tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/macronutrients-42510/articlesMacronutrients – The Conversation2023-11-17T13:29:07Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2176222023-11-17T13:29:07Z2023-11-17T13:29:07ZThanksgiving sides are delicious and can be nutritious − here’s the biochemistry of how to maximize the benefits<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/560008/original/file-20231116-25-qa3919.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=371%2C19%2C1212%2C1371&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Side dishes made with colorful vegetables are a holiday staple for many. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/thanksgiving-table-with-turkey-and-sides-royalty-free-image/1036967058?phrase=thanksgiving+vegetables&adppopup=true">VeselovaElena/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While people usually think first about the turkey or the ham during holiday meals, the sides are what help balance your plate. Colorful vegetables like green beans, collard greens, roasted carrots and mashed sweet potatoes are loaded with important micronutrients. But how you prepare them will help determine whether you get the most nutritional value out of each bite this holiday season.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://blog.richmond.edu/pollocklab/">a biochemist</a>, I know that food is made up of many chemical substances that are crucial for human growth and function. These chemical substances are called nutrients and can be divided into macronutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins, and micronutrients, such as vitamins and minerals.</p>
<p>Vegetables are <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nutrition/micronutrient-malnutrition/micronutrients/index.html">full of micronutrients</a> that human bodies need for metabolism – or converting food into energy – as well as to form and maintain cells and tissues. These micronutrients can be classified into three types: minerals, water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins.</p>
<h2>Minerals</h2>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Alt text" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=135&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=135&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=135&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=169&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=169&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559444/original/file-20231114-25-uczoq8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=169&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The dietary minerals found in vegetables.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julie Pollock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The greens – collard greens, kale, spinach, green beans – on your table are rich sources of the elements <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-Consumer/">magnesium</a> and <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Calcium-Consumer/">calcium</a>. Your body needs these two major minerals for muscle movement and bone health. </p>
<p>Magnesium is essential for many of the enzymes that play important roles in DNA synthesis and repair, as well as protein production and metabolic function. The cellular processes, especially <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/dna-synthesis">accurate DNA synthesis</a>, are important in protecting your body from developing diseases such as cancer. Calcium helps regulate <a href="https://www.news-medical.net/health/pH-in-the-Human-Body.aspx">the pH in your body</a>, influences your metabolism and strengthens your nerve impulses. Nerve impulses are important for your senses and your memory. </p>
<p>Greens are also <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iron-Consumer/">a source of iron</a> – you were right, Popeye! – which is particularly important for the oxygen-binding proteins hemoglobin and myoglobin that transfer and store oxygen in your body, respectively. In addition, human bodies require iron for processes that help generate energy, protect against oxidative damage and make hormones.</p>
<p>Orange vegetables – carrots, pumpkin, sweet potatoes and squash – contain some levels of calcium and iron as well as <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/an.112.003533">high levels of potassium</a>. Potassium is important for muscle movement, nerve impulses and maintaining low blood pressure. Although not a colorful vegetable, white potatoes also contain very <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/an.112.003533">high levels of potassium</a>. </p>
<h2>Water-soluble vitamins</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two diagrams showing Vitamin B6, a hexagon with three branches with 'OH' attached, and vitamin C, a hexagon with two Os and four branches with OH coming off." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=255&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559445/original/file-20231114-15-is56e7.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The structures of water-soluble vitamins found in vegetables.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julie Pollock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Most green and orange vegetables contain <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nu.14.070194.002103">high levels of vitamin C</a>. Vitamin C is an important water-soluble vitamin because it acts as an antioxidant. <a href="https://theconversation.com/13-ways-to-get-more-antioxidants-and-why-you-need-to-70035">Antioxidants protect your cells</a> against certain types of damage caused by very reactive molecules known as free radicals. </p>
<p>In addition, vitamin C can enhance immune response and is essential for the <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/collagen">synthesis of collagen</a> – the major protein in your skin. Although taking large levels of vitamin C will not <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279544/">keep you from ever getting sick</a>, a healthy amount can help your skin stay soft, help you avoid diseases like scurvy and potentially shorten the length of a cold.</p>
<p>The white potatoes on the table have high levels of <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093229">vitamin B6</a>, which is a component of enzymes essential for carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism. It also helps create healthy blood cells and is important in the production of neurotransmitters such as <a href="https://brain.harvard.edu/hbi_news/exploring-how-serotonin-and-dopamine-interact/">serotonin and dopamine</a>, which both regulate pleasure and happiness.</p>
<h2>Fat-soluble vitamins</h2>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two diagrams, the left showing the chemical structure of Vitamin K, the right showing the chemical structure of Vitamin A" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=151&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=151&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=151&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=190&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=190&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/559446/original/file-20231114-29-d1rqea.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=190&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The structures of fat-soluble vitamins found in vegetables.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Julie Pollock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One of the most important vitamins you get from the green vegetables, especially leafy ones like kale, spinach, collards and Brussels sprouts, is <a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminK-Consumer/">vitamin K</a>. Vitamin K is an essential component of enzymes that make proteins in bone and proteins that help clot blood after injuries. </p>
<p><a href="https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminA-Consumer/">Vitamin A</a> is another important fat-soluble vitamin found in spinach and orange vegetables. The source of vitamin A in vegetables is actually <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/beta-carotene-benefits">beta carotene</a>, which gets broken into two molecules of active vitamin A after consumption. Vitamin A is essential to vision as well as cell differentiation, reproduction, bone health and immune system function. </p>
<h2>Absorption of micronutrients</h2>
<p>Consuming vegetables that contain micronutrients is very important, but just as important is your body’s ability to absorb the nutrients and transport them to the cells that need them. Macronutrients like carbohydrates, fats and proteins that primarily make up the food we eat are very efficiently absorbed into your bloodstream. </p>
<p>However, only 3%-10% of some micronutrients <a href="https://www.pearson.com/en-us/subject-catalog/p/science-of-nutrition-the/P200000007016/9780135371565">actually get distributed throughout your body</a>. Other ingredients and factors in your food can moderate whether you absorb vitamins and minerals.</p>
<p>Therefore, it is important to prepare vegetables in a way that can enhance the body’s ability to absorb their essential vitamins and minerals.</p>
<p>One good example of this is iron – specifically, the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051049">iron in the food you consume</a>. Heme iron, which is the form necessary for incorporation into your body, comes only from animal products and is the most easily absorbed. </p>
<p>The plant-based iron contained in green and orange vegetables, on the other hand, is not bound to a heme, and your body can’t absorb it as readily. Consuming vitamin C alongside vegetables can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1980.tb21325.x">increase the uptake of nonheme iron</a>. So, a squeeze of lemon or orange juice can not only enhance the flavor of your vegetables but the micronutrients you obtain from them.</p>
<p>Fat-soluble vitamins, like vitamin K and vitamin A, are best absorbed when the meal <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002399.htm">contains some dietary fat</a>, which you can get from oil. This is particularly important for vitamin K because green vegetables are its primary dietary source. This is in contrast to the other minerals and vitamins discussed that can also be obtained from animals or legumes that contain some amounts of dietary fat already.</p>
<p>After consumption, vitamin K must be packaged with other fats in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuab061">structures called micelles or lipoproteins</a> that can move around in the bloodstream. That means that it’s a good idea to prepare your greens with some source of fat – olive oil, avocado oil, butter or even a little bacon grease.</p>
<p>So, if you’re staring at the southern style collard greens on your plate and wondering whether they’re as healthy as eating a raw green leaf, think about it in terms of the biochemistry. While raw greens provide you with plenty of fiber and minerals, they won’t help your vitamin K levels as greens cooked in oil will. </p>
<p>Enjoy your time around the holiday table. Load up your plate with everything you like to eat, and make sure to not go completely fat-free in order to help your body process and use all the micronutrients.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217622/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Julie Pollock receives funding from the National Institutes of Health. </span></em></p>The turkey doesn’t have to be the star this Thanksgiving. Vegetable side dishes are packed with nutrients − depending on how you prepare them, they can help keep you energized this holiday season.Julie Pollock, Associate Professor of Chemistry, University of RichmondLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2047722023-05-30T12:24:25Z2023-05-30T12:24:25Z‘Man, the hunter’? Archaeologists’ assumptions about gender roles in past humans ignore an icky but potentially crucial part of original ‘paleo diet’<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528374/original/file-20230525-25-e5g7ll.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=743%2C0%2C4100%2C2866&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What if prehistoric men and women joined forces in hunting parties?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/tribe-of-hunter-gatherers-wearing-animal-skin-royalty-free-image/1194512906">gorodenkoff/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>One of the most common stereotypes about the human past is that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199551224.013.032">men did the hunting while women did the gathering</a>. That gendered division of labor, the story goes, would have provided the meat and plant foods people needed to survive.</p>
<p>That characterization of our time as a species exclusively reliant on wild foods – before people <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1501711112">started domesticating plants and animals</a> more than 10,000 years ago – matches the pattern anthropologists observed among hunter-gatherers during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Virtually all of the large-game hunting they documented was performed by men.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528430/original/file-20230525-27-1kn0er.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="stone points with centimeter ruler" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528430/original/file-20230525-27-1kn0er.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528430/original/file-20230525-27-1kn0er.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528430/original/file-20230525-27-1kn0er.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528430/original/file-20230525-27-1kn0er.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528430/original/file-20230525-27-1kn0er.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528430/original/file-20230525-27-1kn0er.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528430/original/file-20230525-27-1kn0er.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Stone Folsom points, which date to between 11,000 and 10,000 years ago, are associated with the prehistoric hunting of bison.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">UMMAA 27673, 39802, 30442 and 37737, Courtesy of the University of Michigan Museum of Anthropological Archaeology</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>It’s an open question whether these ethnographic accounts of labor are truly representative of recent hunter-gatherers’ subsistence behaviors. Regardless, they definitely fueled assumptions that a gendered division of labor arose early in our species’ evolution. Current employment statistics do little to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0300">disrupt that thinking</a>; in a recent analysis, <a href="https://data.bls.gov">just 13% of hunters, fishers and trappers</a> in the U.S. were women.</p>
