tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/fasting-24583/articlesFasting – The Conversation2024-03-14T17:19:14Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2256002024-03-14T17:19:14Z2024-03-14T17:19:14ZRamadan and Lent fasts could have cardiovascular benefits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/581669/original/file-20240313-24-wbolth.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C15%2C5176%2C3430&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fasting-bread-water-strengthen-spirit-591668285">Jesus Cervantes/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Food abstinence is <a href="https://www.marieclaire.co.uk/life/health-fitness/intermittent-fasting">all the rage</a> when it comes to health and wellbeing, it seems. Wherever you look, from the UK’s prime minister, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-68129595">Rishi Sunak</a>, to Hollywood celebrities like Thor star <a href="https://www.menshealth.com/fitness/a41925303/chris-hemsworth-fasting-limitless-exclusive-clip/">Chris Hemsworth</a>, someone’s extolling the virtues of fasting for mind and body. </p>
<p>According to reports, Sunak considers fasting for the first 36 hours of each week as “an important discipline”, while Hemsworth attempted to “unlock his body’s anti-ageing powers” through an extreme four-day fast for his <a href="https://youtu.be/0G-3o2tw9zI?feature=shared">2023 TV series, Limitless</a>. </p>
<p>Intermittent fasting has also become a popular form of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0303720715300800">weight management</a>. Some plans, such as the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1476-511X-9-94">Daniel Fast</a> popularised by film star <a href="https://time.com/5503754/what-is-the-daniel-fast/">Chris Pratt</a>, claim to follow the diets of religious figures to offer spiritual as well as physical rewards.</p>
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<p>But, despite the widespread coverage of intermittent fasting over the past few years, religious fasts have not shared the same level of attention. Does following a religious fast have the same or even greater health benefits then fasting purely for health and wellbeing? </p>
<h2>Health benefits of fasting for Ramadan and Lent</h2>
<p>In 2024 and 2025, Ramadan and the Christian <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-the-rare-convergence-of-ramadan-passover-and-easter-recalls-a-shared/">period of Lent overlap</a>. Ramadan is a period of fasting for Muslims, while Lent is a period of abstinence for many Christians, particularly those of Orthodox denominations.</p>
<p>However, the nature of religious fasts varies. During Ramadan, fasting is a form of time-restricted eating – followers should avoid all food and drink between dawn and dusk. Whereas, Orthodox Christian fasting practices tend to focus on excluding <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC156653/#:%7E:text=Orthodox%20Christian%20holy%20books%20recommend,and%20Friday%20throughout%20the%20year.">all animal products and sources of fat</a> from the diet, rather than a full fast. </p>
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<p>With colleagues, I explored the potential health effects of different religious and faith-based fasts. By conducting a systematic review of published data from Muslim and Orthodox Christian communities only, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0939475324000735">our recent analysis</a> showed that both fasting approaches are associated with a reduction in cardiovascular risk – although for different reasons. </p>
<p>Fasting during Ramadan was associated with a significant reduction in blood pressure and body weight, whereas fasting among Orthodox Christians for Lent showed a significant association with a reduction in cholesterol.</p>
<p>Lower blood pressure among those fasting for Ramadan could be an effect of not eating or drinking during the day, thereby <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/ajpregu.00283.2021">lowering insulin</a> levels which can act on the sympathetic nervous system as well as reducing blood volume. </p>
<p>Orthodox Christians following a plant-based fast may <a href="https://www.heartuk.org.uk/ultimate-cholesterol-lowering-plan/uclp-introduction">reduce fat intake and increase fibre</a> in comparison to their usual diet, which may explain the association of their Lent fast with lower cholesterol.</p>
<p>Perhaps unsurprisingly given that fasts tend to limit energy intake, fasting for both Ramadan and Lent were also associated with weight loss. </p>
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<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-fast-safely-during-ramadan-what-the-science-shows-224547">How to fast safely during Ramadan – what the science shows</a>
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<p>However, some of these benefits may be cancelled out by overconsumption of less healthy food and drink when the fast is broken. To maintain the benefits of fasting, followers should avoid eating foods high in fat, sugar and salt. </p>
<h2>Aligning healthcare and religious practices</h2>
<p>Our review suggests that health professionals could support people to use aspects of their faith, including fasting practices, to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0939475324000735">support healthier lifestyles</a>. This could include working with faith leaders such as Imams and mosque communities prior to Ramadan, to explore healthy Iftar meals to break the fast.</p>
<p>It might even be possible to use aspects of faith to promote self-care as part of religious practice, to improve physical health alongside spiritual growth and identity. For example, religious leaders could encourage healthy community meals outside of fasting periods to promote health and social connectivity.</p>
<p>Research has suggested that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550830705001424?casa_token=9eZG0-RtGd4AAAAA:yf0OACZa2lvKPwDVudeHxjkGCe33Six9gLElr7qcgpsNEEIcQLH_znU3zmO39rN_VF6DlXU6">people of faith</a> enjoy more positive health outcomes for a range of interventions, including weight management. This may be at least partially due to faith-linked health interventions being more <a href="https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/mcnair/vol13/iss1/11/">culturally appropriate and aligned</a> with patients’ beliefs and ideas. For example, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352250X20302116">research suggests</a> an association between religiosity and self-control, which can positively impact eating patterns.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ramadan-four-tips-to-help-you-eat-right-and-stay-healthy-158731">Ramadan: four tips to help you eat right and stay healthy</a>
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<p>Aligning health programmes to the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550830705001424?casa_token=9eZG0-RtGd4AAAAA:yf0OACZa2lvKPwDVudeHxjkGCe33Six9gLElr7qcgpsNEEIcQLH_znU3zmO39rN_VF6DlXU6">faith identities</a> and practices of patients could <a href="https://www.researchprotocols.org/2015/2/e64">increase engagement and adherence</a>. For example, in the US, research has linked religious service attendance with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29790080/#:%7E:text=Frequent%20church%20attendance%20was%20significantly,Americans%20attempting%20to%20lose%20weight.">greater weight loss</a>. </p>
<p>So, Ramadan and Lent, when millions follow their religious obligations to fast, may be a good time for health professionals to work with faith groups to develop culturally inclusive approaches. This could help address the challenge of changing <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2019-65951-001">health behaviour</a>, as people are more likely to adhere to positive habits if these align with their personal values, including their faith.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225600/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Duane Mellor is a member of the British Dietetic Association.</span></em></p>Plenty has been said about the health benefits of fasting, but what about as a religious practice?Duane Mellor, Lead for Evidence-Based Medicine and Nutrition, Aston Medical School, Aston UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2231812024-03-12T06:26:19Z2024-03-12T06:26:19ZDoes intermittent fasting have benefits for our brain?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579767/original/file-20240305-20-q62h9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C8%2C5850%2C3598&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/group-elderly-women-have-breakfast-cafeteria-2237394693">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Intermittent fasting has become a popular dietary approach to help people lose or manage their <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8683964/">weight</a>. It has also been promoted as a way to reset metabolism, control chronic disease, slow ageing and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27810402">improve overall health</a>.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, some research suggests intermittent fasting may offer a different way for the brain to access energy and provide protection against neurodegenerative diseases like <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11011-023-01288-2">Alzheimer’s disease</a>. </p>
<p>This is not a new idea – the ancient Greeks believed fasting <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8839325/">enhanced thinking</a>. But what does the modern-day evidence say?</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/i-want-to-eat-healthily-so-why-do-i-crave-sugar-salt-and-carbs-212114">I want to eat healthily. So why do I crave sugar, salt and carbs?</a>
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<h2>First, what is intermittent fasting?</h2>
<p>Our <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35487190/">diets</a> – including calories consumed, macronutrient composition (the ratios of fats, protein and carbohydrates we eat) and when meals are consumed – are factors in our lifestyle we can change. People do this for cultural reasons, desired weight loss or potential health gains.</p>
<p>Intermittent fasting consists of short periods of calorie (energy) restriction where food intake is limited for 12 to 48 hours (usually 12 to 16 hours per day), followed by periods of normal food intake. The intermittent component means a re-occurrence of the pattern rather than a “one off” fast. </p>
<p>Food deprivation beyond 24 hours typically constitutes starvation. This is distinct from fasting due to its specific and potentially harmful biochemical alterations and nutrient deficiencies if continued for long periods.</p>
<h2>4 ways fasting works and how it might affect the brain</h2>
<p>The brain accounts for about <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-much-energy-do-we-expend-thinking-and-using-our-brain-197990">20% of the body’s energy consumption</a>.</p>
<p>Here are four ways intermittent fasting can act on the body which could help explain its potential effects on the brain.</p>
<p><strong>1. Ketosis</strong></p>
<p>The goal of many intermittent fasting routines is to flip a “<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5913738/">metabolic switch</a>” to go from burning predominately carbohydrates to burning fat. This is called ketosis and typically occurs after 12–16 hours of fasting, when liver and glycogen stores are depleted. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493179/">Ketones</a> – chemicals produced by this metabolic process – become the preferred energy source for the brain. </p>
<p>Due to this being a slower metabolic process to produce energy and potential for lowering blood sugar levels, ketosis can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10844723/">cause symptoms</a> of hunger, fatigue, nausea, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8754590/">low mood</a>, irritability, constipation, headaches, and brain “fog”. </p>
<p>At the same time, as glucose metabolism in the brain declines with ageing, studies have shown ketones could provide an alternative energy source to <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aau2095">preserve brain function</a> and prevent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32709961/">age-related neurodegeneration disorders and cognitive decline</a>.</p>
<p>Consistent with this, increasing ketones through <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31027873/">supplementation</a> or <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31757576/">diet</a> has been shown to improve cognition in adults with mild cognitive decline and those at risk of Alzheimer’s disease respectively. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/does-it-matter-what-time-of-day-i-eat-and-can-intermittent-fasting-improve-my-health-heres-what-the-science-says-203762">Does it matter what time of day I eat? And can intermittent fasting improve my health? Here's what the science says</a>
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<p><strong>2. Circadian syncing</strong></p>
<p>Eating at times that <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32480126/">don’t match our body’s natural daily rhythms</a> can disrupt how our organs work. Studies in shift workers have suggested this might also make us more prone to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22010477/">chronic disease</a>. </p>
<p>Time-restricted eating is when you eat your meals within a six to ten-hour window during the day when you’re most active. Time-restricted eating causes changes in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36599299/">expression of genes in tissue</a> and helps the body during rest and activity. </p>
<p>A 2021 <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7827225/">study of 883 adults</a> in Italy indicated those who restricted their food intake to ten hours a day were less likely to have cognitive impairment compared to those eating without time restrictions. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579766/original/file-20240305-30-b9gwh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="older man playing chess" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579766/original/file-20240305-30-b9gwh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/579766/original/file-20240305-30-b9gwh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579766/original/file-20240305-30-b9gwh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579766/original/file-20240305-30-b9gwh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579766/original/file-20240305-30-b9gwh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579766/original/file-20240305-30-b9gwh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/579766/original/file-20240305-30-b9gwh4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Matching your eating to the active parts of your day may have brain benefits.</span>
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<p><strong>3. Mitochondria</strong></p>
<p>Intermittent fasting may provide <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35218914/">brain protection</a> through improving mitochondrial function, metabolism and reducing oxidants.</p>
<p>Mitochondria’s <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Mitochondria">main role is to produce energy</a> and they are crucial to brain health. Many age-related diseases are closely related to an energy supply and demand imbalance, likely attributed to <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-021-00626-7">mitochondrial dysfunction during ageing</a>. </p>
<p>Rodent studies suggest alternate day fasting or reducing calories <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1038/jcbfm.2014.114">by up to 40%</a> might protect or improve <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21861096">brain mitochondrial function</a>. But not all studies support this theory. </p>
<p><strong>4. The gut-brain axis</strong></p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6469458/">gut and the brain communicate with each other</a> via the body’s nervous systems. The brain can influence how the gut feels (think about how you get “butterflies” in your tummy when nervous) and the gut can affect mood, cognition and mental health.</p>
<p>In mice, intermittent fasting has shown promise for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5913738/">improving brain health</a> by increasing survival and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12354284/">formation of neurons</a> (nerve cells) in the hippocampus brain region, which is involved in memory, learning and emotion. </p>
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<span class="caption">What we eat can affect our brain, and vice versa.</span>
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<p>There’s <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8470960/">no clear evidence</a> on the effects of intermittent fasting on cognition in healthy adults. However one 2022 study interviewed 411 older adults and found <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9646955/">lower meal frequency</a> (less than three meals a day) was associated with reduced evidence of Alzheimer’s disease on brain imaging.</p>
<p>Some research has suggested calorie restriction may have a protective effect against <a href="https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/article/81/9/1225/7116310">Alzheimer’s disease</a> by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation and promoting vascular health. </p>
<p>When we look at the effects of overall energy restriction (rather than intermittent fasting specifically) the evidence is mixed. Among people with mild cognitive impairment, one study showed <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26713821/">cognitive improvement</a> when participants followed a calorie restricted diet for 12 months. </p>
<p>Another study found a 25% calorie restriction was associated with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30968820">slightly improved working memory</a> in healthy adults. But a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022316623025221?via%3Dihub">recent study</a>, which looked at the impact of calorie restriction on spatial working memory, found no significant effect.</p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-intermittent-fasting-can-boost-your-health-but-how-and-when-to-restrict-food-consumption-is-crucial-197170">Yes, intermittent fasting can boost your health, but how and when to restrict food consumption is crucial</a>
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<h2>Bottom line</h2>
<p>Studies in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9740746/">mice</a> support a role for intermittent fasting in improving brain health and ageing, but few studies in humans exist, and the evidence we have is mixed.</p>
<p>Rapid weight loss associated with calorie restriction and intermittent fasting can lead to nutrient deficiencies, muscle loss, and decreased immune function, particularly in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8749464/">older adults</a> whose nutritional needs may be higher. </p>
<p>Further, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6314618/">prolonged fasting</a> or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9042193/">severe calorie restriction</a> may pose risks such as fatigue, dizziness, and electrolyte imbalances, which could exacerbate existing health conditions. </p>
<p>If you’re considering <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMra1905136?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmed">intermittent fasting</a>, it’s best to seek advice from a health professional such as a dietitian who can provide guidance on structuring fasting periods, meal timing, and nutrient intake. This ensures intermittent fasting is approached in a safe, sustainable way, tailored to individual needs and goals.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/223181/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alongside her academic role, Hayley O'Neill works as a wellness consultant.</span></em></p>Many dieters vouch for the effect of intermittent fasting on their body – but what about their brain?Hayley O'Neill, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2251522024-03-11T12:24:50Z2024-03-11T12:24:50ZRamadan will be difficult for those in Gaza or other war zones – what does fasting mean for those who might be already starving?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580797/original/file-20240309-20-1w4qtd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C11%2C3730%2C2144&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Palestinians gather at the area where aid was distributed in Gaza City on Feb. 19, 2024.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/palestinians-struggling-with-hunger-gather-at-the-area-news-photo/2015671793">Karam Hassan/Anadolu via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ramadan in the Gaza Strip this year will be anything but “normal.” </p>
<p>Malnutrition and disease are claiming dozens of lives. The Gaza Health Ministry said on March 6, 2024, that <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/famine-gaza-hunger-israel-hamas-war-rcna141891">at least 20 people had died</a> of malnutrition. Many others, it said, were “dying silently,” unable to reach medical facilities.</p>
<p>According to humanitarian organizations, the proportion of people in Gaza deprived of food <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2024/mar/06/colleagues-starvation-gaza-no-precedent-famine">exceeds any other place in the world</a>. </p>
<p>What meaning can the holy month’s fast have for those who have nothing to eat? </p>
<h2>Ramadan and the Quran</h2>
<p>Fasting in Islam requires believers to abstain from certain acts that are necessary for sustaining life – mainly eating, drinking and sexual – from dawn to dusk. But it is not just about food. It also requires that people abstain from lying or criticizing others behind their backs. </p>
<p>Muslims access “the sacred” primarily through the Quran, which is recited collectively from cover to cover in <a href="https://gulfnews.com/uae/ramadan/ramadan-2023-all-you-need-to-know-about-taraweeh-prayers---when-why-and-how-to-perform-it-1.1618320387277">communal night nighttime vigils during Ramadan</a>.</p>
<p><a href="https://keough.nd.edu/people/mahan-mirza/">As a scholar of Islam</a> and as a practicing Muslim, I often think of how Islamic scripture describes the purpose of this sacred month. “Fasting is prescribed to you,” <a href="https://quran.com/2/183">says the Quran</a>, “that ye may learn self-restraint.”
