3a6128-85df-11ec-9bdd-5394444f04b3.html">criminal prosecutions</a> of librarians in public schools and libraries for keeping such books in circulation. </p>
<p>Most books targeted for banning in 2021, says the American Library Association, “<a href="https://www.ala.org/news/press-releases/2022/04/national-library-week-kicks-state-america-s-libraries-report-annual-top-10">were by or about Black or LGBTQIA+ persons</a>.” State legislators have also targeted books that they believe make students feel guilt or anguish <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/banned-books-beloved-controversy-critical-race-theory/">based on their race or imply that students of any race or gender are inherently bigoted</a>.</p>
<p>There are also some attempts on the political left to engage in book banning as well as <a href="https://crosscut.com/news/2022/01/kill-mockingbird-hot-seat-wa-school-district#:%7E:text=When%20To%20Kill%20a%20Mockingbird,on%20an%20allegation%20of%20rape.">removal from school curricula</a> of books that marginalize minorities or use racially insensitive language, like the popular “To Kill a Mockingbird.”</p>
<h2>Defining censorship</h2>
<p>Whether any of these efforts are unconstitutional censorship is a complex question. </p>
<p>The First Amendment protects individuals against the government’s “<a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-1/#:%7E:text=Congress%20shall%20make%20no%20law,for%20a%20redress%20of%20grievances.">abridging the freedom of speech</a>.” However, government actions that some may deem censorship – especially as related to schools – are not always neatly classified as constitutional or unconstitutional, because “censorship” is a colloquial term, not a legal term. </p>
<p>Some principles can illuminate whether and when book banning is unconstitutional. </p>
<p>Censorship does not violate the Constitution <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/amdt1_2_2_4/">unless the government does it</a>. </p>
<p>For example, if the government tries to forbid certain types of protests solely based on the <a href="https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1028/viewpoint-discrimination">viewpoint</a> of the protesters, that is an unconstitutional restriction on speech. The government cannot create laws or allow lawsuits that keep you from having particular books on your bookshelf, unless the substance of those books fits into a narrowly defined <a href="https://www.thefire.org/get-involved/student-network/learn-more-about-your-rights/unprotected-speech/">unprotected category of speech</a> such as obscenity or libel. And even these unprotected categories are defined in precise ways that are still very protective of speech. </p>
<p>The government, however, may enact reasonable regulations that restrict the “<a href="https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1023/time-place-and-manner-restrictions#:%7E:text=CC%20BY%203.0">time, place or manner</a>” of your speech, but generally it has to do so in ways that are content- and viewpoint-neutral. The government thus cannot restrict an individual’s ability to produce or listen to speech based on the topic of the speech or the ultimate opinions expressed.</p>
<p>And if the government does try to restrict speech in these ways, it likely constitutes unconstitutional censorship.</p>
<h2>What’s not unconstitutional</h2>
<p>In contrast, when private individuals, companies and organizations create policies or engage in activities that suppress people’s ability to speak, these private actions <a href="http://cardozolawreview.com/competing-free-speech-values-goldberg/">don’t violate the Constitution</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457693/original/file-20220412-11-ccfxeu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A teenage boy reads a book with the title 'Maus.'" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457693/original/file-20220412-11-ccfxeu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/457693/original/file-20220412-11-ccfxeu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457693/original/file-20220412-11-ccfxeu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457693/original/file-20220412-11-ccfxeu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457693/original/file-20220412-11-ccfxeu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457693/original/file-20220412-11-ccfxeu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/457693/original/file-20220412-11-ccfxeu.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A school board in Tennessee in February 2022 ordered the removal of the award-winning 1986 graphic novel on the Holocaust, ‘Maus,’ by Art Spiegelman, from local student libraries.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/this-illustration-photo-taken-in-los-angeles-california-on-news-photo/1238025529?adppopup=true">Maro Siranosian/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Constitution’s general theory of liberty considers freedom in the context of government restraint or prohibition. Only the government has a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/state-monopoly-on-violence">monopoly on the use of force</a> that compels citizens to act in one way or another. In contrast, if private companies or organizations chill speech, other private companies can experiment with different policies that allow people more choices to speak or act freely. </p>
<p>Still, private action can have a major impact on a person’s ability to speak freely and the production and dissemination of ideas. For example, <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/pastor-holds-bonfire-burn-witchcraft-books-twilight-rcna14931">book burning</a> or the actions of private universities in <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/04/opinion/georgetown-tweets-free-speech.html">punishing faculty</a> for sharing unpopular ideas thwarts free discussion and unfettered creation of ideas and knowledge.</p>