<p>Still, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=ph0ZKGEAAAAJ">as an archaeologist</a>, I’ve spent much of my career studying how people of the past got their food. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.21979">I can’t always square my observations</a> with the “man the hunter” stereotype.</p>
<h2>A long-standing anthropological assumption</h2>
<p>First, I want to note that this article uses “women” to describe people biologically equipped to experience pregnancy, while recognizing that not all people who identify as women are so equipped, and not all people so equipped identify as women.</p>
<p>I am using this definition here because reproduction is at the heart of many hypotheses about when and why subsistence labor became a gendered activity. As the thinking goes, women gathered because it was a low-risk way to provide dependent children with a reliable stream of nutrients. Men hunted either to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-013-9173-0">round out the household diet</a> or to use difficult-to-acquire meat as a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.20005">way to attract potential mates</a>.</p>
<p>One of the things that has come to trouble me about attempts to test related hypotheses using archaeological data – some of my own attempts included – is that they assume plants and animals are mutually exclusive food categories. Everything rests on the idea that plants and animals differ completely in how risky they are to obtain, their nutrient profiles and their abundance on a landscape.</p>
<p>It is true that highly mobile large-game species such as bison, caribou and guanaco (a deer-sized South American herbivore) were sometimes concentrated in places or seasons where plants edible to humans were scarce. But what if people could get the plant portion of their diets from the animals themselves? </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528375/original/file-20230525-25-zpqjbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="caribou grazing among lichen" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528375/original/file-20230525-25-zpqjbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528375/original/file-20230525-25-zpqjbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528375/original/file-20230525-25-zpqjbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528375/original/file-20230525-25-zpqjbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=480&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528375/original/file-20230525-25-zpqjbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528375/original/file-20230525-25-zpqjbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528375/original/file-20230525-25-zpqjbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=603&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Herbivores can consume and digest some plant material that humans usually can’t.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/reindeer-caribou-close-up-of-a-male-animal-royalty-free-image/1352155127">pchoui/iStock via Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Animal prey as a source of plant-based food</h2>
<p>The plant material undergoing digestion in the stomachs and intestines of large ruminant herbivores is a not-so-appetizing substance called digesta. This <a href="http://www.twincitiesnaturalist.com/2009/10/secret-insides-of-deer-stomach.html">partially digested matter</a> is edible to humans and rich in carbohydrates, which are pretty much absent from animal tissues.</p>
<p>Conversely, animal tissues are rich in protein and, in some seasons, fats – nutrients unavailable in many plants or that occur in such small amounts that a person would need to eat impractically large quantities to meet daily nutritional requirements from plants alone.</p>
<p>If past peoples ate digesta, a big herbivore with a full belly would, in essence, be one-stop shopping for total nutrition.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528432/original/file-20230525-23265-otdlhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="two bison skulls facing camera" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528432/original/file-20230525-23265-otdlhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528432/original/file-20230525-23265-otdlhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=246&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528432/original/file-20230525-23265-otdlhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=246&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528432/original/file-20230525-23265-otdlhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=246&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528432/original/file-20230525-23265-otdlhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528432/original/file-20230525-23265-otdlhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528432/original/file-20230525-23265-otdlhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=309&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Killing a bison could provide a source of both protein and carbs, if you consider the digesta.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">UMMAA 83209 a and b, Courtesy of the University of Michigan Museum of Anthropological Archaeology</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To explore the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.21979">potential and implications of digesta</a> as a source of carbohydrates, I recently compared institutional dietary guidelines to person-days of nutrition per animal using a 1,000-pound (450-kilogram) bison as a model. First I compiled available estimates for protein in a bison’s own tissues and for carbohydrates in digesta. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.21979">Using that data, I found</a> that a group of 25 adults could meet the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s recommended daily averages for protein and carbohydrates for three full days eating only bison meat and digesta from one animal.</p>
<p>Among past peoples, consuming digesta would have relaxed the demand for fresh plant foods, perhaps changing the dynamics of subsistence labor. </p>
<h2>Recalibrating the risk if everyone hunts</h2>
<p>One of the risks typically associated with large-game hunting is that of failure. According to the evolutionary hypotheses around <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0300">gendered division of labor</a>, when risk of hunting failure is high – that is, the likelihood of bagging an animal on any given hunting trip is low – women should choose more reliable resources to provision children, even if it means <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9780203974131-26/foraging-differences-men-women">long hours of gathering</a>. The cost of failure is simply too high to do otherwise.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528376/original/file-20230525-27-h86n7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Circa 1850 artist's rendition of hunters under wolfskins approaching buffalo" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528376/original/file-20230525-27-h86n7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528376/original/file-20230525-27-h86n7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528376/original/file-20230525-27-h86n7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528376/original/file-20230525-27-h86n7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=412&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528376/original/file-20230525-27-h86n7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528376/original/file-20230525-27-h86n7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528376/original/file-20230525-27-h86n7i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=517&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">What 19th-century ethnographers recorded might not be a good representation of prehistoric conditions.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/hunters-hiding-under-white-wolf-skins-while-stalking-news-photo/3089698">MPI/Archive Photos via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>However, there is evidence to suggest that <a href="https://giscenter.isu.edu/Research/Projects/BisonPaper.pdf">large game was much more abundant</a> in North America, for example, before the 19th- and 20th-century ethnographers observed foraging behaviors. If high-yield resources like bison could have been acquired with low risk, and the animals’ digesta was also consumed, women may have been more likely to participate in hunting. Under those circumstances, hunting could have provided total nutrition, eliminating the need to obtain protein and carbohydrates from separate sources that might have been widely spread across a landscape.</p>
<p>And, statistically speaking, women’s participation in hunting would also have helped reduce the risk of failure. My models show that, if all 25 of the people in a hypothetical group participated in the hunt, rather than just the men, and all agreed to share when successful, each hunter would <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.21979">have had to be successful only about five times a year</a> for the group to subsist entirely on bison and digesta. Of course, real life is more complicated than the model suggests, but the exercise illustrates potential benefits of both digesta and female hunting.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528377/original/file-20230525-27-dduale.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="black and white 1924 photo of two Inuit hunters with caribou carcass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528377/original/file-20230525-27-dduale.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528377/original/file-20230525-27-dduale.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528377/original/file-20230525-27-dduale.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528377/original/file-20230525-27-dduale.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=446&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528377/original/file-20230525-27-dduale.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528377/original/file-20230525-27-dduale.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528377/original/file-20230525-27-dduale.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=560&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Winter in the Arctic offers Indigenous hunters more chances to kill herbivores than to find edible plants.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/two-inuit-hunters-in-canada-strip-the-meat-from-a-pair-of-news-photo/50851064">Topical Press Agency/Hulton Archive via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ethnographically documented foragers did routinely eat digesta, especially where herbivores were plentiful but plants edible to humans were scarce, <a href="https://www2.dmu.dk/1_viden/2_publikationer/3_fagrapporter/rapporter/fr528.pdf">as in the Arctic</a>, where prey’s stomach contents was an important source of carbohydrates. </p>
<p>I believe eating digesta may have been a more common practice in the past, but direct evidence is frustratingly hard to come by. In at least one instance, plant species present in the mineralized plaque of a Neanderthal individual’s teeth <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.09.003">point to digesta as a source of nutrients</a>. To systematically study past digesta consumption and its knock-on effects, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086/507197">including female hunting</a>, researchers will need to draw on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd0310">multiple lines of archaeological evidence</a> and insights gained from models like the ones I developed.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/204772/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Raven Garvey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>If hunter-gatherers went beyond nose-to-tail eating to include the undigested plant matter in a prey animal’s stomach, assumptions about gendered division of labor start to fall apart.Raven Garvey, Associate Professor of Anthropology; Curator of High Latitude and Western North American Archaeology, Museum of Anthropological Archaeology; Faculty Affiliate, Research Center for Group Dynamics, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1983012023-05-29T02:40:00Z2023-05-29T02:40:00ZIs it true the faster you lose weight the quicker it comes back? Here’s what we know about slow and fast weight loss<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525832/original/file-20230512-19-kocqyl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=26%2C26%2C5964%2C3943&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/woman-measuring-waist-with-tape-in-gym-6551427/">Pexels/Andres Ayrton</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>When people decide it’s time to lose weight, they’re usually keen to see quick results. Maybe they have an event coming up or want relief from health problems and discomfort. </p>
<p>But expert guidelines typically recommend slower weight loss for the treatment of obesity. This tallies with a widely held opinion that fast weight loss is more quickly regained. Slow weight loss is generally perceived as better for your health and more sustainable. Many programs offering “the fastest way to lose weight” are considered fad diets that severely restrict calories or eliminate some foods. </p>
<p>But does slow and steady really win the weight-loss race? Or is fast weight loss just as effective and safe?</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/is-menopause-making-me-put-on-weight-no-but-its-complicated-198308">Is menopause making me put on weight? No, but it's complicated</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What’s the difference between slow and fast weight loss?</h2>
