tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/quality-assurance-20199/articlesQuality assurance – The Conversation2024-01-19T13:41:11Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2210692024-01-19T13:41:11Z2024-01-19T13:41:11ZBoeing door plug blowout highlights a possible crisis of competence − an aircraft safety expert explains<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569659/original/file-20240116-21-w7tewc.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=24%2C24%2C5439%2C3612&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">An investigator examines the frame of a Boeing aircraft whose door plug blew out in flight.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/BoeingEmergencyLanding/390bb7248d0f4069b1b987492afbc254/photo">National Transportation Safety Board via AP</a></span></figcaption></figure><p><em>In the wake of the <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/08/us/what-happened-alaska-airlines-flight-1282/index.html">in-flight blowout of the side of a Boeing 737 Max 9</a>, federal regulators have grounded planes and are stepping up scrutiny of Boeing’s manufacturing process.</em></p>
<p><em>The Jan. 5, 2024, explosive decompression after takeoff was related to a component called a “door plug” being ejected from the fuselage of the aircraft. This was after <a href="https://apnews.com/article/alaska-airlines-portland-oregon-emergency-landing-aab8ee1e594369ab48fa3ce60f3acdc6">three prior flights of that plane</a> had registered warning signals about cabin pressurization. The National Transportation Safety Board is investigating that incident.</em></p>
<p><em>In addition, the Federal Aviation Administration has launched an investigation into Boeing’s manufacturing process. Other incidents have raised concerns about other 737 Max aircraft – not just <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-how-airplane-crash-investigations-work-according-to-an-aviation-safety-expert-113602">fatal crashes in 2018 and 2019</a>, but more recent examples of <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-67919436">bolts or other fittings or fasteners</a> not being up to standards.</em></p>
<p><em>The Conversation U.S. asked <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=I0IMxAkAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">Daniel Kwasi Adjekum</a>, an aviation safety expert and professor of aviation at the University of North Dakota, to explain the significance of the incident, the government’s response and what it all means for the flying public.</em></p>
<h2>Why is Boeing – not the airline – responsible for the door plug being secure?</h2>
<p>Under U.S. federal requirements, the number of occupants in an aircraft and the seating arrangements determine the <a href="https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/chapter-I/subchapter-C/part-25/subpart-D/subject-group-ECFR88992669bab3b52/section-25.807">number and placements of emergency exit doors</a>. Airplane manufacturers build fuselages with enough openings to accommodate all the doors that might be needed. If airlines choose to use the highest-density seating arrangements, they need to use all of the openings for actual exit doors. But not all airlines pack the seats in that tightly; on those planes, some emergency doors are not needed. Those spaces are filled by door plugs.</p>
<p>In the case of the Boeing 737 Max 9 aircraft, the door plugs are fitted by Spirit AeroSystems in Wichita, Kansas, which is the supplier of the airframe to Boeing. The final assembly of the aircraft is carried out at the Boeing plant in Renton, Washington. Quality control checks are done at Spirit AeroSystems, and then another round of quality checks is done by Boeing. These include a high-pressure test to ensure that the cabin can be pressurized safely and to ensure the integrity of the fuselage and pressure bulkheads.</p>
<p>Normally, the plugs are not removed during those tests at the Boeing facility, though they are checked to ensure they are correctly aligned with the rest of the fuselage. Overall, it is Boeing’s responsibility, as the original equipment manufacturer, to ensure the components conform to the FAA’s design, manufacturing, installation and performance requirements. </p>
<h2>Do the airlines have any reason to inspect the bolts that fasten the plugs in place?</h2>
<p>Under normal circumstances, once they are delivered and initially inspected, door plugs and their components are not adjusted by the airline maintenance team, though their integrity is checked as part of stipulated maintenance checks. Records from Alaska Airlines suggest that on previous flights before this incident, <a href="https://apnews.com/article/alaska-airlines-portland-oregon-emergency-landing-aab8ee1e594369ab48fa3ce60f3acdc6">pilots had received cockpit alerts</a> indicating a failure of the aircraft’s cabin auto-pressurization system.</p>
<p>In a situation like that, where there are suspected cabin pressurization issues, it may be possible for airline maintenance crews to check all cabin doors, windows, seals and potentially door plugs as part of a thorough troubleshooting process, but they would be subject to Boeing’s procedures for inspecting a door plug.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569658/original/file-20240116-23-6pkv4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Airline seats sit next to an opening in the side of an aircraft." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569658/original/file-20240116-23-6pkv4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569658/original/file-20240116-23-6pkv4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569658/original/file-20240116-23-6pkv4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569658/original/file-20240116-23-6pkv4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569658/original/file-20240116-23-6pkv4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569658/original/file-20240116-23-6pkv4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569658/original/file-20240116-23-6pkv4l.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A view of the opening in the side of a Boeing aircraft that lost a door plug in midflight.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://newsroom.ap.org/detail/BoeingEmergencyLanding/d6bae2b392f74ac88efa0f8f7ffbb5af/photo">NTSB via AP</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>What do FAA investigations involve?</h2>
<p>The design, testing, certification and approval process for any new aeronautical product is supposed to be in compliance with strict <a href="https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/chapter-I/subchapter-C/part-25?toc=1">legal and FAA regulatory standards</a>.</p>
<p>As part of the investigations in this case, the FAA will <a href="https://www.npr.org/2024/01/12/1224444590/boeing-faa-737-max-9-alaska-airlines-door-plug">review the engineering and manufacturing processes</a> for the Boeing 737 Max 9, including the processes for vendors and suppliers, to determine if those standards were met. The <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/business/boeing-aerospace/faa-reviews-data-from-preliminary-inspections-of-boeing-737-max-9/">FAA will review documentation</a> on quality control and assurance processes and analyze components. </p>
<p>The FAA has said it is <a href="https://www.faa.gov/newsroom/faa-increasing-oversight-boeing-production-and-manufacturing">considering bringing in a third party</a> to conduct an audit of the engineering and manufacturing processes for the Boeing 737 Max 9. The findings and recommendations from the <a href="https://www.npr.org/2024/01/08/1223427243/boeing-flight-door-plug-alaska-airlines">National Transportation Safety Board incident investigation</a> may also provide valuable information.</p>
<h2>How do airlines deal with having so many airplanes that are now out of service pending their various inspections?</h2>
<p>With all these aircraft grounded, you need hangars and parking places for temporary storage. And it costs. In the U.S. alone we’re talking about <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/list-airlines-boeing-max-9-1858436">171 airplanes</a> on the ground. </p>