<h2>When schools can ‘ban’ books</h2>
<p>It’s hard to definitively say whether the current incidents of book banning in schools are constitutional – or not. The reason: Decisions made in public schools are analyzed by the courts differently than censorship in nongovernment contexts.</p>
<p>Control over public education, in the words of the Supreme Court, is for the most part given to “<a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/393/97/#tab-opinion-1947841">state and local authorities</a>.” The government has the power to determine what is appropriate for students and thus the curriculum at their school. </p>
<p>However, students retain some First Amendment rights: Public schools may not censor students’ speech, either on or off campus, unless it is causing a “<a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/20pdf/20-255_g3bi.pdf">substantial disruption</a>.” </p>
<p>But officials <a href="https://ncac.org/resource/first-amendment-in-schools#:%7E:text=School%20officials%20have%20the%20constitutional,when%20selecting%20classroom%20instructional%20materials.">may exercise control</a> over the <a href="https://www.thefire.org/13-important-points-in-the-campus-k-12-critical-race-theory-debate/">curriculum</a> of a school without trampling on students’ or K-12 educators’ free speech rights. </p>
<p>There are exceptions to government’s power over school curriculum: The Supreme Court ruled, for example, that a state law banning a teacher from covering the topic of evolution was unconstitutional because it <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/393/97/#tab-opinion-1947841">violated the establishment clause</a> of the First Amendment, which prohibits the state from endorsing a particular religion. </p>
<p>School boards and state legislators generally have the final say over what curriculum schools teach. Unless states’ policies violate some other provision of the Constitution – <a href="https://adventuresincensorship.com/blog/2019/7/3/huck-finn-and-equal-protection">perhaps the protection against certain kinds of discrimination</a> – they are generally constitutionally permissible.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 150,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-150ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p>
<p>Schools, with finite resources, also have discretion to determine which books to add to their libraries. However, several members of the Supreme Court have written that removal is constitutionally permitted only if it is done based on the educational appropriateness of the book, but not because it was intended to <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/457/853/#tab-opinion-1954633">deny students access</a> to books with which school officials disagree. </p>
<p>Book banning is <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/07/23/modern-day-book-banning/23a75fec-5fb3-494e-8c7d-328bf1e91620/">not a new problem in this country</a> – nor is vigorous <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/wireStory/activism-grows-nationwide-response-school-book-bans-83179434">public criticism of such moves</a>. And even though the government has discretion to control what’s taught in school, the First Amendment ensures the right of free speech to those who want to protest what’s happening in schools.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176225/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Erica Goldberg does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A free speech expert defines censorship and applies that lesson to current political struggles in the US to ban books from public schools and libraries.Erica Goldberg, Associate Professor of Law, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1779802022-04-01T12:47:27Z2022-04-01T12:47:27ZSupreme Court to decide whether a public school football coach can pray on the field<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/454866/original/file-20220329-27-1bqkeus.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C9%2C2121%2C1400&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">When is a prayer after a public-school game constitutional?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/professional-football-players-huddle-on-the-field-royalty-free-image/514773450?adppopup=true">TerryJ/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Supreme Court has consistently banned school-sponsored prayer in public K-12 schools, whether at the <a href="https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/usrep/usrep370/usrep370421/usrep370421.pdf">start of the school day</a>, during <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/90-1014.ZO.html">graduation ceremonies</a> or before <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/99-62.ZO.html">football games</a>. Under the <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/20/4071">Equal Access Act</a>, the <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/496/226%26gt%3B.">Supreme Court has affirmed</a> that students may organize prayer and Bible study clubs during non-instructional hours. Even so, school staff and outside adults may not actively participate.</p>
<p>Lower courts have mostly forbidden public school teachers from openly praying in the workplace, even if students are not involved. Yet the Supreme Court has not directly addressed such a case – until now.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2021/21-418">Kennedy v. Bremerton School District</a>, a case from Washington state, for which oral arguments were heard on <a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/oral_arguments/argument_calendars/MonthlyArgumentCalApril2022.pdf">April 25, 2022</a>, could usher in more religious activities by teachers and other staff in public schools.</p>