<p>Governing bodies typically <a href="https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/weight-loss-a-healthy-approach">recommend</a> a weight loss of 0.5 to 1 kilogram each week, which would be defined as slow weight loss. </p>
<p>So <a href="https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000885.htm#:%7E:text=Rapid%20weight%20loss%20diet%20is,a%20week%20over%20several%20weeks.">fast weight loss</a> – also termed “rapid weight loss” – is losing more than 1 kilo a week over several weeks.</p>
<h2>What does the research say about fast weight loss?</h2>
<p>There are several well-conducted studies examining differing approaches. </p>
<p>One <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25459211/">study</a> of 200 people randomly assigned them to fast or slow weight loss – 12 weeks versus 36 weeks – aimed at a 15% reduction in weight. </p>
<p>The fast weight loss group was put on a very low energy diet using meal replacements, including shakes, bars and soups, three times per day. The slow weight loss group was advised on the <a href="https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/guidelines/australian-guide-healthy-eating">Australian Guide to Healthy Eating</a> with the goal to eat 500 calories less than they used for energy (creating a calorie deficit) each day. They also used one to two meal replacements daily.</p>
<p>Some 50% of the slow weight loss group and 81% of the fast weight loss group achieved 12.5% or more weight loss during this time. </p>
<p>After this initial phase, those who had lost 12.5% or more were then placed on a weight maintenance diet for approximately 2.75 years. </p>
<p>By the three-year mark, 76% of those in the slow weight loss and the same percentage of those in the fast weight loss group had regained their lost weight.</p>
<p>So, it didn’t matter if they had lost it slow or fast, they still regained the weight. </p>
<p>However, another <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844020308513#bib17">study</a> on 101 postmenopausal women found fast weight loss resulted in better outcomes than a slow weight loss group at the three-year mark. </p>
<p>But there are other factors to consider, aside from weight loss, when it comes to the differing ways of losing weight – such as changes in body composition and bone mineral density.</p>
<p>This is best highlighted by a large <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32576318/">meta-analysis</a>. These type of studies combine the results of all previous well-conducted studies on the topic. </p>
<p>While this <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32576318/">analysis</a> found the magnitude of weight loss was similar for both approaches, slow weight loss resulted in better outcomes than fast weight loss with respect to metabolism or how many calories we burn at rest. </p>
<p>There were no differences in the amount of fat-free mass or muscle mass lost between the slow and fast weight loss groups. But slow weight loss resulted in greater reductions in fat mass and therefore a better fat-to-muscle ratio.</p>
<p>Slow weight loss also seems better for bone density, because rapid weight loss results in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844020308513#bib17">twice as much bone loss</a> and puts a person at increased risk of brittle bones or osteoporosis.</p>
<h2>What about other diet approaches?</h2>
<p>Research shows it doesn’t matter what type of macronutrient diet you follow – moderate or high-protein diet, low or high-carbodyrate diet, low or high-fat diet. All diet approaches achieve similar <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0804748">weight loss outcomes</a>. </p>
<p>The same can be said for fashionable ways of cutting calories from the diet, such as intermittent fasting. <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa2114833">Research</a> has shown such diets don’t result in any better weight loss results than any of its predecessors. This is because our body is extremely good at <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-weight-set-point-and-why-does-it-make-it-so-hard-to-keep-weight-off-195724">protecting against weight loss</a>. </p>
<p><div data-react-class="Tweet" data-react-props="{"tweetId":"1646507592527806469"}"></div></p>
<h2>When you want to lose weight consider …</h2>
<p><strong>Your metabolism</strong>
When you lose large amounts of weight, your resting metabolic rate – the energy you burn at rest – will lower. Keeping your resting metabolic rate high is essential for keeping the weight off. Unfortunately, once it slows down, your resting metabolic rate doesn’t recover to the level it was pre-dieting <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/oby.21538">even after you regain weight</a>.</p>
<p>However, research has confirmed <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32576318/">slow weight loss</a> preserves your resting metabolic rate compared with rapid weight loss. As does a weight loss program <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2161831323002867?via%3Dihub">that includes exercise</a> rather than one that focuses on diet alone.</p>
<p><strong>Side effects</strong>
While restrictive diets can achieve rapid results, studies suggest they can come with adverse effects. This includes a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16350561/">higher risk of gallstones</a> and deficiencies that can result in poor immune function, fatigue and a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32613096/">decrease in bone density</a>. Such restrictive diets can make it challenging to meet your nutritional needs. </p>
<p><strong>Sustainability</strong>
Many fast weight loss diets restrict or exclude foods required for long-term health. Carbohydrates are often banned, yet wholegrain carbohydrates are an essential source of nutrition, helping with weight loss and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002822301001948">prevention of disease</a>. Including meal replacements as part of a restrictive diet is also not sustainable for long. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525836/original/file-20230512-15-gwsojg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="apple slices on an plate next to list of foods eaten and calories" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525836/original/file-20230512-15-gwsojg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525836/original/file-20230512-15-gwsojg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525836/original/file-20230512-15-gwsojg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525836/original/file-20230512-15-gwsojg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525836/original/file-20230512-15-gwsojg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525836/original/file-20230512-15-gwsojg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525836/original/file-20230512-15-gwsojg.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Restricting foods can lead to nutritional deficiencies and poorer health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/apple-slices-beside-a-calorie-counting-form-12499375/">Pexels/Spencer Stone</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/does-exercise-help-you-lose-weight-198292">Does exercise help you lose weight?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>The bottom line?</h2>
<p>Regardless of how you lose the weight, it’s very difficult to maintain losses. Our bodies work to keep our weight around a <a href="https://theconversation.com/whats-the-weight-set-point-and-why-does-it-make-it-so-hard-to-keep-weight-off-195724">set point</a> by adjusting our biological systems and imposing a series of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4766925/">physiological changes</a> within the body to ensure we regain weight we lose. This stems from our hunter-gatherer ancestors, whose bodies developed this survival response to adapt to periods of deprivation when food was scarce. </p>
<p>Successful long-term weight loss comes down to: </p>
<p><strong>1.</strong> following evidence-based programs based on what we know about the science of obesity</p>
<p><strong>2.</strong> losing weight under the supervision of qualified health-care professionals</p>
<p><strong>3.</strong> making gradual changes to your lifestyle – diet, exercise and sleep – to ensure you form health habits that last a lifetime.</p>
<p>At the Boden Group, Charles Perkins Centre, we are studying the science of obesity and running clinical trials for weight loss. You can register for free <a href="https://redcap.sydney.edu.au/surveys/?s=RKTXPPPHKY">here</a> to express your interest.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/198301/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dr Nick Fuller works for the University of Sydney and has received external funding for projects relating to the treatment of overweight and obesity. He is the author and founder of the Interval Weight Loss program.</span></em></p>Many programs that offer the ‘the fastest way to lose weight’ are considered fad diets that severely restrict calories or eliminate some foods.Nick Fuller, Charles Perkins Centre Research Program Leader, University of SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2053672023-05-24T21:21:01Z2023-05-24T21:21:01ZIt’s time to leave the Paleo Diet in the past: Recent studies have failed to support its claims<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528111/original/file-20230524-44222-l4fgym.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=369%2C485%2C6424%2C4082&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Is this really what our Paleolithic ancestors ate? New data suggests prehistoric diets had a lot more overlap with our own than earlier studies estimated. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/paleo-diet/art-20111182">Paleo Diet</a> urges us to mimic our prehistoric ancestors’ food choices. In practice, this means eschewing dairy products, cereals, pulses and processed sugar, and consuming vegetables, fruit, nuts, pasture-raised meat and wild-caught seafood instead.</p>
<p>The Paleo Diet’s proponents contend that by eating this way, we will lose weight and reduce our risk of chronic diseases.</p>
<p>The roots of the Paleo Diet can be <a href="https://www.isbndb.com/book/9781684114399">traced to the 1950s</a>, but it owes its current popularity to a book by Loren Cordain called <a href="https://www.isbndb.com/book/9780471413905"><em>The Paleo Diet: Lose Weight and Get Healthy by Eating the Food You Were Designed to Eat</em></a>, the first edition of which was released in 2001.</p>
<p>In the 22 years since the publication of Cordain’s book, the Paleo Diet has been adopted by several million people and a <a href="https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/5030473/paleo-foods-global-strategic-business-report?utm_source=">multi-billion dollar industry</a> has developed in connection with it, including <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/best-paleo-brands-and-products#our-picks">premium-priced foods</a> and a certification scheme. </p>
<h2>The Paleo Diet’s health claims</h2>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527851/original/file-20230523-12079-6bjla5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Collage of images of food products marketed as suitable for the Paleo Diet, and two restaurants that serve paleo food" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527851/original/file-20230523-12079-6bjla5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/527851/original/file-20230523-12079-6bjla5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527851/original/file-20230523-12079-6bjla5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527851/original/file-20230523-12079-6bjla5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527851/original/file-20230523-12079-6bjla5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527851/original/file-20230523-12079-6bjla5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/527851/original/file-20230523-12079-6bjla5.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A multi-billion-dollar industry has developed in connection with the Paleo Diet, including premium-priced foods and a certification scheme.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Amalea Ruffett)</span>, <span class="license">Author provided</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While the Paleo Diet has many adherents, clinical research has yet to substantiate its purported health benefits.</p>
<p>To begin with, it does not seem to outperform conventional recommended diets as a means of losing weight in the medium- to long-term. The only <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2013.290">published multi-year study to have evaluated the Paleo Diet’s impact on weight loss</a> found that following the Paleo Diet was no more effective than following the <a href="https://doi.org/10.6027/Nord2014-002">Nordic countries’ official nutrition recommendations</a> after two years.</p>
<p>It is a similar story with the claims that have been made about the Paleo Diet’s impact on chronic diseases. For example, a <a href="https://doi.org/10.5694/mja16.00347">recent review</a> found that studies examining the Paleo Diet’s impact on Type 2 diabetes have been “inconclusive.”</p>
<p>Similarly, the authors of a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-019-02036-y">2020 study</a> reported that following the Paleo Diet resulted in a higher relative abundance of gut bacteria that produce a chemical associated with cardiovascular disease, which is at odds with the claim that the Paleo Diet will reduce the probability of experiencing chronic diseases.</p>
<p>Why have the health benefits claimed for the Paleo Diet not been supported by clinical research? As evolutionary anthropologists, we think the problem is that the Paleo Diet is based on a flawed premise and faulty data, and in what follows we’ll try to show why our research brought us to this conclusion.</p>
<h2>A flawed premise</h2>
<p>The idea underlying the Paleo Diet is that the <a href="https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/the-paleo-diet-should-modern-humans-eat-the-way-our-ancestors-did">ongoing surge in obesity and associated diseases in many countries is the result of a mismatch between the foods we eat and the foods our species evolved to consume</a>.</p>