The revelation of the Quran to Muhammad commenced in Ramadan, and Muslims take this time of the year to renew their connection to God’s words. </p>
<p>Fasting in Ramadan was prescribed in 624 C.E., the second year of Islam. This was shortly after the Prophet Muhammad’s emigration from Mecca to Medina in today’s Saudi Arabia to escape persecution. This episode, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Hijrah-Islam">known as the Hijra</a>, came to mark the first year of the Islamic calendar. </p>
<p>While Muslims may fast voluntarily throughout the year, it is mandatory in the month of Ramadan. Sick or pregnant people, as well as travelers, must make up missed days. The chronically ill or elderly must make amends by feeding others. </p>
<p>Fasting in Ramadan is believed to rejuvenate spiritual strength. The <a href="https://sunnah.com/ibnmajah:1690">Prophet Muhammad said</a> the mere ritual of fasting without inner transformation results in nothing but hunger.</p>
<p>“Goodness does not consist in your turning your face towards East or West,” <a href="https://quran.com/2/177">the Quran cautions</a>, in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/qiblah">reference to the orientation</a> that is required in ritual prayer. Rather, goodness consists in caring for the neighbor and stranger. These are principles that <a href="https://www.acommonword.com/the-acw-document/">all religions have in common</a>. </p>
<h2>Ramadan and charity</h2>
<p>In Muslim culture, Ramadan is experienced primarily as a month of prayer, ascetic practice, family life and generosity. A select few engage in a practice known as “<a href="https://www.zakat.org/on-ritual-retreat-itikaf">i’tikaf</a>,” a voluntary retreat in partial seclusion at the mosque, typically during the last few days and nights. </p>
<p>A highlight of Ramadan is increased acts of charity and the feeding of others. Many mosques offer meals, which is believed to be an act of particular virtue at sunset to facilitate breaking of the fast, at this time of the year. Muslims often pay their <a href="https://www.muslimaid.org/what-we-do/religious-dues/ramadan/zakat-facts/">annual mandatory alms known as zakat</a> during Ramadan in order to reap the special rewards of this month. </p>
<p>Islamic educational and humanitarian organizations increase their appeals for donations every year in Ramadan, and the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/gallery/2022/apr/11/ramadan-2022-around-the-world-in-pictures">rhythm of life in Muslim communities transforms</a> with pre-dawn family meals, lazy mornings, working afternoons and communal feasts.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580575/original/file-20240307-28-ap9at8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Several children and adults share a meal while being seated in a circle on the floor where a number of dishes are placed in the center." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580575/original/file-20240307-28-ap9at8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580575/original/file-20240307-28-ap9at8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580575/original/file-20240307-28-ap9at8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580575/original/file-20240307-28-ap9at8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580575/original/file-20240307-28-ap9at8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580575/original/file-20240307-28-ap9at8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580575/original/file-20240307-28-ap9at8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A family living in a tent breaks their fast during Ramadan 2021 in Deir Al Balah, a city in Gaza, on April 19, 2021.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/tawfik-al-akraa-and-his-family-are-seen-during-the-iftar-news-photo/1232406941?adppopup=true">Ali Jadallah/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Ramadan in Gaza</h2>
<p>The meaning of Ramadan in a war zone is poignant for Muslims who are suffering directly. War is neither prescribed nor prohibited during Ramadan. <a href="https://sunnah.com/abudawud:2406">Muhammad urged</a> his troops to break the fast when entering into battle in order to preserve their strength. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Badr">Battle of Badr</a>, the first of many military confrontations under Muhammad’s command, which became a turning point in early Islamic history, took place in Ramadan. </p>
<p>For those who witness that suffering on screens from the comfort of their homes, the question of moral responsibility still remains. Muslims who seek to fulfill <a href="https://quran.com/2/3">God’s command</a> are “to spend out of what God has provided for them” in worthy charitable causes in Ramadan. Many of them will ask what more could be done to feed the hungriest of hungry in the world, who are <a href="https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/80-of-world-s-hungriest-people-live-in-gaza-palestine/3156190">now in Gaza</a>.</p>
<p>Religions help us come to terms with our mortality. They help us make sense of life beyond this life. In a time of war and famine, when death is near, <a href="https://quran.com/50/16">Ramadan can remind us that God is nearer</a>: “closer than the jugular vein.”</p>
<p>For countless innocent victims of all ages and every gender who are breathing their last – in the direst of circumstances and the deepest of anguish – this thought can be a source of solace, if not joy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/225152/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mahan Mirza does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Ramadan encourages acts of charity. This also poses a question for many Muslims as they consider what more could be done to feed the hungriest in the world, many of whom are in Gaza.Mahan Mirza, Executive Director, Ansari Institute for Global Engagement with Religion, and Teaching Professor of Teaching Professor of Islam and Global Affairs, University of Notre DameLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2245472024-03-08T13:37:28Z2024-03-08T13:37:28ZHow to fast safely during Ramadan – what the science shows<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580697/original/file-20240308-21-os5g1u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=35%2C26%2C5955%2C3961&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/happy-muslim-parents-their-kids-sharing-2131454041">Drazen Zigic/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/muslims/">1.9 billion Muslims</a>, Ramadan is the ninth and holiest Islamic month and this year starts on March 11. During the 30 days of Ramadan, many Muslims fast, refraining from food, drink, smoking and sex, between dawn and sunset each day. </p>
<p>Fasting is only compulsory for adult Muslims. There are <a href="https://islamqa.info/en/answers/23296/who-is-exempt-from-fasting-during-ramadan">exemptions</a> for people who are sick, elderly, pregnant, breastfeeding, menstruating or travelling.</p>
<p>As Ramadan slowly moves across seasons, the fasting days are getting cooler and shorter than last year, at least for those in the northern hemisphere and those close to the equator. Regardless of where you live, it is important to drink plenty of fluids when breaking your fast at sunset and before you start your fast at dawn. </p>
<p>Scientific research has shown that fasting is <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/science-and-technology/2023/01/can-fasting-help-you-live-longer-heres-what-the-science-says">good for your health</a>. Animal studies have shown fasting results in longer life and better health. In humans, research suggests body weight, blood glucose, blood cholesterol and blood pressure all <a href="https://oamjms.eu/index.php/mjms/article/view/9508">improve with fasting</a>. </p>
<p>In terms of mental health, Ramadan fasting improves mental health and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168822720308020">lessens depression symptoms</a>. Of course, there is an immense spiritual benefit too.</p>
<p>Many homes prepare traditional foods at the time of breaking the fast, often with fried food and sweets. A healthy alternative would be fresh fruit; dates have always been a common tradition. </p>
<p>One of the benefits of breaking fast with fruit is that it provides plenty of glucose for the organs, especially the brain. </p>
<p>Similarly, at dawn, a meal with protein, fat and complex carbohydrates, such as whole grains and beans, can be useful as fats can slow digestion, giving a fasting person a feeling of being full for longer. Complex carbohydrates also provide energy for longer. </p>
<p>Fluid intake is vital, especially if the weather is warmer and the fasting person is planning strenuous exercise.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A bowl of dates" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580695/original/file-20240308-16-kztkea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/580695/original/file-20240308-16-kztkea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580695/original/file-20240308-16-kztkea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580695/original/file-20240308-16-kztkea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580695/original/file-20240308-16-kztkea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580695/original/file-20240308-16-kztkea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/580695/original/file-20240308-16-kztkea.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dates are a good choice for breaking fast.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/raw-organic-medjool-dates-ready-eat-394253335">Brent Hofacker/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Physical activity</h2>
<p>Lifestyle choices are important for your health. Apart from diet, exercise is important, too. Most exercises can be performed in Ramadan, but don’t expect to keep to your pre-Ramadan levels. </p>
<p>If you feel dehydrated, too tired or weak, then stop. A good time to exercise is in the morning or later afternoon when the outdoor temperature could be lower. However, this would not affect indoor exercises. </p>
<p>People whose professions require them to be physically active need to be careful that they don’t get dehydrated or suffer heat exhaustion – or worse, heatstroke. </p>
<p>Workers in hot climates need to be careful during the hottest part of the day (12 noon to 3pm). If you do need to go out a lot, be sensible and try to stay in shaded areas, if possible. When opening your fast, drink cool fluids and add a pinch of salt too, as excess sweating makes us lose salt. And wear light clothes.</p>
<p>Smoking and vaping are not permitted when fasting, so if you smoke or vape, it might be a good time to try to quit. </p>
<p>Smoking is the <a href="https://ash.org.uk/resources/view/facts-at-a-glance#:%7E:text=Summary,million%20deaths%20a%20year%20globally.">leading preventable cause of death</a> in the world. Think of using nicotine gum to help you quit when you break your fast. Islamic scholars allow the use of nicotine patches while fasting. </p>
<h2>What about the sick?</h2>
<p>If fasting would worsen a health condition, you should avoid fasting. However, many people with <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28791239/">chronic diseases do fast</a> without any problems. </p>
<p>If you have an illness and you want to fast, you should consult your doctor first, especially if you have a chronic health condition, such as diabetes, a heart condition or hypertension (high blood pressure).</p>
<p>If fasting makes you more ill, how is it beneficial if you can’t perform your normal acts of worship, or you need to be taken to the hospital?</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/224547/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Feisal Subhan is a Lecturer in Biomedical Science (Human Physiology) and a Muslim Faith Advisor at the University of Plymouth. </span></em></p>Fasting is generally good for your health, but it needs to be done correctly. Ramadan mubarak.Feisal Subhan, Lecturer in Biomedical Science, University of PlymouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2077232023-10-10T21:43:33Z2023-10-10T21:43:33ZWhat is the OMAD diet? Is one meal a day actually good for weight loss? And is it safe?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551627/original/file-20231003-26-odr3p8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=152%2C26%2C5838%2C3449&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/female-bare-feet-weight-scale-bathroom-785794792">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What do British Prime Minister <a href="https://www.sciencefocus.com/the-human-body/one-meal-a-day-diet-omad">Rishi Sunak</a> and singer <a href="https://theconversation.com/one-meal-a-day-diet-popular-with-celebrities-could-do-more-harm-than-good-heres-why-203086">Bruce Springsteen</a> have in common?</p>
<p>They’re among an ever-growing group of public figures touting the benefits of eating just one meal a day.</p>
<p>As a result, the one meal a day (OMAD) diet is the latest attention-grabbing weight loss trend. Advocates claim it leads to fast, long-term weight loss success and better health, including delaying the ageing process. </p>
<p>Like most weight-loss programs, the OMAD diet makes big and bold promises. Here’s what you need to know about eating one meal a day and what it means for weight loss.</p>
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<p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-weight-set-point-and-why-does-it-make-it-so-hard-to-keep-weight-off-195724">What's the 'weight set point', and why does it make it so hard to keep weight off?</a>
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<h2>The OMAD diet explained</h2>
<p>Essentially, the OMAD diet is a type of intermittent fasting, where you fast for 23 hours and consume all your daily calories in one meal eaten within one hour.</p>
<p>The OMAD diet rules are presented as simple and easy to follow:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>You can eat whatever you want, provided it fits on a standard dinner plate, with no calorie restrictions or nutritional guidelines to follow. </p></li>
<li><p>You can drink calorie-free drinks throughout the day (water, black tea and coffee). </p></li>
<li><p>You must follow a consistent meal schedule, eating your one meal around the same time each day.</p></li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Plate of chicken and veggies, next to a cup of dried fruit" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551622/original/file-20231003-25-n2lo07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551622/original/file-20231003-25-n2lo07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551622/original/file-20231003-25-n2lo07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551622/original/file-20231003-25-n2lo07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551622/original/file-20231003-25-n2lo07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551622/original/file-20231003-25-n2lo07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551622/original/file-20231003-25-n2lo07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The one meal a day diet significantly restricts your calorie intake.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/ZjEeMnDiq00">Ella Olsson/Unsplash</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Along with creating a calorie deficit, resulting in weight loss, advocates believe the OMAD diet’s extended fasting period <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2021.771944/full">leads to physiological changes</a> in the body that promote better health, including boosting your metabolism by triggering a process called ketosis, where your body burns stored fat for energy instead of glucose. </p>
<h2>What does the evidence say?</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, research into the OMAD diet is limited. Most studies have examined its impact on <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/pdf/S1550-4131(18)30512-6.pdf">animals</a>, and the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35087416/">primary study</a> with humans involved 11 lean, young people following the OMAD diet for a mere 11 days.</p>
<p>Claims about the OMAD diet typically rely on research into intermittent fasting, rather than on the OMAD diet itself. There is <a href="https://www.cfp.ca/content/66/2/117.short">evidence</a> backing the efficacy of intermittent fasting to achieve weight loss. However, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-022-00638-x">most studies</a> have focused on short-term results only, typically considering the results achieved across 12 weeks or less.</p>
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<p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/does-it-matter-what-time-of-day-i-eat-and-can-intermittent-fasting-improve-my-health-heres-what-the-science-says-203762">Does it matter what time of day I eat? And can intermittent fasting improve my health? Here's what the science says</a>
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<p>One <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2114833">longer-term study from 2022</a> randomly assigned 139 patients with obesity to either a calorie-restricted diet with time-restricted eating between 8am and 4pm daily, or to a diet with daily calorie restriction alone for 12 months.</p>
<p>After 12 months, both groups had lost around the same weight and experienced similar changes in body fat, blood sugar, cholesterol and blood pressure. This indicates long-term weight loss achieved with intermittent fasting is not superior and on a par with that achieved by traditional dieting approaches (daily calorie restriction).</p>
<h2>So what are the problems with the OMAD diet?</h2>
<p><strong>1. It can cause nutritional deficiencies and health issues.</strong></p>
<p>The OMAD diet’s lack of nutritional guidance on what to eat for that one meal a day raises many red flags. </p>
<p>The meals we eat every day should include a source of protein balanced with wholegrain carbs, vegetables, fruits, protein and good fats to support <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7071223/">optimum health, disease prevention and weight management</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Woman shops for groceries" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551625/original/file-20231003-15-4yrdir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/551625/original/file-20231003-15-4yrdir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551625/original/file-20231003-15-4yrdir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551625/original/file-20231003-15-4yrdir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551625/original/file-20231003-15-4yrdir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551625/original/file-20231003-15-4yrdir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/551625/original/file-20231003-15-4yrdir.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">We’re likely to miss out on key nutrients if we eat one meal a day.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/woman-in-green-shirt-looking-at-her-grocery-list-8422685/">Kampus Production/Pexels</a></span>
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<p>Not eating a balanced diet will result in nutritional deficiencies that can result in poor immune function, fatigue and a decrease in bone density, leading to osteoporosis. </p>
<p>Fasting for 23 hours a day is also likely to lead to extreme feelings of hunger and uncontrollable cravings, which may mean you consistently eat foods that are not good for you when it’s time to eat. </p>
<p><strong>2. It’s unlikely to be sustainable.</strong></p>
<p>You might be able to stick with the OMAD diet initially, but it will wear thin over time. </p>
<p>Extreme diets – especially ones prescribing extended periods of fasting – aren’t enjoyable, leading to feelings of deprivation and social isolation during meal times. It’s hard enough to refuse a piece of office birthday cake at the best of times, imagine how this would feel when you haven’t eaten for 23 hours!</p>
<p>Restrictive eating can also lead to an unhealthy relationship with food, making it even harder to achieve and maintain a healthy weight. </p>
<p><strong>3. Quick fixes don’t work.</strong></p>
<p>Like other popular intermittent fasting methods, the OMAD diet appeals because it’s easy to digest, and the results appear fast. </p>
<p>But the OMAD diet is just another fancy way of cutting calories to achieve a quick drop on the scales. </p>
<p>As your weight falls, things will quickly go downhill when your <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4766925/">body activates its defence mechanisms</a> to defend your weight loss. In fact, it will regain weight – a response that stems from our hunter-gatherer ancestors’ need to survive periods of deprivation when food was scarce.</p>
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<p>
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<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-true-the-faster-you-lose-weight-the-quicker-it-comes-back-heres-what-we-know-about-slow-and-fast-weight-loss-198301">Is it true the faster you lose weight the quicker it comes back? Here's what we know about slow and fast weight loss</a>
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<h2>The bottom line</h2>
<p>Despite the hype, the OMAD diet is unsustainable, and it doesn’t result in better weight-loss outcomes than its predecessors. Our old habits creep back in and we find ourselves fighting a cascade of physiological changes to ensure we regain the weight we lost.</p>
<p>Successfully losing weight long-term comes down to:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>losing weight in small manageable chunks you can sustain, specifically periods of weight loss, followed by periods of weight maintenance, and so on, until you achieve your goal weight</p></li>
<li><p>making gradual changes to your lifestyle to ensure you form habits that last a lifetime.</p></li>
</ul>
<p><em>At the Boden Group, Charles Perkins Centre, we are studying the science of obesity and running clinical trials for weight loss. You can <a href="https://redcap.sydney.edu.au/surveys/?s=RKTXPPPHKY">register here</a> to express your interest.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207723/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Nick Fuller works for the University of Sydney and has received external funding for projects relating to the treatment of overweight and obesity. He is the author and founder of the Interval Weight Loss program.</span></em></p>Like most weight-loss programs, the OMAD diet makes bold promises – and comes with risks.Nick Fuller, Charles Perkins Centre Research Program Leader, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2037622023-08-02T19:59:49Z2023-08-02T19:59:49ZDoes it matter what time of day I eat? And can intermittent fasting improve my health? Here’s what the science says<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539146/original/file-20230725-25-7rw3f8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=466%2C134%2C3623%2C1980&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-looking-fridge-late-night-she-2187693175">Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Early hunter-gatherers faced long periods of fasting. Their <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35834774/">access to food</a> relied on successful hunting, fishing, and the availability of wild plants. </p>
<p>Over time, the development of modern agriculture and the transition to industrialised societies <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35834774/">changed our regular eating patterns</a>, shifting our dinner time to later in the day to accommodate work schedules.</p>
<p>Today, with access to an abundance of food, we rarely experience prolonged periods of fasting, except for weight loss or religious practices. It’s <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26411343/">now common</a> to have four or more meals a day, with the most calories consumed later in the day. Frequent snacking is also common, over a window of around 15 hours. </p>
<p>However, research increasingly shows our health is not only affected by what and how much we eat, but also <em>when</em> we eat. So what does this mean for meal scheduling? And can intermittent fasting help?</p>
<h2>Our body clock controls more than our sleep</h2>
<p>Our internal biological timekeeper, or circadian clock, regulates many aspects of our physiology and behaviour. It tells us to be awake and active during the day, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/does-it-matter-what-time-i-go-to-bed-198146">rest and sleep</a> during the night. It can also tell us the best time to eat. </p>
<p>Our body is biologically prepared to have food during the day. Food digestion, nutrient uptake and energy metabolism is optimised to occur when we’re supposed to be active and eating. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man eats noodles at his desk" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539148/original/file-20230725-15-wsc3zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539148/original/file-20230725-15-wsc3zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539148/original/file-20230725-15-wsc3zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539148/original/file-20230725-15-wsc3zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539148/original/file-20230725-15-wsc3zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539148/original/file-20230725-15-wsc3zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539148/original/file-20230725-15-wsc3zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Eating when we’re supposed to be sleeping can impact our health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/entrepreneur-working-office-late-night-eating-1254582217">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Working against this default stage, by regularly eating when we’re supposed to sleep and fast, can compromise these processes and impact our health. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31813351/">Erratic eating patterns</a>, including late-night meals, have been linked to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36198293/">weight gain</a> and a greater risk of metabolic disease. </p>
<p>Shift-workers, for example, and people who work evening, night or rotating shifts, have a <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-night-shift-increase-the-risk-of-cancer-diabetes-and-heart-disease-heres-what-we-know-so-far-190652">higher risk</a> of obesity, heart disease and diabetes. </p>
<p>But adopting an eating pattern that aligns with our circadian rhythm can reduce these risks. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-does-night-shift-increase-the-risk-of-cancer-diabetes-and-heart-disease-heres-what-we-know-so-far-190652">Why does night shift increase the risk of cancer, diabetes and heart disease? Here's what we know so far</a>
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<h2>So can intermittent fasting help?</h2>
<p>Nutritional interventions are increasingly focused not only on “what” we eat but also “when”. Intermittent fasting is one way to restrict the timing, rather than the content, of what we eat. </p>
<p>There are <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35834774/">several types</a> of intermittent fasting, one of which is time-restricted eating. This means eating all our calories in a consistent 8-12 hour, or even shorter, interval each day.</p>
<p>But is it backed by evidence?</p>
<p>Most of what we know today about intermittent fasting and time-restricted eating is from <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35834774/">mouse studies</a>, which demonstrate remarkable weight loss and overall health benefits associated with these types of dietary interventions. </p>
<p>However, some aspects of mouse physiology can be different to humans. Mice need to eat more frequently than humans and even a short period of fasting has a more significant physiological impact on mice. One day of fasting in mice leads to a 10% <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212877820301320">loss of body weight</a>, whereas humans would need to fast for 14 days to achieve <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30881957/">similar results</a>. This makes a direct translation from mice to humans more complicated.</p>
<p>While health benefits of <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2623528">intermittent fasting</a> and <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2114833">time-restricted eating</a> have also been observed in humans, the findings in respect of weight loss are less clear. Current data suggest only modest, if any, weight loss in human participants who undergo these diet regimens when compared to calorie-restricted diets.</p>
<p>Drawing <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35834774/">definitive conclusions</a> in humans may be more <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32480126/">difficult</a> because of the small sample sizes and individual differences in metabolism, variations in study design (such as the use of different protocols with varying times and duration of food restriction), and participants not complying with their instructions. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Man cooks meal" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539151/original/file-20230725-29-5or1mi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/539151/original/file-20230725-29-5or1mi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539151/original/file-20230725-29-5or1mi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539151/original/file-20230725-29-5or1mi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539151/original/file-20230725-29-5or1mi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539151/original/file-20230725-29-5or1mi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/539151/original/file-20230725-29-5or1mi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Results from mice studies might not translate directly to humans.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/man-prepares-breakfast-kitchen-young-handsome-1921620299">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Health benefits could be due to eating fewer calories</h2>