<p>At issue is whether a school board violated the rights of Joseph Kennedy, a football coach <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/education/appeals-court-weighs-former-bremerton-coachs-case-over-prayer/">it suspended</a>, and whose contract it did not renew, because he ignored its directive to stop kneeling in silent prayer on the field after games. Kennedy claims that the board violated his First Amendment rights to freedom of speech and freedom of religion, along with his rights under the <a href="https://www.dol.gov/agencies/oasam/civil-rights-center/statutes/civil-rights-act-of-1964#:%7E:text=In%201964%2C%20Congress%20passed%20Public,hiring%2C%20promoting%2C%20and%20firing.">Civil Rights Act</a>, which prohibits employment discrimination.</p>
<p>The Supreme Court faces <a href="https://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/kennedy-v-bremerton-school-district-2/">two key questions</a>: whether prayers public school employees say in front of students are protected by their First Amendments rights; and, if they are, whether educational officials must still prohibit them in order to avoid promoting particular religions and violating the Establishment Clause. </p>
<p>From my perspective as a <a href="https://udayton.edu/directory/education/eda/russo_charles.php">specialist in education law</a>, the case is noteworthy because the court should resolve sticky questions surrounding whether public school employees can pray when supervising students, or if doing so crosses the line and becomes impermissible government speech.</p>
<p>Kennedy v. Bremerton also reflects the inherent tension between <a href="https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-1/">the First Amendment’s</a> two clauses <a href="https://home.ubalt.edu/shapiro/rights_course/Chapter5text.htm#:%7E:text=The%20free%20exercise%20clause%20protects,in%20religion%20and%20religious%20activities.">on religious freedom</a>: The Free Exercise clause protects individuals’ right to practice their faiths as they wish, while the Establishment Clause forbids the government from “establishing” a religion. </p>
<p>In other words, a tension exists between public employees’ right to religious expression within the boundaries of the law and employers’ needs to avoid violating the Establishment Clause.</p>
<h2>Facts of the case</h2>
<p>In 2008, Kennedy, a self-described Christian, worked as head coach of the junior varsity football team and assistant coach of the varsity team at Bremerton High School. He initially knelt on the 50-yard line after games, regardless of the outcome, offering a brief, quiet prayer of thanks.</p>
<p>While Kennedy first prayed alone, eventually most of the players on his team, and then members of opposing squads, joined in. He later <a href="https://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/opinions/2021/03/18/20-35222.pdf">added inspirational speeches</a>, causing some parents and school employees to voice concerns that players would feel compelled to participate.</p>
<p>The school board directed Kennedy to stop praying on the field because officials feared that his actions could put it at risk of violating the First Amendment. The government is prohibited from making laws “<a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/establishment_clause">respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof</a>” – often understood as meaning public officials cannot promote particular faiths over others.</p>
<p>In September 2015, school board officials notified the coach that he could continue delivering his inspirational speeches after games, but they had to remain secular. Although students could pray, he could not. Even so, a month later <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2015/10/17/us/washington-football-coach-joe-kennedy-prays/index.html">Kennedy resumed his prayers</a>. He had publicized his plans to do so, and was joined by players, coaches and parents, while reporters watched.</p>
<p>Bremerton’s school board offered accommodations to allow the coach to pray more privately, which he rejected. At the end of October, officials <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2015/10/29/us/washington-football-coach-joe-kennedy-prays/index.html">placed him on paid leave</a> for violating their directive, and eventually chose not to renew his one-year contract. He <a href="https://www.deseret.com/2016/8/15/20593931/fired-for-praying-on-field-football-coach-sues">filed a suit</a> in August 2016.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A black and white photo shows people protesting on the steps of a building with white columns." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455626/original/file-20220331-23-shei1q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455626/original/file-20220331-23-shei1q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455626/original/file-20220331-23-shei1q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455626/original/file-20220331-23-shei1q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455626/original/file-20220331-23-shei1q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455626/original/file-20220331-23-shei1q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455626/original/file-20220331-23-shei1q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=501&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Students organized by the Moral Majority organization rally on the steps of the Capitol in Washington in 1984 in support of school prayer.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/students-representing-each-of-50-states-rally-3-7-on-the-news-photo/514704132?adppopup=true">Tim Clary/Bettmann via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Lower court rulings</h2>