<p>This mismatch, so the argument goes, is a consequence of there having been too little time since agriculture appeared, 12,000 years ago, for evolution to have adapted our species to deal with a high-carbohydrate, low-protein diet or to process domesticated food.</p>
<p>This argument seems reasonable because there is a perception that evolution is a very slow process. However, it is not in fact supported by research on diet-related genes.</p>
<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="A pitcher and a glass of milk" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528090/original/file-20230524-44339-4mfjil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528090/original/file-20230524-44339-4mfjil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528090/original/file-20230524-44339-4mfjil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528090/original/file-20230524-44339-4mfjil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=903&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528090/original/file-20230524-44339-4mfjil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528090/original/file-20230524-44339-4mfjil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528090/original/file-20230524-44339-4mfjil.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1135&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Ancient DNA research indicates that lactase persistence — the continued ability to produce the enzyme lactase as an adult — is less than 5,000 years old in Europe.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Pixabay)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Work on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-008-0593-6">lactase persistence</a> — the continued ability to produce the enzyme lactase as an adult — illustrates this. Lactase enables us to digest the milk sugar lactose, so lactase persistence is useful for a diet involving dairy products. Lactase persistence is found in just a few regions, one of which is Europe. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genom-091416-035340">Ancient DNA research</a> indicates that lactase persistence is less than 5,000 years old in Europe.</p>
<p>Similarly, an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msac183">analysis of genetic data from African populations published last year</a> found evidence of recent adaptation in a family of genes connected with metabolizing alcohol. In this case, natural selection operated within the last 2,000 years.</p>
<p>This evidence shows the mismatch rationale for adopting the Paleo Diet is not supported by genetic studies. Such studies demonstrate that evolution can produce diet-related adaptations in much less time than has elapsed since agriculture first appeared.</p>
<h2>Faulty data</h2>
<p>There is also an issue with the Paleo Diet’s recommendations regarding the contributions of the three macronutrients — protein, carbohydrate and fat — to a person’s diet.</p>
<p>According to the current version of the Paleo Diet, we should aim for a diet consisting of 19-35 per cent protein, 22-40 per cent carbohydrate and 28-58 per cent fat, by energy. This makes the Paleo Diet lower in carbohydrate and higher in protein than conventional recommended diets, such as those promoted by <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/healthy-eating/dietary-reference-intakes/tables/reference-values-macronutrients-dietary-reference-intakes-tables-2005.html">Health Canada</a> and the <a href="https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov">United States Department of Agriculture</a>.</p>
<p>The macronutrient ranges recommended by the Paleo Diet are based on a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/71.3.682">study from 2000</a> that estimated macronutrient percentages for more than 200 hunter-gatherer groups. However, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajcnut.2022.12.003">recently we have found</a> there is a problem with this study.</p>
<p>The problem lies in the macronutrient values the researchers used for plant foods. While they employed several sets of macronutrient values for animal foods, they only used one set of macronutrient values for plant foods. They obtained the plant data from an analysis of foods traditionally eaten by Indigenous Australians.</p>
<p>In our study, we evaluated the effects of this decision with two plant macronutrient datasets, both of which consisted of values for plants consumed by hunter-gatherers from several continents.</p>
<p>Using multi-continent plant data produced significantly different macronutrient estimates. These in turn produced macronutrient ranges that are wider than the ones recommended by the Paleo Diet. The ranges we calculated are 14-35 per cent protein, 21-55 per cent carbohydrate and 12-58 per cent fat, by energy.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A shopping bag with fruit, vegetables and other fresh groceries spilling out" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528112/original/file-20230524-44222-7snxqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/528112/original/file-20230524-44222-7snxqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528112/original/file-20230524-44222-7snxqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528112/original/file-20230524-44222-7snxqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=360&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528112/original/file-20230524-44222-7snxqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528112/original/file-20230524-44222-7snxqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/528112/original/file-20230524-44222-7snxqd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=452&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">New research suggests that the diet of our prehistoric ancestors had more overlap with modern macronutrient recommendations than the Paleo Diet indicates.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Shutterstock)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>These ranges overlap those recommended by <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/healthy-eating/dietary-reference-intakes/tables/reference-values-macronutrients-dietary-reference-intakes-tables-2005.html">Health Canada</a> (10-35 per cent protein, 45-65 per cent carbohydrate and 20-35 per cent fat) and the <a href="https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/">United States Department of Agriculture</a> (10-30 per cent protein, 45-65 per cent carbohydrate and 25-35 per cent fat).</p>
<p>That the macronutrient ranges of hunter-gatherer diets overlap government-approved macronutrient ranges casts doubt on the idea that the Paleo Diet is healthier than conventional recommended diets.</p>
<h2>It’s time to leave the Paleo Diet in the past</h2>
<p>Given that the rationale for adopting the Paleo Diet isn’t supported by the available scientific research, and its macronutrient recommendations aren’t scientifically robust, it is, we suggest, not surprising that the diet’s purported health benefits haven’t been supported by clinical studies.</p>
<p>The Paleo Diet has been a worthwhile experiment, but at this point it seems likely that people following it might just be wasting money. Conventional, government-recommended diets offer comparable outcomes <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2011.05.008">at a lower cost</a>. In our view, it’s time to leave the Paleo Diet in the past.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205367/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Collard receives funding from the Canada Research Chairs Program, the Canada Foundation for Innovation, the British Columbia Knowledge Development Fund, and Simon Fraser University.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Amalea Ruffett does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Paleo Diet is popular, but research has yet to substantiate its purported health benefits. As evolutionary anthropologists, here’s why we think it’s time to leave the Paleo Diet in the past.Mark Collard, Canada Research Chair in Human Evolutionary Studies, and Professor of Archaeology, Simon Fraser UniversityAmalea Ruffett, PhD Student in Archaeology , Simon Fraser UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2007302023-04-13T02:02:30Z2023-04-13T02:02:30ZRunning gels and protein powders can be convenient boosts for athletes – but be sure to read the label<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517602/original/file-20230327-19-mu4wn5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C0%2C2488%2C1661&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Personal bests, competition wins, new challenges – athletes, and particularly endurance athletes, tend to want to push themselves hard to perform. So it makes sense that there is a big interest in sports supplements, like running gels and protein powders. </p>
<p>We all need <a href="https://www.mdanderson.org/publications/focused-on-health/what-are-macronutrients-.h15-1593780.html">macronutrients</a>: carbohydrates, proteins and fats that give us energy and build structures like muscles and other cells in our bodies. </p>
<p>When we are very physically active, like long-distance runners, cyclists or triathletes, our need for both energy and building blocks for muscles and other cells <a href="https://journals.lww.com/acsm-csmr/fulltext/2018/06000/energy_availability,_macronutrient_intake,_and.10.aspx">increases</a> because of the extra work our bodies are doing. </p>
<p>So supplements – such as sports gels or protein powders – that contain these macronutrients might make sense. But can they do anything that food can’t? </p>
<hr>
<p>
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Read more:
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</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>What is in sports gels?</h2>
<p>Sports gels (also known as energy gels) are essentially <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/abstract/journals/ijsnem/25/5/article-p504.xml">carbohydrate supplements</a>. They contain simple sugars like maltodextrin, fructose, and glucose. These sugars don’t need much digestion to be absorbed and <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn/article-abstract/62/1/203S/4651710">used as energy</a>. Sugars are the easiest form of energy for our bodies to use. </p>
<p>During long periods of exercise our stored <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/jappl.1999.87.3.947">sources of energy get depleted</a>. Our blood sugar drops and we use the glycogen stored in our muscles. So during long bouts of exercise, athletes like long-distance cyclists and runners as well as players in extended length “stop and start” type sports, such as soccer <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26115589/">need to replace these stores</a>. </p>
<p>The research into the benefit of carbohydrate supplementation during exercise isn’t new. It dates back as far back as the <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/240244">1924 Boston Marathon</a>. </p>
<p>The gel forms are a <a href="https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ijsnem/18/2/article-p179.xml">bit more modern</a>, taking off in the 1980s and 1990s. For some people and sports, they have replaced the sweet drinks used previously. Gels have the advantage of being a more concentrated form than a drink, which means <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35360695">less to carry</a> and less to ingest for the same carbohydrate kick. </p>
<h2>What about protein powders?</h2>
<p>Protein powders are exactly what the name suggests. They are typically <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3905294/">casein or whey</a> (proteins found in milk) but can come in plant-based forms too. </p>
<p>Protein won’t give you the quick energy boost that sugars do, even though protein and carbohydrates have the <a href="https://nutritionaustralia.org/fact-sheets/balancing-energy-in-and-energy-out/#:%7E:text=The%20amount%20of%20energy%20delivered,Fat%20%E2%80%93%2037.7kJ%20per%20gram">same energy value</a> (meaning gram for gram they have the same amount of calories). </p>
<p>This is because proteins are more <a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/extra-protein-is-a-decent-dietary-choice-but-dont-overdo-it-201305016145#:%7E:text=%E2%80%9CProtein%20takes%20more%20energy%20for,help%20some%20people%20lose%20weight.">complicated</a> for the body to break down and use. But protein is not just important for energy. It provides important building blocks for most of our body’s structures, including our muscles. This is why protein powders are popular with weight lifters and other power-based athletes. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="selection of fruits, chocolate powder and milky drink on benchtop" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517603/original/file-20230327-24-cx5a6z.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Weightlifters are often keen to supplement their protein intake to build muscle.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/healthy-fresh-smoothie-drink-green-apple-734467744">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>But can food do the same thing?</h2>
<p>Plenty of foods are rich in carbohydrates and proteins. Honey, dried fruits, bananas and even those half-time orange wedges are all potential carbohydrate sources for athletes. </p>
<p>Consuming carbohydrates in these forms has been shown to have the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35231883/">same benefits</a> as gels during exercise. </p>
<p>For protein, milk, eggs and meats are all great sources. </p>
<p>Food sources also have the added benefit of being complex, which means they have other good things in them in addition to the macros, including vitamins and minerals, and bioactive compounds which promote good health. </p>
<p>Foods that are whole (unprocessed) or minimally processed are the most cost-effective means to obtain a mix of nutrients needed for rest and recovery after exercise, as well as during. They might taste a bit better too. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/ozempic-helps-weight-loss-by-making-you-feel-full-but-certain-foods-can-do-the-same-thing-without-the-side-effects-201870">Ozempic helps weight loss by making you feel full. But certain foods can do the same thing – without the side-effects</a>
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</em>
</p>
<hr>
<h2>Why supplement then?</h2>