<p>Most studies describing the health benefits of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33466692/#:%7E:text=and%20Future%20Perspectives-,Time%2DRestricted%20Eating%20and%20Metabolic%20Syndrome%3A%20Current%20Status%20and%20Future,doi%3A%2010.3390%2Fnu13010221.">time restricted eating</a> or <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27569118/">intermittent fasting</a> also found these diets were accompanied by calorie restriction: reducing the time of food access implicitly leads people to eat less. </p>
<p>Studies that controlled calorie intake did not detect any more benefits of intermittent fasting than <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2623528">calorie restriction</a> alone. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/restricting-calories-leads-to-weight-loss-not-necessarily-the-window-of-time-you-eat-them-in-181942">Restricting calories leads to weight loss, not necessarily the window of time you eat them in</a>
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<p>The weight loss and health benefits observed with intermittent fasting is likely attributed due to the resultant reduction in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34135111/">calorie intake</a>. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32986097/">Similar findings</a> have been reported for time-restricted eating. </p>
<h2>Benefit of following our body clock</h2>
<p>Nevertheless, time-restricted eating offers additional health benefits in humans, such as improved glucose metabolism and blood pressure, even without differences in calorie intake, in particular when restricted to the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29754952/">earlier part of the day</a> (that is, when having a six-hour eating window with dinner before 3pm).</p>
<p>Restricting food intake to the daytime for shift-workers <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28635334/">can alleviate</a> metabolic differences caused by shift-work, whereas this effect is not observed when food intake is restricted to <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abg9910">nighttime</a>. </p>
<p>One idea is that consuming food early, in alignment with our circadian rhythm, helps to <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28578930/">synchronise our circadian clock</a>. This restores the rhythm of our autonomous nervous system, which regulates essential functions such as breathing and heart rate, to keep our physiology “tuned”, as it was shown <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2015873118">in mice</a>. </p>
<p>While there’s much still to learn from research in this field, the evidence suggests that to maintain a healthy weight and overall wellbeing, aim for regular, nutritious meals during the day, while avoiding late-night eating and frequent snacking.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/yes-intermittent-fasting-can-boost-your-health-but-how-and-when-to-restrict-food-consumption-is-crucial-197170">Yes, intermittent fasting can boost your health, but how and when to restrict food consumption is crucial</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/203762/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frederic Gachon is currently receiving funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) and has received funding from the French Institute for Medical Research and Health (INSERM: 2006-2008), the Swiss National Science Foundation (2010-2012), the European Research Council (2011- 2015) and the Leenaards Foundation (2012-2014). He also worked for Nestlé (2012-2017) where he received industry funding.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Meltem Weger has received funding from the German Academic Scholarship Foundation (PhD fellowship; 2010-2012) and from the European Commission (Marie Curie Curie Postdoctoral fellowships; 2014-2016, 2017-2019).</span></em></p>Evidence suggests late-night eating can be bad for our health.Frederic Gachon, Associate Professor, Physiology of Circadian Rhythms, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of QueenslandMeltem Weger, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2019922023-04-16T12:23:29Z2023-04-16T12:23:29ZHow does intermittent fasting affect athletic performance? There’s no simple answer<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516395/original/file-20230320-18-lg7o4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C0%2C5424%2C3646&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Intermittent fasting has become increasingly popular — but does this diet help or hinder athletic performance?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Intermittent fasting has become increasingly popular and is now gaining a following among athletes. </p>
<p>The practice consists of going without food for periods of varying lengths. Outside these periods, you can eat any type of food in any quantity you want. There are several types of intermittent fasting, including alternative fasting (every other day), modified fasting (reduced calorie intake on two non-consecutive days per week) and time-limited eating (for example, fasting from 6 p.m. to 10 a.m.). </p>
<p>How does intermittent fasting affect athletic performance? And what are the benefits, practical considerations and risks involved?</p>
<p>I am a dietitian nutritionist with a PhD in nutrition from Laval University, and currently a postdoctoral fellow at the Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC). This article was written in collaboration with Geneviève Masson, a sports nutritionist who advises high performance athletes at the Canadian Sport Institute Pacific and teaches at Langara College in Vancouver.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
À lire aussi :
<a href="https://theconversation.com/le-jeune-intermittent-est-il-pour-vous-voici-ce-quen-dit-la-science-183497">Le jeûne intermittent est-il pour vous ? Voici ce qu’en dit la science</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Varying effects on athletic performance</h2>
<p>During physical activity, the body primarily uses carbohydrate reserves, called glycogen, as its energy source. During fasting, glycogen reserves decrease rapidly. So in order to meet its energy needs, the body increases its use of lipids (fats).</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512250/original/file-20230224-2406-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">When fasting, glycogen reserves decline rapidly. So in order to meet its energy needs, the body increases its use of lipids (fats).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The practice of intermittent fasting has been associated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113453">with a decrease in fat mass and maintenance of lean mass in athletes</a>. However, as contradictory results of several studies have shown, these changes do not always improve athletic performance.</p>
<p>Several studies reported that aerobic capacity, measured by a VO<sub>2</sub> max test, remained unchanged after intermittent fasting in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1186/s12970-020-00396-z">elite cyclists</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13092941">runners</a>, as well as in well-trained <a href="https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002488">long-distance</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e3182293891">middle-distance</a> runners. In <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13092941">trained runners</a>, there was no effect on running time (10 km), level of perceived exertion or heart rate.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.5604/20831862.1185888">Trained cyclists</a> reported increased fatigue and muscle soreness during Ramadan, but this may be partly due to dehydration, since fluids are also restricted during this period when you cannot consume anything from sunrise to sunset.</p>
<h2>Power sports</h2>
<p>In the context of fasting, low glycogen (carbohydrate) reserves may limit the execution of repeated, intense efforts. Active adults reported a decreased speed in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2016-0125">repeated sprints</a> after fasting 14 hours per day for three consecutive days. </p>
<p>Active students reported decreased power and anaerobic capacity after <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2018.1438520">ten days of intermittent fasting</a> as assessed by the Wingate (stationary bike) test, although the study reported that power increased <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147227">in the same group</a> after four weeks. </p>
<h2>Strength training</h2>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-016-1044-0">Men</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqz126">women</a> who followed a strength training program had similar gains in muscle mass and strength when practising intermittent fasting compared to a control diet. There was no significant difference in muscle power between <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2017.12.014">active men</a> who did or did not practise intermittent fasting. However, one study reported an increase in strength and muscular endurance in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2016.1223173">active young adults</a> after eight weeks of strength training combined with intermittent fasting. </p>
<p>So, as we see, the results vary greatly from one study to another and are influenced by several factors, including the type of fasting and its duration, the level of the athletes, the type of sport they practise and so on. In addition, very few studies have been carried out in women. Also, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051390">lack of a control group</a> in most studies means the effect of intermittent fasting cannot be isolated. </p>
<p>So for the moment, it is not possible to draw a conclusion about the effectiveness of intermittent fasting on athletic performance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=473&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511724/original/file-20230222-25-9yf2rd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=594&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The effects of intermittent fasting on athletic performance, according to the current state of knowledge.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Bénédicte L. Tremblay)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Eating before and after training</h2>
<p>Athletes who wish to use intermittent fasting should consider several practical issues before starting. Are their training schedules compatible with this dietary approach? For example, does the period during which an athlete is allowed to eat allow them to consume enough food prior to doing physical exercise, or to be able to recover after the training? </p>
<p>And, importantly, what about food quality, given that athletes must consume <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13092941">sufficient protein</a> to recover and maintain their lean body mass and limit negative impacts on their performance?</p>
<h2>Questioning the impacts of — and reasons for — fasting</h2>
<p>Intermittent fasting may result in an energy deficiency that is too great for athletes with high energy needs to overcome. This could be the case for endurance athletes (running, cycling, cross-country skiing, triathlon, etc.) due to their high volume of training. These athletes may end up suffering from <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099193">Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S)</a>, a syndrome that affects hormone secretion, immunity, sleep and protein synthesis, among other things. If the deficit is prolonged, this will have an adverse effect on an athlete’s performance. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512249/original/file-20230224-2083-7gbjli.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Intermittent fasting could result in an energy deficiency that is too great for athletes with high energy requirements, including endurance athletes, to overcome due to their high volume of training.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Geneviève Masson)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It is also important to question the motivation for adopting a dietary practice as strict as intermittent fasting. Some people do it for religious reasons such as Ramadan. Others are motivated by weight control goals and the hope of achieving an “ideal” body according to socio-cultural norms. </p>
<p>A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2022.101681">recent study</a> showed a significant association between intermittent fasting in the past 12 months and eating disorder behaviours (overeating, compulsive exercise, vomiting and laxative use). Although this study does not determine whether fasting causes eating disorders, or eating disorders lead to fasting, it does highlight an associated risk in this practice. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/512248/original/file-20230224-1965-b4cons.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A recent study showed a significant association between intermittent fasting in the past 12 months and eating disorder behaviours.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Finally, the potential impact of intermittent fasting on social interactions must also be considered. A fasting schedule may limit participation in social activities that involve food. What is the risk of negatively influencing the eating behaviours of other family members, especially children or teenagers who see their parents abstain from eating and skip meals?</p>
<h2>Is this a good or bad idea?</h2>
<p>With such conflicting scientific data, it is not possible at this time to come to a conclusion about the effects of intermittent fasting on sports performance. </p>
<p>Further studies are needed before this practice can be recommended, especially for seasoned athletes. Furthermore, the potential negative effects on other aspects of health, including eating habits and social interactions, are not negligible.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/201992/count.gif" alt="La Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Bénédicte L. Tremblay has received funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Laprise ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Does intermittent fasting have a negative or positive effect on athletic performance? At the moment, the scientific data about this is contradictory.Bénédicte L. Tremblay, Nutritionniste et stagiaire postdoctorale, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Catherine Laprise, Professeur UQAC, Co-titulaire de la Chaire de recherche en santé durable du Québec et Directrice du Centre intersectoriel en santé durable de l'UQAC, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (UQAC)Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1978672023-03-21T18:10:22Z2023-03-21T18:10:22ZCalls for a ‘green’ Ramadan revive Islam’s long tradition of sustainability and care for the planet<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516673/original/file-20230321-1318-95p970.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C3244%2C2096&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Plastic, yes. But at least the bottles are being reused.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/supporters-of-ousted-egyptian-president-mohamed-morsi-news-photo/173359900?phrase=ramadan%20water%20bottles&adppopup=true">Marwan Naamani/AFP via Getty Images)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>For many Muslims <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-ramadan-is-called-ramadan-6-questions-answered-77291?gclid=CjwKCAjwq-WgBhBMEiwAzKSH6EHWHNIK_vqp0nBD80s8rfAzTeyRZZqwcNUZV97ifh7Mhdw17AcPPBoC8KQQAvD_BwE">breaking fast in mosques around the world this Ramadan</a>, something will be missing: plastics.</p>
<p>The communal experience of iftars – the after-sunset meal that brings people of the faith together during the holy month – often necessitates the use of utensils designed for mass events, such as plastic knives and forks, along with bottles of water.</p>
<p>But to encourage Muslims to be more mindful of the impact of Ramadan on the environment, mosques are increasingly <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/mosque-plastic-bottle-ban-1.5152210">dispensing of single-use items</a>, with some <a href="https://aboutislam.net/muslim-issues/europe/uk-mosques-to-ditch-plastic-cutlery-ahead-of-ramadan/">banning the use of plastics</a> altogether.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://history.umbc.edu/facultystaff/full-time/noor-zaidi/">historian of Islam</a>, I see this “greening” of Ramadan as entirely in keeping with the traditions of the faith, and in particular the observance of Ramadan.</p>
<p>The month – during which observant <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-ramadan-is-called-ramadan-6-questions-answered-77291">Muslims must abstain</a> from even a sip of water or food from sun up to sun down – is a time for members of the faith to focus on purifying themselves as individuals against excess and materialism.</p>
<p>But in recent years, Muslim communities around the world have used the period to <a href="https://www.ciogc.org/the-fasting-of-ramadan-a-time-for-thought-action-and-change/">rally around themes of social awareness</a>. And this includes understanding the perils of wastefulness and embracing the link between Ramadan and environmental consciousness.</p>
<p>The ban on plastics – a move <a href="https://mcb.org.uk/plastic-ban-for-ramadan-urged-as-british-mosques-go-green/">encouraged by the Muslim Council of Britain</a> as a way for Muslims “to be mindful of [God’s] creation and care for the environment” – is just one example.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="People clearing plastic from a beach" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516451/original/file-20230320-26-o9zpiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516451/original/file-20230320-26-o9zpiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516451/original/file-20230320-26-o9zpiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516451/original/file-20230320-26-o9zpiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516451/original/file-20230320-26-o9zpiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516451/original/file-20230320-26-o9zpiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516451/original/file-20230320-26-o9zpiz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Environmental consciousness has gained traction in Muslim communities over recent years.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/photo/mother-and-daughter-cleaning-up-a-beach-royalty-free-image/1432295674?phrase=islam%20ecology&adppopup=true">Yasser Chalid via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Many other mosques and centers are discouraging large or extravagant evening meals altogether. The fear is such communal events <a href="https://www.islamichelp.org.uk/green-ramadan">generate food waste and overconsumption</a> and often rely on <a href="https://isna.net/greenramadan/">nonbiodegradable materials</a> for cutlery, plates and serving platters.</p>
<h2>Quranic environmentalism</h2>
<p>While the move toward environmental consciousness has gained traction in Muslim communities in recent years, the links between Islam and sustainability can be found in the faith’s foundational texts.</p>
<p>Scholars have long emphasized principles outlined in the Quran that highlight <a href="https://quran.com/en/al-anam/141">conservation</a>, reverence for <a href="https://quran.com/6/99?translations=131">living creatures</a> and the diversity of living things as <a href="https://quran.com/50?startingVerse=7">a reminder of God’s creation</a>. </p>
<p>The Quran repeatedly emphasizes the idea of “<a href="https://ansari.nd.edu/assets/342769/chapter3_a_qur_anic_environment.pdf">mizan</a>,” a kind of cosmic and natural balance, and the <a href="http://www.khaleafa.com/khaleafacom/caretakers-of-the-earth-an-islamic-perspective">role of humans as stewards and khalifa, or “viceregents,” on Earth</a> – terms that also carry an environmental interpretation.</p>
<p>Recently, Islamic <a href="https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ImUzOeIsCQdCGgi2y554jbFrV4g_SgxR/view">environmental activists have highlighted</a> the numerous hadith – sayings of the Prophet Muhammad that provide guidance to followers of the faith – that emphasize that Muslims should avoid excess, respect resources and living things, and consume in moderation. </p>
<p>Although present from the outset of the faith, Islam’s ties to environmentalism received major visibility with the works of Iranian philosopher Seyyed Hossein Nasr, and a series of lectures he delivered at the University of Chicago in 1966. The <a href="https://www.worldcat.org/de/title/man-and-nature-the-spiritual-crisis-in-modern-man/oclc/963433660">lectures and a subsequent book</a>, “Man and Nature: The Spiritual Crisis in Modern Man,” warned that humans had broken their relationship with nature and thus placed themselves in grave ecological danger.</p>
<p>Nasr blamed modern and Western science for being <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26899432?seq=3">materialistic, utilitarian and inhuman</a>, claiming it had destroyed traditional views of nature. Nasr <a href="https://www.academia.edu/35023936/The_Contemporary_Islamic_World_and_the_Environmental_Crisis">argued</a> that Islamic philosophy, metaphysics, scientific tradition, arts and literature emphasize the spiritual significance of nature. But he noted that numerous contemporary factors, such as mass rural-to-urban migration and poor and autocratic leadership, had prevented the Muslim world from realizing and implementing the Islamic view of the natural environment.</p>
<p>Scholars and activists expanded on Nasr’s work through the 1980s and 1990s, among them Fazlun Khalid, one of the world’s leading voices on Islam and environmentalism. In 1994, Khalid founded the <a href="https://www.ifees.org.uk/">Islamic Foundation for Ecology and Environmental Sciences</a>, an organization dedicated to the maintenance of the planet as a healthy habitat for all living beings. Khalid and other Muslim environmentalists suggest that Islam’s nearly 2 billion adherents can participate in the tasks of environmental sustainability and equity not through Western models and ideologies but from <a href="https://crcc.usc.edu/fazlun-khalid-environmentalism-is-intrinsic-to-islam/">within their own traditions</a>.</p>
<p>Partnering with the United Nations Environment Program, Khalid and other <a href="https://www.unep.org/al-mizan-covenant-earth#:%7E:text=Al%2DMizan%3A%20A%20Covenant%20for%20the%20Earth%20presents%20an%20Islamic,other%20threats%20to%20the%20planet.">leading scholars</a> crafted <a href="https://www.unep.org/al-mizan-covenant-earth#:%7E:text=Al%2DMizan%3A%20A%20Covenant%20for%20the%20Earth%20presents%20an%20Islamic,other%20threats%20to%20the%20planet.">Al-Mizan</a>, a worldwide project for Muslim leaders interested in Muslims’ religious commitments to nature. “The ethos of Islam is that it integrates belief with a code of conduct which pays heed to the essence of the natural world,” Khalid wrote in “<a href="https://www.iucn.org/news/commission-environmental-economic-and-social-policy/201901/signs-earth-islam-modernity-and-climate-crisis#:%7E:text=This%20book%2C%20by%20one%20of,faces%20today%2C%20namely%20climate%20change.">Signs on the Earth: Islam, Modernity, and the Climate Crisis</a>.”</p>
<h2>Going beyond an eco-Ramadan</h2>
<p>Environmental crises <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.702">disproportionately affect the world’s poorest populations</a>, and academics have highlighted
the particular <a href="https://had-int.org/blog/how-is-climate-change-affecting-muslim-communities/">vulnerabilities of Muslim communities</a> around the world, such as the victims of <a href="https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/climate-change-likely-increased-extreme-monsoon-rainfall-flooding-highly-vulnerable-communities-in-pakistan/">devastating floods in Pakistan</a> in 2022.</p>
<p>By highlighting <a href="https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780945454397">Islamic principles</a>, <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/literatures-languages-cultures/alwaleed/outreach-and-projects/cop26">policies</a> and <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Islamic-Environmentalism-Activism-in-the-United-States-and-Great-Britain/Hancock/p/book/9780367878092">community approaches</a>, academics have shown how Islam <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/how-islam-can-represent-model-environmental-stewardship">can represent a model for environmental stewardship</a>.</p>
<p>This push for environmental consciousness extends beyond Ramadan. In recent years, Muslims have tried to introduce green practices into the shrine cities in Iraq during pilgrimage seasons in <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-ashura-how-this-shiite-muslim-holiday-inspires-millions-122610">Ashura</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-largest-contemporary-muslim-pilgrimage-isnt-the-hajj-to-mecca-its-the-shiite-pilgrimage-to-karbala-in-iraq-144542">Arbaeen</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Thousands of people gather in front of a shrine" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516457/original/file-20230320-26-nhqapa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516457/original/file-20230320-26-nhqapa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516457/original/file-20230320-26-nhqapa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516457/original/file-20230320-26-nhqapa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516457/original/file-20230320-26-nhqapa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516457/original/file-20230320-26-nhqapa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/516457/original/file-20230320-26-nhqapa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pilgrims at the Holy Shrine in Karbala, Iraq.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/photo/millions-of-pilgrims-in-karbala-shrine-iraq-royalty-free-image/893864662?phrase=arbaeen&adppopup=true">Jasmin Merdan via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>This has included <a href="https://thegreenpilgrim.org">awareness campaigns</a> encouraging the 20 million pilgrims who visit Arbaeen annually to reduce the tons of trash they leave every year that clog up Iraq’s waterways. Quoting from <a href="https://www.al-islam.org/articles/aspects-environmental-ethics-islamic-perspective-mohammad-ali-shomali-0">Shiite scholarship</a> and drawing on <a href="https://thegreenpilgrim.org/resources/">testimonials</a> from community leaders, the Green Pilgrim movement suggests carrying cloth bags and reusable water bottles, turning down plastic cutlery, and hosting eco-friendly stalls along the walk.</p>
<p>Muslim-owned businesses and nonprofits are joining these wider efforts. Melanie Elturk, the founder of the successful hijab brand Haute Hijab, regularly ties together faith, fashion, commerce and environmentalism by highlighting the brand’s <a href="https://www.hautehijab.com/pages/ethics-sustainability">focus on sustainability and environmental impact</a>. The Washington, D.C., nonprofit <a href="https://www.greenmuslims.org/">Green Muslims</a> pioneered <a href="https://festival.si.edu/blog/how-green-is-your-deen-environmentalism-islam">the first “leftar” – a play on the word “iftar</a>” – using leftovers and reusable containers.</p>
<p>These efforts are but a few of the diverse ways that Muslim communities are addressing environmental impact. The greening of Ramadan fits into a broader conversation about how often communities can tackle climate change within their own frameworks.</p>
<p>But Islamic environmentalism is more than just the dispensing of plastic forks and water bottles – it taps into a worldview ingrained in the faith from the outset, and can continue to guide adherents as they navigate environmentalism, a space where they may otherwise be marginalized.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197867/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Noorzehra Zaidi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Communal meals to break fast can mean lots of single-use plastics. A switch to environmentally friendly principles is in line with Islamic principles through the ages.Noorzehra Zaidi, Assistant Professor of HIstory, University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1978452023-03-21T12:42:20Z2023-03-21T12:42:20ZRamadan finds greater recognition in America’s public schools<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/516502/original/file-20230320-2667-t1lhni.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C26%2C5879%2C3895&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Muslim students may request special accommodations during the Islamic month of fasting.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/side-view-of-asian-beautiful-young-muslim-student-royalty-free-image/1213143339?phrase=Muslim%20students%20pray&adppopup=true">mkitina4 via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>Ramadan – the Islamic month of fasting – is expected to begin at sunset on <a href="https://www.moonsighting.com/ramadan-eid.html">March 10, 2024</a>. The likely first day of fasting will be Monday, March 11. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=COz6BG8AAAAJ&hl=en">Amaarah DeCuir</a>, who researches Muslim student experiences, offers insights into how public schools can move toward greater recognition of the sacred Islamic month.</em></p>
<h2>How many Muslim students are enrolled in public schools in the US?</h2>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/09/01/muslims-are-a-growing-presence-in-u-s-but-still-face-negative-views-from-the-public/">3.85 million</a> Muslims in the United States. Of that number, <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/07/26/demographic-portrait-of-muslim-americans">1.35 million</a> are children.</p>
<p>Although this may only represent a small portion of public school students nationwide – and many Muslim children attend private Islamic schools – Muslim students are a part of a <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2020/09/10/u-s-teens-take-after-their-parents-religiously-attend-services-together-and-enjoy-family-rituals/">60% majority</a> of students in public schools who say that religion is important in their lives.</p>
<h2>What are public schools legally obligated to do for Ramadan?</h2>