<p>That is a huge financial loss to airlines, which are otherwise benefiting from a <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2024/01/12/business/alaska-and-united-flights-canceled-737-max/index.html">surge in air service demand and increased passenger interest</a>.</p>
<p>Airlines’ fleet plans – entailing which aircraft they send on which routes and in what sequence – will be disrupted. Some high-traffic routes normally served by these aircraft will have to be done by other aircraft with limited seat and load capacities. That can reduce expected revenue.</p>
<p>The current scenario will also affect flight crew scheduling. Some crew members may have their work hours reduced or eliminated, at least for a period of time.</p>
<p>Once investigators have determined what went wrong, and how to fix whatever it was, that corrective action will also take a lot of maintenance work, in addition to the normal maintenance work for keeping the rest of the planes fit for flying.</p>
<p>It also appears that the <a href="https://www.faa.gov/newsroom/updates-grounding-boeing-737-max-9-aircraft">FAA may want to inspect each plane</a> after it is fixed before certifying it to return to service. That will require significant amounts of inspection time.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569660/original/file-20240116-21-b90elk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="Two planes sit parked on the tarmac at an airport." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569660/original/file-20240116-21-b90elk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/569660/original/file-20240116-21-b90elk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569660/original/file-20240116-21-b90elk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569660/original/file-20240116-21-b90elk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569660/original/file-20240116-21-b90elk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569660/original/file-20240116-21-b90elk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/569660/original/file-20240116-21-b90elk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Two Boeing 737 Max 9 aircraft sit on the ground at an Oregon airport on Jan. 9, 2024, awaiting approval to take to the skies once again.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/alaska-airlines-boeing-737-max-9-aircrafts-n705al-and-news-photo/1913163434">Mathieu Lewis-Rolland/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>How does an airliner manufacturer regain public confidence? Have other companies dealt with this before?</h2>
<p>In the 1970s, McDonnell Douglas had airworthiness issues with the DC-10 aircraft. Its <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/book-excerpt-flight-981-disaster-180967121">cargo door sometimes opened midflight</a>, resulting in injuries and <a href="https://mitpressbookstore.mit.edu/book/9781588345608">fatalities</a>.</p>
<p>The incidents were a big public relations problem for McDonnell Douglas, but using recommendations from the accident investigations, the company managed to redesign the door. </p>
<p>In the 1990s, ATR had its own issues with the <a href="https://www.faa.gov/lessons_learned/transport_airplane/accidents/N401AM">ATR 72’s de-icing system</a>. The company completely redesigned the system and gradually came back into the market.</p>
<p>Airbus has also faced similar challenges: Some <a href="https://simpleflying.com/a320neo-engine-troubles/">Airbus A320neos using Pratt and Whitney 1100G engines</a> had vibration problems that required review with engine manufacturers and regulators.</p>
<p>Most aircraft manufacturers are aware technical issues can surface after deploying a product into the market. That is why it’s important for them to get continuous feedback from operators on reliability and safety. </p>
<p>Boeing’s situation is difficult in part because of previous problems with other 737 Max models, including fatal crashes in 2018 and 2019. In my view, the company will need a lot of transparency and leadership to address these hits to its reputation.</p>
<p>To me, the company’s best chance for surviving this crisis would be to take full responsibility for what has happened and avoid blaming its suppliers. Boeing could involve airline executives, pilots, engineers, cabin crew, media and others in a wide-ranging discussion of quality and safety. If Boeing could win the confidence of these key stakeholders who operate its aircraft, that could help reestablish credibility for its brand with the traveling public.</p>
<p>In early 2023, Boeing was planning to <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/boeing-add-737-max-line-it-boosts-production-2023-01-30/">ramp up production of the 737 Max line</a>. My suggestion would be that the company make product safety and quality an immediate priority and worry later about maximizing production goals and profits, after Boeing’s reputation is restored.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221069/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Kwasi Adjekum has previously received funding from the National Academies of Sciences Gulf Research Program. </span></em></p>Boeing is under increased public and government scrutiny in the wake of dangerous events that have people worried about the safety of air travel.Daniel Kwasi Adjekum, Assistant Professor of Aviation, University of North DakotaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1829572022-05-29T17:07:22Z2022-05-29T17:07:22ZBeyond research output, student well-being should be part of university quality indicators<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462728/original/file-20220512-24-dmak1o.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/Tgyzloxnw6E">(Unsplash/Albert Wu)</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Increasingly, students want more from higher education institutions beyond skills and knowledge, graduation certificates and the promise of employment. They also want care and guidance. Students even want to <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Student-Engagement-and-Quality-Assurance-in-Higher-Education-International/Tanaka/p/book/9780367132835">actively collaborate on their university’s quality assurance processes</a> and add health and well-being as key indicators of university quality. </p>
<p>However, universities often end up ignoring students’ needs. Although they once might have been the main clients of higher education, universities now give priority to market-driven quality indicators set by industries and governments.</p>
<h2>The need for a new quality agenda</h2>
<p>Universities worldwide have invested in quality assurance processes to achieve national and international accreditation. It is increasingly a mandatory process for all degree programs and is repeated every four to five years.</p>
<p>One of the most important steps is consultation with students, both past and present. Appointed external reviewers interview a sample of students, asking them for their opinion on university programs and services.</p>
<p>Students who have had a good experience will speak candidly. Others <a href="https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10057309/1/EdDThesis-ElizabethScott-Final-Sept2018.pdf">will be more hesitant</a> and consider if it is wise to share their dissatisfaction.</p>
<p>However, with limited experience of life in other universities, many students are not well-equipped to make comparative judgments on quality. </p>
<p>Current university quality assurance systems also risk being undermined by the need to score well in global rankings.</p>
<p><a href="https://theconversation.com/in-higher-education-quality-is-in-the-eye-of-the-beholder-30825">Some might argue</a> rankings as a measure of quality favour an institution’s research prestige over students’ experience. These rankings usually weight universities’ student numbers or volume of research output above sustained investment in teaching and student development.</p>
<p>These “tick-box” approaches to quality assurance are simplistic. They do not provide a comprehensive understanding of student and staff experiences or the level of their (dis)satisfaction. </p>
<p>The individual, institutional and global impacts of COVID-19 have also shaken and challenged fundamental educational values.</p>