<p>The coach’s suit raised two major claims – namely that the school board violated his rights to freedom of speech and religion. However, the Ninth Circuit twice rejected Kennedy’s claims, in <a href="https://casetext.com/case/kennedy-v-bremerton-sch-dist">2017</a> and <a href="https://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datastore/opinions/2021/03/18/20-35222.pdf">2021</a>, resulting in his appeal of the second case to the Supreme Court.</p>
<p>The Ninth Circuit denied Kennedy’s claim that he had the right to private free speech on the field, reasoning that because he was a public employee, reasonable observers could have assumed his prayer had the board’s support. In particular, the court found that he acted as a public employee, not a private citizen. The court did explain that educators are free to display their faith on their own time, such as when Kennedy sat in the stands as a fan during a game after he was suspended.</p>
<p>Turning to Kennedy’s freedom of religion claim, the court was satisfied that the school board’s restrictions on his activity met a well-established principle: Public officials have to demonstrate a compelling government interest before they can limit someone’s fundamental rights, such as freedom of religion, and the restrictions must be narrowly tailored to achieve that interest.</p>
<p>Here, the court accepted the board’s position that it had a compelling interest to avoid violating the Establishment Clause. In so ruling, the court balanced <a href="https://education.blogs.archives.gov/2016/04/12/religious-freedom/#:%7E:text=These%20ideals%20were%20solidified%20in,prohibiting%20the%20free%20exercise%20thereof%E2%80%A6%E2%80%9D">the tension between the constitutional rights to religion, and from religion</a> – the Free Exercise Clause, and the Establishment Clause, respectively.</p>
<p>The Ninth Circuit also rejected the coach’s claims under Title VII of the <a href="https://www.dol.gov/agencies/oasam/centers-offices/civil-rights-center/statutes/title-vii-civil-rights-act-of-1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, which prohibits employment discrimination on the basis of race, religion, sex or national origin. Nor did the court accept his claims that the board failed to accommodate him, or that officials retaliated against him in not renewing his contract.</p>
<h2>Decision ahead</h2>
<p>As part of its analysis, the Supreme Court is likely to consider whether the coach risked sending the message he was acting with the school board’s approval, as a form of protected speech, or if his prayers were unprotected private speech.</p>
<p>In addition, the court may address whether Kennedy failed to act as a role model, as is expected of educators. Courts <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/18/nyregion/18button.html">consistently agree</a> that school employees who work with students forgo some rights by virtue of their positions. For example, the Seventh Circuit affirmed that a school board in Indiana could dismiss a teacher who violated its policy by not remaining neutral about <a href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-7th-circuit/1233551.html">current events in class</a>.</p>
<p>As in Kennedy, boards can choose not to renew the contracts of employees who violate their policies. But until now, public employees on the job who ignored their employer’s lawful policies have been unable to claim that they were exercising their rights to freedom of religion or speech as a defense. It remains to be seen whether the court will acknowledge that educators cannot ignore lawful directives at work, in order to avoid unduly influencing their students, or whether the justices will open the door to granting teachers greater freedom of expression.</p>
<p>Based on <a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/2021/21-418_3dq3.pdf">the oral arguments</a>, it is difficult to know how the justices will rule – especially when, as Justice Stephen Breyer observed, “One of my problems in this case is the parties seem to have different views of the facts.”</p>
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<p>However, members of the court more favorable to accommodating religion seem willing to allow educators greater freedom to express their views in school settings – as suggested by <a href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/oral_arguments/argument_transcripts/2021/21-418_3dq3.pdf">Justice Neil Gorsuch’s musing</a>, “If we thought that the School District misunderstood the Establishment Clause teachings of this Court, what should we do?” If so, this would signal a significant change.</p>
<p>As is often the case in high-profile disputes, the Supreme Court is expected to rule in late June or early July. While the case is unlikely to end disagreements over public employees’ prayer as free speech, in my view, the justices will likely walk a fine line in balancing the interests of educators who wish to pray at work and school boards seeking to avoid violating the Constitution.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177980/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Charles J. Russo does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Supreme Court will hear oral arguments in Kennedy v. Bremerton School District, a case stemming from a football coach’s prayers on the field, on April 25, 2022.Charles J. Russo, Joseph Panzer Chair in Education in the School of Education and Health Sciences and Research Professor of Law, University of DaytonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1775152022-03-31T12:43:19Z2022-03-31T12:43:19ZA new way to pick the best school for your child<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455283/original/file-20220330-23-1avdaan.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C0%2C2108%2C1409&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Different types of data can influence how parents select schools for their children.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-students-wearing-medical-face-masks-and-royalty-free-image/1266512211">Viktorcvetkovic/E+ via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When parents look for information to help them choose a good elementary or secondary school for their child, they often turn to a variety of sources online.</p>