<p>Federal law – specifically <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/ocr-factsheet-shared-ancestry-202301.pdf">Title VI</a> of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 – protects all students from discrimination based on race, color or national origin. This includes students of any religion.</p>
<p>In 2023, the U.S. Department of Education <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/religionandschools/prayer_guidance.html">reissued guidance</a> on constitutionally protected prayer and religious expression. This gave school leaders detailed information on federal protections for students who seek to practice their religion during the school day.</p>
<p>These guidelines help schools prepare adequate accommodations for Muslim students year-round. The guidance <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/religionandschools/prayer_guidance.html">specifically mentions Ramadan</a> stating Muslim students also have constitutional protections that <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/religionandschools/prayer_guidance.html">permit them to pray</a> during non-instructional time, as long as it doesn’t disturb other students.</p>
<h2>What are the benefits when schools recognize Ramadan?</h2>
<p>Research shows that students <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.13141">have a stronger sense of belonging</a>, have better <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02482">well-being</a> and <a href="https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1158154.pdf">do better academically</a> when they attend a school that fosters a positive environment that recognizes the diversity of the student body. </p>
<p>By contrast, students who experience discrimination and bias tend to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-022-01712-3">suffer academically</a>. High-quality, supportive school environments create excellent teaching and learning for all students.</p>
<h2>What are specific ways that schools accommodate students who fast?</h2>
<p>During Ramadan, Muslims abstain from food and drink during daylight hours. Muslim students who fast may request <a href="https://ing.org/resources/for-educators/other-educator-resources/religious-practices-of-muslim-students-in-public-schools">to sit away from the school cafeteria</a> to avoid the sights and smells of food.</p>
<p>Alternate seating minimizes physical discomfort and supports other experiences like reading, quiet play or rest during lunchtime. Muslim students often prefer to sit in the library or a favorite classroom during their lunchtime, ideally with other Muslim students observing the fast.</p>
<p>Students who have not reached puberty, female students who are menstruating at the time and students who are ill or traveling <a href="https://www.islamicfinder.org/news/who-is-exempt-from-fasting-in-ramadan/">are exempt</a> from fasting during Ramadan. </p>
<h2>How have Muslim students experienced Ramadan in public schools?</h2>
<p>Although fasting does not prohibit studying and completing schoolwork, some fasting students may notice that <a href="https://www.unboundmedicine.com/medline/citation/14681711/abstract/Effects_on_health_of_fluid_restriction_during_fasting_in_Ramadan_">they experience fatigue</a>, <a href="https://headachejournal.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1526-4610.1999.3907490.x">headaches</a> and <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/1601899.epdf">daytime dehydration</a> when fasting. <a href="https://www.healththoroughfare.com/food/ramadan-and-intermittent-fasting-how-it-boosts-your-well-being/60573">Others notice increased</a> energy and focus and better sleep. </p>
<p>Muslims begin abstaining from food and drink at dawn, typically one hour before sunrise. The exact time changes with the seasons and geographic location. During Ramadan 2024, which falls in March and April, fasting students may wake up as early as 5 a.m. to eat, drink and pray. By the end of the day, studies have shown that students may have less <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22375233/">cognitive focus</a>, in addition to fatigue and exhaustion.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2012.12.005">Some Muslim students struggle</a> with academic assessments and complicated tasks scheduled in the late afternoon during Ramadan. <a href="https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2019/05/14/colleges-try-accommodate-muslim-students-fasting-ramadan">They may seek permission</a> to take tests early in the school day when they are more alert and able to focus on complex tasks. </p>
<p>Muslim students break their fast at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan">home</a> or the mosque at sunset. After the meal, families may join nighttime community prayers at the local mosque, for about two hours. These traditions and routines limit students’ abilities to complete typical homework assignments and after-school activities. Some students opt to do homework early in the morning when they are more alert, but some after-school programs like athletics and clubs are not easily postponed. Schools can support Muslim students by modifying expectations for after-school engagement during Ramadan.</p>
<h2>Does the Israel-Palestine conflict raise any particular concerns?</h2>
<p>The U.S. Department of Education <a href="https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/religionandschools/prayer_guidance.html">2023 Guidance on Constitutionally Protected Prayer and Religious Expression</a> states that school officials are required to make accommodation “on the basis of requests.” But since Oct. 7, 2023, American Muslims have faced <a href="https://www.cair.com/press_releases/cair-received-1283-complaints-over-past-month-an-unprecedented-increase-in-complaints-of-islamophobia-anti-arab-bias/">increased anti-Muslim bias and hate</a>, creating a climate of fear that leads Muslims to hide their identity or censor their speech. A <a href="https://belonging.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/2021-09/Islamophobia%20Through%20the%20Eyes%20of%20Muslims.pdf">2020 national survey</a> found that 44.6% of Muslim young people were most likely to conceal their religious identity. </p>
<p>As educators prepare for Ramadan, they can advance <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000248254">inclusive</a> practices that offer schoolwide accommodations to minimize the need to make requests that reveal students’ religious identity. Similar to <a href="https://www.cast.org/news/2020/community-driven-process-update-udl-guidelines?_gl=1*1xdgz59*_ga*MTIzNDMwODA2Ni4xNzA5MTc5MTcw*_ga_C7LXP5M74W*MTcwOTE3OTE2OS4xLjAuMTcwOTE3OTE2OS4wLjAuMA..">universal design</a> principles, educators can offer alternative lunch seating, low-intensity physical education and multiple assessment schedules to support any student who might be observing the fast.</p>
<h2>What about doing physical education or sports during Ramadan?</h2>
<p>Muslim students who have physical education classes during Ramadan <a href="https://www.healthwellbeing.com/how-to-exercise-safely-during-ramadan/">may ask to avoid</a> cardio-intensive activities when fasting to avoid exhaustion and dehydration. Instead, <a href="https://www.menshealth.com/uk/fitness/a36074589/training-during-ramadan/">they may opt for moderate</a> strength training with periods of rest. </p>
<p>Young Muslim athletes <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260436485_Effects_of_Ramadan_fasting_on_physical_performance_and_psychological_characteristics_in_youth_soccer_players">might not perform</a> as well as they <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0765159711001717">usually do</a> at the start of Ramadan, until their bodies get <a href="https://www.omahacentralregister.com/8804/sports/muslim-student-athletes-observe-ramadan/">used to fasting</a>. Older student-athletes <a href="https://spectator.cuchicago.edu/5437/sports/cuc-muslim-student-athletes-celebrate-the-month-of-ramadan/">adjust their workout schedule</a> during Ramadan to prepare for competitions. Muslim student-athletes <a href="https://usatodayhss.com/2019/ramadan-and-the-muslim-student-athlete">rely upon coaches</a> to adapt physical training during Ramadan.</p>
<h2>How have college students recognized Ramadan on their campuses?</h2>
<p>Muslim students in higher education have long traditions of hosting annual Fast-A-Thons to invite fellow students to fast in community with them for one day in Ramadan. Dating back to 2001 at the <a href="https://volopedia.lib.utk.edu/entries/fast-a-thon/">University of Tennessee</a>, Muslim Student Associations, known as MSAs, <a href="https://events.islamicity.org/events/9th-annual-fastathon/">continue</a> to promote <a href="https://thebutlercollegian.com/2022/04/muslim-student-association-hosts-campus-wide-fast-a-thon/">Fast-A-Thons</a> to raise <a href="https://calendar.uab.edu/event/fast-a-thon_fundraiser_8894#.ZBSwChTMI2w">awareness</a> of Ramadan and Muslims. Occasionally, groups fund-raise for social justice causes like local and global hunger. Today, many college campus MSAs invite other students to fast for a day and host events to enjoy the sunset meal together.</p>
<h2>How many school districts close for the end-of-Ramadan festival?</h2>
<p>By my count, at least 19 U.S. public school districts were closed in 2023 <a href="https://theconversation.com/students-lead-more-public-schools-to-close-for-islamic-holidays-182197">for Eid al-Fitr</a>, the holiday that follows the month of Ramadan.</p>
<p>This now includes <a href="https://www.mycentraljersey.com/story/news/education/2023/02/01/watchung-nj-school-district-eid-al-fitr/69854266007/">Watchung, New Jersey</a>,<a href="https://www.browardschools.com/Page/68992">Broward County, Florida</a>, <a href="https://www.10tv.com/article/news/local/hilliard-becomes-first-school-district-recognize-eid/530-57af0792-8dce-4ecc-a821-d7691313f33a">Hilliard, Ohio</a>, and <a href="https://www.stamfordadvocate.com/news/article/stamford-schools-pass-calendar-eid-al-fitr-new-17741279.php">Stamford, Connecticut</a>. </p>
<p>Eid ul Fitr this year is expected to be observed on <a href="https://www.moonsighting.com/ramadan-eid.html">Wednesday, April 10</a>.</p>
<p><em>This is an updated version of <a href="https://theconversation.com/ramadan-finds-greater-recognition-in-americas-public-schools-197845">an article</a> originally published on March 21, 2023.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197845/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amaarah DeCuir does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Federal law protects students’ rights to request some religious accommodations, including during the month of Ramadan.Amaarah DeCuir, Senior Professorial Lecturer in Education, American UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2002692023-02-22T12:53:32Z2023-02-22T12:53:32ZLent is here – remind me what it’s all about? 5 essential reads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511050/original/file-20230220-27-p8vr96.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=4%2C4%2C1017%2C674&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Catholic Ash Wednesday service at St. Thomas Cathedral Basilica in Chennai, India, in 2022. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/catholic-christian-devotees-attend-a-holy-mass-during-an-news-photo/1238867563?phrase=ash%20wednesday&adppopup=true">Arun Sankar/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Foreheads smudged with the sign of the cross are the most visible sign of Ash Wednesday, which begins the season of Lent in many Christian denominations. The 40-day period leads up to Holy Week, some of the most sacred days in the church calendar – including Easter, which commemorates Christians’ central belief that Jesus was crucified and buried before rising from the dead.</p>
<p>But if Easter is associated with celebration and triumphal joy, Lent is more a season of soul-searching and spiritual discipline. Here are some of The Conversation’s many articles exploring the history and significance of Ash Wednesday and Lent. </p>
<h2>1. Ash Wednesday</h2>
<p>Let’s start with the basics: What is Ash Wednesday? Why do worshippers spend the day wearing ashes?</p>
<p>Christians who participate in Ash Wednesday services, where clergy often daub their foreheads with the sign of the cross, are participating in a thousand-year-old tradition, explained <a href="https://udayton.edu/directory/artssciences/religiousstudies/johnston_william.php">William Johnston</a>, a professor of religious studies at the University of Dayton. In part, the practice exists to call churchgoers to repentance as they begin the spiritual journey of Lent.</p>
<p>Two phrases used in services over the centuries underscore that call to penance: “Remember, man, that you are dust and to dust you shall return,” taken from the biblical Book of Genesis; and “Repent, and believe in the Gospel,” words of Jesus’ in the Gospel of Mark.</p>
<p>“Each phrase in its own way serves the purpose of calling the faithful to live their Christian lives more deeply,” <a href="https://theconversation.com/4-things-to-know-about-ash-wednesday-112120">Johnston wrote</a>. The first urges believers to “focus on what is essential,” while the second is “a direct call to follow” Jesus’ teachings.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/4-things-to-know-about-ash-wednesday-112120">4 things to know about Ash Wednesday</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>2. Why ashes, though?</h2>
<p>For a deeper dive on the practice, <a href="https://www.rit.edu/directory/mslgsh-michael-laver">Michael Laver</a> of Rochester Institute of Technology looked back at ashes’ spiritual symbolism throughout history. They figure in many biblical stories, where they represent penitence and remorse.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two hands hold a seashell filled with ashes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206065/original/file-20180212-58348-1s8sz4i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=532&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Pastors at St. John’s Lutheran Church in Sacramento provide ‘Ashes to Go’ for those who want to participate in Ash Wednesday worship but cannot attend a church service.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">AP Photo/Rich Pedroncelli</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Christian churches have used ashes to demonstrate repentance for centuries, but that isn’t to say the practice is unchanging. Laver, an Episcopal priest and historian of Christianity, traced how the Protestant Reformation initially put ashes out of favor in non-Catholic churches. They reembraced the practice in the 1800s, at a time “when many Protestant churches entered into intentional dialogue with each other and with the Catholic Church, a phenomenon that is called the ‘ecumenical movement,’” <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-christians-wear-ashes-on-ash-wednesday-91556">he wrote</a>.</p>
<p>In recent years, many churches have been innovating yet again, offering “ashes to go” to passersby in public. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-christians-wear-ashes-on-ash-wednesday-91556">Why do Christians wear ashes on Ash Wednesday?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>3. The long journey of Lent</h2>
<p>After Ash Wednesday begins the 40-day period of Lent, a word whose roots refer to the “lengthening” of days in springtime. Spiritually, however, its purpose is preparation: a time of fasting and prayer before the joy of Easter.</p>
<p>Fasting was common by the fourth century as a way to avoid self-indulgence during a time of repentance – even marriage was prohibited during Lent, as College of the Holy Cross <a href="https://www.holycross.edu/academics/programs/religious-studies/faculty/joanne-pierce">professor Joanne Pierce</a> explained.</p>
<p>Some Christians follow traditional fasts today, but others give up something pleasurable for the entire 40 days, from chocolate to TV. But Lent is not just about giving up, <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-the-origins-of-lent-155622">according to Pierce</a>. Its spiritual renewal is about giving, too, such as “making amends with estranged family and friends,” or doing community service.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-the-origins-of-lent-155622">What are the origins of Lent?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>4. Your body sans sugar</h2>
<p>Giving up chocolate must be one of the most common Lenten vows – but what happens if you take it a step further and nix sweets entirely?</p>
<p>Penn State neuroscientist <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=V-PvnBIAAAAJ&hl=en">Jordan Gaines Lewis</a> walked us through <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-happens-to-your-brain-when-you-give-up-sugar-for-lent-37745">the science of your brain on sugar</a>. The delight it brings most people is a “natural reward,” an incentive to keep eating carbohydrates. But “modern diets have taken on a life of their own,” she wrote: even a decade ago, the average American was estimated to consume 22 teaspoons of added sugar per day. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Small brightly colored mice made out of sugar." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/72376/original/image-20150218-20810-qzhm2b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sugar rodents.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sugar by Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>“The notion of sugar addiction is still a rather taboo topic,” Lewis noted. Yet experiments with animals suggest that sugar may hook us in a similar way that drugs do.</p>
<p>“Repeated access to sugar over time leads to prolonged dopamine signaling, greater excitation of the brain’s reward pathways and a need for even more sugar to activate all of the midbrain dopamine receptors like before,” she wrote. “The brain becomes tolerant to sugar – and more is needed to attain the same ‘sugar high.’”</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-what-happens-to-your-brain-when-you-give-up-sugar-for-lent-37745">Here's what happens to your brain when you give up sugar for Lent</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>5. Looking for God online</h2>
<p>Another increasingly popular “fast” is especially 21st century: going offline.</p>
<p>Taking a pause from the internet, especially social media, is sometimes promoted as a way to help focus on faith and “real world” connections. That can work, but some of these theories’ assumptions about technology are misguided, argued <a href="https://liberalarts.tamu.edu/communication/profile/heidi-a-campbell/">Heidi Campbell</a>, a Texas A&M communications expert who studies religion. </p>
<p>Digital fasting often buys into the idea of “technological determinism,” which often portrays technology as something dehumanizing and all-powerful. But this overlooks users’ ability to make choices about which goals of theirs technology can and can’t fulfill – including spiritual goals. Today, apps even offer to help people study religious texts, find faith-based products, or connect with others who share their beliefs.</p>
<p>“Technology can, in fact, be good for religion,” <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-use-digital-devices-this-lent-for-holy-reflection-74024">Campbell wrote</a>. “The question is, how do we engage with technology thoughtfully and actively?”</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-use-digital-devices-this-lent-for-holy-reflection-74024">How to use digital devices this Lent for holy reflection</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Christians live out Lent in many different ways. Yet “Lent in the 21st century remains essentially the same as in centuries past,” <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-the-origins-of-lent-155622">as Pierce wrote</a>: “a time of quiet reflection and spiritual discipline.”</p>
<p><em>Editor’s note: This story is a roundup of articles from The Conversation’s archives.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200269/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
A roundup of The Conversation’s articles about this holy Christian season and its history.Molly Jackson, Religion and Ethics EditorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2003112023-02-20T20:33:41Z2023-02-20T20:33:41ZPancakes and football: a brief history of Shrove Tuesday in the UK<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511215/original/file-20230220-28-a01g4m.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=17%2C2%2C1979%2C994&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">"Medieval football" is still played annually on Shrove Tuesday in some parts of the UK.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.alamy.com/illustration-of-a-game-of-football-being-played-in-the-streets-of-london-during-the-14th-century-football-of-this-time-played-without-rules-in-narrow-medieval-streets-was-both-fantastically-popular-and-equally-violent-in-1314-a-group-of-london-merchants-petitioned-king-edward-ii-to-ask-him-to-ban-the-playing-of-football-due-to-the-impact-it-was-having-on-their-business-the-king-was-happy-to-ban-the-game-feeling-that-many-evils-might-arise-from-the-playing-of-football-colourised-version-of-10219013-date-1905-image472815923.html?imageid=570E79E3-0A57-46B9-97F3-AB70EFD906E4&p=1912084&pn=1&searchId=87694fee2da257e1fbe19c02e78f2dd4&searchtype=0">Shutterstock/Alamy</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/history-matters/politics-pancakes">Pancake Day</a>, or Shrove Tuesday is once again upon us. Celebrated in many countries around the world, for Christians, Shrove Tuesday marks the last day, or the feast day before Lent - the 40 days leading up to Easter. </p>
<p>This is traditionally a time of abstinence associated with clearing your cupboards of things like <a href="https://theconversation.com/egg-shortage-a-nutritionist-on-the-best-egg-alternatives-195248">eggs</a>, sugar and fats. Pancakes are eaten on this day to use up these foods before the fasting season of Lent begins.</p>
<p>But Shrove Tuesday isn’t just about pancakes. Indeed, historically in the UK, it formed part of a more elaborate pre-Lent festival called <a href="https://ludicrushistories.wordpress.com/research/">Shrovetide</a>, which was all about feasting and sports. </p>
<p>Shrovetide games ranged from cruel animal blood sports like <a href="https://ludicrushistories.wordpress.com/2021/02/18/kings-of-the-school-britains-carnival-monarchs-and-social-inversion/">cock-fighting</a> to tug-o-wars and <a href="https://www.scarboroughsmaritimeheritage.org.uk/article.php?article=699">skipping</a>. Yet no Shrovetide sport was more widespread and longstanding than football.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/the-science-behind-making-a-perfect-pancake-54371">The science behind making a perfect pancake</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=407&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511225/original/file-20230220-946-v8u3e1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=511&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Village Ba’ Game by Alexander Carse, 1818: a village football match in Jedburgh, Scotland.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Village_Ba%27_Game_by_Alexander_Carse.jpg">Painting of a large group of men playing football in front of a large rural building.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to players from <a href="https://calendarcustoms.com/articles/duns-ba/">Duns</a>, a town in the Scottish Borders, in 1686, <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.35112103825529&view=1up&seq=184&q1=football">it was</a> “an ancient custom throughout all this kingdom to play at football upon Fastens Eve (Shrove Tuesday)”. </p>
<p>Shrovetide ball games are documented from the 12th century onwards, in scores of communities throughout Britain and northern France – several of which in <a href="https://www.visitpeakdistrict.com/blog/everything-you-need-to-know-about-ashbourne-royal-shrovetide-football">England</a> and <a href="https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/16042850.pictures-battle-crowned-jedburgh-handba-champions/">Scotland</a> still play it today. Shop windows are <a href="https://www.derbytelegraph.co.uk/news/local-news/rules-ashbourne-royal-shrovetide-players-8151777">boarded up and businesses are closed</a> for the day as whole towns take to the streets to join in the annual Shrovetide football game.</p>
<h2>Shrove football</h2>
<p>As ancestors to our modern games, folk football matches varied considerably in the manner of play. But generally, players contested a ball with hand and foot, usually towards a goal. </p>
<p>Shrovetide games were often the big matches of the day, featuring sometimes hundreds of participants. Whether town versus country, or married against bachelors, teams battled to move the ball through streets and countryside, towards goals like mills, streams or even the church.</p>
<p>Due to its destructive potential, <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.3138/9781442654044-013/html?lang=en">football often fell foul</a> of authority and was banned outright. Medieval royal prohibitions called it “vain, unthrifty and idle”, while <a href="https://theconversation.com/bites-brawls-and-severed-heads-footballs-history-of-violence-28429">Puritans deemed it</a> “a bloody and murdering practise”. But others in power obviously saw its appeal, to judge from its festive sponsorship in many cities and towns. </p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/JRQahGlunXU?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</figure>
<p>In Chester, for example, every Shrove Tuesday in the early 16th century, the Merchant Drapers’ Company received a football from the Shoemakers’ Company, a wooden ball from the Saddlers’ Company and a small silk ball from each man from the city married within the last year. Under the mayor’s supervision, the Drapers tossed up the balls (which doubled as prizes) for the craftsmen and crowd to play from the common field to the city’s Common Hall.</p>
<p>Chester’s Shrovetide sponsorship was mirrored throughout the British Isles. Craftsmen and guilds played key roles as participants and providers of the ball(s). On Shrove Tuesday 1373, for example, skinners (who skin animals) and tailors played in the streets of London. Butchers did the same in Jedburgh, Scotland. </p>
<p>While in the late 18th century in the market town of Alnwick in Northumberland, England, the Skinners’ and Shoemakers’ companies paraded the ball to the match between married and bachelor men. Indeed, leather workers like shoemakers were especially important, crafting Shrovetide footballs in 15th-century London, 16th-century Glasgow and 17th-century Carlisle.</p>
<h2>An ancient custom</h2>
<p>Newlyweds also fronted the ball in many communities. In Dublin, recently married men had to present a ball to city magistrates every Shrove Tuesday during the 15th and 16th centuries. Newlywed members of trade guilds in Perth in central Scotland, and Corfe Castle in Dorset also paid a Shrovetide “football due”, while a similar custom seems to have existed in medieval London. </p>
<p>These were part of a broader folk tradition, where newly married couples owed a “bride ball” or “ball money” to their community. Since weddings were customary during Shrovetide (and prohibited in Lent), it was an ideal time to collect this money. Local governments would gather the “wedding ball” dues, hire drummers and pipers to pump up the crowds, or pay for the footballs directly. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Illustration of crowd playing football in a tonw" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=404&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/511208/original/file-20230220-28-678g79.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=508&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Illustration of Shrove Tuesday football in Kingston Upon Thames (1865).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shrovetide_Football_Kingston_upon_Thames_1865.png"> Penny Illustrated Weekly News (London), p. 636, 1865-03-18</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Failure to pay your football dues could result in imprisonment, heavy fines or the forced closing of a craftsman’s shop. These harsh consequences reflect the worth of Shrove Tuesday football to these communities. To them, it was not a “vain and idle” game, but an “ancient and laudable custom” of “goodly feats and exercise” where participation was often obligatory. </p>
<p>Officials thus sponsored games that were technically illegal because Shrovetide football equated with the “common wealth of the city”. Participation and patronage of the game <a href="https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/203974643/Taylor_Aucoin_Doctoral_Thesis_When_the_Pancake_Bell_Rings_Final_Copy.pdf">reinforced the status and privilege</a> that came with civic membership. </p>
<p>Gradually, authorities in most major cities did withdraw their support from Shrovetide football. Some cities like St Andrews in Scotland simply banned it because of the “many ills” and “disorder”. </p>
<p>Others “reformed” the games into less dangerous entertainments, like foot and horse races in 1540s Chester, or a fire-engine display in 1725 in Carlisle. By the middle of the 18th century, officially sanctioned Shrovetide ball games were mostly confined to smaller market towns and villages, which is where some live on to this day.</p>
<p>So as you reach for the batter this Shrove Tuesday, remember the history of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-violent-peasants-to-multi-million-pound-megastars-the-history-of-football-27348">riotous game</a> we call football and its lesser-known origins as a prelude to pancakes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200311/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Taylor Aucoin currently receives funding from the British Academy for the Promotion of Historical, Philosophical and Philological Studies. His PhD research was partially funded by grants from the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Royal Historical Society, Society for Renaissance Studies, Richard III Society, Sidney Perry Foundation, the Humanitarian Trust, the Bristol Graduate Research Centre, Bristol Alumni Foundation, Sir John Plumb Trust, Sir Richard Stapley Trust, Folklore Society, Society for Theatre Research, and the Medieval Academy of America.