<p>This adds to the urgency of students acquiring attributes like mental, cultural and spiritual well-being during their studies. There is now a need to rethink higher education quality to take account of social inclusion, diversity, health and lifelong learning.</p>
<p>The UN <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> and <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379707">UNESCO’s Futures of Education (2021)</a> propose a new social contract where inclusive quality education is a natural right for all.</p>
<p>A newly published <a href="https://lllplatform.eu/news/environmental-sustainability-rhymes-with-lifelong-learning/">European Commission report</a> also advocates a lifelong approach to learning for environmental sustainability. It speaks to “practical, engaging and action-oriented learning methods” to promote knowledge, critical thinking, practical skills, empathy and care for nature.</p>
<p>Hence, it is necessary to seriously ask questions of quality assurance systems that go to fundamental values: why, when, how, what and, most importantly, for whom?</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464786/original/file-20220523-23-34aooi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464786/original/file-20220523-23-34aooi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464786/original/file-20220523-23-34aooi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464786/original/file-20220523-23-34aooi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464786/original/file-20220523-23-34aooi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464786/original/file-20220523-23-34aooi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464786/original/file-20220523-23-34aooi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464786/original/file-20220523-23-34aooi.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Universities must start to prioritise the mental, cultural and spiritual well-being of their students as key aspects of higher education quality.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/_cbKur5I60A">(Unsplash)</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
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<h2>Sustainability is the way forward</h2>
<p>We require a new university quality assurance agenda with a weighting towards more inclusive processes and well-being.</p>
<p>Long-term revenue-generating innovations remain undoubtedly important. But not if this fails to take well-being-related values seriously. </p>
<p>Monitoring and assessing quality should be at all levels: from the national level (macro), institutional level (meso), to the micro (program/course) and nano (people) level of the human being as a complex entity. Acknowledging a holistic approach to quality as an ecosystem with many interdependent actors is important.</p>
<p>A gold-standard quality assurance system in higher education must balance these interests. It needs to actively engage students in this important task.</p>
<p>In a previous article, one of our authors identified <a href="https://lllplatform.eu/news/environmental-sustainability-rhymes-with-lifelong-learning/">several key points</a> that such a quality assurance process should include: </p>
<ol>
<li><p>ensuring universities balance the perspectives and needs of various stakeholders, including students and staff</p></li>
<li><p>building flexibility so campuses can adapt to rapid changes in technology and social norms, with a focus on servicing students and users rather than specific technological measures</p></li>
<li><p>fostering a culture and mechanism of continuous improvement within higher education institutions, while serving as a seal of quality for outsiders and potential students.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>The goal remains to ensure the quality of education, strengthening it <a href="https://cpl.asn.au/sites/default/files/journal/Alan%20Reid%20-%20For%20Your%20Future.pdf">as a public good</a> and making it accessible to all with opportunities across their lives.</p>
<p>This aligns with <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379707">UNESCO’s call</a> that education must move away from an over-reliance on teacher-directed instruction and individual achievement. Instead, we should emphasise co-operation and collaboration.</p>
<p>Often organised as individual subjects, curriculums must emphasise ecological, intercultural and interdisciplinary learning.</p>
<p>The higher education ecosystem is not just about accreditation and rankings. It is also about “<em>glocalisation</em>” – seeing the global but acting local, ensuring sustainability, and promoting students’ power to make a difference in their communities.</p>
<p>It is necessary to acknowledge <a href="http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1753-59132020000500002">the increasing voices of students</a> as they comment on the quality of education in which they take part. Universities mush consider their concerns beyond feedback on courses and program design. Universities must seek to embed lifelong learning and well-being within university studies and prepare for global citizenship.</p>
<p>Reaching beyond grade point averages and future salaries, students want university and degree experiences that are more attentive to well-being.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182957/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Para penulis tidak bekerja, menjadi konsultan, memiliki saham atau menerima dana dari perusahaan atau organisasi mana pun yang akan mengambil untung dari artikel ini, dan telah mengungkapkan bahwa ia tidak memiliki afiliasi di luar afiliasi akademis yang telah disebut di atas.</span></em></p>Students once might have been the main clients of higher education, but today communities, industries and the government demand the ear of the university.Ebba Ossiannilsson, Professor of Education, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonMuhammad Zuhdi, Adjunct Research Fellow Victoria University of Wellington; Head of the Quality Assurance Institute and Senior Lecturer, Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah JakartaStephen Dobson, Professor and Dean of Education, Te Herenga Waka — Victoria University of WellingtonLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1037242019-01-07T11:41:23Z2019-01-07T11:41:23Z3D-printed guns may be more dangerous to their users than targets<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252497/original/file-20190104-32124-1u3838a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C119%2C1952%2C1377&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Tiny, but deadly, flaws may be hiding in the parts of this 3D-printed gun.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/31290193@N06/14579895300">Justin Pickard/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Despite <a href="https://theconversation.com/print-your-own-gun-debate-ignores-how-the-us-government-long-provided-and-regulated-firearms-100648">fears</a> that <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/13/plastic-guns-emerge-as-threat-as-gun-law-expires/3520809/">guns made with 3D printers</a> will let <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/01/us/3d-guns-printing.html">criminals and terrorists</a> easily make <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/01/us/3d-guns-printing.html">untraceable, undetectable</a> <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/13/plastic-guns-emerge-as-threat-as-gun-law-expires/3520809/">plastic</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/from-gun-kits-to-3d-printable-guns-a-short-history-of-rogue-gun-makers-100878">weapons at home</a>, my own experience with 3D manufacturing quality control suggests that, at least for now, 3D-printed firearms may pose as much, or maybe even more, of a threat to the people who try to make and use them.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=339&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252508/original/file-20190104-32121-bfd1x4.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=426&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A company called Defense Distributed developed a 3D-printed gun called the Liberator, which many fear could pass through security checkpoints undetected.