<p>For instance, they may check out state government websites that provide “<a href="https://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/essa/parent-guide-state-local-report-cards.pdf">report cards</a>” on local schools. Examples include Virginia’s <a href="https://schoolquality.virginia.gov/">School Quality Profiles</a> or Ohio’s <a href="https://reportcard.education.ohio.gov/">School Report Cards</a>.</p>
<p>Parents might also rely on popular school rating websites like <a href="https://www.greatschools.org/">GreatSchools.org</a>, <a href="https://www.niche.com/">Niche.com</a> or U.S. News & World Report’s <a href="https://www.usnews.com/education/k12">K-12 schools directory</a>, which claims to help parents find the “best” schools for their child. </p>
<p>As a researcher who specializes in <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=NzfortIAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">education policy</a>, I see some shortcomings with how many of these websites portray school quality to the public. I’m interested in the kinds of information that parents use to make school-related decisions. I also study how parental decisions about which school to select for their child might influence student diversity within schools.</p>
<p>Along with fellow <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=4V0B4vgAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">education researcher Jeffrey Henig</a>, I conducted a survey with a nationally representative sample of 2,800 parents or caretakers of children under age 12. With financial support from the <a href="https://www.spencer.org/">Spencer Foundation</a> and technical assistance from <a href="http://www.yougov.com/">YouGov</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.26300/7n5s-km15">we embedded an experiment</a> in the survey to see how enrollment decisions might vary if parents chose schools based on different kinds of academic performance data.</p>
<p>More specifically, we enabled parents to look at a school’s academic performance in <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737211030505">two different ways</a>: achievement status and achievement growth. Achievement status is based on students’ current levels of academic performance, whereas achievement growth considers students’ academic performance over time. </p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.26300/7n5s-km15">We found</a> that when parents are given information about achievement growth, they tend to choose schools that are not only more effective at teaching their students but also more demographically diverse.</p>
<h2>Status vs. growth</h2>
<p>To make more informed choices for their children, parents need a better understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of these two ways to measure schools’ academic performance. But many websites meant to help parents choose schools – whether government or commercial sites – offer information about only achievement status.</p>
<p>Achievement status refers to individual students’ academic performance at a single point in time. For example, 50% of a hypothetical school’s fifth graders might be proficient in reading as measured by the state’s annual reading test. Measures of achievement status like this provide a rough understanding of how students are doing in the tested subjects. </p>
<p>However, achievement status does not tell the public much about how schools contribute to student learning. Students face different obstacles both inside and outside of school, such as the <a href="https://www.insightintodiversity.com/povertys-long-lasting-effects-on-students-education-and-success/">challenges of poverty</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X16686949">racial discrimination</a>, and they enter school with different levels of preparation. As a result, schools with relatively high achievement status tend to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.7758/rsf.2019.5.2.03">disproportionately white and wealthy</a>.</p>
<p>Achievement growth, on the other hand, refers to the rate of change in individual students’ academic performance from one year to the next. Consider the same hypothetical school where 50% of the fifth graders are proficient in reading. But the year before, when those same students were fourth graders, only 40% were proficient in reading. Something very positive is happening in this school, but people would miss it if they focused exclusively on the 50% proficiency rate. Rather than looking at the results from a single year, achievement growth measures changes like this over time.</p>
<p>Some researchers argue that growth is a better measure of school effectiveness than status. For instance, education researcher <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=SWYJJ_YAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Morgan Polikoff</a> <a href="https://www.future-ed.org/work/proficiency-vs-growth-toward-a-better-measure/">has noted</a> how indicators of achievement status, like proficiency rates, “essentially measure who is enrolled in a school, rather than how well the school is doing at educating them.”</p>
<p>“Because such status measures merely capture the current performance levels of students, proficiency rates are highly correlated with student socioeconomic status and other demographics,” Polikoff has written. “Growth-based measures, on the other hand, can show students’ year-to-year changes and better demonstrate the school’s effectiveness or contribution to student learning.”</p>
<p>In other words, a school’s academic <a href="https://www.nwea.org/content/uploads/2020/03/NWEA_Hegedus_evaluating-the-relationships-between-poverty-and-school-performance_whitepaper.pdf">growth has much</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.7758/rsf.2019.5.2.03">less</a> to do with who’s enrolled at the school and more to do with what the school is doing to educate those students.</p>