</span></em></p>Pancake Day isn’t just about pancakes.Taylor Aucoin, British Academy Postdoctoral Research Fellow in History, The University of EdinburghLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1971702023-01-05T10:43:05Z2023-01-05T10:43:05ZYes, intermittent fasting can boost your health, but how and when to restrict food consumption is crucial<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/502968/original/file-20230103-16-ir16ze.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">file m k</span> </figcaption></figure><p>On top of kickstarting a new exercise regime, the new year is traditionally a period when many people reconsider their eating habits. In recent years, intermittent fasting has become a popular habit – and has been credited with some health benefits, be it to manage <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3017674/">excess weight</a>, <a href="https://www.endocrine.org/news-and-advocacy/news-room/2021/intermittent-fasting-can-help-manage-metabolic-disease">chronic illnesses</a> or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0899900719300462">flagging energy levels</a>. But what exactly is intermittent fasting? And does all the hype around it stand up to scientific scrutiny?</p>
<p>The term intermittent fasting covers several approaches, each based on different principles. It is important to note that no matter which method is used, the restrictions only affect food – never water – intake.</p>
<ul>
<li><p><strong>The “Eat Stop Eat” method</strong>. Put forward by Brad Pilon in his <a href="https://bradpilon.com/meet-brad/">book of the same name</a>, the principle is to alternate days of normal eating and fasting, including two non-consecutive fasting days in a week.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>The 5:2 method</strong>. Developed in the 2000s by the doctors Michelle Harvie and Tony Howell, this alternates between five days of normal eating and two days (which can be consecutive) of 70-75% calorie reduction during the week.</p></li>
<li><p><strong>Time-restricted eating (also called time-restricted feeding)</strong>. This is currently the most popular and most studied method. It consists of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33921979/">narrowing the food intake window to between 6 and 10 hours per day, and therefore fasting between 14 and 18 hours during the day</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503050/original/file-20230104-129654-tn6tqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Eat Stop Eat, 5:2 and Time Limit are the three most popular intermittent fasting methods" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503050/original/file-20230104-129654-tn6tqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503050/original/file-20230104-129654-tn6tqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503050/original/file-20230104-129654-tn6tqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503050/original/file-20230104-129654-tn6tqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=331&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503050/original/file-20230104-129654-tn6tqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503050/original/file-20230104-129654-tn6tqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503050/original/file-20230104-129654-tn6tqf.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=416&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Summary of the different intermittent fasting methods.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Anouk Charlot</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Science’s verdict?</h2>
<p>Outcomes vary depending on the adopted strategy.</p>
<p>With the “Eat Stop Eat” and 5:2 approaches, relatively few scientific studies have been conducted. The little data we have available has shown they can effectively <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8766278/">help us lose weight</a> and <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071816-064634">improve certain metabolic parameters</a> such as fasting blood glucose. For example, the nutritionist Surabhi Bhutani showed the use of the 5:2 method for three months resulted in a <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/oby.20353">weight loss of 3-6 kg in participants</a>.</p>
<p>However, both methods are very restrictive and can cause <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/81/1/69/4607679?login=false">side effects</a> on days of total fasting or severe caloric restriction – hunger, negative effects on mood, and risk of hypoglycaemia.</p>
<p>In the longer term, restriction also increases the risk of developing or worsening eating disorders, as well as <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-frequent-dieting-makes-you-put-on-weight-and-what-to-do-about-it-69329">yo-yo dieting</a>. These patterns often appear after the individual has attempted to lose weight by restricting themselves: despite initial progress, the deprivation is likely to generate frustrations that will encourage <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27773644/">the return of old eating habits</a>.</p>
<p>The most studied method is the one with a daily food intake but limited in time. Two “time slots” are often observed:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>When food intake starts with breakfast and ends in the late afternoon – known as “early time-restricted feeding”.</p></li>
<li><p>When food intake starts with lunch – known as “late time-restricted feeding”.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>This approach appears to improve metabolic regulation and slash the risk of metabolic diseases. However, these benefits vary according to the chosen time slot. When food intake starts in the morning, studies have observed <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550413118302535">weight loss</a> and <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6893547/">improvements in insulin sensitivity</a>.</p>
<p>Conversely, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8387818/">there are fewer or no benefits</a> to starting meals at midday and ending them in the evening. Ram Babu Singh’s team (Halberg Hospital and Research Institute, India) also showed <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07420528.2019.1701817">positive results in participants who ate only in the morning</a>, and not in those who ate in the evening after 8 p.m.</p>
<h2>Why such a difference?</h2>
<p>Research suggests our internal clock and circadian rhythms may have something to do with it. Indeed, the benefits to only eating in the morning is that the periods of food intake and fasting coincide with our biological clock.</p>
<p>In our <a href="https://theconversation.com/mieux-respecter-son-horloge-interne-pour-une-meilleure-sante-194196">previous article</a>, we explained that in response to light cycles, our body produces hormones in a cyclical way to adapt our food intake to the body’s energy needs: the optimal period for eating is therefore from around 8 or 9 a.m. (when the sun rises) to 7 p.m. (when the sun starts to set, depending on the season).</p>
<p>Not eating breakfast and eating after 7 p.m. upsets circadian rhythms, and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28877894/">increases the risk of developing metabolic diseases</a>.</p>
<p>However, while time-limited eating seems to be a good approach to metabolic health, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8387818/">much remains to be understood about how it works</a> and how to optimise its effects. Work in 2022 showed <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/fulltext/S1550-4131(22)00344-8">no difference in terms of weight loss</a> between opting for early- or late-morning eating. It did, however, have an effect on appetite during the day – this time to the advantage of the former.</p>
<p>And beyond the time of day when it seems preferable to eat, other factors may be at work that are not always measured in the studies carried out: quality and quantity of food absorbed, duration of the fasting period (which can extend from 12 to 20 hours per day), etc. It is also worth remembering every individual has his or her own metabolism and may respond differently to fasting. New, better controlled and more comprehensive studies are therefore needed to confirm the potential benefits of these methods and to understand the mechanisms involved in their effects.</p>
<h2>In practice, what to do?</h2>
<p>The most suitable method to avoid disrupting one’s circadian clock (and thereby limiting the risk of frustration or eating disorders) appears to be time-limited food intake by synchronising meals with circadian rhythms.</p>
<p>Thus, a typical day could be organised with a hearty breakfast in the morning taking place between 6 and 8 a.m., a lunch around midday and finally bringing dinner forward so that it takes place between 4 and 6 p.m., depending on the season.</p>
<p>This is not necessarily easy to reconcile with one’s social life. It can be complicated to practise intermittent fasting for a family, when one practises a sporting activity in the early evening or when one works in the evening until 7 or 8 p.m.</p>
<p>One solution would be to opt for a big breakfast and not too caloric a meal in the evening – preferably without carbs or sugars, so as not to risk shifting one’s biological clock.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503052/original/file-20230104-18-l9wxew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Reminder of practices to be favoured and avoided" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503052/original/file-20230104-18-l9wxew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/503052/original/file-20230104-18-l9wxew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503052/original/file-20230104-18-l9wxew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503052/original/file-20230104-18-l9wxew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=328&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503052/original/file-20230104-18-l9wxew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503052/original/file-20230104-18-l9wxew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/503052/original/file-20230104-18-l9wxew.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Typical day and foods to be favoured for practising time-limited eating.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Anouk Charlot</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Chrono-nutrition</h2>
<p>Chrononutrition is increasingly popular and intermittent fasting appears to effectively boost metabolic health. That said, we have seen it is not a panacea. And we must ensure that the periods of fasting and food intake are consistent with our biological clock.</p>
<p>In the face of many existing methods, and potential risks, patients and health professionals still face a lack of information. Further research is essential to better understand their effects. Currently, there is not yet a general consensus on the ideal time to eat/fast, or on the optimal duration of each period. Moreover, these parameters may differ from one person to another, depending on their genetic make-up, history and lifestyle. It is therefore important to consider the use of this dietary strategy with qualified health professionals, with the view of setting up a healthy and balanced diet that will limit the risk of complications.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/197170/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Anouk Charlot's research is funded by a scholarship from Strasbourg University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joffrey Zoll ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possède pas de parts, ne reçoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a déclaré aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche.</span></em></p>Nutritionists pick out the most effective intermittent fasting diets based on the latest science.Anouk Charlot, Doctorante, Université de StrasbourgJoffrey Zoll, MCU-PH en physiologie, faculté de médecine, Université de StrasbourgLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1902092022-09-23T13:53:28Z2022-09-23T13:53:28Z‘Traditional’ Jewish American foods keep changing, with cookbooks playing an influential role in how Jews mark Rosh Hashana<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485403/original/file-20220919-6421-o6su2s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=9%2C0%2C5975%2C4019&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Judaism possesses an elaborate system that determines what foods Jews can eat and which ones can be eaten together.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/young-jewish-girls-baking-challah-bread-for-sabbath-royalty-free-image/1343075498?adppopup=true">Rafael Ben-Ari/Photodisc via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The end of August inaugurated the Hebrew month of Elul, when Jews all over the world start getting ready for the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-the-jewish-high-holy-days-a-look-at-rosh-hashanah-yom-kippur-and-a-month-of-celebrating-renewal-and-moral-responsibility-166079">High Holidays</a>: the Jewish New Year of Rosh Hashana followed 10 days later by the Day of Atonement, Yom Kippur.</p>
<p>Rabbis are polishing their sermons for one of the few times they can be confident of a large congregation ready to hear what they have to say. Cantors, who lead congregants in worship, are practicing the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/36069/chapter-abstract/313166437?redirectedFrom=fulltext">special nusach, melodies used during the High Holidays for prayers</a>. Choir leaders meet with their group members to rehearse hymns and other songs. And those who cook are thinking about the meals they will serve. </p>
<p>Although <a href="https://theconversation.com/yom-kippur-a-time-for-feasting-as-well-as-fasting-102320">Yom Kippur is a day of fasting</a>, it is preceded by a large dinner and concludes with a meal to break the fast. Rosh Hashana, by contrast, summons up many meals. A large, multicourse feast opens the first evening, to be followed by another full dinner midday on the first day of the holiday and then a third substantial meal for the second day of the holiday. These feasts <a href="https://rebekahlowin.com/rosh-hashanah-menus/?">traditionally include</a> fish, soup, meat, vegetables, fruit, bread, wine and, of course, a sweet dessert. </p>
<p>The wish for a sweet year gets expressed in food. Honey is a key ingredient. So are apples, since they are plentiful in this season.</p>
<p>As a <a href="https://lsa.umich.edu/history/people/faculty/ddmoore.html">historian of American Jews</a>, I have been fascinated by the changing character of what are considered “Jewish” foods as expressed in cookbooks. These recipes have shaped the foods that American Jews have eaten, guiding what scholars call “vernacular religion,” or religion as it is lived.</p>
<p>Jewish American cookbooks across the 20th century have <a href="https://www.academia.edu/37015083/Deborah_Dash_Moore_and_Noa_Gutterman_Cooking_Reform_Judaism_in_Carole_B_Balin_et_al_eds_Sisterhood_A_Centennial_History_of_Women_of_Reform_Judaism_Cincinnati_Hebrew_Union_College_Press_2013_128_152">influenced the shifting tastes of American Jews’ vernacular religion</a>, even as they have often reflected those tastes. </p>
<h2>How kosher food changed in America</h2>
<p>Judaism possesses an elaborate system that determines what food observant Jews can eat and which ones can be eaten together. Following these guidelines is called “<a href="https://oukosher.org/the-kosher-primer/">keeping kosher</a>”: either something is kosher and can be eaten or it is not.</p>
<p>In the United States, the growth of industrial food production for profit stimulated a wide array of products that could receive a symbol that labeled them as kosher. These range from the Orthodox Union’s OU symbol to a simple K to symbols that have a male rabbi’s name attached to them indicating his approval of the product. These multiple branding systems mean that <a href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/28655/reviews/152014/rosenblum-horowitz-kosher-usa-how-coke-became-kosher-and-other-tales">Jews encounter a supermarket of Jewish choices</a>, allowing each individual to decide just what products to buy.</p>
<p>Some people buy only products labeled “glatt kosher,” a reference that originally referred to meat and the inspection of an animal’s lungs. In the U.S., Jews expanded the definition to emphasize a stringency that labeled only some foods sufficiently kosher to be eaten. Other people adopt a wide range of individual options. </p>
<p>Some reflect the prosperity of American Jews, such as having two sets of dishes, silverware and pots – one for meat and the other for dairy. Other variations register Jewish desires to enjoy “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40326553">eating out</a>” and tasting tref, or nonkosher, combinations. </p>
<p>Still other versions of kosher stem from industrial food production and the development of labels that allow each consumer to decide just which ones they will follow. The result leads to a kind of <a href="https://www.godairyfree.org/food-and-grocery/food-label-info/understanding-kosher">personalized form of kosher practice</a>, one potentially with almost infinite variety. </p>
<p>As literary scholar <a href="https://www.wellesley.edu/jewishstudies/faculty/lambert">Josh Lambert</a> observed in his essay “<a href="http://epikores.com/one-mans-kosher-is-another-mans-treif/">One Man’s Kosher is Another Man’s Treif</a>,” “my parents have never tasted swordfish, but adore caviar. In other words, they – like many people – have a kashrut [kosher] standard that makes sense to nobody but themselves.”</p>
<h2>Cookbooks and changing tastes</h2>
<p>This diversity leaves American Jews, especially women who still do most of the food preparation in Jewish homes, with a complex conundrum. Which foods should they cook? How should they cook this food? Should they turn to recipes handed down by mothers and grandmothers? Or should they try something new and different?</p>
<p>The conundrum is not new. Jews initially came to the United States as immigrants. Many left behind their parents and grandparents. Most possessed a limited knowledge of food preparation. Into this gap stepped women who wrote cookbooks. </p>
<p>Although the earliest Jewish cookbooks date to 1815 in Europe, the first American Jewish cookbook <a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-cookbooks/">did not appear until 1871</a>. Esther Levy’s “Jewish Cookery Book on Principles of Economy Adapted for Jewish Housekeepers” was published in Philadelphia. </p>
<p>Aunt Babette’s 1889 “Cookbook” <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/537088/summary">soon eclipsed</a> Esther Levy’s. Bertha F. Kramer, who wrote the “Aunt Babette’s Cookbook,” included American foods alongside Jewish ones, promoting integration of two types of foods. </p>
<p>Soon competition flourished as other publishers and writers saw the potential market with increasing numbers of Jewish immigrants arriving on American shores. </p>
<p>These Jewish cookbooks, written in Yiddish and German as well as English, guided women in <a href="https://digitalcommons.unf.edu/library_facpub/97/">how to prepare traditional Jewish foods</a> even as they also promoted American food, such as apple pie. In a sense, they stepped into the breach within families caused by immigration, teaching their readers what to do and how to do it. Many also included explanations of the kosher system as well as holiday menus. </p>
<p>Even after Jewish families became intergenerational, and children often had access to traditional Jewish recipes through their grandparents, the popularity of Jewish cookbooks did not diminish. As <a href="http://joannathan.com/">Joan Nathan</a> wrote in her 2004 “<a href="http://joannathan.com/shop-item/joan-nathans-jewish-holiday-cookbook/">Jewish Holiday Cookbook</a>,” “Like many Jews in America, I have become passionately involved in discovering my roots.” And that passion has led her, as a food writer, to seek “to discover the origin” of Jewish dishes and their ingredients along with the recipe. </p>
<h2>Bagels and Jewish history</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Wicker basket with bagels in it" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485399/original/file-20220919-10486-sn1iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485399/original/file-20220919-10486-sn1iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485399/original/file-20220919-10486-sn1iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485399/original/file-20220919-10486-sn1iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=414&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485399/original/file-20220919-10486-sn1iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485399/original/file-20220919-10486-sn1iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485399/original/file-20220919-10486-sn1iup.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=520&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bagels came to be seen as Jewish food even though they have no particular association with Jews.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/wicker-bag-with-fresh-ny-bagels-in-a-diner-on-long-royalty-free-image/1151571040?adppopup=true">Vicki Jauron, Babylon and Beyond Photography/Moment via Getty Images</a></span>
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<p>The ongoing interest in Jewish food as expressed in diverse cookbooks prompted <a href="https://www.openu.ac.il/personal_sites/Nurith-Gertz.html">Nurith Gertz</a>, an Israeli scholar of Jewish culture, and me to include excerpts – both recipes and the stories often told that accompanied them – from Jewish cookbooks in an anthology for <a href="https://www.posenlibrary.com/">The Posen Library of Jewish Culture and Civilization</a>. </p>
<p><a href="https://oro.open.ac.uk/33000/">We recognized the recipes and the stories</a> told around them as forms of vernacular Judaism – what Jews, especially American Jews, turned to when they wanted to cook Jewish food. Jewish foods as presented in recipes formed part of Jewish culture just as much as poetry and sermons, paintings and memoirs. </p>
<p>One of the recipes we decided to include was one for baking bagels by <a href="https://www.matthewgoodmanbooks.com/">Matthew Goodman</a> in “<a href="https://www.amazingjewishbooks.com/p-/9780060521288/jewish_food_the_world_at_table.html">Jewish Food: The World at Table</a>.” The round roll with a hole in it arrived in America with Jewish immigrants. Over the course of the 20th century, the hole grew ever smaller and the bagel ever more plump. But the bagel makers’ union kept a pretty tight lock on the two-step process of making bagels – first boiling, then baking – until frozen bagels were introduced. </p>
<p>After frozen bagels came all sorts of other innovations, like blueberry bagels, not to mention bagels that were only baked and so not particularly chewy. As it turns out, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27569004">Jews began to celebrate bagels</a> as a distinctively “Jewish food” as they became more popular: Bagels were leaving the Jewish fold and starting to be seen as an American food, with no particular associations with Jews. </p>
<p>Although bagels with cream cheese and smoked salmon are still popular among American Jews to break the fast at the end of Yom Kippur, many Americans put all kinds of foods on bagels, including lots of nonkosher combinations.</p>
<h2>Jewish food on the move</h2>
<p>Only some of what American Jews ate for Rosh Hashana a century ago, or even 50 years ago, endures today. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2014/09/24/351185646/the-gefilte-fish-line-a-sweet-and-salty-history-of-jewish-identity">Chicken soup and gefilte fish</a>, which came to the United States with Russian Jews as foods associated with the Friday evening meal at the beginning of the Sabbath, are still part of the Jewish American palate. But <a href="https://aish.com/whats-so-jewish-about-brisket/">brisket</a> and even turkey have retreated before preferences for tastes such as Moroccan or Persian chicken dishes or vegetarian stews drawn from less familiar Jewish cultures.</p>
<p>I particularly miss a sweet dessert called <a href="https://www.chabad.org/recipes/recipe_cdo/aid/2980527/jewish/A-Sweet-Rosh-Hashanah-Classic-Teiglach.htm">taiglach</a>. The small cubes of baked dough drenched in spiced honey, decorated with nuts and shaped into balls appeared on our table only during the High Holidays. Everyone pulled pieces to eat and licked their fingers. Neither my mother nor my grandmothers nor I ever made it – although my more adventurous sister did. We bought it from Jewish bakeries. But those bakeries are long gone. </p>
<p>The memory remains, as does the wish for a sweet new year that can be tasted.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190209/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Deborah Dash Moore received funding from American Jewish Archives to research an article on Jewish cookbooks published by Reform Jewish Sisterhoods. </span></em></p>A historian of American Judaism explains how cookbooks across the 20th century have influenced and reflected the shifting tastes of American Jews.Deborah Dash Moore, Frederick G. L. Huetwell Professor of History and Professor of Judaic Studies, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1835002022-06-10T14:54:13Z2022-06-10T14:54:13ZIs intermittent fasting actually good for weight loss? Here’s what the evidence says<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468199/original/file-20220610-16487-pgezi3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6912%2C4611&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many people find intermittent fasting to be more flexible and easy to follow than other diets.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/204-fasting-diet-concept-one-third-1594385533">Marcin Malicki/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>If you’re someone who’s thought about losing weight or has wanted to get healthier in the past few years, you’ve probably come across these two words: intermittent fasting. From celebrities to fitness enthusiasts, intermittent fasting has many thousands of loyal advocates online, claiming this way of eating has helped them lose weight better than other diet methods have.</p>
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<p>It’s easy to see the appeal of intermittent fasting as a weight loss method. Not only is it simple, it’s also flexible, can be adapted easily to every person, and doesn’t require you to eliminate foods or count calories. But despite its popularity, intermittent fasting may not actually be better than other diet methods when it comes to weight loss.</p>
<p>To date, numerous studies have shown intermittent fasting is as good as counting calories when it comes to weight loss – including a <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2114833">recent study</a>, which tracked participants for more than a year. </p>
<p>This has even been shown with many different types of intermittent fasting, including <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28459931/">alternate-day fasting</a> (where you fast or restrict calories every other day), <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30475957/">5:2 dieting</a> (eating normally five days a week, then fasting or restricting calories for two days) and <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2114833">time-restricted eating</a> (where you eat all of your days calories within a set time window, such as only eating during an eight hour window, then fasting for 16 hours). But no studies have yet shown intermittent fasting to be any better than conventional diets. </p>
<p>Intermittent fasting <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article/104/6/1545/4564664">reduces the amount you eat</a>, but it may have a downside. It both reduces the amount of <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24898233/">physical activity we do</a>, and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25970668/">reduces how hard we push during exercise</a>. </p>
<p>This is true <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32348797/">regardless of the type</a> of intermittent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34135111/">fasting you do</a>. This suggests that when calorie intake is substantially reduced – even for a short period of time – the body adapts by reducing the number of calories used during exercise. Researchers aren’t entirely sure why this happens, however.</p>
<p>While this may not necessarily affect weight loss, lower physical activity levels can have other negative effects on health. For example, a recent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34135111/">alternate-day fasting study</a> found that even just three weeks of this diet reduced physical activity levels and led to a greater loss of muscle mass than a daily calorie restriction diet. The fasting diet was also less effective than daily calorie restriction for fat loss.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman in the gym performs a lat pulldown. A man behind her is using a machine to perform a chest press." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468201/original/file-20220610-20-5dnvek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468201/original/file-20220610-20-5dnvek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468201/original/file-20220610-20-5dnvek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468201/original/file-20220610-20-5dnvek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468201/original/file-20220610-20-5dnvek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468201/original/file-20220610-20-5dnvek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468201/original/file-20220610-20-5dnvek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Resistance training (such as weight lifting) may help prevent muscle loss from intermittent fasting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fitness-asian-woman-working-out-shoulder-599406365">Maridav/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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<p>Muscle mass is crucial for many reasons, including <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3716256/">regulating blood sugar levels</a> and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18615231/">staying physically able</a> as we get older. So diets that cause muscle loss are best avoided. However, combining intermittent fasting with exercise programmes – <a href="https://translational-medicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12967-016-1044-0">such as resistance training</a> – may help people better maintain lean muscle mass while encouraging fat loss.</p>
<h2>Are there other benefits to fasting?</h2>
<p>While intermittent fasting might not be a miracle solution when it comes to weight loss, that doesn’t mean it might not still have other health benefits.</p>
<p>A <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41574-022-00638-x">recent review</a> on intermittent fasting found that it improved blood pressure, insulin sensitivity (how effectively the body regulates blood sugar) and lowered cholesterol levels to a similar extent as daily calorie restriction. </p>
<p>It is likely this effect is due to weight loss. But since few studies have followed participants for longer than a year, it’s hard to know whether the these effects persist. </p>
<p>Some research also suggests how you fast may also be key. A number of studies have shown promising results from <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nbu.12467">early time-restricted eating</a>, which involves eating all your day’s calories in the early part of the day and fasting in the evening, usually from 4pm onwards. Eating early in the day aligns food intake with our natural circadian rhythms, which means nutrients are processed more efficiently. </p>