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/3D-Guns/3443e9b6339b4558bfa12fa36d49234e/3/0">AP Photo/Eric Gay</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=363&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252507/original/file-20190104-32127-1v0r3il.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=457&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Sen. Edward Markey, D-Mass. and Sen. Richard Blumenthal, D-Conn., display a photo of a 3D-printed gun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Trump-3D-Guns-Congress/65190c14bbe04a1abe94e61e5d5948bd/1/0">AP Photo/Matthew Daly</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One firearms expert suggested that even the best 3D-printed guns might only fire “<a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/3d-guns-printers-plastic-canada-1.4768714">five shots [before] blowing up in your hand</a>.” A weapon with a design or printing defect might blow up or come apart in its user’s hand before firing even a single bullet.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=JoJQnyMAAAAJ&hl=en">someone</a> who <a href="https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2223467">uses 3D printing</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2223469">in his work</a> and researches <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/machines3020055">quality assurance technologies</a>, I’ve had the opportunity to see numerous printing defects and analyze what causes them. The problem is not with the concept of 3D printing, but with the exact process followed to create a specific item. Consumer 3D printers don’t always create high-quality items, and regular people aren’t likely to engage in rigorous quality assurance testing before using a 3D-printed firearm.</p>
<h2>Problems are common at home</h2>
<p>Many consumer 3D printers experience a variety of glitches, causing defects in the items they make. At times, an object detaches from the platform it’s on while being made, ending up lopsided, broken or otherwise damaged. Flaws can be much harder to detect when the flow of filament – the melted plastic material the item is being made from – is too hot or cold or too fast or slow, or stops when it shouldn’t. Even with all of the settings right, sometimes 3D-printed objects still have defects.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=370&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/252193/original/file-20190101-47316-172a6dn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=465&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Some 3D printing defects are easy to see. Others can be far more difficult to detect.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Jeremy Straub</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When a poorly made toy or trinket breaks, it can be hazardous. A child might be left with a part that he or she could choke on, for example. However, when a firearm breaks, the result could be even more serious – even fatal. In 2013, agents from the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/11/13/plastic-guns-emerge-as-threat-as-gun-law-expires/3520809/">tested 3D-printed guns</a> and found that the quality of materials and manufacturing determined whether a gun would fire multiple rounds successfully, or break apart during or after the first shot.</p>
<p>Home printing also <a href="https://www.asme.org/engineering-topics/articles/manufacturing-design/protecting-new-world-3dprinted-products">risks</a> that nefarious people might <a href="https://www.techrepublic.com/article/3d-printing-security-risks-threaten-the-publics-health-and-safety/">tamper with the design files</a> on a website, publish intentionally defective designs or even create a virus that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2264588">interferes with the operation of a 3D printer</a> itself. Hackers may deliberately target 3D printed guns, for ideological or other reasons, or inadvertently cause defects with more general attacks against 3D printing systems.</p>
<h2>Not up to commercial standards</h2>
<p>Commercial manufacturers of guns double-check their designs, test models and perform rigorous examinations to ensure their firearms work properly. Defects still happen, but they’re much less likely than with home-printed weapons.</p>
<p>Home printers are not designed to produce the level of consistent quality required for weapon production. They also don’t have systems to detect all of the things that could go wrong and make printed weapons potentially dangerous.</p>
<p>This is not to say that 3D printing itself is unsafe. In fact, many companies use 3D printing to manufacture parts where safety is critical. Printed parts are used in <a href="https://www.additivemanufacturing.media/news/-navair-demonstrates-3d-printed-safety-critical-aircraft-parts">airplanes</a> and for <a href="https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/think3d-opens-6m-medical-device-3d-printing-facility-in-ap-medtech-zone-145693/">medical devices</a>, <a href="https://www.medicaldesignandoutsourcing.com/using-3d-printing-to-develop-custom-cardiac-surgical-devices/">patient-specific surgical instruments</a>, <a href="https://all3dp.com/4/researchers-develop-3d-printed-ingestible-capsule-wireless-drug-delivery/">customized time-release drugs</a>, <a href="https://3dprintingindustry.com/news/wide-3d-printed-prosthetic-customization-receives-ce-marking-145169/">prosthetics</a> and <a href="https://www.dezeen.com/2018/12/12/hex-3d-printed-hearing-aid-elen-parry/">hearing aids</a>. Scientists have even proposed printing <a href="https://3dprint.com/203252/india-3d-printed-ear/">scaffolding</a> to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/term.2733">grow</a> or <a href="https://www.plasticstoday.com/medical/groundbreaking-3d-printed-medical-device-could-benefit-patients-spinal-cord-injuries/175590065459254">repair</a> human body parts. </p>
<h2>Solutions to defects, but not ready yet</h2>
<p>In time, improvements to popularly available 3D printers may allow safe production of reliable parts. For instance, emerging technologies could <a href="https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSMC.1998.727536">monitor the process of printing</a> and the filament used. The <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/machines3020055">group I work with</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-00692-1_18">and others</a> have developed <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03658-4_15">ways to assess parts</a>, both during printing and afterward.</p>
<p>Other researchers are developing ways to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1145/3264918">prevent malicious defects</a> from being added to existing printing instructions and secure printing, more generally.</p>
<p>So far, though, these advances are being developed and tested in research laboratories, not incorporated into mass-produced 3D printers. For the moment, most quality control over 3D-printed parts is left to the person operating the printer, or whoever is using the item. Most consumers don’t have the technical skills needed to design or perform the appropriate tests, and likely won’t ever learn them. Until the machines are more sophisticated, whatever is made with them – whether firearms or other items – isn’t guaranteed to be reliable enough to use safely.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/103724/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jeremy Straub is an assistant professor in the NDSU Department of Computer Science and the associate director of the NDSU Institute for Cyber Security Education and Research. He has received support related to 3D printing from the National Science Foundation, the North Dakota Department of Commerce and the University of North Dakota. He has received funding related to cybersecurity from the U.S. National Science Foundation, the U.S. National Security Agency and the North Dakota State University. The views presented are his own and do not necessarily represent the views of NDSU or funding agencies. Straub is also a named inventor on a patent related to 3D printing quality assurance.