<p>Some people might wonder whether a school’s rate of achievement growth merely reflects the fact that, for many schools serving disadvantaged students, those students may just have more room to grow. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/12/05/upshot/a-better-way-to-compare-public-schools.html">In fact</a>, there are roughly as many high-growth schools that serve disproportionately affluent students as there are high-growth schools that serve disproportionately low-income students. As it turns out, all students – no matter their backgrounds – have a similar capacity to learn and grow.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455069/original/file-20220329-13-1284guv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A classroom filled with many children of color." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455069/original/file-20220329-13-1284guv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/455069/original/file-20220329-13-1284guv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455069/original/file-20220329-13-1284guv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455069/original/file-20220329-13-1284guv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=402&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455069/original/file-20220329-13-1284guv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455069/original/file-20220329-13-1284guv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/455069/original/file-20220329-13-1284guv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=506&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Parents are more likely to choose schools with racial diversity if they’re given data about a school’s academic growth.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/teacher-going-over-exam-instructions-royalty-free-image/523444522?adppopup=true">Will & Deni McIntyre/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Toward more diverse schools</h2>
<p>For my study, I asked participants to choose between three randomly selected schools drawn from the same randomly selected school district somewhere in the United States. To guide this choice, participants received a range of demographic information about each school, such as the percentages of white, Black, and Hispanic students and the percentage of students eligible for free and reduced-price lunch – a common measure of economic disadvantage. In addition, some participants were <a href="https://edopportunity.org/">randomly assigned to receive information</a> about each school’s average status, average growth, or both.</p>
<p>What I found is that when parents are provided with information about a school’s current academic performance, they tend to choose higher-status schools, which, on average, have more students who are white and from families with higher income. However, when parents are provided with student growth data, they tend to choose higher-growth schools, many of which serve larger proportions of low-income students and students of color.</p>
<p>For this reason, school rating websites that provide only achievement status information are essentially nudging families toward the whitest and most affluent schools in a community. This exacerbates school segregation, especially if white and affluent families are more likely to have the economic means to decide where they want to live and where to send their kids to school. </p>
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<p>Increasingly, school districts and states have included growth data in their reports on local schools. As of 2020, <a href="https://dataqualitycampaign.org/resources/flagship-resources/showmethedata-2020/">43 states</a> and the <a href="https://dcschoolreportcard.org/">District of Columbia</a> reported achievement growth info in their annual school report cards.</p>
<p>However, with the exception of <a href="https://www.greatschools.org/gk/articles/why-student-growth-matters/">GreatSchools.org</a>, most school rating websites have yet to incorporate student achievement growth data into the range of information that they provide.</p>
<p>Measuring growth has also been made more difficult by the COVID-19 pandemic. Notably, annual standardized tests were canceled in <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/2020/3/20/21196085/all-states-can-cancel-standardized-tests-this-year-trump-and-devos-say">2020</a> and frequently administered in modified formats in <a href="https://www.chalkbeat.org/2021/2/22/22296173/biden-administration-state-tests">2021</a>. It will be more challenging – but not <a href="https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/rel/Products/Blog/100665">impossible</a> – for states to calculate growth accurately for the next few years because of the missing and modified tests during the pandemic.</p>
<h2>The future of growth data</h2>