<p>Early time-restricted eating has also been shown to improve several markers of health, such as insulin sensitivity, which is a key risk factor for type 2 diabetes. These improvements were even seen <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29754952/">without weight loss</a>. </p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-body-weight-affected-by-when-you-eat-heres-what-science-knows-so-far-143303">Is body weight affected by when you eat? Here's what science knows so far</a>
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<p>There’s also evidence that outcomes from the 5:2 intermittent fasting diet can be improved by positioning the two very-low or no calorie diet days consecutively. This may lead to improvements in insulin sensitivity greater than what would be seen when practising <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3017674/">daily calorie restriction</a>. </p>
<p>This might be due to spending more time in a fasted-state, which increases the amount of body fat you burn. Interestingly, exercising while fasting may also help you burn more fat and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31628477/">improve insulin sensitivity</a>. </p>
<p>So while intermittent fasting might not be better than other diets for weight loss, making changes to how you do it – such as fasting in the evening – may help you see other health benefits. </p>
<p>For people who struggle to stick with calorie restriction diets, intermittent fasting is safe and may still be effective. It’s also worth noting that it’s best to combine intermittent fasting with exercise to experience the best results.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/183500/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Clayton has received research funding from the British Nutrition Foundation and The Society for Endocrinology.</span></em></p>Most research shows intermittent fasting to be no better for weight loss than counting calories.David Clayton, Senior Lecturer in Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1794542022-05-19T12:23:24Z2022-05-19T12:23:24ZIs intermittent fasting the diet for you? Here’s what the science says<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/453968/original/file-20220323-23-zm8qqm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C6000%2C3997&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Intermittent fasting could have an array of health benefits, but as of yet there are no long-term studies into its effects.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/intermitted-farsting-diet-concept-royalty-free-image/1361961784?adppopup=true">neirfy/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>What if I told you all you need to do to lose weight is read a calendar and tell time? These are the basics for successfully following an intermittent fasting diet. </p>
<p>Can it be that simple, though? Does it work? And what is the scientific basis for fasting? As a registered dietitian and <a href="https://experts.okstate.edu/mckale.montgomery">expert in human nutrition and metabolism</a>, I am frequently asked such questions.</p>
<p>Simply stated, intermittent fasting is defined by alternating set periods of fasting with periods in which eating is permitted. One method is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/86.1.7">alternate-day fasting</a>. On “fast days,” followers of this form of fasting are restricted to consuming no more than 500 calories per day; on “feast days,” which occur every other day, they can eat freely, with no restrictions on the types or quantities of foods eaten. </p>
<p>Other methods include the increasingly popular <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-022-00638-x">5:2 method</a>. This form of fasting involves five days of feasting and two days of fasting per week. </p>
<p>Another variation relies on time-restricted eating. That means followers should fast for a specified number of hours – typically 16 to 20 per day – while freely consuming foods within a designated four- to eight-hour period.</p>
<p>But what about eating breakfast and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198910053211403">then small meals throughout</a> the day to keep the body’s metabolism running? After all, that’s the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/81.1.16">conventional wisdom</a> that many of us grew up with. </p>
<p>To answer these questions, it helps to understand the basics of human metabolism. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">A TV host went on a two-month intermittent fast to lose weight. Did it work?</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Human metabolism 101</h2>
<p>The human body requires a continual supply of energy to sustain life, and the foods we eat provide us with this energy. But because eating is often followed by periods of time without eating, an intricate set of biological pathways is in place to meet the body’s energy demands between meals. </p>
<p>Most of the pathways function at some level all the time, but they fluctuate following a meal in a predictable pattern called the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-018-0308-9">fed-fast cycle</a>. The time frames of the cycle can vary, depending on the food types eaten, the size of the meal and the person’s activity level.</p>
<p>So what happens, metabolically speaking, after we eat? Consuming carbohydrates and fats leads to a rise in blood glucose and also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.280593">lipid levels</a>, which include cholesterol and triglycerides. </p>
<p>This triggers the release of insulin from the pancreas. The insulin helps tissues throughout the body take up the glucose and lipids, which supplies the tissues with energy. </p>
<p>Once energy needs are met, leftover glucose is stored in the liver and skeletal muscle in a condensed form called glycogen. When glycogen stores are full, excess glucose converts to fatty acids and is stored in fat tissue. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/absorptive-state">About three to 18 hours</a> after a meal – again, depending upon a person’s activity level and size the of the meal – the amount of circulating blood glucose and lipids returns to baseline levels. So tissues then must rely on fuel sources already in the body, which are the glycogen and fat. A hormone called glucagon, secreted by the pancreas, helps facilitate the breakdown of glycogen and fat to provide energy for the body between meals. </p>
<p>Glucagon also initiates a process known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/gluconeogenesis">gluconeogenesis</a>, which is the synthesis of glucose from nondietary sources. This helps maintain the right level of blood glucose levels.</p>
<p>When the body reaches a true fasting state – about 18 hours to two days without additional food intake – the body’s stores of glycogen are depleted, and tissues like the heart and skeletal muscle start to rely heavily on fats for energy. That means an increase in the breakdown of the stored fats. </p>
<p>“Aha!” you might say. “So intermittent fasting is the key to ultimate fat burning?” Well, it’s not that simple. Let’s go through what happens next.</p>
<h2>The starvation state</h2>
<p>Though many tissues adapt to using fats for energy, the brain and red blood cells need a continual supply of glucose. But when glucose is not available because of fasting, the body starts to break down its own proteins and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1997.273.6.E1209">converts them to glucose instead</a>. However, because proteins are also critical for supporting essential bodily functions, this is not a sustainable process.</p>
<p>When the body enters the starvation state, the body goes into self-preservation mode, and a metabolic shift occurs in an effort to spare body protein. The body continues to synthesize glucose for those cells and tissue that absolutely need it, but the breakdown of stored fats increases as well to provide energy for tissues such as the skeletal muscle, heart, liver and kidneys. </p>
<p>This also <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493179/#">promotes ketogenesis</a>, or the formation of ketone bodies – molecules produced in the liver as an energy source when glucose is not available. In the starvation state, ketone bodies are important energy sources, because the body is not capable of solely utilizing fat for energy. This is why it is inaccurate when some proponents of intermittent fasting claim that fasting is a way of burning “just fat” - it’s not biologically possible.</p>
<p>What happens when you break the fast? The cycle starts over. Blood glucose and lipids return to basal levels, and energy levels in the body are seamlessly maintained by transitioning between the metabolic pathways described earlier. The neat thing is, we don’t even have to think about it. The body is well-equipped to adapt between periods of feasting and fasting. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/G5J6BfFMZPM?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Intermittent fasting – fact or fiction? What the science actually says.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Possible downsides</h2>
<p>If an “all-or-nothing” dietary approach to weight loss sounds appealing to you, chances are it just might work. Indeed, intermittent fasting diets have produced <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.0936">clinically significant</a> amounts of weight loss. Intermittent fasting may also <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-022-00638-x">reduce disease risk</a> by lowering blood pressure and blood lipid levels.</p>
<p>On the flip side, numerous studies have shown that the weight reduction from intermittent fasting diets is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.0936">no greater than</a> the weight loss on a standard calorie-restricted diet.</p>
<p>In fact, the weight loss caused by intermittent fasting is due not to spending time in some sort of magic metabolic window, but rather to reduced overall calorie consumption. On feast days, dieters do not typically <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-9-35">fully compensate</a> for lack of food on fasted days. This is what results in mild to moderate weight loss. Approximately 75% of the weight is fat mass; the rest is lean mass. That’s about the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-022-00638-x">same ratio as a standard low-calorie diet</a>.</p>
<p>Should you still want to go forward with intermittent fasting, keep a few things to keep in mind. First, there are no studies on the long-term safety and efficacy of following this type of diet. Second, studies show that intermittent fasters don’t get enough of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2020.02.022">certain nutrients</a>. </p>
<p>Exercise is something else to consider. It helps preserve lean muscle mass and may also contribute to increased weight loss and long-term weight maintenance. This is important, because nearly a quarter of the weight lost on any diet is muscle tissue, and the efficacy of intermittent fasting for weight loss has been demonstrated <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-022-00638-x">for only short durations</a>.</p>
<p>Also, once you stop following an intermittent-fasting diet, you will very likely gain the weight back. This is a critical consideration, because many people find the diet difficult to follow long-term. Imagine the challenge of planning six months’ worth of feasting and fasting around family dinners, holidays and parties. Then imagine doing it for a lifetime. </p>
<p>Ultimately, the best approach is to follow an eating plan that meets current dietary recommendations and fits into your lifestyle.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/179454/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>McKale Montgomery receives funding from the National Institutes of Health.</span></em></p>Proponents of intermittent fasting say the clock can help you win the battle of the bulge. But the science behind it is a little more complicated.McKale Montgomery, Assistant Professor of Nutritional Sciences, Oklahoma State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1816502022-04-25T10:15:08Z2022-04-25T10:15:08ZRamadan: a dietitian offers tips for healthy fasting<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/459260/original/file-20220422-20-1gd3zy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ramadan is centred on prayer, the Qur’an, deep mindfulness and spiritual reflection.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Sudipta Das/Pacific Press/LightRocket via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-ramadan-and-why-does-it-require-muslims-to-fast-180139">Ramadan</a> is the month in the Islamic calendar when the Qur’an was revealed to the prophet Muhammad (PBUH). During the month, Muslims abstain from all sensory pleasures (like food and drink, sex, TV and music) from dawn to dusk. The time is centred on prayer, the Qur’an, deep mindfulness and spiritual reflection. The duration of fasting varies from 13 to 18 hours a day, depending on the daylight times in a country. Muslims believe that fasting helps to develop their submission to God, empathy with the poor and repentance for past sins. Registered dietitian, Dr Nazeeia Sayed, spoke to Faaizah Laher, also a registered dietitian and a spokesperson for the Association for Dietetics in South Africa, about the healthiest approach to the fast.</em></p>
<hr>
<h2>What does fasting do to your body?</h2>
<p>During fasting, meal schedules, fluid intake, and sleep and wake times are altered. This <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26013791/">causes physiological</a>, biochemical and metabolic changes in the body. The adaptability to these changes depends on the types and quantity of foods and drinks that are consumed during the month. </p>
<p>Initially individuals may experience headaches, dizziness and nausea because they are sleeping less and taking in less caffeine. In the second week the body is used to the changes and the digestive system is able to rest. The size of the stomach changes and the amount of food a person is able to eat at each meal also decreases. </p>
<p>During Ramadan, as at any other time, a person should eat a balanced diet. A balanced meal approach consisting of lean proteins, whole grain starches, vegetables, fruits, and heart healthy fats will allow individuals to experience a reduction in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16645692/">body weight</a>, body fat, <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.120.021560#:%7E:text=Ramadan%20fasting%20is%20associated%20with,and%20total%20body%20water%20reduction">blood pressure</a> and <a href="https://www.diabetesresearchclinicalpractice.com/article/S0168-8227(20)30802-0/fulltext">anxiety</a> levels. A reduction in inflammation and blood lipid levels is good for <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22963582/">heart health</a>. A balanced diet is a healthy, non-pharmacological way of minimising risk factors such as indigestion, dehydration and constipation but still improving health.</p>
<h2>Why is it important to consider what foods and drinks you start and break your fast with?</h2>
<p>The Ramadan cornerstone is to practise mindfulness, discipline and control. It is a great time to reset and learn better nutrition habits. The eating and drinking window in the day is fairly small. Eating slowly, and reading <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5556586/">hunger and fullness cues</a>, are important to prevent discomfort. Meals can also be broken up into two smaller evening meals instead of one big meal.</p>
<p>Huge meals that are high in fat and sugar can lead to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK235018/">health issues</a> such as high blood pressure, indigestion, nausea and constipation or aggravate existing problems. Focus on healthier cooking methods such as grilling, baking, air frying or stewing instead of deep fat frying and oily meals. Oily meals cause indigestion, sluggishness, fatigue and weight gain.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6356561/">Hydrating well</a> will prevent headaches, urinary tract infections and dizziness. Focus on fluids that are low in sugar, avoid fizzy drinks and caffeine, and opt for water or smaller portions of fruit juices.</p>
<p>Healthy eating is important, as a strong, healthy body can help an individual stand longer for prayers, fast with better strength and feel less of an energy drain. </p>
<h2>What are the best foods and drinks to begin and end the daily fast?</h2>
<p>The suhoor meal (before the fast begins at dawn) needs to give a person strength, vitality and sustainability. Foods should be wholesome and filling. This meal is the primary source of fuel for the day. A filling, wholesome meal will help to prevent craving during the day.</p>
<p>Instead of sugary cereals, it’s best to eat a meal that is high in fibre and protein. Some examples include:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>An oats smoothie with fruit, milk and yoghurt, oats, seeds and honey</p></li>
<li><p>Wholewheat toast with mushrooms and scrambled eggs</p></li>
<li><p>Granola, yoghurt, honey and fruit; add a boiled egg for extra protein</p></li>
<li><p>Cooked oats with apple, cinnamon, milk and honey</p></li>
<li><p>Talbina (barley) with nuts, milk and fruit</p></li>
<li><p>Tuna on toast with a glass of milk.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The iftar meal at the end of the day needs to give balance and help to recharge the body after many hours of fasting. It is important to eat mindfully and slowly. Dates are an <a href="https://qatar-weill.cornell.edu/media-and-news/news/story/studying-the-health-benefits-of-dates">ideal food</a> to break the fast with as they are easily digested, contain soluble fibre and enable a slower start to the iftar meal than starting with food. </p>
<p>Avoid fizzy and sugary drinks at iftar. Salty and sweet foods can cause indigestion, fatigue and thirst. The meal should include the different food groups.</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Proteins: lean meat, yoghurt, milk, beans, lentils, fish.</p></li>
<li><p>Carbohydrates: wholewheat or unrefined options are better – brown rice, wholewheat roti or pita, starchy vegetables like potato, sweet potato, butternut or pumpkin, wholewheat pasta or crushed wheat and oats added to soups.</p></li>
<li><p>Fats: avocado or olive oil-based dressing, olives</p></li>
<li><p>Vegetables: a colourful mix of vegetables, cooked or raw </p></li>
<li><p>Fruits: whole, with the skin on and no sugar added is the best option.</p></li>
</ul><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/181650/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nazeeia Sayed is a member of the Association for Dietetics in South Africa (ADSA).</span></em></p>During fasting, meal schedules, fluid intake, and sleep and wake times are altered.Nazeeia Sayed, Postdoctoral Researcher, University of the Western CapeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1663932021-09-28T11:56:22Z2021-09-28T11:56:22ZCan healthy people who eat right and exercise skip the COVID-19 vaccine? A research scientist and fitness enthusiast explains why the answer is no<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422695/original/file-20210922-25-11lek97.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=16%2C24%2C5439%2C3612&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Several thousand protestors opposed to the COVID-19 vaccine march through the streets of midtown Manhattan in New York on Sept. 18, 2021. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/several-thousand-protestors-opposed-to-the-covid-19-vaccine-news-photo/1341164693?adppopup=true">Andrew Lichtenstein/Corbis News via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>I’m a fitness enthusiast. I also adhere to a nutrient-dense, “clean” eating program, which means I minimize my sugar intake and eat a lot of whole foods for the purpose of optimizing my health. </p>
<p>You might wonder how effective such a diet and exercise plan would be in the fight against COVID-19, since some <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/09/12/wellness-influencers-vaccine-misinformation/">have suggested</a> – without supporting evidence – that vaccination may be unnecessary if a detailed wellness lifestyle is closely followed. </p>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C43&q=Bloomer+and+memphis&btnG=">research scientist</a> who has studied nutrition for close to 20 years, I have watched the wellness community’s response to the COVID-19 vaccines with great interest. While eating right can <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061562">favorably impact the immune system</a>, it is not reasonable to expect that nutrition alone will defend against a potentially life-threatening virus. </p>
<h2>My experience with nutrition science</h2>
<p>My lab group at the <a href="https://www.memphis.edu/healthsciences/">University of Memphis</a> studies the effect of food and isolated nutrients on human health. In January 2009, we conducted an initial study of a stringent vegan diet. We enrolled 43 men and women who were allowed to eat as much plant-based food as desired, but drank only water, for 21 days. </p>
<p>The results demonstrated improvements <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-511X-9-94">in many variables</a> related to cardio-metabolic health, such as blood cholesterol, blood pressure, insulin and C-reactive protein – a protein that increases in response to inflammation. We have <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=bloomer+and+daniel+fast">since completed</a> multiple human and animal nutrition studies using this dietary program. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A woman eating a healthy salad." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422240/original/file-20210920-19-log1mt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422240/original/file-20210920-19-log1mt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422240/original/file-20210920-19-log1mt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422240/original/file-20210920-19-log1mt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422240/original/file-20210920-19-log1mt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422240/original/file-20210920-19-log1mt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422240/original/file-20210920-19-log1mt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Diet improvements may reduce or eliminate the need for some medications, but a clean diet cannot completely protect you from COVID-19.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/woman-eating-salad-royalty-free-image/912617718?adppopup=true">Tara Moore via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>My lab’s research has resulted in some 200 peer-reviewed scientific manuscripts and book chapters specific to <a href="https://umwa.memphis.edu/fcv/viewprofile.php?uuid=rbloomer">nutrients and exercise</a>, and the interaction between these two variables. The results of our work, as well as that of other scientists, clearly demonstrate the power of food to favorably impact health.</p>
<p>For many individuals, a positive change in eating habits results in such an improvement in clinically relevant measures like <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-511X-9-94">blood cholesterol</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072557">and glucose</a> that doctors can sometimes reduce or eliminate certain medications used to treat high cholesterol and diabetes. In other cases, these measures improve but the patient still requires the use of medications to control their disease. This tells us that in some situations, a great nutrition program is simply not enough to overcome the body’s challenges.</p>
<h2>Nutrition and other wellness approaches do matter</h2>
<p>Although certain <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.01189">natural products</a> have been discussed as treatments for COVID-19, little emphasis has been placed on whole food nutrition as a protective measure. I think this is unfortunate, and I believe strengthening our immune system with the goal of battling COVID-19 and other viral infections is of great importance. And the <a href="https://theconversation.com/good-nutrition-can-contribute-to-keeping-covid-19-and-other-diseases-away-145086">evidence tells us</a> that a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12061562">nutrient dense diet</a>, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2021-104080">regular exercise</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00424-011-1044-0">adequate sleep</a> can all contribute to optimal immune function. </p>
<p>Regarding nutritional intake, a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjnph-2021-000272">recently published study</a> using a sample of health care workers who contracted COVID-19 noted that those who followed a plant-based or pescatarian diet had 73% and 59% lower odds of moderate to severe COVID-19, respectively, compared to those who did not follow those diets. Although interesting, it’s important to remember that these findings represent an association rather than a causal effect. </p>
<p>While people can use nutrition to help shore up their immune system against COVID-19, diet is only one important consideration. Other <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/an.115.010207">variables matter</a> a great deal too, including <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29306937/">stress management</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.570122">nutritional supplements</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31142-9">physical distancing and mask-wearing</a>.</p>
<p>But to be clear, all of those elements should be considered tools in the toolbox to help combat COVID-19 – not a replacement for potentially life-saving vaccines. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A teenage boy at a clinic getting a COVID-19 shot." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422243/original/file-20210920-25-4sj241.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/422243/original/file-20210920-25-4sj241.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422243/original/file-20210920-25-4sj241.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422243/original/file-20210920-25-4sj241.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=399&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422243/original/file-20210920-25-4sj241.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422243/original/file-20210920-25-4sj241.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/422243/original/file-20210920-25-4sj241.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=502&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Charles Muro, age 13, receives a COVID-19 shot at a mass vaccination center in Hartford, Connecticut. Without the vaccine, even young people in good health are not fully protected from the virus.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/charles-muro-age-13-is-inoculated-by-nurse-karen-pagliaro-news-photo/1232871480?adppopup=true">Joseph Prezioso/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Vaccines are not perfect, but they save lives</h2>
<p>I find it interesting that nearly all parents understand the importance of having their kids <a href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/vaccine-mandates-place-attend-school-us/story?id=80046650">vaccinated against serious illnesses</a> like mumps, measles and varicella. They do not expect that certain foods, or a nurturing environment, will do the job of a vaccine. </p>
<p>Yet, when it comes to COVID-19, this thought process is abandoned by <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/09/12/wellness-influencers-vaccine-misinformation/">some who believe</a> that a healthy lifestyle will substitute for the vaccine, without seriously considering <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-happens-when-the-covid-19-vaccines-enter-the-body-a-road-map-for-kids-and-grown-ups-164624">what the vaccine actually does to provide protection</a> against the virus – something that a healthy lifestyle alone simply cannot do. </p>
<p>When contemplating whether to receive the COVID-19 vaccine, consider the following: All medications have risks, including things as <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/daily-aspirin-causes-more-than-3000-deaths-per-year-scientists-warn_uk_593fb481e4b0b13f2c6daa10">seemingly benign as aspirin</a>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/0024363918816683">Hormonal contraception</a> – something used by millions of women every month – is thought to cause an estimated 300-400 deaths annually in the U.S. The same is true for <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-would-wendy-davis-do_b_3672484">cosmetic surgery</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00266-020-02027-z">Botox injections</a> and other elective procedures. </p>
<p>Many people are willing to accept the low risks in those cases, but not with those involving <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-does-full-fda-approval-of-a-vaccine-do-if-its-already-authorized-for-emergency-use-165654">the COVID-19 vaccines</a> – despite the fact that the risk of <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/27/blood-clot-risk-greater-after-covid-infection-than-after-vaccination">serious complications or death from COVID-19</a> far outweighs the low risk of serious <a href="https://theconversation.com/new-covid-19-vaccine-warnings-dont-mean-its-unsafe-they-mean-the-system-to-report-side-effects-is-working-164455">adverse events</a> from the vaccines. </p>
<p>No lifestyle approach, including strict adherence to a holistic, nutrient-dense diet – vegan, plant-forward or otherwise – will confer total protection against COVID-19. The vaccines <a href="https://theconversation.com/medicine-is-an-imperfect-science-but-you-can-still-trust-its-process-166811">aren’t perfect</a> either; <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-is-a-breakthrough-infection-6-questions-answered-about-catching-covid-19-after-vaccination-164909">breakthrough infections</a> do occur in some cases, though the vaccines <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/breakthrough-cases-covid-19-delta-variant-11627596643">continue to provide robust protection</a> against <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/wr/mm7037e1.htm?s_cid=mm7037e1_w#T1_down">severe illness and death</a>. </p>
<p>I encourage people to do all they can to improve the health and functioning of their immune system, naturally. Then, seriously consider what additional protection would be gained from vaccination against COVID-19. When people make decisions based on the latest science – which is always evolving – rather than on emotions and misinformation, the decision should become much clearer.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/166393/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Richard J. Bloomer has received research support and has served as a consultant to a variety of dietary ingredient and supplement companies over the past 20 years. </span></em></p>A growing body of research shows that nutrition, sleep, exercise and a host of other lifestyle choices can help optimize the immune system. But they are no substitute for life-saving vaccines.Richard Bloomer, Dean of the College of Health Sciences, University of MemphisLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1625592021-07-30T12:21:29Z2021-07-30T12:21:29ZFasting may have become a health fad, but religious communities have been doing it for millennia<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413808/original/file-20210729-17-10znby4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C19%2C4192%2C2758&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Fasting is one of the five pillars of Islam.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/family-members-offer-a-special-prayer-in-their-home-during-news-photo/1232878046?adppopup=true">Prakash Mathema/AFP via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The practice of fasting has entered popular culture in recent years as a way to lose extra pounds. Featured in the bestselling book “<a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-FastDiet-Revised-Updated/Dr-Michael-Mosley/9781501102011">The Fast Diet</a>,” it advocates eating normally on select days of the week while drastically reducing calories on the remaining days.</p>