</span></em></p>Manufacturing errors, undetected by inexpert consumers, may be more dangerous than other threats from 3D-printed guns.Jeremy Straub, Assistant Professor of Computer Science, North Dakota State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/901382018-02-13T22:11:51Z2018-02-13T22:11:51ZCan government-approved pot beat street weed?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206105/original/file-20180213-44627-d94fwz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=154%2C22%2C4669%2C2663&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Workers produce medical marijuana at Canopy Growth Corporation's Tweed facility in Smiths Falls, Ont.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Sean Kilpatrick</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>A key goal of legalizing recreational cannabis is squeezing out illegal suppliers. But how competitive will legal cannabis retailing be <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/joint-ventures-black-market-1.4528840">against established black markets</a>? </p>
<p>That’s a key question for federal and provincial politicians. <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/liberal-marijuana-pardon-legal-1.4484496">Governments don’t like</a> pot consumers funding organized crime. </p>
<p>That question may also interest investors. They’ve pushed up <a href="https://www.bnn.ca/marijuana">cannabis stock prices</a> and created demand for <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-investor/funds-and-etfs/etfs/fourth-canadian-marijuana-etf-to-begin-trading-next-week/article37927503/">four cannabis exchange-traded funds</a>. <a href="http://business.financialpost.com/commodities/agriculture/u-s-tobacco-seller-buys-majority-stakes-in-pei-and-ontario-cannabis-companies-in-what-may-be-first-for-industry">Alcohol and tobacco companies</a> have bought stakes in cannabis growers. Suppliers of hydroponic equipment and <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/ontario-shopify-marijuana-online-shopping-1.4531228">online retailing software</a> could benefit too. </p>
<p>To answer the question, consider the “four Ps” that marketers work with in every industry. Those are the <em>product</em> characteristics, <em>price</em> charged, <em>place</em> where sold and <em>promotion</em> activity. From this viewpoint, legal vendors have some potential advantages. But they face major challenges under current government plans.</p>
<h2>Pricing challenges</h2>
<p><em>Price</em> is the competitive element politicians mention most. In Colorado, cheap legal cannabis means <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/legal-cannabis-sales-1.4504855">black markets control only 20 per cent</a> of state sales. But in Washington state, where prices are higher, black markets capture 50 per cent.</p>
<p>In Canada, governments agree cannabis prices must be competitive. They’ve suggested <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/finance-ministers-pot-tax-1.4442540">$10 per gram</a>, including excise and sales taxes.</p>
<p>But Statistics Canada estimates <a href="https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/13-610-x/cannabis-eng.htm">market prices fell below $7.50</a> last year, and <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/statistics-canada-cannabis-pot-price-1.4524891">farther since then</a>. <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/bring-it-on-pop-up-cannabis-vendors-defy-vancouver-police-crackdown-1.4500550">Vancouver street prices</a> reportedly are near $5. And street vendors don’t charge tax.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, <a href="http://business.financialpost.com/business/most-provinces-yet-to-lock-up-marijuana-supply-as-clock-ticks-toward-legalization">most provinces lack confirmed supplies</a>, so they risk product shortages initially. Growers might prefer exporting their limited stocks to Germany’s higher-priced medical cannabis market.</p>
<p>Provincial governments could face awkward choices. If they price high to cover costs, they’ll be uncompetitive. If they price low to compete, taxpayers may end up subsidizing drug users.</p>
<p>Longer term, <a href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/canada-marijuana-boom-bust/article37830962/">more growing capacity</a> will come online and enable lower prices.</p>
<p>Other pricing questions remain unanswered. Will all products share the same price? Or will prices differ by brand? Will each retailer set their own prices?</p>
<h2>Retailers lack convenience</h2>
<p>The <em>places</em> cannabis is sold also affect competitiveness. The western provinces will allow private-sector retailers. Ontario and its eastern counterparts are keeping retail in the public sector.</p>
<p>The public-sector plans lack convenience due to limited store numbers. That aids the black market.</p>
<p>For example, <a href="https://news.ontario.ca/mof/en/2017/09/ontarios-cannabis-retail-and-distribution-model.html">Ontario plans 150 outlets</a> by 2020. That’s only one per 95,000 people, about as common as Walmart. It’s enough for planned shopping trips, but not for consumers who have unexpectedly run out. </p>
<p>By contrast, Ontario has 2,067 locations selling alcoholic beverages: One per 7,000 people. Those include liquor agency outlets, beer stores and wineries. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.dwpv.com/en/Insights/Publications/2017/Quebec-Releases-Framework-for-Recreational-Cannabis">Quebec also expects 150 cannabis outlets</a> eventually, or one per 56,000 people. <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/nb-province-retail-model-legalized-marijuana-1.4370233">New Brunswick plans 20</a>, so one per 38,000.</p>
<p>Contrast those numbers with Colorado’s. <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/joint-ventures-black-market-1.4528840">It has more than 800 stores</a>, or one per 6,250 people.</p>
<p>Private stores out West will likely be more numerous. But they’re banned from selling alcohol or tobacco. That specialization will restrict retailers’ revenue sources and the number of viable stores.</p>
<p>Provincial plans <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/cannabis-lounge-legalization-marijuana-toronto-1.4497434">have barely mentioned on-site consumption</a>. Countless bars and restaurants serve alcohol drinkers. Licensed cannabis “lounges” similarly could serve cannabis users, especially renters in non-smoking buildings and <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/hamilton/niagara-falls-cannabis-questionnaire-1.4505797">American tourists</a>. Otherwise, those groups may stick with black markets.</p>
<h2>Product advantages</h2>
<p>Consumers can’t evaluate cannabis <em>products</em> without smoking them. The cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentrations vary greatly. Consumers also can’t detect contaminants like pesticides and mould.</p>
<p>Quality-assurance measures therefore could give legal cannabis products a competitive edge. Each province except Saskatchewan plans a single public-sector wholesaler. That centralization will facilitate large-scale testing.</p>
<p>Consider Ontario’s liquor agency. Its <a href="http://www.lcbo.com/content/lcbo/en/corporate-pages/about/media-centre/quick-facts.html#.Wf-8vltSypo">Quality Assurance Lab</a> examined 28,000 beverages last year, rejecting 11 per cent.</p>
<p>Quality assurance, combined with recognizable brand names, would help products develop performance reputations. Some may offer a mild buzz, others a powerful high. Consumers could learn to rely on consistently performing brands, instead of unpredictable street weed.</p>
<p>However, <a href="https://theconversation.com/wheres-the-weed-branding-is-essential-for-cannabis-companies-87400">branding faces challenges</a>. Federal law <a href="https://lop.parl.ca/About/Parliament/LegislativeSummaries/bills_ls.asp?source=library_prb&ls=C45&Parl=42&Ses=1&Language=E#a19">limits package designs</a>. No people, animals or lifestyle images are allowed.</p>
<p>Some critics even <a href="http://www.cbc.ca/news/health/marijuana-cma-1.4520512">want plain packages</a>, to discourage cannabis adoption. But that would make it harder for growers to establish reputations, neutralizing a key advantage over illicit products.</p>
<p>It would also reduce growers’ incentive to boost quality, especially if prices are fixed. As near generics, they’d instead try to lower production costs. Or perhaps hike THC numbers to stand out. Should we encourage cheaper, stronger pot?</p>