<p>But, the supplements do have some benefits. They are highly concentrated, meaning you can get a lot in quickly, with less to carry and less chance of feeling overly full. </p>
<p>So they are but are generally considered by athletes as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35360695">more convenient</a> and are also linked to less <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35231883">gut discomfort</a> (like cramps and diarrhoea). </p>
<p>The processed and packaged nature also means you know exactly what and how much you are getting, which might be important for some athletes to keep track of. </p>
<h2>Any downsides of macro supplements?</h2>
<p>Macro supplements can be expensive, and they can use a lot of packaging. The <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25997181/">huge variety</a> of products on the market also means products could contain lots of other ingredients (for better and for worse). Some sports gels contain stimulants like caffeine or preservatives like salts. Some protein powders contain added sugar. </p>
<p>And like all supplements, they are not without their risks. </p>
<p>Highly concentrated sports gels can cause <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25997181/">stomach upsets</a> and excessive protein supplementation can damage other organs, such as the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1524267/">kidneys</a>. </p>
<p>Macro supplements can also make <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24500112/">dehydration</a> worse because the body will need to shift water to deal with these concentrated products. </p>
<p>Blocks and <a href="https://shop.clifbar.com/collections/bloks-energy-chews">chews and bars</a> can be even more concentrated, but have a more complex composition. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Runners kit including clothes, shoes, energy gels and competitor bib on grass" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=397&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/517604/original/file-20230327-20-1hfnt5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Read the ingredients list carefully before adding gels to your kit.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/running-shoes-marathon-race-bib-number-432469564">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/nope-coffee-wont-give-you-extra-energy-itll-just-borrow-a-bit-that-youll-pay-for-later-197897">Nope, coffee won't give you extra energy. It'll just borrow a bit that you'll pay for later</a>
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<hr>
<h2>The science is also a bit sexist</h2>
<p>The <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14967866">vast majority of studies</a> on sports gels have used males, and the same benefits may not be seen in females. This is due to sex differences between males and females in how readily carbohydrates are used as energy, with females oxidising more fat and less carbohydrate, compared to males, during endurance exercise. </p>
<p>Ultimately, whether or not supplements or foods are the right choice for you during sports and exercise is going to come down to your preferences, budget, needs and the length and intensity of your exercise or sport. </p>
<p>For casual, short or low intensity sporting pursuits, supplements might be overkill, but for activities of high intensity or long duration, they can have benefits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/200730/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Beckett has received funding for research or consulting from Mars Foods, Nutrition Research Australia, NHMRC, ARC, AMP Foundation, Kellogg, and the University of Newcastle. She also works for Nutrition Research Australia. She is a member of committees/working groups related to nutrition or the Australian Academy of Science, the National Health and Medical Research Council and the Nutrition Society of Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Patrice Jones has received funding for research or consulting from the Victorian Government, Nutrition Research Australia, Victoria University, the Australian Academy of Science, NIH Fund, and the University of Newcastle. She is a member of committees related to nutrition/physiology: Nutrition Society of Australia, Australian Physiological Society. She is affiliated with the Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University and Nutrition Research Australia.
</span></em></p>Sports gels and protein powders can meet the increased nutritional needs of endurance athletes in a convenient form. But they do pack downsides too.Emma Beckett, Senior Lecturer (Food Science and Human Nutrition), School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of NewcastlePatrice Jones, Post doctoral research fellow, Institute for Health & Sport, Victoria UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1908432022-11-01T22:37:10Z2022-11-01T22:37:10ZFeeling bloated, hungry or bored after salad? These tips might help<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485779/original/file-20220921-25-27uhle.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C90%2C6016%2C3917&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/nnN2I7oG6iY">Photo by Ralph (Ravi) Kayden on Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Salads are great for our health.</p>
<p>They are nutritious, packed full of gut-loving fibre, micronutrients, vitamins, minerals and antioxidants.</p>
<p>However, some people can experience certain downsides after eating salad, including feeling bored, bloated or even still hungry. </p>
<p>Here are some tips to help you make the most of your salad-eating habits as the weather warms up.</p>
<hr>
<p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/are-home-brand-foods-healthy-if-you-read-the-label-you-may-be-pleasantly-surprised-189445">Are home-brand foods healthy? If you read the label, you may be pleasantly surprised</a>
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<hr>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485777/original/file-20220921-16-tbz6j6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C11%2C1920%2C1264&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A salad sits on a table near an olive oil carafe" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485777/original/file-20220921-16-tbz6j6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C11%2C1920%2C1264&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485777/original/file-20220921-16-tbz6j6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485777/original/file-20220921-16-tbz6j6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485777/original/file-20220921-16-tbz6j6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485777/original/file-20220921-16-tbz6j6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485777/original/file-20220921-16-tbz6j6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485777/original/file-20220921-16-tbz6j6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Salads are great for our health.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Image by Jill Wellington from Pixabay</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Keep yourself fuller for longer</h2>
<p>Salads are naturally low in calories or kilojoules. This is because salads mostly contain vegetables, which have a high water content. </p>
<p>This may mean you don’t feel very satisfied after eating your salad – making it hard to stay full until your next meal.</p>
<p>Instead of eating a salad and then later reaching for something less healthy to fill up on, you can stay fuller for longer by including all three macronutrients in your salad:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>a healthy carbohydrate source (pumpkin, sweet potato, parsnips, taro, brown rice, quinoa, barley or brown pasta)</p></li>
<li><p>a healthy fat source (avocado, olive oil, toasted seeds or nuts)</p></li>
<li><p>a lean protein source (eggs, fish, chicken, tofu, tempeh, lentils or legumes).</p></li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485780/original/file-20220921-26-5jlath.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A salad with avocado and brown bread sits on a table." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485780/original/file-20220921-26-5jlath.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485780/original/file-20220921-26-5jlath.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485780/original/file-20220921-26-5jlath.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485780/original/file-20220921-26-5jlath.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485780/original/file-20220921-26-5jlath.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485780/original/file-20220921-26-5jlath.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485780/original/file-20220921-26-5jlath.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">You can stay fuller for longer by including all three macronutrients in your salad.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.pexels.com/photo/vegetable-salad-with-wheat-bread-on-the-side-1213710/">Photo by Dana Tentis/Pexels</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Reduce bloating</h2>
<p>Many people experience bloating and/or gut upset when they eat a lot of salad.</p>
<p>This commonly occurs if someone is going quickly from a less healthy, low-fibre diet to a healthier, high-fibre diet. </p>
<p>It happens because your gut microbes are multiplying and producing lots of plant-digesting enzymes (which is great for your gut health!).</p>
<p>However, your gut needs some time to adapt and adjust over time. You can help alleviate any discomfort by: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>taking a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-022-01649-4">short walk</a> or doing some stretching after eating your salad. This has been shown to reduce bloating as it loosens up the gut muscles and helps release any trapped gas </p></li>
<li><p>being <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7219460/">mindful</a> of how you are preparing lentils and legumes. Ensure they are thoroughly rinsed and only include ¼ cup of them (soaked) to begin with if they are something new in your diet</p></li>
<li><p>eating your salad mindfully. A non-relaxed, uptight gut or a gut that has recently been irritated by an illness can mean your gut is not as efficient in absorbing gas. This can trigger bloating as the gas gets “trapped”</p></li>
<li><p>cooking some of the vegetables in your salad. Applying temperature or heat to your vegetables can help break them down and make them easier to digest</p></li>
<li><p>considering your symptoms. If you experience extreme abdominal pain, irregular bowel habits (including chronic diarrhoea or constipation, or alternating diarrhoea and constipation) and a bloated stomach after eating salad it may indicate you are suffering from irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Please see an accredited practising dietitian who can make an assessment and diagnose IBS, help you identify your triggers and manage your symptoms </p></li>
<li><p>being mindful of your current health conditions or treatments. For example, if you are undergoing chemotherapy treatment, some drugs can slow down your digestion. This may mean some vegetables and other high-fibre foods in your salad upset your gut. Again, speaking with an accredited practising dietitian is the best way to receive evidence-based advice on how to manage this. </p></li>
</ol>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485781/original/file-20220921-24-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A person tears up kale leaves to drop them in a salad." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485781/original/file-20220921-24-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/485781/original/file-20220921-24-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485781/original/file-20220921-24-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485781/original/file-20220921-24-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485781/original/file-20220921-24-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485781/original/file-20220921-24-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/485781/original/file-20220921-24-a4hdau.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=504&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Consider cooking some of the ingredients in your salad.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/0geTqSZ76Xg">Photo by Max Delsid on Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Keep salad boredom at bay</h2>
<p>Stuck on what makes a good salad? Here’s Lauren’s tried and tested formula, based on six categories of ingredients: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>leaves, such as lettuce, rocket or spinach</p></li>
<li><p>something sweet and juicy, such as tomato, pear, mango, peach or whatever is in season</p></li>
<li><p>something with crunch, such as carrot, capsicum or broccolini</p></li>
<li><p>a type of nut, such as cashew or macadamia</p></li>
<li><p>a cheese, such as feta, bocconcini, mature cheddar, parmesan, edam</p></li>
<li><p>something fragrant, such as mint, parsley, basil or coriander.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>To make the salad into a complete meal, add a healthy carbohydrate, fat and protein source (the three macronutrients we mentioned earlier).</p>
<p>The bottom line? Eating salads is a great way to have a healthy, diverse diet. With these tweaks, you can make the most of the summer weather ahead!</p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-are-sugar-rushes-real-161494">Curious Kids: are sugar rushes real?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/190843/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Lauren Ball receives funding from the National Health and Medical Research Council and Queensland Health. She is a Director of Dietitians Australia.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emily Burch does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>No, you’re not imagining it. Some people really do experience bloating or gut upset when they eat a lot of salad.Lauren Ball, Professor of Community Health and Wellbeing, The University of QueenslandEmily Burch, Dietitian and Researcher, The University of QueenslandLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1658672022-03-01T13:37:54Z2022-03-01T13:37:54ZWhat you eat can reprogram your genes – an expert explains the emerging science of nutrigenomics<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/442404/original/file-20220124-23298-1b8yqek.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=51%2C0%2C5700%2C3754&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Along with calories and nutrients, food can influence the genetic blueprints that shape who you are.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/cropped-image-of-hands-preparing-food-on-table-royalty-free-image/664647131?adppopup=true">Maskot via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/lo-que-usted-come-puede-reprogramar-sus-genes-un-experto-explica-la-ciencia-emergente-de-la-nutrigenomica-202423">Leer en español.</a> </p>