<p>Calculating students’ rates of growth on tests is a technical and <a href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/andrewho/files/a_pracitioners_guide_to_growth_models.pdf">complicated process</a>. The results are often difficult for many people to understand. The next step in my research is to identify more effective and intuitive ways of communicating growth data to the public.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/177515/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David M. Houston receives funding from the Spencer Foundation. </span></em></p>An education researcher explains how most school rating websites lack a key piece of information about school performance.David M. Houston, Assistant Professor of Education, George Mason UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1790582022-03-14T12:22:23Z2022-03-14T12:22:23ZSchools will stop serving free lunch to all students – a pandemic solution left out of a new federal spending package<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451702/original/file-20220312-25-1vg2wv5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=105%2C67%2C4903%2C3409&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">About 30 million students eat school lunches daily.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/african-american-school-girl-holding-lunch-on-a-royalty-free-image/136801944?adppopup=true">JGI/Jamie Grill/Tetra Images via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Public schools have been serving all students free meals since the COVID-19 pandemic first disrupted K-12 education. In March 2022, Congress rejected calls to keep up the federal funding required to sustain that practice and left that money out of a <a href="https://khn.org/morning-breakout/free-school-meals-not-included-in-1-5-trillion-budget/">US$1.5 trillion spending package</a> that <a href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/ukraine-aid-biden-signs-omnibus-bill/">President Joe Biden signed</a> into law on March 11, 2022. We asked food policy expert <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=fPDErC8AAAAJ&hl=en">Marlene Schwartz</a> to explain why free meals make a difference and what will happen next.</em></p>
<h2>How did the COVID-19 pandemic initially affect the school lunch program?</h2>
<p>In March 2020, nearly all U.S. <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/03/20/818300504/schools-race-to-feed-students-amid-coronavirus-closures">K-12 school buildings closed</a> due to the COVID-19 pandemic. </p>
<p>The U.S. Department of Agriculture, which administers the federal government’s <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/nslp">National School Lunch Program</a>, quickly <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/fns-disaster-assistance/fns-responds-covid-19/child-nutrition-covid-19-waivers">granted waivers</a> to increase program flexibility and accommodate the challenges of the pandemic.</p>
<p>These waivers, which have been renewed several times, were critically important for school food service programs as the programs <a href="https://doi.org/10.5304/jafscd.2021.102.020">abruptly shifted</a>
away from serving meals in cafeterias and designed new distribution models to continue to feed students. Many school meal staff across the country created <a href="https://thecounter.org/covid-19-school-lunch-minneapolis-houston-kansas-city-san-francisco/">grab-and-go meals</a> that families could pick up, which was particularly important in the spring of 2020 and the following school year. Another major change, which has continued during the 2021-2022 school year, is that school systems are able to serve meals to all students at no cost.</p>
<p>Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, nearly <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/aboutschoolmeals/schoolmealtrendsstats/">30 million lunches were served every school day</a> to K-12 students through the National School Lunch Program. Schools provided roughly three-quarters of those meals at reduced rates or no cost at all – with the federal government reimbursing a portion of the cost of those meals. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451653/original/file-20220311-22-iqtor8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Children near a school bus, wearing masks, carry bags of food." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451653/original/file-20220311-22-iqtor8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/451653/original/file-20220311-22-iqtor8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451653/original/file-20220311-22-iqtor8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451653/original/file-20220311-22-iqtor8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=434&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451653/original/file-20220311-22-iqtor8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451653/original/file-20220311-22-iqtor8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/451653/original/file-20220311-22-iqtor8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=545&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Children like these in Santa Fe, N.M., could pick up bagged meals at bus stops when their schools had closed their doors amid virus outbreaks in 2020 and 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/VirusOutbreakNewMexico/16263619130e462d81806328e5badd28/photo?Query=school%20meals&mediaType=photo&sortBy=arrivaldatetime:desc&dateRange=Anytime&totalCount=1074&currentItemNo=13">AP Photo/Cedar Attanasio</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How much money is involved?</h2>
<p>The program cost <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/child-nutrition-programs/national-school-lunch-program">$14 billion in 2019</a>, before the pandemic disrupted it.</p>
<p>The price of a school lunch for families without free or reduced-cost meals varies. In 2017, full-price lunches tended to run between <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/aboutschoolmeals/schoolmealtrendsstats">$2.50 and $2.75</a> apiece. </p>
<h2>Are all public school students still getting free meals?</h2>
<p>Yes. However, that will no doubt change once the latest waiver expires on <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/covid-19-child-nutrition-response-85">June 30, 2022</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://frac.org/news/fracdissapointedomnibusmarch2022">Advocates urged Congress</a> to keep funding school nutrition programs at higher levels. But Congress <a href="https://frac.org/news/fracdissapointedomnibusmarch2022">did not include that money</a> in the <a href="https://federalnewsnetwork.com/budget/2022/03/congress-seeks-updates-on-state-of-the-federal-workforce-in-1-5t-omnibus-spending-deal/">$1.5 trillion spending bill</a> House and Senate lawmakers passed in March 2022.</p>