<p>The lack of edibles, like brownies and beverages, is a glaring gap. Ottawa won’t legalize those for another year. Unlawful suppliers keep market control until then.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206267/original/file-20180213-44639-1qp56kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/206267/original/file-20180213-44639-1qp56kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206267/original/file-20180213-44639-1qp56kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206267/original/file-20180213-44639-1qp56kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206267/original/file-20180213-44639-1qp56kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206267/original/file-20180213-44639-1qp56kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/206267/original/file-20180213-44639-1qp56kd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A cupcake edible is shown at a stall at a Green Market pop-up event in Toronto in December 2016.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">THE CANADIAN PRESS/Chris Young</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Promotion limits</h2>
<p>Federal rules also <a href="https://lop.parl.ca/About/Parliament/LegislativeSummaries/bills_ls.asp?source=library_prb&ls=C45&Parl=42&Ses=1&Language=E#a18">limit <em>promotional</em> activity</a>. “Informational” ads are OK. But no evoking emotions, and no lifestyle depictions involving recreation or excitement.</p>
<p>Those clauses undermine legal cannabis’ competitiveness. Good ads evoke emotions. Lifestyle images explain complex products simply. And isn’t this law about “recreational” use? Growers consequently have proposed <a href="https://www.medicalcannabiscouncil.ca/s/Guidelines-for-Cannabis-EN-Nov-6.pdf">more flexible rules</a>.</p>
<p>Because federal law prohibits self-service, sales staff will be important. Store ownership may matter here. Public-sector staff might be better at consumer education and harm reduction. Private-sector sellers may respond better to customer preferences and market trends.</p>
<p>Regarding in-store promotion, New Brunswick will display products under glass. Consumers will see packaging, read labels and visually compare products.</p>
<p>But Ontario wants things “similar to how tobacco is now sold.” That implies <a href="http://sfoa-training.com/the-law/display-promotion/">customers won’t see or touch products</a> before purchase. It’ll be tough for consumers to develop preferences, and for growers to build reputations. That further weakens legal products’ competitiveness.</p>
<h2>Prognosis is mixed</h2>
<p>Overall, governments’ retailing prospects look mixed. Legal cannabis could stand out on product quality if growers earn reliable reputations. But edibles remain absent for now. Promotion could give legal cannabis another edge, if governments loosen up the rules.</p>
<p>Black markets will initially out-compete the provinces with convenient places. That will decrease over time, especially out West. But it won’t disappear without legalized lounges. Illegal vendors may always have some price advantage. Provinces can minimize that by forgoing profits.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/90138/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael J. Armstrong does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In competing with Canada’s black markets, legal cannabis has potential strengths and weaknesses. Most flow directly from governments’ policy choices.Michael J. Armstrong, Associate professor of operations research, Goodman School of Business, Brock UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/549902016-02-23T09:37:20Z2016-02-23T09:37:20Z‘Quality assurance’ must be reimagined at Ethiopia’s universities<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/112337/original/image-20160222-25855-1asj13r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ethiopian universities may suffer if quality assurance systems are too narrowly focused.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Adam Jones/Flickr</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Universities and higher education systems around the world have become fixated on quality over the past two decades. They have tried out any number of initiatives designed to improve quality. They have looked for structures that will produce concrete evidence of <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719030701340390">effectiveness and efficiency</a>.</p>
<p>Quality assurance has emerged as one of universities’ most significant management tools in this quest. It has become <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13538322.2010.485728">a feature</a> of every continent’s higher education system. Its major drive is to ensure that universities provide quality higher education based on a minimum set of criteria and standards. At the same time, it is expected to <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1353832042000230635?journalCode=cqhe20">improve quality</a> within an institution. </p>
<p>But does it work? I undertook <a href="http://www.codesria.org/spip.php?article2531&lang=en">a study</a> in Ethiopian universities as part of my PhD research project to find out the realities, opportunities and impediments of quality assurance. </p>
<p>Ethiopia’s higher education landscape has expanded continuously from about 2004. Then, there were eight public universities in the country. Today there are 36. Private universities are also on the rise, and account for about 15% of the country’s total tertiary student population.</p>
<p>Enrolment rates have climbed too: in 2010/11, Ethiopia recorded 447,693 undergraduates across institutions. By the 2013/14 academic years, this had <a href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002317/231724e.pdf">risen</a> to 593,571. Most of these students were pursuing technology or engineering related degrees. </p>
<p>Preliminary evidence suggests that their quality of teaching and learning has actually dropped despite the introduction of quality assurance systems. Why is this the case? </p>
<h2>The Ethiopian university landscape</h2>
<p>First, a word about what “quality assurance” entails at universities. The average quality assurance system requires evidence of “quality” at an institutional level. This is measured, for example, through research output, student progression from enrolment to completion, and graduation rates. Lecturers are expected to keep track of such details through overly prescriptive teaching and learning assessment policies.</p>
<p>My research found that the concept of quality assurance has been accepted by Ethiopia’s government and education authorities. It is also accepted as a daily reality at individual institutions. The problem is that there’s no evidence to show any widespread qualitative change in classroom practices or students’ learning experiences.</p>
<p>For the most part, Ethiopian universities <a href="http://www.moe.gov.et/English/Information/Documents/Education%20Statistics%20Annual%20Abstract%202006E.C%20%282013-2014%20G.C%29.pdf">struggle</a> to get basic and essential learning resources like text and reference books and laboratory and workshop equipment and facilities. Students’ academic work most often depends on notes handed out by lecturers. This means that three things become <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books?hl=en&lr=&id=cehvAAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT9&dq=creating+significant+learning+experiences+fink&ots=GBlFqPavzL&sig=5K2DMUnmwxQvbLe_Rm4bFX_e1m8#v=onepage&q&f=false">crucial</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>developing the skills and resources required to learn</p></li>
<li><p>learning independently, and</p></li>
<li><p>cooperation among students</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The problem is that the quality assurance systems being used in Ethiopia have not been developed with the country’s specific educational context - as outlined above - in mind.</p>
<h2>Advantages and problems</h2>
<p>There are some advantages to the system of quality assurance. For example, it provides an agreed upon definition of quality that works almost everywhere. It also establishes a minimal threshold as a standard for quality - a base from which all institutions can work. There are, finally, valuable structural approaches, procedures and processes inherent within any quality assurance scheme. </p>
<p>However, there are several impediments in such a system. These include heightened emphasis on reporting of results, methodological flaws and a lack of concern for context. </p>
<p>Research <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael_Skolnik/publication/43797524_Quality_Assurance_in_Higher_Education_as_a_Political_Process/links/09e4150579e6a3f091000000.pdf">has shown</a> that the efficacy of quality assurance lies in its political and ideological nature. This means that any system of quality assurance relies heavily on adherence to externally imposed definitions and structures. </p>