<p>Fasting has been shown to improve <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-071816-064634">metabolism</a>, prevent or slow <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2016.10.005">disease</a> and possibly increase <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1905136">life span</a>. </p>
<p>But the practice is far from new. Around the world the pious have been fasting for millennia. As a scholar of <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=X3PKZLgAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=sra">religion</a>, I argue that there is much to be learned from religious fasting, an embodied practice, meaning that it connects the body and soul. </p>
<h2>Fasting in Islam and Jainism</h2>
<p>Fasting is intrinsic to the two traditions that I study – <a href="https://brill.com/view/title/25593">Islam</a> and Jainism. <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Jaina_Path_of_Purification/wE6v6ahxHi8C?hl=en">Jainism</a> is an ancient religion from India that espouses, among other things, nonviolence, nonpossessiveness and pluralism.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/617213/the-islam-book-by-dk-foreword-by-rageh-omaar/">Islam</a>, fasting is one of the five pillars that constitute the main belief and actions of a practicing Muslim. As part of this practice, Muslims abstain from food, water, smoking, sex and all sensory pleasures from dawn to dusk during Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar. This is a divine commandment in the Quran and exemplified in the life of the Prophet Muhammad. </p>
<p>At its core, fasting is about conquering human pride to connect with God. Indeed, the term Islam itself means submission to God in Arabic. Muslims believe that fasting develops submission to God, empathy with the poor and repentance and gives time for spiritual introspection. According to the 12th-century theologian al-Ghazali, fasting can allow the <a href="http://ghazali.org/books/fast.pdf">believer to better perceive</a> the ultimate reality of God as it involves all five senses – touch, sight, hearing, smell and taste. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://pluralism.org/introduction-to-jainism">Jain tradition</a> provides a different perspective on fasting from the one in Islam. <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2590-2768_BEJO_COM_046970">Fasting</a> falls under tapas or asceticism, which also varies by degree between the laity and monastics. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413809/original/file-20210729-25-1tzu12l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A Jain nun prays in a room at the Jain Temple in the old quarters of New Delhi." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413809/original/file-20210729-25-1tzu12l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/413809/original/file-20210729-25-1tzu12l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413809/original/file-20210729-25-1tzu12l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413809/original/file-20210729-25-1tzu12l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=405&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413809/original/file-20210729-25-1tzu12l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413809/original/file-20210729-25-1tzu12l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/413809/original/file-20210729-25-1tzu12l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=509&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">Fasting in Jainism is part of the ideal of ‘tapas,’ or ascetism.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/jain-sadhu-prays-in-a-room-at-the-jain-temple-in-the-old-news-photo/486066092?adppopup=true">Sajjad Hussain/AFP via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Jain fasting includes complete avoidance of food or eating only a partial meal, eliminating rare or expensive foods and avoiding sexual temptations. The holiday of Paryushan, observed annually around August to September, is the time when Jains connect communally on the core tenets of the faith through fasting and studying. </p>
<p>For eight to 10 days, Jains focus on the values of forgiveness, humility, straightforwardness, truth, contentment, self-restraint, penance, renunciation, nonattachment and celibacy. Fasting is also possible throughout the year by individuals, but this celebration is the common communal embracing of fasting across sects. </p>
<h2>Fasting as faith</h2>
<p>Religious fasting is meant to shock the body from its routines. The individual physically enters <a href="http://ericmazur.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Eliade-The-Sacred-and-the-Profane.pdf">sacred time</a>. According to the 20th-century Romanian historian of religion <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mircea-Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a>, sacred time lies outside of ordinary time and fasting is one way to step into it. During this time, normal activities are disrupted, so an indivdual’s thoughts become more attuned to the <a href="https://edinburghuniversitypress.com/book-sacred-place-and-sacred-time-in-the-medieval-islamic-middle-east.html">metaphysical</a>. The physical needs and desires give way to spiritual reflection and contemplation on the world to come. </p>
<p>In most religions, fasting is associated with an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199938629.001.0001">introspection</a> of one’s life – the past, present and future. This reflection can make one more conscious of one’s own actions internally and externally, the impact on oneself and on society. </p>
<p>Traditionally, fasting is coupled with prayer and meditation to further develop these goals. The annual cycles of fasting in most faith traditions are meant also to be cumulative over a lifetime; the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/10286632.2010.543462">hope</a> is that each year, one’s character becomes a little better and wiser than the year before. </p>
<p>This refining of an individual’s characters over a lifetime is most easily visualized through the Chinese religious traditions, which include Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism. The spiritual benefits of fasting are said to accrue over time, leading to a type of wisdom that the Confucians call <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/305432050?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true">ren</a>, loosely translating as humanity, humaneness, goodness, benevolence or love. </p>
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<p>Daoism also adds another dimension to the understanding of fasting in the Jain and <a href="http://mjlis.um.edu.my/index.php/KATHA/article/download/10012/7098">Islamic</a> traditions through the the idea of “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1353/dao.2009.0006">fasting of the heart-mind</a>.” This means it’s not just the body that goes through the detoxing, but it also detoxes the soul, as people learn to control their five senses during fasting. </p>
<p>As religions show, fasting is much more than denying the body. Physical deprivation of food – up to a healthy <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1905136">point</a> – can allow the mind to enter new states of awareness and understanding. By acknowledging this, secular fasters, I argue, can tap into its joy, uncover new ways of being and sustain this physical discipline over a lifetime as their religious brethren have for millennia.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162559/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Iqbal Akhtar does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A scholar of religion explains what those who fast for health and fitness can learn from religious traditions for a sustained, deeper and lifelong practice.Iqbal Akhtar, Associate Professor, Florida International UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1556222021-02-22T13:26:54Z2021-02-22T13:26:54ZWhat are the origins of Lent?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/385319/original/file-20210219-19-18p9o9g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5100%2C3305&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lent is a period of fasting and reflection for many Chistians.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/rosary-glass-of-water-and-holy-bible-during-lent-a-solemn-news-photo/1265207199?adppopup=true">Pascal Deloche/Godong/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In late winter, many Christian denominations observe a 40-day period of fasting and prayer called Lent. This is in preparation for the spring celebration of Easter, a religious holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. </p>
<p>The word “Lent” has Germanic roots <a href="https://aleteia.org/2018/02/05/the-surprisingly-secular-meaning-of-the-word-lent/">referring to the “lengthening” of days, or springtime</a>. But facts about the early origin of the religious observance are not as well known. </p>
<p>As a scholar who <a href="https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-84?mediaType=Article">studies Christian liturgy</a>, I know that by the fourth century, a regular practice of 40-day fasting became common in Christian churches.</p>
<h2>Early Christianity</h2>
<p>The practice of fasting from food for spiritual reasons is found in the three largest <a href="https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-abrahamic-religions">Abrahamic faiths</a>: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In all three, refraining from eating is intimately connected with an additional focus on prayer, and the practice of assisting the poor by giving alms or donating food.</p>
<p>In the Gospels, Jesus spends <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+4&version=NRSV">40 days in the wilderness</a> to fast and pray. This event was one of the factors that inspired the final length of Lent. </p>
<p>Early Christian practices in the Roman Empire varied from area to area. A common practice was weekly fasting on Wednesday and Friday until mid-afternoon. In addition, candidates for baptism, as well as the clergy, would fast before the rite, which often took place at Easter. </p>
<p>During the fourth century, various Christian communities <a href="https://www.baylor.edu/content/services/document.php/193181.pdf">observed a longer fast</a> of 40 days before the beginning of the three holiest days of the liturgical year: Holy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter. </p>
<h2>Spiritual renewal</h2>
<p>As Christianity spread through Western Europe from the fifth through 12th centuries, the observance of Lent did as well. A few Lenten days were “black,” or total, fast days. But daily fasting came gradually to be moderated during most of Lent. By the end of the Middle Ages a meal was often permitted at noon. </p>
<p>Also, bishops and theologians specializing in church law <a href="https://sspx.org/en/news-events/news/think-lent-tough-take-look-medieval-lenten-practices">specified restrictions</a> on the kinds of acceptable food: no meat or meat products, dairy or eggs could be consumed at all during Lent, even on Sundays. </p>
<p>The idea was to avoid self-indulgence at this time of repentance for one’s sins. Marriage, a joyous ritual, was also <a href="https://www.medievaltimes.com/teachers-students/materials/medieval-era/marriage.html#:%7E:text=There%20were%20several%20reasons%20for%20prohibiting%20a%20marriage.&text=A%20couple%20could%20also%20not,entering%20for%20a%20nuptial%20mass">prohibited during the Lenten season</a>.</p>
<p>Today, Catholics and some other Christians still abstain from eating meat on the Fridays of Lent, and eat only one meal, with two smaller snacks permitted, on two days of complete fasting. In addition, they also engage in the practice of “giving up something” during Lent. Often this is a favorite food or drink, or another pleasurable activity, like smoking or watching television. </p>
<p>Other activities are also suggested, in keeping with the idea of Lent as a time for <a href="https://cruxnow.com/commentary/2021/02/during-lent-start-fresh-with-the-churchs-penitential-practices/">spiritual renewal as well as self-discipline</a>. These include making amends with estranged family and friends, reading of the Bible or other spiritual writers, and community service.</p>
<p>Though some practices may have changed, Lent in the 21st century remains essentially the same as in centuries past: a time of quiet reflection and spiritual discipline. </p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklysmart">You can get our highlights each weekend</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/155622/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joanne M. Pierce does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The 40-day Lenten season, when many Christians observe fasting, began in mid-February. A scholar explains how the practice may have emerged around the fifth century.Joanne M. Pierce, Professor of Religious Studies, College of the Holy CrossLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1373232020-04-29T15:43:27Z2020-04-29T15:43:27ZRamadan under lockdown is encouraging Muslims to talk about the way they worship<p>You’ve only got to consider the many names used to refer to Islam’s holiest month to see quite how diverse – and divided – the Islamic world can be. If you come from Saudi Arabia you are likely to refer to it as <em>Ramadan</em>. But equally people from India call it <em>Ramazan</em>. My parents, who hail from Sialkot in Punjabi Pakistan taught me to call the month <em>Rozay</em>. </p>
<p>There’s been an increased focus on Ramadan in 2020 as mosques have been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/23/uk-muslims-embrace-technology-for-ramadan">shut down</a> thanks to the COVID-19 pandemic. This means that the month-long daytime fast experience has moved from being something institutionalised to an individual thing. For non-Muslims it’s a chance to see Islam less as a monolith and more as a diverse collection of people who are Muslims.</p>
<p>The fasting month is one of the central tenets of Islam – it is the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/culture-history/2019/05/ramadan-understanding-its-history-and-traditions">holiest month in the Islamic calendar</a>. It is a full month when the faithful are expected to fast from dawn till dusk, abstaining from food and drink. It is an act of worship that the divine scripture, the Qur’an, prescribes as an experience to draw closer to God. </p>
<p>It’s a month when <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/news/generous-donors-urged-to-give-safely-to-registered-charities-this-ramadan">Muslims give abundantly</a> and mosques are bustling – it’s seen as a refresher month for Muslims to keep up their regular prayers and do more in solitary or in congregation, including the extra congregational nightly prayers known as <em>tarawih</em>.</p>
<p>This year is very different, however – Muslims throughout the world are fasting in confinement as the coronavirus has altered the rhythm of the sacred month. These intense debates began when many governments took the difficult decision to close public spaces, including mosques, and have <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/04/tarawih-coronavirus-scholars-call-home-ramadan-prayers-200422110654018.html">included discussions</a> on the permissibility of Friday congregational prayers to be conducted online.</p>
<h2>Islamic law</h2>
<p>Scholars from around the world have presented various theories and philosophies from the Islamic legal traditions to help make sense of these unusual times. Islam has a sophisticated jurisprudence tradition known as <em>fiqh</em>. In Ireland, one Imam, <a href="http://www.islamiccentre.ie/about/meet-the-imam/">Shaykh Umar al-Qadri</a> issued a <em>fatwa</em> (ruling on a point of Islamic law) in favour of online prayers. This was rejected by many who argued that Friday prayers need to be conducted in a physical congregation. Al-Qadri countered <a href="http://www.islamiccentre.ie/wp-content/uploads/Fatwa-on-Permissibility-of-Online-Jumuah-Taraweeh-during-Covid19-Islamic-Centre-of-Ireland-2.pdf">with the statement</a> that an “unprecedented situation requires an unprecedented solution”.</p>
<p>In an online Islamic studies discussion that I am part of, South African Islamic scholar <a href="http://www.religion.uct.ac.za/religion/staff/academicstaff/sadiyyashaikh">Sa'diyya Shaikh</a> told us about a women-only online Friday prayer where families join via Zoom: “Often living Muslim practice is ahead of the <em>fiqh</em>”, she wrote.</p>
<p>There have been similar agreements and disagreements on the validity of virtual <em>tarawih</em> – and the <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/04/tarawih-coronavirus-scholars-call-home-ramadan-prayers-200422110654018.html">general opinion appears to be</a> that “virtual prayer” is not valid, as congregational prayers need to be held in the same physical space as the imam. But these majority-led ideals may inadvertantly deny the beliefs and wishes of anyone who doesn’t fit into this mainstream.</p>
<h2>Diverse faith, different practices</h2>
<p>It’s important to remember that Muslim experience of these sacred rituals at mosques is far from monolithic – especially for many women. A tweet from <a href="https://faculty-directory.dartmouth.edu/zahra-ayubi">Zahra Ayubi</a>, an Islamic scholar at Dartmouth College in the US, went viral before the month started as she called out the many Muslim men who were upset at not being able to pray in the mosque.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1240235905983614978"}"></div></p>
<p>The increasing visibility of some queer Muslims is also challenging stereotypes. One illustrative episode in popular culture came recently <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/news/jeff-goldblum-islam-rupaul-drag-race-jackie-cox-women-homosexuality-a9483536.html">on the show Drag Race</a>, when actor Jeff Goldblum questioned why Iranian-American drag queen Jackie Cox was wearing a star-spangled hijab, suggesting Islam was “anti-homosexuality and anti-woman”. Cox explained she had donned the outfit in response to the “Muslim ban” imposed by the US president, Donald Trump, and that, as an American of Iranian heritage, it was possible to be Muslim and gay.</p>
<p>Queer Muslims fight the double battle of Islamophobia and homophobia and for many the month of fasting is a triggering event because they don’t feel the same sense of community as others do. But moves are being made to rectify this, with more specifically queer-friendly mosque spaces being set up, such as <a href="https://masjidalrabia.org/">Masjid al-Rabia</a> in Chicago and <a href="http://inclusivemosque.org/">Inclusive Mosque Initiative</a> in London UK. These sites <a href="http://inclusivemosque.org/inclusive-ramadan-practice-in-quarantine/">offer advice and personal testimony</a> about how individual queer Muslims are navigating Ramadan in isolation.</p>
<p>Do any Muslims not fast? <a href="https://theculturetrip.com/asia/india/articles/remembering-mirza-ghalib-the-great-urdu-and-persian-poet/">Mirza Ghalib</a>, the prolific 19th-century Mughal poet who wrote much of his poetry <a href="https://dailytimes.com.pk/527591/remembering-mirza-ghalib-on-his-222nd-birth-anniversary/">while completely drunk</a>, was once summoned by his ruler, the last Mughal emperor <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-41884390">Bahadur Shah Zafar</a>, and asked if he had fasted. His reply? “My Lord, I did not keep but one.” </p>
<p>It would be easy to dismiss Ghalib in our definitions of what counts as religion but it would be a huge shortcoming to overlook his unequalled masterpieces of devotion to God, similar to the life and work of Scotland’s irreverent bard, Robert Burns, who <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/robertburns/works/holy_willies_prayer/">challenged the church with his poem Holy Willie’s Prayer</a>.</p>
<p>Muslim experience differs not just from mosque to mosque but Muslim to Muslim. The solitary act of devotion to God inevitably means that religious experience cannot be typified and replicated. This surely means we are free to experience the colours of Islam in our own way.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/137323/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amanullah De Sondy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Islam is not a monolith and not all Muslims are experiencing lockdown in the same way.Amanullah De Sondy, Senior Lecturer in Contemporary Islam, University College CorkLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1305242020-02-10T13:57:33Z2020-02-10T13:57:33ZHow a Native American coming-of-age ritual is making a comeback<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/314229/original/file-20200207-27538-htczkz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ojibwe women conduct a year-long ritual for their girls when they start menstruation.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/native-indian-male-fancy-dancers-and-women-in-jingle-news-photo/629544909?adppopup=true">Education Images/Universal Images Group via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The Ojibwe, one of the largest indigenous groups in North America, with communities from Quebec to Montana, are revitalizing the “<a href="https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/ijih/article/view/31677">berry fast</a>,” a coming-of-age ritual for girls. </p>
<p>Ojibwe women historically <a href="https://www.mnhs.org/mnhspress/books/chippewa-customs">conducted a ritual</a> for their girls when they started their first menstruation, part of which included fasting from eating strawberry, or heart berry, known as Ode’imin, for an entire year. This was also a time to learn valuable wisdom from women elders. </p>
<h2>A time for growth</h2>
<p>As a <a href="https://www.rosalynlapier.com/">scholar</a> of the environment and indigenous peoples, I have studied how Native Americans find religious meaning in the natural world. Indigenous people often view <a href="https://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/university-of-nebraska-press/9780803232761/">menstruation</a> as a time when girls and women are spiritually powerful. </p>
<p>It is also believed to be a time when young women can have visions. Such stories are often told by the elders within the Ojibwe community. In one such story, a <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/297099/holding-our-world-together-by-brenda-j-child/9780143121596">girl born in 1830</a> had a vision of a great bear. The story goes that as the bear walked toward the girl “it got smaller in size, and when it was right beside her, she suddenly became the bear. She felt wonderful – powerful and strong.”</p>
<p>She became known as “Bear Woman.” It is said that she had a long life and overcame many challenges with “a strong heart and the courage of a bear.”</p>
<p>Historically, women built a small wooden house for a girl to <a href="https://uofmpress.ca/books/detail/life-stages-and-native-women">live in seclusion</a> during her menstruation each month. It would serve as a place for personal reflection as well as a space for learning from elders. </p>
<p>Today, Ojibwe girls do not live in a separate house during menstruation, but instead seclude themselves from family and community interactions. For the Ojibwe and other indigenous people, seclusion was seen as a special time without chores, when the girl worked on personal growth and learned from elders.</p>
<p>At the end of the year <a href="https://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/bison/9780803275720/">a feast</a> is held for the whole community to celebrate the girl’s transition. At the feast the girl receives gifts from her community, and in turn she gives gifts. Strawberries and other berries are served to the young woman to eat as she ends her “berry fast.”</p>
<h2>Power of womanhood</h2>
<p>Many Ojibwe women discontinued this ritual when most of their religious and cultural practices were made <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-rights-of-indians-and-tribes-9780199795352?cc=us&lang=en&">illegal</a> by the U.S. and Canadian governments in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. </p>
<p>But the knowledge was not lost.</p>
<p>Today, many Ojibwe communities are <a href="https://rewire.news/article/2019/02/20/monthly-moons-menstruation-rituals-indigenous-women/">reawakening</a> such female-centered cultural practices. </p>
<p>As one Ojibwe cultural leader recently told me, after a berry fast, the young woman is looked up to as a “leader” by her peers. It is “a beautiful and intentional year-long consideration of the power of womanhood,” she said.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklysmart">You can get our highlights each weekend</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130524/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rosalyn R. LaPier does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Historically, indigenous people celebrated a girl’s transition to womanhood with a year-long ritual. Many such ritual practices were made ‘illegal’ by the US and Canadian governments.Rosalyn R. LaPier, Professor of HIstory, University of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1288492020-01-23T13:51:45Z2020-01-23T13:51:45ZSilicon Valley’s latest fad is dopamine fasting – and that may not be as crazy as it sounds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311445/original/file-20200122-117954-16q8a3g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Dopamine fasting, the newest fad to hit Silicon Valley, is being used as a way to get over addictive habits.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/editor/image/white-plate-spoon-fork-intermittent-fasting-1027820371">SewCream/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Silicon Valley’s <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/vb5qb9/dopamine-fasting-is-the-newest-sounds-fake-but-ok-wellness-trend">newest fad</a> is dopamine fasting, or <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vl-44jDYDJQ">temporarily abstaining from</a> “addictive” activities such as social media, music, internet gaming – even food. </p>
<p>Twitter’s CEO, Jack Dorsey, for example, is known for his <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2019/01/silicon-valley-extreme-diets-fasting/581566/">intermittent fasting</a> diet. Other celebrities such as Kourtney Kardashian and Chris Pratt have also lauded the benefits of <a href="https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-body/pictures/intermittent-fasting-diet-trend-celebrity-success-stories/">intermittent fasting</a>.</p>
<p>Dubbed “<a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/dopamine-fasting-is-silicon-valley-s-latest-trend-here-s-what-an-expert-has-to-say">dopamine fasting</a>” by San Francisco psychologist Cameron Sepah, the trend is getting increasing international attention as a potential “cure” for <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/addictive-behaviors-reports/news/addiction-to-modern-technology-what-the-science-says-free-co">technology addiction</a>. </p>
<p>Dopamine is a brain neurotransmitter that helps control basic functions such as motor control, memory and excitement. It is also involved in anticipating the reward of a stimulating activity. Denying the brain the dopamine-derived pleasure of many modern day temptations, the theory goes, may help people regain control, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/07/style/dopamine-fasting.html">improving focus and productivity</a>. </p>
<p>This idea did not entirely originate in Silicon Valley. As a scholar who studies <a href="https://divinity.uchicago.edu/sightings/articles/all/a.-trevor-sutton">digital technology and religion</a>, I’d argue that the motivations and benefits of dopamine fasting resemble what many religions have been teaching since ancient times.</p>
<h2>Religious traditions and fasting</h2>
<p>Fasting can take multiple forms in different religious traditions. </p>
<p>Muslims observe nearly a month-long fast during <a href="http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t243/e278?_hi=3&_pos=42">Ramadan</a> when they abstain from food or drinks. They are allowed to break the fast only after the Sun goes down. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311450/original/file-20200122-117943-1y7qpiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311450/original/file-20200122-117943-1y7qpiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311450/original/file-20200122-117943-1y7qpiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311450/original/file-20200122-117943-1y7qpiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311450/original/file-20200122-117943-1y7qpiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311450/original/file-20200122-117943-1y7qpiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311450/original/file-20200122-117943-1y7qpiy.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A woman preparing the meal for breaking the Ramadan fast at sundown.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-preparing-menu-break-fast-648524467">Isvara Pranidhana/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Jewish holiday <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199730049.001.0001/acref-9780199730049-e-3472">Yom Kippur</a>, also known as the Day of Atonement, includes a period of fasting. And many Christian traditions observe <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192802903.001.0001/acref-9780192802903-e-2548?rskey=mE2G1s&result=20">fasting periods</a> throughout the year, particularly during the Lenten season leading up to Easter. Vipassana meditation, a practice with <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-7823">Buddhist</a> roots, involves abstaining from speaking for multiple days.</p>
<p>The reasons these ancient religions encourage fasting, in my assessment, are quite similar to the motivations of modern dopamine fasters.</p>
<p>Some religious traditions encourage fasting to <a href="https://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/obo/9780195393361-0110">develop personal holiness and discipline</a>. For example, Orthodox Christians avoid animal products on Wednesdays and Fridays as a way to develop discipline and self-control. Others, including Christianity and Islam, use fasting as a way to develop <a href="http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e635">appreciation and gratitude</a>. </p>
<p>The early fourth-century Christian theologian Augustine of Hippo <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780203436691">recognized</a> that the practice of fasting could maximize pleasure for things that one gives up. For example, abstaining from meat during Lent heightens appreciation for it after the <a href="https://www.firstthings.com/web-exclusives/2009/03/keep-the-fast-keep-the-feast">fast is over</a>.</p>
<p>Scholars have drawn parallels between dopamine fasting and religious fasting. For example, <a href="http://www.imperial.ac.uk/people/d.nutt">David Nutt</a>, professor of brain science at Imperial College London, said in an November 2019 <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/shortcuts/2019/nov/19/dopamine-fasting-silicon-valley-avoid-stimulation">interview</a> with the British newspaper Guardian:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“Retreating from life probably makes life more interesting when you come back to it…Monks have been doing it for thousands of years. Whether that has anything to do with dopamine is unclear.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Many individuals engage in dopamine fasting for much the same reasons as religious fasters. Some, for example, use it as a way to develop greater discipline. In a November 2019 <a href="https://www.insider.com/what-is-dopamine-fasting-according-to-neuroscientist-2019-11">interview</a>, psychologist at Stanford University <a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/russell-poldrack?tab=research-and-scholarship">Russell Poldrack</a> noted that the practice at self-control in doing one of these fasts can be useful. It can give one a “feeling of mastery” over their own behaviors, he said. </p>