<p>This means that next fall, most schools will have to resume the old three-tiered system where some families don’t pay at all, some receive discounted lunches, and others must pay full price.</p>
<p>Two states will buck that trend. <a href="https://www.cde.ca.gov/ls/nu/univmealsqandapart2.asp">California</a> and <a href="https://www.pressherald.com/2021/07/11/maine-among-first-states-to-make-school-meals-free-for-all-students/">Maine</a> will continue providing universal school meals after the federal waiver ends due to measures their state legislators passed and governors signed into law during the COVID-19 pandemic. </p>
<p>At the federal level, more than a dozen senators and roughly 50 members of the House of Representatives backed proposed <a href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/117/s1530">legislation in 2021 that would permanently make school lunch free</a> for all students, regardless of their income. There is significant <a href="https://frac.org/news/introuniversalschoolmealsmay2021">support</a> for this idea among advocates, but the future of this type of federal legislation remains to be seen. </p>
<h2>What are the advantages of making school meals free to everyone?</h2>
<p>In my view, the biggest advantage to universal school meals is that more students actually eat nutritious school meals. Following the regulations that emerged from the 2010 <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/healthy-hunger-free-kids-act">Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act</a>, the nutritional quality of school meals improved significantly, and a recent study found that schools typically provide the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.5262">healthiest foods that children eat</a> all day.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13030911">The research shows</a> that making school meals free for everyone improves attendance and <a href="https://theconversation.com/free-school-meals-for-all-children-can-improve-kids-health-161957">boosts diet quality</a>. It also decreases the risk of <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-food-insecurity-152746">food insecurity</a> and the <a href="https://www.fordfoundation.org/news-and-stories/stories/posts/fighting-the-stigma-of-free-lunch-why-universal-free-school-lunch-is-good-for-students-schools-and-families/">stigma associated</a> with receiving a free meal. When no one has to pay, the growing problem of <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-should-serve-kids-food-in-school-not-shame-81787">school meal debt</a> is also eliminated.</p>
<p>There are important logistical benefits to universal school meals. Families don’t have to <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/applying-free-and-reduced-price-school-meals">fill out any paperwork</a> to establish their eligibility for free or reduced-price meals. And cafeteria staff can focus on serving the meals if they don’t need to <a href="https://schoolnutrition.org/aboutschoolmeals/schoolmealtrendsstats/">track payments</a>.</p>
<h2>What’s wrong with charging some students for lunch again?</h2>
<p>You have to look at the costs and benefits of the big picture. Universal school meals provide significant benefits to the school community as a whole – most notably, reductions in food insecurity and improvements in student diet quality. I believe these benefits are far greater than the marginal cost of providing free meals to students who would otherwise pay. </p>
<p>The fall of 2022 is also much too early to revert back to the three-tiered system because school food programs continue to face significant challenges. <a href="https://www.npr.org/2022/02/01/1077371645/schools-scramble-to-feed-kids-as-supply-chain-issues-persist">Supply chain disruptions</a> have made it harder to buy some kinds of food, including <a href="https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/resource-files/FNS-Survey-Supply-Chain-Disruptions.pdf">chicken and whole grain products</a>. In addition, many schools are having trouble <a href="https://www.fns.usda.gov/cn/results-fns-administered-school-food-authority-survey-supply-chain-disruption">hiring the staff they need</a> to prepare and serve the meals, and <a href="https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-price-outlook/summary-findings/">inflation is increasing food costs</a>. </p>
<p><iframe id="vRNnG" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/vRNnG/2/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<h2>What do you see happening in the future?</h2>
<p>Ideally, the federal government will reconsider this issue and support universal school meals.</p>
<p>If that does not happen, advocates, policymakers and researchers will be watching what happens in California and Maine. We will be able to compare what happens in these states versus those that do not continue to provide all students with free meals. My hope is that this information will inform future decisions about implementing universal school meals for all students nationally.</p>
<p>[<em>Over 150,000 readers rely on The Conversation’s newsletters to understand the world.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-150ksignup">Sign up today</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179058/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Marlene B. Schwartz receives funding from the USDA and the Connecticut State Department of Education. </span></em></p>A food policy expert explains how school lunches changed during the COVID-19 pandemic and what’s wrong with going back to the normal system now.Marlene B. Schwartz, Director, Rudd Center for Food Policy and Health and Professor, Human Development and Family Sciences, University of ConnecticutLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.