<p>It’s also all about performing common actions - so a lecturer at an under-resourced but overburdened Ethiopian university would be expected to behave in the same way as a colleague at a wealthy Australian institution to live up to ideals of “quality”.</p>
<h2>Quality assurance doesn’t mean improved quality</h2>
<p>It is obvious that there is room for improvement in Ethiopian universities’ teaching and learning practices. </p>
<p>The problem is that quality assurance systems don’t bring about such improvement - a fact that’s been <a href="https://books.google.co.za/books?id=A-pDBgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false">proved</a> by extensive <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13538321003679457">global research</a>.</p>
<p>These systems tend to have a limited scope of information available to serve as inputs for quality improvement. This is because their emphasis is on “the big picture”, like student graduation numbers, rather than on daily academic or learning experiences. Such systems don’t consider evidence about regular academic practices or students’ learning experiences as being important information that might contribute towards improvement.</p>
<p>Simply put, quality assurance focuses on reporting to meet accountability requirement and undermines the influence of context. It also undermines the complexity of educational outcomes and institutional practices, as well as the conditions that lead to attaining such outcomes.</p>
<h2>Making changes to make systems work</h2>
<p>Quality assurance programmes definitely have a role to play at Ethiopia’s universities. But this role will only be truly positive if programmes are modified to take academic considerations into account. They must also become more flexible about collecting essential data at an individual level rather than just focusing on the institutional level. </p>
<p>Changing the programmes’ focus in this way will mean that higher education quality assurance becomes more concerned with the micro realities of higher education and the academy. Also, they will become more relevant to driving any improvement of quality.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/54990/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tefera Tadesse does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Quality assurance programmes tend to ignore context - which means important elements of teaching and learning are overlooked and universities miss out on a real chance to improve their practices.Tefera Tadesse, Assistant Professor of Curriculum and Instruction, Jimma UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/454702015-09-09T10:21:09Z2015-09-09T10:21:09ZWhen it comes to academic quality, Europeans show the way<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93969/original/image-20150904-14621-1f1sxzb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">How can the US address its accreditation problem?</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/iip-photo-archive/17903142002/in/photolist-rdmYF2-th3ho7-5DE4qE-5DzLqH-5DzLoi-8T8ivi-8Tbkpw-8Tbn3q-8T8i8g-8T8ijD-8Tbppo-8T8fWe-8TbpBm-8T8h62-8Tbkbo-8Tbm1d-8TbooJ-8T8huB-8T8f9g-8TbkBs-8TbpPb-9G8EpJ-9G8EeW-9G5KNH-9G8Euu-8T8fK4-8Tbqef-8T8gCk-4C2qz4">IIP Photo Archive</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>There is a growing concern about the cost, quality and value of higher education. </p>
<p>Despite the increasing cost of an academic degree, <a href="http://www.ssrc.org/publications/view/d06178be-3823-e011-adef-001cc477ec84/">recent studies</a> show substantial percentages of students, even in the most selective US colleges and universities, have failed to demonstrate significant improvement in critical thinking, complex reasoning and writing skills over the four years of college. </p>
<p>While students score high grades – an A has become by far the <a href="http://www.tcrecord.org/content.asp?contentid=16473">most common grade</a> and is awarded three times more frequently now than in the 1960s – <a href="http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/REST_a_00093#.VddAWZcXpLM">surveys done over the last 30 years</a> indicate that the amount of time college students report actually studying for their academic degrees has declined by almost 50%. </p>
<p>Other indicators too show a decline in student academic achievement. In 1995, the US led developed nations in the share of the population (ages 25-34) with a college degree; today we have fallen to <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/r-us-falls-behind-in-college-competition-oecd-2014-9">19 among 28 nations</a>. </p>
<p>Consequently, <a href="http://www.help.senate.gov/chair/newsroom/press/alexander-seeks-input-from-higher-ed-community-on-accreditation-risk-sharing-and-consumer-information">Congress</a> is now considering major reforms to academic accreditation, the primary means by which we assure the academic quality of our colleges and universities. </p>
<p>Why are there problems with US academic accreditation, and what policies are needed to improve and assure academic quality? </p>
<p>I have been studying academic quality assurance (QA) for the last decade. <a href="http://www.springer.com/us/book/9789048137534">Comparative research</a> on the quality assurance policies of other developed nations offers useful insights. </p>
<h2>What is academic accreditation?</h2>
<p>In the US, the process of accreditation was developed by colleges and universities over the last 100 years to evaluate, assure and improve academic quality. </p>
<p>Today, each accrediting agency is a private membership association which, based upon an external peer review of an institution or academic program, recommends the award of accredited status to colleges and universities. The US has <a href="http://www.chea.org/">six regional agencies</a> accrediting nonprofit public and private as well as for-profit institutions.</p>
<p>Accreditation is now crucial for the economic survival of colleges and universities. Beginning with the Korean War GI Bill in 1952, student grants and loans <a href="http://www2.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/naciqi.html">provided</a> by the federal government could be used only at accredited institutions. </p>
<p>Therefore, accreditation in the US now serves the dual function of academic quality assurance and eligibility to receive federal funds. </p>
<h2>Why academic grades in US don’t reflect standards</h2>
<p>However, US accreditation for bachelor’s degrees appears less successful than the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00091383.2014.910043?journalCode=vchn20#.VeouMtNVikp">quality assurance (QA) agencies of other developed countries</a> such as Finland, the Netherlands and Norway. Why is that? </p>
<p>A significant difference lies in the structure of our baccalaureate education. </p>
<p>In most other countries, baccalaureate programs are focused on a particular field. The courses of instruction students take are largely mandated by each university, and academic programs often culminate in a comprehensive exam or project that influences students’ graduation. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93972/original/image-20150904-14632-dddwtn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93972/original/image-20150904-14632-dddwtn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93972/original/image-20150904-14632-dddwtn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93972/original/image-20150904-14632-dddwtn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93972/original/image-20150904-14632-dddwtn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93972/original/image-20150904-14632-dddwtn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93972/original/image-20150904-14632-dddwtn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A more cohesive degree structure in other countries motivates students to take their learning seriously.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/smannion/4503113314/in/photolist-7RVCGJ-7RVCLb-7RVCjQ-7RSnMa-7RSojR-7RSo9Z-7RVCy1-7RVCu7-7QP1yB-4pwAt5-jC5u26-itpcV5-7FdSTA-7F9Zr4-7FdSNy-7F9ZJV-rRCAnk-rRvAWS-7cWXBs-EQWuX-hMxgV-EQXgo-4n18p-9bBr8G">smannion</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">CC BY-NC</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Foreign academic programs, even in the arts and sciences, are more comparable to US undergraduate professional programs such as engineering and architecture. </p>
<p>The more cohesive degree structure in other countries motivates students to take their learning seriously and to invest greater time and effort in their studies.