<p>People typically think of food as calories, energy and sustenance. However, the latest evidence suggests that food also “talks” to our genome, which is the genetic blueprint that directs the way the body functions down to the cellular level. </p>
<p>This communication between food and genes may affect your <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibs.2020.04.002">health, physiology and longevity</a>. The idea that food delivers important messages to an animal’s genome is the focus of a field known as <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/nutrigenomics">nutrigenomics</a>. This is a discipline still in its infancy, and many questions remain cloaked in mystery. Yet already, we researchers have learned a great deal about how <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibs.2020.04.002">food components affect the genome</a>.</p>
<p>I am a <a href="https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/dus-lab/">molecular biologist</a> who <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=MbZxwzMAAAAJ&hl=en">researches the interactions</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2020.11.011">among food</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuint.2021.105099">genes</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2021.746299">brains</a> in the effort to better understand how food messages affect our biology. The efforts of scientists to decipher this transmission of information could one day result in healthier and happier lives for all of us. But until then, nutrigenomics has unmasked at least one important fact: Our <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FmKPgBoCgKU">relationship with food is far more intimate</a> than we ever imagined. </p>
<h2>The interaction of food and genes</h2>
<p>If the idea that food can drive biological processes by interacting with the genome sounds astonishing, one need look no further than a beehive to find a proven and perfect example of how this happens. Worker bees labor nonstop, are sterile and live only a few weeks. The queen bee, sitting deep inside the hive, has a life span that lasts for years and a fecundity so potent she gives birth to an entire colony. </p>
<p>And yet, worker and queen bees are genetically identical organisms. They become two different life forms because of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1153069">food they eat</a>. The queen bee feasts on <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10093">royal jelly</a>; worker bees feed on nectar and pollen. Both foods provide energy, but royal jelly has an extra feature: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/embor.2011.9">its nutrients can unlock the genetic instructions</a> to create the anatomy and physiology of a queen bee. </p>
<p>So how is food translated into biological instructions? Remember that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibs.2020.04.002">food is composed of macronutrients</a>. These include carbohydrates – or sugars – proteins and fat. Food also contains micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals. These compounds and their breakdown products can trigger <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2020.11.011">genetic switches that reside in the genome</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Two shopping carts lined up, one filled with fruits and vegetables, the other with sweets and high-fat foods." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444859/original/file-20220207-25-1ick4pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444859/original/file-20220207-25-1ick4pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444859/original/file-20220207-25-1ick4pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444859/original/file-20220207-25-1ick4pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444859/original/file-20220207-25-1ick4pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444859/original/file-20220207-25-1ick4pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444859/original/file-20220207-25-1ick4pa.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The field of nutrigenomics aims to decipher how different types of foods transmit different – and important – messages to our cells.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/healthy-vs-unhealthy-shopping-trolleys-royalty-free-image/108821364?adppopup=true">Peter Dazeley/The Image Bank via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Like the switches that control the intensity of the light in your house, genetic switches determine how much of a certain gene product is produced. Royal jelly, for instance, contains compounds that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/embor.2011.9">activate genetic controllers</a> to form the queen’s organs and sustain her reproductive ability. In humans and mice, byproducts of the amino acid methionine, which are abundant in meat and fish, are known to influence genetic dials that are <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibs.2020.04.002">important for cell growth and division</a>. And vitamin C plays a role in keeping us healthy by <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2021.675780">protecting the genome from oxidative damage</a>; it also promotes the function of cellular pathways that can repair the genome if it does get damaged.</p>
<p>Depending on the type of nutritional information, the genetic controls activated and the cell that receives them, the messages in food can influence <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/nrm4048">wellness, disease risk and even life span</a>. But it’s important to note that to date, most of these studies have been conducted in animal models, like bees. </p>
<p>Interestingly, the ability of nutrients to alter the flow of genetic information can span across generations. Studies show that in humans and animals, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jmedgenet-2014-102577">the diet of grandparents</a> influences the activity of genetic switches and the disease risk and mortality of grandchildren. </p>
<h2>Cause and effect</h2>
<p>One interesting aspect of thinking of food as a type of biological information is that it gives new meaning to the idea of a food chain. Indeed, if our bodies are influenced by what we have eaten – down to a molecular level – then what the food we consume “ate” also could affect our genome. For example, compared to milk from grass-fed cows, the milk from grain-fed cattle has different amounts and types of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-9-10">fatty acids and vitamins C and A </a>. So when humans drink these different types of milk, their cells also receive different nutritional messages. </p>
<p>Similarly, a human mother’s diet changes the levels of fatty acids as well as vitamins such as B-6, B-12 and folate that are found in her breast milk. This could alter the type of nutritional messages reaching the baby’s own genetic switches, although whether or not this has an effect on the child’s development is, at the moment, unknown. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A smiling young girl drinking a glass of milk through a straw." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444867/original/file-20220207-69470-1qxu7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/444867/original/file-20220207-69470-1qxu7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444867/original/file-20220207-69470-1qxu7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444867/original/file-20220207-69470-1qxu7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444867/original/file-20220207-69470-1qxu7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444867/original/file-20220207-69470-1qxu7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/444867/original/file-20220207-69470-1qxu7h7.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Food information derived from animals – such as cow’s milk – is transferred to the person drinking the milk.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/girl-drinking-milk-royalty-free-image/75939350?adppopup=true">Image Source/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>And, maybe unbeknownst to us, we too are part of this food chain. The food we eat doesn’t tinker with just the genetic switches in our cells, but also with those of <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1223813">the microorganisms living in our guts, skin and mucosa</a>. One striking example: In mice, the breakdown of short-chain fatty acids by gut bacteria <a href="https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.14-259598">alters the levels of serotonin</a>, a brain chemical messenger that regulates mood, anxiety and depression, among other processes.</p>
<h2>Food additives and packaging</h2>
<p>Added ingredients in food can also alter the flow of genetic information inside cells. Breads and cereals <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/an.114.007443">are enriched with folate</a> to prevent birth defects caused by deficiencies of this nutrient. But some scientists hypothesize that high levels of folate <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/87.3.517">in the absence of other naturally occurring micronutrients</a> such as vitamin B-12 could contribute to the higher incidence of colon cancer in Western countries, possibly by affecting the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqaa259">genetic pathways that control growth</a>. </p>
<p>This could also be true with chemicals found in food packaging. Bisphenol A, or BPA, a compound found in plastic, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2011.02.005">turns on genetic dials</a> in mammals that are critical to development, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21165761">growth and fertility</a>. For example, some researchers suspect that, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12388">in both humans and animal models</a>, BPA influences the age of sexual differentiation and decreases fertility by making genetic switches more likely to turn on.</p>
<p>All of these examples point to the possibility that the genetic information in food could arise not just from its molecular composition – the amino acids, vitamins and the like – but also from the agricultural, environmental and economic policies of a country, or the lack of them.</p>
<p>Scientists have only recently begun decoding these genetic food messages and their role in health and disease. We researchers still don’t know precisely how nutrients act on genetic switches, what their rules of communication are and how the diets of past generations influence their progeny. Many of these studies have so far been done only in animal models, and much remains to be worked out about what the interactions between food and genes mean for humans. </p>
<p>What is clear though, is that unraveling the mysteries of nutrigenomics is likely to empower both present and future societies and generations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/165867/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Monica Dus receives funding from the National Science Foundation, the National Institute of Health, the Sloan Foundation, the Rita Allen Foundation, and the Klingenstein Foundation. She is affiliated with The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. She is on the Advisory Board for the Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism journal, the Editorial Board for the Chemical Senses journal, and the Advisory Board for the University of Michigan Museum of Natural History.</span></em></p>Scientists are just beginning to decode the genetic messages in your food – and how that may affect your health.Monica Dus, Associate Professor of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1569002021-12-27T12:58:46Z2021-12-27T12:58:46ZNot all calories are equal – a dietitian explains the different ways the kinds of foods you eat matter to your body<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438740/original/file-20211221-27-qlzv07.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C405%2C4431%2C3320&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Even if two foods share the same calorie count, there can be major differences in how they affect your body.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/healthy-and-unhealthy-food-background-from-fruits-royalty-free-image/1249589196">Julia_Sudnitskaya/iStock via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>A calorie is a calorie is a calorie, at least from a thermodynamic standpoint. It’s defined as the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 degree Celsius (2.2 pounds by 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit).</p>
<p>But when it comes to health and your body’s energy balance, not all calories are equal.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa022207">some studies have reported</a> that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-11-53">diets that are</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0800867">high-protein</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2002-021480">low-carbohydrate</a> or a combination of the two do <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa022637">yield greater weight loss</a> than diets with other levels of fat, protein and carbs.</p>
<p>If every calorie in food were the same, you wouldn’t expect to see weight-loss differences among people who eat the same number of calories that are doled out in different types of food.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=nrjfStkAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Dietitians like me</a> know there are many factors that influence what a calorie means for your body. Here’s what we understand about calories and nutrition so far.</p>