<p>Others such as Nellie Bowles, a journalist who covers the Silicon Valley, finds that dopamine fasting makes everyday tasks “<a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/07/style/dopamine-fasting.html">more exciting and fun</a>.” </p>
<h2>The benefits of fasting</h2>
<p>Research shows that fasting, whether religious or not, can have several health benefits.</p>
<p>For example, a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24019714">study</a> published in the Journal of Research in Medical Science had 14 individuals undergo a 10-day silent Vipassana meditation retreat. The participants reported significant improvements in physical and psychological well-being after the fast. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311452/original/file-20200122-117958-o1oy1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311452/original/file-20200122-117958-o1oy1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311452/original/file-20200122-117958-o1oy1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311452/original/file-20200122-117958-o1oy1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311452/original/file-20200122-117958-o1oy1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311452/original/file-20200122-117958-o1oy1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311452/original/file-20200122-117958-o1oy1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311452/original/file-20200122-117958-o1oy1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Fasting, whether religious or not, can have many health benefits.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/intermittent-fasting-timerestricted-eating-healthy-foods-1187975044">Rudie Strummer/Shutterstock.com</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>According to a <a href="https://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2891-9-57">research review</a> by nutrition scientists <a href="https://econugenics.com/pages/our-research-team">John Trepanowski</a> and <a href="https://www.memphis.edu/shs/contact/faculty/richardbloomer.php">Richard Bloomer</a>, religious and nonreligious fasting can have similar health benefits. </p>
<p>Dopamine fasting is supposed to make ordinary tasks such as eating and listening to music more pleasurable. After temporarily abstaining from an activity, fasters have found it <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/07/style/dopamine-fasting.html">more rewarding</a> to reengage in the activity.</p>
<p>There are those who disagree. <a href="https://theconversation.com/dopamine-fasting-an-expert-reviews-the-latest-craze-in-silicon-valley-127646">Neuroscientists</a> have argued that dopamine is essential to healthy brain functioning and have raised questions about the trend’s apparent goal of reducing dopamine.</p>
<p>While it is true that certain behaviors lead to the increase of dopamine, <a href="https://www.sfchronicle.com/culture/article/Dopamine-fasting-How-Silicon-Valley-is-trying-to-14811245.php">experts caution on the claims</a> regarding dopamine fasting. Joshua Berke, a neuroscientist, said that dopamine is not a “pleasure juice” with a certain level that gets depleted. Rather, the dynamic of dopamine changes from moment to moment. </p>
<p>Nonetheless, <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/dopamine-fasting-new-silicon-valley-trend-dr-cameron-sepah/?src=aff-lilpar&veh=aff_src.aff-lilpar_c.partners_pkw.10078_plc.Skimbit%20Ltd._pcrid.449670_learning&trk=aff_src.aff-lilpar_c.partners_pkw.10078_plc.Skimbit%20Ltd._pcrid.449670_learning&clickid=wk83uL0mnQLNSdNS0BTGSUF2UknRIJVds2XWyM0&irgwc=1">advocates of dopamine fasting</a> believe that it can curb addictive behaviors and make daily life more pleasurable, something that religious traditions have for millennia encouraged people to develop – patterns of fasting and feasting.</p>
<p>[ <em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>. ]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/128849/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>A. Trevor Sutton does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Dopamine fasting has fast become a fad in the Silicon Valley, as a way to reset the brain’s feel-good chemical. Many religions have advocated fasting for some of the same reasons.A. Trevor Sutton, Ph.D. Student in Doctrinal Theology, Concordia SeminaryLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1278842019-12-18T07:42:34Z2019-12-18T07:42:34ZAnxious teenage girls at higher risk of eating-disorder symptoms<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306663/original/file-20191212-85391-i88u0m.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=11%2C11%2C7928%2C3737&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-beautiful-woman-wearing-casual-tshirt-1527449189">Aaron Amat/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://www.beateatingdisorders.org.uk/types/anorexia">Anorexia nervosa</a> is an eating disorder with one of the <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/1107207">highest mortality rates</a> of all psychiatric disorders. It is estimated that as many as <a href="https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-016-0766-4">4% of women</a> in the west will have the condition at some point in their life. </p>
<p>The illness, which usually starts in <a href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/3/5/e002646">adolescence</a>, is difficult to treat. Only around <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28889819">half</a> of those treated recover, so preventing it is really important. However, to effectively prevent a disorder, you need to be able to identify the early signs.</p>
<p>Restrictive eating, restricting the number of calories or quantity of food consumed, is not only a core feature of anorexia but it is also an early symptom that precedes <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5215960/">anorexia onset</a>. In our <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/erv.2714">latest study</a> we wanted to understand whether anxiety disorders predicted restrictive eating. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/eating-disorders-early-warning-signs-identified-119886">Eating disorders: early warning signs identified</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>We were interested in a particularly severe form of restrictive eating, which was fasting for an entire day for weight control (losing weight or avoiding weight gain). We assessed whether having an anxiety disorder predicted how likely people were to fast in the future, two years after the anxiety assessment.</p>
<p>Previously, researchers found that people with anorexia had <a href="https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.12.2215?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed">higher rates of anxiety disorders</a> compared with the general population. This led some scientists to suggest that restrictive eating may <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12655621">reduce anxiety</a> in people who are at risk of developing anorexia. The reduction in anxiety resulting from restrictive eating may then encourage restrictive eating to continue.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306664/original/file-20191212-85404-1mmck9r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/306664/original/file-20191212-85404-1mmck9r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306664/original/file-20191212-85404-1mmck9r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306664/original/file-20191212-85404-1mmck9r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306664/original/file-20191212-85404-1mmck9r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306664/original/file-20191212-85404-1mmck9r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/306664/original/file-20191212-85404-1mmck9r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Restrictive eating may reduce anxiety.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/women-used-push-cake-plate-people-1278900526">best nj/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
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<p>Our research included 2,406 girls from the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/alspac/">Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children</a>, a project studying the health and wellbeing of babies born in the early 1990s in Bristol. The participants’ anxiety disorders and fasting behaviour were measured three times between the ages of 13 and 18. Using this data, we were able to investigate the links between anxiety disorders and fasting across adolescence. </p>
<p>We found that girls who had anxiety disorders when they were aged 13 or 15 were twice as likely to report fasting two years later, compared with those without an anxiety disorder. We also found that girls who reported fasting were at increased risk of developing anorexia nervosa. Collectively, the findings point toward the possibility that having an anxiety disorder reflects a vulnerability for developing anorexia.</p>
<h2>Early warning, early intervention</h2>
<p>Outcomes of our study suggest who might be most at risk of an eating disorder, so it could be useful in highlighting people who might benefit from eating-disorder prevention efforts. </p>
<p>Our findings mirror observations in anorexia nervosa patients that worsening eating-disorder symptoms accompany increases in anxiety. It is important to recognise, however, that our findings don’t tell us about how anxiety disorder and eating-disorder symptoms are associated. In particular, outcomes do not necessarily reflect that anxiety disorders cause fasting.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/understanding-body-signals-could-be-a-key-factor-in-eating-disorders-111559">Understanding body signals could be a key factor in eating disorders</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Clarifying whether the association we observed is causal is important. Should this be the case, it may be that targeting anxiety disorder symptoms is an effective way of reducing the chance of an eating disorder developing. </p>
<p>An alternative explanation for the patterns we see in our data is that anxiety disorders and restrictive eating are caused by the same things. This would also lead to the two occurring together in people.</p>
<p>Recent findings from a large scale study of the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31308545">genetics of anorexia nervosa</a> supported there being common genetic risk factors for anorexia and anxiety disorders. We consider this possibility in our ongoing work, which is focused on better understanding exactly how anxiety disorder and eating-disorder symptoms are associated.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/social-media-isnt-causing-more-eating-disorders-in-young-people-new-study-119959">Social media isn't causing more eating disorders in young people – new study</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Our study only included girls, so our conclusions may not apply to teenage boys. Future research should consider the presence of associations between anxiety disorder and disordered eating symptoms in boys and men. This will promote a fuller understanding of relationships between psychiatric symptoms and disorders across different groups in the population.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/127884/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Caitlin Lloyd completed the study as part of her PhD, which was funded by the Economic and Social Research Council.</span></em></p>Anxious teenage girls are more likely to fast – one of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa.Caitlin Lloyd, Senior Research Associate, Public Health, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1166292019-05-07T11:21:11Z2019-05-07T11:21:11ZWhat Ramadan means to Muslims: 4 essential reads<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272824/original/file-20190506-103057-ss2d5g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Women pray at a mosque during the first day of the holy fasting month of Ramadan on May 6 in Bali, Indonesia.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Indonesia-Ramadan/16d80ba4869d4bbd995f866e518e14b1/9/0">AP Photo/Firdia Lisnawati</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>During the month of Ramadan, Muslims around the world will not eat or drink from dawn to sunset. Muslims believe that the sacred text of Quran was first revealed to Prophet Muhammad in the final 10 nights of Ramadan.</p>
<p>Here are four ways to understand what Ramadan means for Muslims, and in particular for American Muslims. </p>
<h2>1. Importance of Ramadan</h2>
<p>Ramadan is one of the five pillars of Islam. Each pillar denotes an obligation of living a good Muslim life. The others include reciting the Muslim profession of faith, daily prayer, giving alms to the poor and making a pilgrimage to Mecca.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/mohammad-hassan-khalil-274989">Mohammad Hassan Khalil</a>, associate professor of religious studies and director of the Muslim Studies Program at Michigan State University, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-ramadan-is-called-ramadan-6-questions-answered-77291">explains</a> that the Quran states that fasting was prescribed for Muslims so that they could be conscious of God. He writes,</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“By abstaining from things that people tend to take for granted (such as water), it is believed, one may be moved to reflect on the purpose of life and grow closer to the creator and sustainer of all existence.” </p>
</blockquote>
<p>He also notes that for many Muslims, fasting is a spiritual act that allows them to understand the condition of the poor and thus develop more empathy.</p>
<h2>2. Halal food</h2>
<p>During Ramadan, when breaking fast, Muslims will eat only foods that are permissible under Islamic law. The Arabic word for such foods, writes religion scholar <a href="https://divinity.uchicago.edu/myriam-renaud">Myriam Renaud</a>, is “halal.”</p>
<p>Renaud <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-are-halal-foods-95696">explains</a> that Islamic law draws on three religious sources to determine which foods are halal. These include “passages in the Quran, the sayings and customs of the Prophet Muhammad, which were written down by his followers and are called ‘Hadith’ and rulings by recognized religious scholars.”</p>
<p>In the United States, some states such as California, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey and Texas restrict the use of halal label for foods that meet Islamic religious requirements. Various Muslim organizations also oversee the production and certification of halal products, she writes.</p>
<h2>3. Puerto Rican Muslims</h2>
<p>In Puerto Rico, where many have been reverting to the religion of their ancestors – Islam – Ramadan could mean combining their identity as a Puerto Rican and as a Muslim. </p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/ken-chitwood-160245">Ken Chitwood</a>, a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Florida, <a href="https://theconversation.com/on-eid-2017-a-peek-into-the-lives-of-puerto-rican-muslims-78798">explains</a> that Muslims first came to Puerto Rico as part of the transatlantic colonial exchange between Spain, Portugal and the New World. There is evidence, he writes, of the first Muslims arriving somewhere around the 16th century.</p>
<p>In his research, he found Puerto Rican Muslims in search of a “Boricua Islamidad” – “a unique Puerto Rican Muslim identity that resists complete assimilation to Arab cultural norms even as it reimagines and expands what it means to be Puerto Rican and a Muslim.”</p>
<p>He saw the expression of this identity in the food as Puerto Rican Muslims broke fast – “a light Puerto Rican meal of tostones – twice-fried plantains.” </p>
<h2>4. Jefferson’s Quran</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272823/original/file-20190506-103049-19tdgra.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272823/original/file-20190506-103049-19tdgra.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272823/original/file-20190506-103049-19tdgra.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272823/original/file-20190506-103049-19tdgra.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272823/original/file-20190506-103049-19tdgra.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272823/original/file-20190506-103049-19tdgra.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/272823/original/file-20190506-103049-19tdgra.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Ramadan dinner at White House in 2018.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Trump/4f78727c77824939b266126cae30a8d8/44/0">AP Photo/Andrew Harnik</a></span>
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<p>With an estimated 3.3 million American Muslims, Ramadan is celebrated each year at the White House, except for one year in 2017. Scholar <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/denise-a-spellberg-212270">Denise A. Spellberg</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-jeffersons-vision-of-american-islam-matters-today-97915">explains</a> that the tradition was started by Hillary Clinton when she was the first lady. </p>
<p>She writes that “Islam’s presence in North America dates to the founding of the nation, and even earlier.” Among the most notable of the key American Founding Fathers who demonstrated an interest in the Muslim faith was Thomas Jefferson. Her research shows that Jefferson bought a copy of the Quran as a 22-year-old law student in Williamsburg, Virginia, 11 years before drafting the Declaration of Independence. And as she says,</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The purchase is symbolic of a longer historical connection between American and Islamic worlds, and a more inclusive view of the nation’s early, robust view of religious pluralism.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p><em>This article is a roundup of stories from The Conversation’s archive.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/116629/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
Ramadan is one of the five pillars of Islam – acts that denote the obligations of living a good Muslim life.Kalpana Jain, Senior Religion + Ethics Editor/ Director of the Global Religion Journalism InitiativeLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1154692019-05-02T20:14:05Z2019-05-02T20:14:05ZBetween health and faith: managing type 2 diabetes during Ramadan<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/272141/original/file-20190502-117578-1pofj5s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many Muslim Australians currently live with diabetes.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">From shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>This article is the first part in a series, <a href="https://theconversation.com/au/topics/where-culture-meets-health-70226">Where culture meets health</a>.</em></p>
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<p>The holy month of Ramadan, which sees Muslims all over the world fast during daylight hours, begins this weekend. Does having type 2 diabetes exclude a person from fasting? Not necessarily. The decision belongs to the person, but getting some advice from health professionals can help.</p>
<p>Diabetes is the <a href="https://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/diabetes-in-australia">fastest growing chronic condition</a> in Australia. About <a href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/diabetes/diabetes-snapshot/contents/how-many-australians-have-diabetes">6% of Australian adults</a> report they have diabetes, although this is likely an underestimate of the true prevalence.</p>
<p>Type 2 diabetes, which constitutes the majority of diabetes cases, occurs when <a href="https://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/type-2-diabetes">the body becomes resistant</a> to the actions of insulin, or loses the capacity to produce sufficient insulin from the pancreas. Insulin keeps the body’s blood glucose levels within a healthy range.</p>
<p>People with type 2 diabetes can manage the condition by maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including doing exercise and keeping a healthy diet. In more serious cases, people with type 2 diabetes may need to take medications such as metformin, sulfonylureas, or other glucose-lowering tablets, or self-administer insulin injections.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271944/original/file-20190501-113867-14ckby1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271944/original/file-20190501-113867-14ckby1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271944/original/file-20190501-113867-14ckby1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271944/original/file-20190501-113867-14ckby1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=350&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271944/original/file-20190501-113867-14ckby1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271944/original/file-20190501-113867-14ckby1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271944/original/file-20190501-113867-14ckby1.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=440&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Type 2 diabetes affects the body’s blood glucose, or blood sugar levels.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">From shutterstock.com</span></span>
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</figure>
<p>Type 2 diabetes affects some ethnicities more than others. It’s more common in people of <a href="https://www.idf.org/our-activities/advocacy-awareness/resources-and-tools/134-idf-diabetes-atlas-8th-edition.html">Middle Eastern, north African and south/south-east Asian backgrounds</a>. Many <a href="https://apo.org.au/node/56353">Muslim Australians</a> are from these ethnic backgrounds.</p>
<p>Using <a href="http://www.unisa.edu.au/contentassets/4f85e84d01014997a99bb4f89ba32488/australian-muslims-final-report-web-nov-26.pdf">2016 census data</a>, and conservatively estimating an adult diabetes prevalence of 10% among people of Muslim background (the exact prevalence is unknown), as many as 40,000 Muslims may be living with diabetes in Australia. And this number is likely to be increasing.</p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/how-australians-die-cause-5-diabetes-57874">How Australians Die: cause #5 – diabetes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>We’re about to begin the month of Ramadan</h2>
<p>Dietary practices such as fasting, feasting, and consumption of special foods are an essential component of many religious and cultural celebrations. </p>
<p>For Muslims, fasting during the month of Ramadan is <a href="https://www.icv.org.au/about/about-islam-overview/ramadan/">obligatory for all healthy adults</a>, who must refrain from eating, drinking and taking oral medications between dawn and sunset.</p>
<p>During Ramadan, most people have two meals per day, at sunset and before sunrise. This can be risky for people with type 2 diabetes – particularly those who use insulin or certain oral diabetes medications – for a couple of reasons.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271675/original/file-20190430-194606-yk0j6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271675/original/file-20190430-194606-yk0j6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271675/original/file-20190430-194606-yk0j6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271675/original/file-20190430-194606-yk0j6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271675/original/file-20190430-194606-yk0j6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271675/original/file-20190430-194606-yk0j6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271675/original/file-20190430-194606-yk0j6f.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The daytime fast is often broken with a communal meal, called Iftar.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">From shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>First, fasting during the day can <a href="http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/27/10/2306">increase the risk of low blood glucose levels</a> in people who usually take insulin or <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21506631">other blood glucose-lowering medications</a>.</p>
<p>And conversely, the evening meal to break the fast, called “Iftar,” often involves eating large amounts of calorie-rich foods in a relatively short space of time. This can put people with diabetes at <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25497966">risk of high blood glucose levels</a> overnight.</p>
<p>Omission or changes in the timing of medications may also contribute to instability of blood glucose levels. </p>
<p>Low blood glucose levels can cause <a href="https://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/hypoglycaemia">symptoms of sweating, shakiness and confusion</a>. If severe, they can lead to seizures, coma, or even death. High blood glucose levels make people feel <a href="https://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/hyperglycaemia">tired and generally unwell</a> and can lead to dehydration and poor concentration. Extremely high levels are a medical emergency.</p>
<h2>There are guidelines</h2>
<p>According to Islamic teachings, the elderly, pregnant, or those with illnesses requiring regular medication – like diabetes – can be exempted from fasting on medical grounds. They do not need to seek special permission from a religious leader.</p>
<p>Certain groups of people with type 2 diabetes who do not use insulin or particular oral medications can safely fast during Ramadan under the guidance of their health-care professional. </p>
<p>But as diet, lifestyle and medication use are key factors in maintaining stable blood glucose levels and minimising diabetes complications, many people with type 2 diabetes can also be considered medically exempt from fasting.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/know-your-disease-education-is-key-to-living-well-with-diabetes-28665">Know your disease: education is key to living well with diabetes</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<p><a href="https://www.idf.org/e-library/guidelines/87-diabetes-and-ramadan-practical-25">Practical guidelines</a> established by the International Diabetes Federation-Diabetes and Ramadan (<a href="https://www.daralliance.org/daralliance/">IDF-DAR</a>) International Alliance assist health professionals to assess patients’ level of risk.</p>
<p>Low risk patients can safely enjoy fasting, while those at moderate to high risk are advised against fasting. </p>
<p>These guidelines have been endorsed by religious authorities in Australia and overseas and are a valuable reference for health professionals and their Muslim patients.</p>
<h2>But it’s not quite that simple</h2>
<p>The month of Ramadan is a special time for Muslim people, where fasting and feasting are integral to religious life, social interaction and communal celebration.</p>
<p>Because fasting is one of the five pillars of Islam, there is a strong desire to participate, even among those who could be exempt for medical reasons. </p>
<p>Those who cannot fast for medical reasons may <a href="https://drc.bmj.com/content/5/1/e000365">feel alienated by their diabetes</a> and develop negative attitudes towards it, possibly resulting in impaired self-management of their condition.</p>
<p>Some people with diabetes may be reluctant to raise the topic themselves, fearing a <a href="https://drc.bmj.com/content/5/1/e000365">lack of understanding</a> from non-Muslim health providers. They may conceal their intentions to fast to avoid any perceived conflict with the health professional.</p>
<p>Understanding the spiritual significance of this month to Muslims as well as the practical aspects can put health practitioners in a much stronger position to gain patient trust and facilitate communication.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/health-check-will-intermittent-fasting-diets-help-you-lose-weight-51040">Health Check: will intermittent fasting diets help you lose weight?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>Culturally sensitive discussion allows people with diabetes to make informed choices</h2>
<p>The month of Ramadan is determined according to the Islamic lunar year and varies annually in the western calendar. Professionals caring for people who observe Ramadan should be aware of its timing and start the conversation in advance. </p>
<p>Muslims with diabetes wanting to observe Ramadan should be counselled on the risks of fasting. Drawing on the guidelines, health providers can reassure their patients that those who do not fast for medical reasons also receive spiritual rewards and should not feel guilty.</p>
<p>Health-care professionals may suggest donations of food or money to the poor could be considered as an alternative, if it’s within the person’s means.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271678/original/file-20190430-194630-11s11jz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/271678/original/file-20190430-194630-11s11jz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271678/original/file-20190430-194630-11s11jz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271678/original/file-20190430-194630-11s11jz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271678/original/file-20190430-194630-11s11jz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271678/original/file-20190430-194630-11s11jz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/271678/original/file-20190430-194630-11s11jz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A person with diabetes may need to check their blood sugar more often if they’re fasting.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">From shutterstock.com</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Discussion about Ramadan must occur in a culturally sensitive and non-judgemental way, appreciating a person’s right to evaluate the risks and benefits of fasting – both spiritual and physical – for themselves, and determine from an individual perspective whether fasting is the right decision. </p>
<p>Doctors might also advise their patient to discuss any concerns with their local religious leader.</p>
<p>For those who choose to fast despite their exemption, discussions about glucose monitoring, nutrition, exercise and potential medication changes can ensure they fast as safely as possible. </p>
<p>The diabetes health care team (which can include GPs, endocrinologists, diabetes educators, dietitians and diabetes nurse practitioners) can also develop an <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4477147/">individualised Ramadan-specific management plan</a>.</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-how-western-attitudes-towards-islam-have-changed-111989">Friday essay: how Western attitudes towards Islam have changed</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Understanding people’s different cultural backgrounds, lifestyles and religious practices <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168822716302522">plays an important role</a> in their health care. A lack of understanding might lead to poorer health outcomes and disengagement with health services, while research shows culturally appropriate diabetes education and prevention programs <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16410421">improve outcomes</a> for people from different backgrounds.</p>
<p>Health-care professionals should educate themselves about their cultural setting and local patient population to maintain effective therapeutic relationships and achieve the best patient-focused outcomes.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/115469/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ahmed Hussein is affiliated with the not-for-profit organisation Sydney Northwest Muslim Community as a Vice President.
</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sue Lynn Lau does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The holy month of Ramadan begins on Sunday night. This can present a challenge for Muslim people with type 2 diabetes who want to fast but can’t necessarily do so safely.Sue Lynn Lau, Endocrinologist, Western Sydney UniversityAhmed Hussein, Endocrinologist and Associate lecturer, Western Sydney UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.