These structured degrees also provide valuable information – both to the student and to the student’s program faculty – of what each student has actually learned. </p>
<p>In contrast, the majority of US baccalaureate students are enrolled in degree programs in which over three-quarters of their academic work is part of a general education component, and students personally select most of the courses they complete. </p>
<p>Because of the influence of a student’s grade point average on his or her future success, many, even at select colleges and universities, choose individual courses and academic majors characterized by greater grade inflation. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.springer.com/us/book/9780387001258">A study</a> of Duke University undergraduate students estimated they elected 50% fewer courses in the educationally rigorous fields of the natural sciences and mathematics because grading practices across disciplines are not equitable. </p>
<p>Our undergraduate programs are distinctive in their large number of elective courses, the variation in grading standards across subject fields and the degree of student choice. There is also a lack of comprehensive measures of what students actually learn from their general education as well as from many majors. </p>
<p>Consequently, the faculty’s reliance on academic credits and grades as the principal means of assuring academic standards is ineffective. </p>
<h2>Effective reform</h2>
<p>So, how can public policy best address this problem? </p>
<p>As Nobel Laureate Elinor Ostrom <a href="http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/2009/ostrom-lecture.html">argued</a>, neither markets nor the rules of the state are the most effective means “to govern, provide, and manage public goods” that are complex and difficult to measure, like academic knowledge. </p>
<p>This is particularly the case in professional, self-governing organizations like US colleges and universities. </p>
<p>I believe <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00091383.2014.910043#.VdeE1ZcXpLM">three actions are essential</a>. </p>
<p>First, as the education ministers of the European Union (EU) <a href="http://www.enqa.eu/index.php/home/esg/">stipulated</a> in a collective policy governing QA agencies in their respective countries: effective quality assurance requires a national regulatory agency with appropriate expertise, which is truly independent from governments, higher education institutions and organs of political influence. </p>
<p>As of now, in the US, the private accrediting agencies are owned, operated and financially supported by fees paid by the institutions they evaluate. </p>
<p>At the federal level, <a href="http://www2.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/naciqi.html">the National Advisory Committee on Institutional Quality and Integrity (NACIQI)</a> has the power to define accrediting criteria as well as approve accreditation agencies whose awards provide eligibility for federal funds. </p>
<p>The NACIQI reports to the Department of Education and is composed of 18 members, six appointed by the secretary of education and 12 appointments divided evenly between the majority and minority leaders of the House and Senate.</p>
<p>In short, the existing system for assuring academic quality in the US is neither independent nor autonomous. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93973/original/image-20150904-14656-yothxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/93973/original/image-20150904-14656-yothxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93973/original/image-20150904-14656-yothxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93973/original/image-20150904-14656-yothxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93973/original/image-20150904-14656-yothxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93973/original/image-20150904-14656-yothxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/93973/original/image-20150904-14656-yothxd.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=423&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">How can the system be reformed?</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/francisco_osorio/8425492426/in/photolist-dQwRmN-gjDRTG-7KheKR-9FuNtL-6Ni9oq-845bWH-2U2Af9-kLvswg-6f9gKA-ek1tL2-2yoy3B-78qnMT-btECAw-nzt6pq-2xNjX-p2vQQ6-bJrSKH-htqhqy-w2D6F-8YADLd-FVFoh-pt4ERA-q9Wga7-5vF2Ej-9rji9D-csee6m-v5w9L4-wEv7ff-pg2HGA-edoV3F-3VDtfo-bmX3TN-9voGaC-e4fhAa-6xPjLo-n3Niiv-q8M2RN-p7kmEg-ni3Aga-dQxavq-iMresQ-984QiC-4r6Tkr-dhjTey-rEvTVu-4r6MoP-bBBazx-fWkWiQ-p2w9CG-msFfzF">Francisco Osorio</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>One means of creating a truly independent and competent national quality assurance agency would be to assign the responsibilities of NACIQI to an agency governed by and reporting to the National Academies of Science. </p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.nationalacademies.org/">National Academies</a> are private, nonprofit societies of distinguished scholars dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Based upon a congressional charter granted in 1863, the National Academies have a mandate to advise the federal government on matters of science and education. </p>
<h2>Institutional measures for learning outcomes</h2>
<p>The criteria for US academic accreditation need to be more sharply focused on institutional processes that ensure quality in teaching and student learning. </p>
<p>These include the institution’s processes for:</p>
<ul>
<li>designing, approving, and evaluating academic courses and programs</li>
<li>evaluating and improving instruction</li>
<li>assuring the integrity of grading standards across subject fields </li>
<li>assuring the validity of means for assessing student learning outcomes.</li>
</ul>
<p>Instead, the accreditation criteria mandated by NACIQI now include institutional measures not directly related to student academic performance. These include facilities, fiscal and administrative capacity, as well as student recruiting and admissions practices.</p>
<p>The question for accreditors is not whether an institution has a process for evaluating academic programs, but whether evaluations are objectively assessing program quality and resulting in demonstrable improvement in teaching and student learning within identified programs. </p>
<p>The academic audit review at Hong Kong’s universities, adapted by the public university systems in Missouri and Tennessee, <a href="http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1933371234.html">provides a valuable model</a> for this approach. </p>
<h2>External evaluation</h2>
<p>Third, the <a href="http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/Docs/00-Main_doc/030919Berlin_Communique.PDF#search=%22%20berlin%20communique%22">policy approved</a> by the educational ministers in the EU countries also required that all national QA agencies in participating countries undergo an independent external evaluation, which is made public. </p>
<p>Our higher education would be served best if a new federal QA agency were similarly required to be publicly evaluated by an established, respected and truly independent national organization such as the US Government Accountability Office. </p>
<p>This would also help provide assessments of the extent to which a regulatory agency helps assure academic standards.</p>
<p>Eventually, the most effective means of reforming US academic accreditation would be to reframe and redesign our national process for assuring academic quality. </p>
<p>We need to remember that academic accreditation should reinforce the incentives for collective action by faculty members within each college and university, for that is the surest means to effectively assess and continually improve teaching and student learning.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/45470/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>David Dill received funding for this research from the Ford Foundation. </span></em></p>Why are there problems with US academic accreditation, and what policies are needed to improve and assure academic quality?David Dill, Emeritus Professor of Public Policy, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.