<h2>Energy actually available to your body</h2>
<p>In the late 1800s, chemist W.O. Atwater and his colleagues devised a system to figure out how much energy – that is, how many calories – various foods contain. Basically, he burned up food samples and recorded how much energy they released in the form of heat.</p>
<p>Not every bit of energy in food that can combust in the lab is actually available to your body, though. What scientists call <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/124.suppl_9.1738S">metabolizable energy</a> is the difference between the total energy of the food consumed and the energy that passes out of your body, undigested, in feces and urine. For each of the three macronutrients – proteins, carbohydrates and fats – Atwater devised a percentage of the calories they contained that would actually be metabolizable.</p>
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<p>According to the Atwater system, one gram of each macronutrient is estimated to provide a certain number of calories. The U.S. Department of Agriculture still uses these calculations today to come up with an <a href="https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/">official calorie number</a> for every food.</p>
<h2>How much energy you use</h2>
<p>What you eat can affect what scientists call your body’s <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_454">energy expenditure</a>. That’s how much energy it takes to keep you alive – energy you use breathing, digesting, keeping your blood flowing and so on – along with what you exert moving your body. You might have heard this <a href="https://theconversation.com/whether-slow-or-fast-heres-how-your-metabolism-influences-how-many-calories-you-burn-each-day-149231">referred to as metabolism</a>.</p>
<p>Diet quality can alter the body’s energy expenditure, which is also called the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI112913">thermic effect of food</a>. For example, in one study, people eating the same number of calories per day but on either a low-carbohydrate diet or a low-fat diet had <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2012.6607">differences in total energy expenditure</a> of about 300 calories per day. Those eating very low-carb diets used the most energy, while those eating low-fat diets used the least.</p>
<p>In another study, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1550-8528.1994.tb00074.x">high-fat diets led to lower</a> total energy expenditure than high-carb diets did. Other researchers reported that although substituting carbs for fat did not alter energy expenditure, people who increased their protein intake to 30%-35% of their diet <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/79.5.899S">used more energy</a>.</p>
<p>In general, diets high in carbohydrates, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0800810">fat or both produce a 4%-8% increase</a> in energy expenditure, while meals <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600578">high in protein cause an 11%-14% increase</a> above the resting metabolic rate. Protein has a higher thermic effect because it’s harder for the body to break down. Although these variations aren’t huge, they could <a href="https://doi.org/10.17925/EE.2013.09.02.111">contribute to the obesity epidemic</a> by encouraging a subtle average weight gain.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438736/original/file-20211221-25-1qkrnq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Nutrition Facts panels from multiple food packages" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438736/original/file-20211221-25-1qkrnq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438736/original/file-20211221-25-1qkrnq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438736/original/file-20211221-25-1qkrnq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438736/original/file-20211221-25-1qkrnq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438736/original/file-20211221-25-1qkrnq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438736/original/file-20211221-25-1qkrnq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438736/original/file-20211221-25-1qkrnq3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Nutrition Facts food labels contain much more than just calorie counts – for good reason.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/nutrition-label-giving-information-on-good-food-royalty-free-image/185262405">Imagesbybarbara/E+ via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Quality of the calories you eat</h2>
<p>Dietitians pay attention to a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.287.18.2414">food’s glycemic index</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/glycemic-load">glycemic load</a> – that is, how quickly and how much it will increase your blood glucose levels. A rise in blood glucose triggers the release of insulin, which in turn influences energy metabolism and storage of excess energy as fat.</p>
<p>Foods like white rice, cakes, cookies and chips are all high on the glycemic index/load. Green vegetables, raw peppers, mushrooms and legumes are all low on the glycemic index/load. There is some evidence to suggest that foods <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2013.04.008">lower on the glycemic index/load</a> may be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.287.18.2414">better for keeping blood sugar levels regulated</a> – regardless of the calories they contain.</p>
<p>Reward centers in the brain light up when people eat high glycemic index/load foods, highlighting the <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.064113">pleasurable and addictive effect</a> of foods like candy or white breads.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003053">The fiber content of food</a> is another thing to consider. Your body can’t digest fiber – found in plant foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains and beans – for energy. So foods high in fiber tend to have <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.117.163246">less metabolizable energy</a> and can help you feel full on fewer calories.</p>
<p>Empty calories – those from foods with minimal or no nutritional value – are another factor to consider. Things like white sugar, soft drinks and many ultra-processed snacks don’t provide much, if any, benefit in the form of protein, vitamins or minerals along with their calories. The opposite would be <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/nutrient-dense-food">nutrient-dense foods</a> that are high in nutrients or fiber, while still being relatively low in calories. Examples are spinach, apples and beans.</p>
<p>And don’t think of empty calories as neutral. Nutritionists consider them harmful calories because they can have a negative effect on health. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1014296">Foods that are the biggest contributors to weight gain</a> are potato chips, potatoes, sugar-sweetened beverages and meats, both processed and unprocessed. On the other hand, foods that are inversely associated with weight gain are vegetables, whole grains, fruits, nuts and yogurt.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438737/original/file-20211221-27-1rjoeti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="view from above of plates on a table where people are eating" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438737/original/file-20211221-27-1rjoeti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/438737/original/file-20211221-27-1rjoeti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438737/original/file-20211221-27-1rjoeti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438737/original/file-20211221-27-1rjoeti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438737/original/file-20211221-27-1rjoeti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438737/original/file-20211221-27-1rjoeti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/438737/original/file-20211221-27-1rjoeti.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Food provides more than calories.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/friends-eating-together-royalty-free-image/658616918">Ridofranz/iStock via Getty Images</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>More to health than calories and weight</h2>
<p>It is indisputable that for weight loss, the difference between the number of calories consumed and the number of calories exerted through exercise is the most important factor. But don’t fool yourself. While weight plays a role in health and longevity, weight loss alone doesn’t equate to health.</p>
<p>Yes, some high-protein diets seem to promote weight loss at least in the short term. But epidemiologists know that in areas where people live the longest – close to 100 years on average – they <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/131.11.3065S">eat a primarily plant-based diet</a>, with very low or no animal-based protein and low or moderate fat in the form of mono- and polyunsaturated fats.</p>
<p>I often hear friends or clients say things like “it’s those carbs that are making me fat” or “I need to go on a low-carb diet.” But these complaints drive dietitians like me, well, nuts. Carbohydrates include foods like Coca-Cola and candy canes, but also apples and spinach. Cutting down on simple carbs like soft drinks, refined-flour bakery items, pasta and sweets will definitely have a positive impact on health. But eliminating carbohydrates like vegetables and fruit will have the opposite effect.</p>
<p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.04.005">A plant-based diet</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m2412">high in plant-based protein</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.02.020">and carbohydrates</a> mostly from vegetables, fruit, nuts and legumes is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1079/phn2004558">the healthiest diet researchers know of</a> for longevity and prevention of chronic diseases like heart disease, cancer, hypertension and many other conditions. </p>
<p>The modern Western diet suffers from an <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2012.225">increase in quantity of calories</a> consumed with a concurrent <a href="https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.100867">decrease in the quality of calories</a> consumed. And researchers now know that calories from different foods <a href="https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1014296">have different effects</a> on fullness, insulin response, the process of turning carbs to body fat, and metabolic energy expenditure.</p>
<p>Where your health is concerned, count more on the quality of the calories you consume than the calorie count.</p>
<p>[<em>Get the best of The Conversation, every weekend.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklybest">Sign up for our weekly newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/156900/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Terezie Tolar-Peterson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In almost every way, one cheeseburger does not equal six apples. With the goal of optimal health in mind, a calorie is not a calorie is not a calorie.Terezie Tolar-Peterson, Associate Professor of Food Science, Nutrition & Health Promotion, Mississippi State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1410962020-09-08T13:04:13Z2020-09-08T13:04:13ZCalories or macros: nutritionist explains which works best for weight loss or building muscle<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/356944/original/file-20200908-14-yazh2e.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C7%2C4863%2C3234&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Whether tracking macros or counting calories, you'll need to get used to recording everything you eat and drink daily.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/dieting-calories-control-wellness-woman-using-1225749835">Pormezz/ Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>While reducing calorie intake is a proven way to reduce your weight, there’s no shortage of diets promising the same results but with more flexibility. One such popular diet is “<a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/iifym-guide#:%7E:text=IIFYM%2C%20or%20%E2%80%9CIf%20It%20Fits,namely%20protein%2C%20fat%20and%20carbohydrates.">If It Fits Your Macros</a>” (IIFYM), which offers users less restriction in what they eat, while still guaranteeing results.</p>
<p>Rather than counting calories, IIFYM counts the daily <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4960974/">macronutrients</a> (fats, carbohydrates, and proteins) found in the foods and drinks we consume. Many people like the diet because it offers flexibility and allows them to consume any food as long as it fits into their daily macronutrient (“macro”) requirements.</p>
<p>However, there’s currently no scientific research that has specifically examined whether counting macros is as effective as other methods in achieving different weight goals. Past research has looked into the effects of reducing or manipulating individual macros for weight loss, such as comparing the effect of consuming a <a href="https://examine.com/nutrition/low-fat-vs-low-carb-for-weight-loss/">low-fat versus low-carbohydrate</a> diet or comparing four diets containing different proportions of <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa0804748">fat, carbohydrate and protein</a>. Ultimately, researchers found no significant, long-term difference between the diets on how much weight they helped people lose) – and all are difficult to adhere to in the long term. </p>
<p>As such, this makes it difficult to know whether counting calories or macros is more useful when it comes to your different body weight goals.</p>
<h2>Weight loss</h2>
<p>The basic principle to achieving weight loss is eat less energy than your body requires on a daily basis and you will lose weight. Any diet can lead to weight loss as long as this basic principle is applied. </p>
<p>The tricky part is establishing what our energy requirements really are. The most practical and accurate measure of this, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304339946_Indirect_calorimetry_in_nutritional_therapy_A_position_paper_by_the_ICALIC_study_group">indirect calorimetry</a> (a measurement of the gases that we breathe from which energy expenditure can be estimated), is still not 100% accurate. And the <a href="https://jandonline.org/article/S0002-8223(05)00149-5/abstract">prediction equations</a> commonly used in dietary counselling and by online apps to set calorie intake goals for weight loss are even more inaccurate. This is especially so in those who are <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5622772/%20%20">overweight or obese</a> due to the equations being based on body weight, and not taking account of fat mass.</p>
<p>But whether you’re counting calories or macros, you still need this starting point to work from to keep within your targets. While our actual energy requirements are uncertain and can vary greatly depending on how active we are, our <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/618167/government_dietary_recommendations.pdf">requirements for macronutrients</a> are more certain, based on government guidelines.</p>
<p>An advantage of counting macros is that it ensures that some <a href="https://www.nutrition.org.uk/healthyliving/basics/exploring-nutrients.html?limitstart=0">essential nutrients</a> are incorporated into your diet, instead of focusing solely on calories. Counting calories takes no account of nutrients. And while it seems obvious that choosing wholesome nutritious sources of calories is better than processed, high-sugar and saturated fat foods, you could hypothetically eat seven chocolate bars (each worth 228 calories, a total of 1,596 calories) and still lose weight if your total energy expenditure is around 2,000 calories a day.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.calculator.net/macro-calculator.html?ctype=metric&cage=48&csex=f&cheightfeet=5&cheightinch=10&cpound=165&cheightmeter=166&ckg=60&cactivity=1.55&cgoal=m&cmop=0&cformula=m&cfatpct=20&printit=0&x=64&y=16">Macro calculations</a> are estimated based on body weight, height and activity levels and can be adjusted to your weight goal. While fewer restrictions on what to eat may be a bonus for some on IIFYM, for others keeping track of macro intake and hitting those targets can be difficult and time consuming.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Young woman uses smartphone to track food calories." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/356947/original/file-20200908-18-eujzz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/356947/original/file-20200908-18-eujzz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/356947/original/file-20200908-18-eujzz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/356947/original/file-20200908-18-eujzz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/356947/original/file-20200908-18-eujzz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/356947/original/file-20200908-18-eujzz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/356947/original/file-20200908-18-eujzz5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Tracking both macros and calories can be time consuming.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/young-pretty-woman-using-smart-phone-401552449">RossHelen/ Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<p>Whatever you’re counting you’ll require an affinity for reading food labels and keeping a record of all foods and fluids consumed throughout the day. While there are numerous online nutritional databases and apps that help you track macros and calories, they may not always be accurate either. Plus there’s the added complication that we may not actually absorb all of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-most-food-labels-are-wrong-about-calories-35081#:%7E:text=Your%20body%20gets%20two%2Dthirds,among%20cooked%20foods%2C%20digestibility%20varies.">energy or nutrients</a> that food labels list, making it even harder to meet specific targets.</p>
<p>Additionally, neither method will guarantee that you meet all of your other nutrient requirements. For example, as macros only focus on carbs, protein and fats, they may overlook the importance of other <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/">vitamins and minerals</a>, such as vitamin A, which are essential for staying healthy and preventing deficiencies. Unless combined with dietary advice about making permanent changes to a <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/the-eatwell-guide/">healthy balanced diet</a>, neither method is a long-term solution to weight loss or maintenance.</p>
<h2>Muscle gain</h2>
<p>On the opposite end of the spectrum are people looking to gain weight to build muscle. Someone looking to <a href="https://www.bda.uk.com/resource/sport-exercise-nutrition.html">gain muscle</a> would need to increase their basic daily protein intake to around 1.2-1.7 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight for muscles to repair any micro-damage that occurs from resistance or strength training which is necessary for muscle growth. As well as protein, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02640414.2011.574722">energy and carbohydrate needs</a> must also be met to ensure the body has enough fuel available to work out. This is where keeping track of macros, instead of counting calories, could be useful to ensure all protein and carbohydrate requirements are met. </p>
<p>Timings of macros are also important for muscle growth. Research shows regular protein intake <a href="https://jissn.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12970-018-0215-1">throughout the day</a> and after exercise, rather than large single doses, is recommended for muscle growth and refuelling.</p>
<p>Ultimately, which method you choose for altering body weight and composition depends on your goals and how motivated and tech savvy you are. If you are keen to learn more about the nutrients in the food you are eating then counting macros may be for you. For those who find endless counting and monitoring tedious it may be easier to follow more general guidance for <a href="https://www.bda.uk.com/resource/weight-loss.html">weight loss or maintenance</a> or for <a href="https://www.bda.uk.com/resource/sport-exercise-nutrition.html">bulking up</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/141096/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Emma Kinrade does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Counting macronutrients offers more food flexibility – but may be most useful when trying to build muscle.Emma Kinrade, Lecturer in Nutrition and Dietetics, Glasgow Caledonian UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/832172017-08-30T04:50:31Z2017-08-30T04:50:31ZNew study finding fat isn’t as bad as carbs misses the point<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/183913/original/file-20170830-5668-31rv9i.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">What's more important to examine is whether the fat and carbs come from fruits and vegetables or doughnuts and candy. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">from www.shutterstock.com.au</span></span></figcaption></figure><p><a href="http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(17)32252-3/fulltext">A new study</a> has added weight to the debate as to whether fat is better or worse for you than carbohydrates, in terms of risk of heart disease and early death. Unfortunately based on this study the jury’s still out, but it does highlight that we should focus on what foods people are eating, rather than just looking at components such as fat and carbohydrates. </p>
<p>Researchers looked at intakes of fat, carbohydrates and protein in more than 135,000 people from 18 low income countries (Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Zimbabwe), middle income countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Iran, Malaysia, occupied Palestinian territory, Poland, South Africa, Turkey) and high income countries (Canada, Sweden, United Arab Emirates). </p>
<p>They assessed dietary intakes based on questionnaires, and compared the results with death rates from heart disease and from all other causes. </p>
<p>Over 7.4 years of follow-up, 5,796 people died and 4,784 had major cardiovascular disease events, such as a heart attack or stroke. Interestingly, they found those with the highest intakes of total fat and sub-types of fat (saturated, unsaturated) compared to those with the lowest intakes, had a <em>lower risk</em> of dying from all causes. </p>
<p>There was a 21% <em>lower</em> risk of stroke among those with the <em>highest</em> saturated fat intakes compared to the lowest. However, when it came to the risk of having a heart attack or dying from heart disease, fats had no relationship with risk. </p>
<p>Interestingly, those consuming the highest percentage of total energy from carbohydrates had a 28% higher risk of early death, but no higher risk of having heart disease or dying from heart disease. </p>
<p>Although it hasn’t received as much attention, they also found a higher percentage energy intake from protein was associated with a 23% lower risk of early death and 15% lower risk of dying from causes other than heart disease. Animal protein intake was also associated with a lower risk of dying, but there was no significant association between plant protein and risk of early death.</p>
<h2>So what does this all mean?</h2>
<p>This study highlights that both carbohydrates and fat are important, but which foods you eat that contain fat or carbohydrate is even more important when it comes to how long you live. </p>
<p>The researchers found some differences between results for those living in Asian countries compared to other regions. For example there was no statistically significant difference in early death from all causes between those with the highest, compared to the lowest percentage of energy from carbohydrate for those living in Asian regions. But there was among those from non-Asian countries. </p>
<p>The analysis adds more weight to the global call to go beyond macro-nutrients (protein, fat and carbohydrate which are the major constituents of food) and to look carefully at actual food and drinks consumed. It matters whether your carbohydrates come from an apple, lentils or carrots compared to soft drink, doughnuts or pancakes. </p>
<p>The types of foods actually consumed could inform how changes in the food supply within lower and middle income countries relate to changes in death rates. They could also inform nutrition policies for countries experiencing a nutrition transition as they become more wealthy.</p>
<p>Overall, this study is very important, and a timely reminder of the need to continually update the evidence on diet disease relationships and to factor in what part of the world the individuals under study are from. But it’s not time to throw out the pasta, rice and bread and start guzzling tubs of fat. </p>
<p>It is time to pay more attention to nutrition and to focus on optimal eating patterns within each country. We need to stem the tide of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-processed_products">ultra-processed</a> foods that disrupt healthier eating patterns. Studies from around <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28714425">the world show</a> that getting the ratio of ultra-processed to minimally processed foods <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27825941">back in balance</a> is key to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28193285">improving the nutritional quality</a> of our overall diets.</p>
<h2>Dietary patterns and heart disease</h2>
<p>We recently reviewed the <a href="https://www.saxinstitute.org.au/publications/evidence-check-library/dietary-patterns-cardiovascular-disease-outcomes/">evidence on dietary patterns and heart disease</a>, where most research has been done in high income countries. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.saxinstitute.org.au/publications/evidence-check-library/dietary-patterns-cardiovascular-disease-outcomes/">Our report</a> highlighted that a number of dietary patterns that vary in fat and carbohydrate type and quality are associated with lower heart disease risk. What they have in common is that they are all high in vegetables, fruit, wholegrains and most includes legumes.</p>
<p>This new study provides support for a focus on improving the nutritional quality of macronutrients. In other words, it matters what foods you eat that contain high amounts of carbohydrates and fats. For example is the major source of carbohydrate coming from fruit and vegetables or is it added sugars and highly processed foods?</p>
<p>Close examination of the barriers and facilitators of consuming a healthy diet is warranted. In an earlier analysis of data from this new study, the team reported <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27567348">very low intakes of vegetables and fruit</a> with a mean combined intake of 3·8 servings a day. This varied from 2.1 servings of vegetables and fruit per day in low income countries up to 5.4 servings per day in high income countries. They found that the cost of fruits and vegetables relative to household income was high. </p>
<p>This highlights that to improve dietary patterns globally, we need people to eat more vegetables and fruit. To achieve that we must develop nutrition polices that support affordability of healthy food for all and stop arguing about whether fat is better than carbs. That just adds to the current confusion.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/83217/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<h4 class="border">Disclosure</h4><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Clare Collins is affiliated with the Priority Research Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition, the University of Newcastle, NSW. She is an NHMRC Senior Research fellow. She has received a range of research grants including NHMRC, ARC, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Meat and Livestock Australia, Diabetes Australia, the Heart Foundation. She has consulted to SHINE Australia, Novo Nordisk, Quality Bakers and the Sax Institute. She was a team member for the systematic review conducted to inform the 2013 revision of the Australian Dietary Guidelines and the 2017 evidence review on dietary patterns and heart disease for the Heart Foundation.</span></em></p>Arguing about whether carbohydrates or fats are better misses the main point. To improve global health we need reduce intakes of ultra-processed foods and eat more minimally processed foods.Clare Collins, Professor in Nutrition and Dietetics, University of NewcastleLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.