tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/special-protected-areas-10557/articlesspecial protected areas – The Conversation2015-12-09T04:07:00Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/515982015-12-09T04:07:00Z2015-12-09T04:07:00ZSouth Africa and China: lessons on how to balance conservation and tourism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/104678/original/image-20151207-3147-1m7tb0y.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">China has experienced deforestation in some parts of the country placing valuable biodiversity at risk of extinction.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>China and South Africa are among the 17 countries that carry more than 70% of the world’s <a href="https://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/conservation/hotspots">species</a>, making it important for them to preserve plant and animal biodiversity in their territories. Although South Africa is eight times <a href="http://www.mylifeelsewhere.com/country-size-comparison/south-africa/china">smaller</a> than China, there are important lessons the two countries can share.</p>
<p><a href="http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2011/04/30/what-you-can-do-to-protect-biodiversity/">Biodiversity</a> is important for the survival of the planet. It is the source of oxygen, food, clean water, fertile soil, and a stable climate. It is also potentially a source of recreation. </p>
<p>But conservation often collides with the need to speed up economic growth to reduce unemployment and poverty. This is especially true in South Africa where unemployment is <a href="http://businesstech.co.za/news/government/95983/south-africa-unemployment-is-worse-now-than-at-the-end-of-apartheid/">high</a> and the economy is growing at a snail’s <a href="http://qz.com/482843/why-south-africas-economy-is-likely-to-grow-more-slowly-than-its-potential/">pace</a>.</p>
<p>China, on the other hand, has made rapid socio-economic <a href="http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview">progress</a> in recent years. </p>
<p>But this progress has also brought <a href="http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview">challenges</a> which pose a threat to the sustainability of its environment. Many of China’s plant and wildlife species have been listed on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Red List of Threatened <a href="http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/our_work/the_iucn_red_list/">Species</a>. A prime example of this is the well known panda species. </p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/104679/original/image-20151207-3122-qhsb0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/104679/original/image-20151207-3122-qhsb0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/104679/original/image-20151207-3122-qhsb0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104679/original/image-20151207-3122-qhsb0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104679/original/image-20151207-3122-qhsb0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=394&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104679/original/image-20151207-3122-qhsb0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104679/original/image-20151207-3122-qhsb0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/104679/original/image-20151207-3122-qhsb0j.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=496&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Panda’s in China were close to extinction.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">EPA</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Threats to the environment</h2>
<p>Between 1990 and 2010, China lost an average of 2,486,000 hectares of land to meet increased domestic demand for <a href="http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/China.htm">wood</a>. This was a major contributor to the fact that a number of species came close to <a href="http://www.animalfactguide.com/animal-facts/giant-panda/">extinction</a>. </p>
<p>The country has taken steps to reverse this disastrous decline. In 1998, China issued a logging <a href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6967e/x6967e04.htm">ban</a> in the Chuanxi forest. It has also taken other measures to reduce <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jun/30/china-carbon-emissions-2030-premier-li-keqiang-un-paris-climate-change-summit">carbon emissions</a> and protect <a href="https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/cn/cn-nbsap-v2-en.pdf">biodiversity</a>.</p>
<p>In South Africa, nearly a fifth of the land surface has been lost, mostly due to natural vegetation being ploughed up for crop farming, and to a lesser extent to mining, forestry and urban sprawl. The greatest losses are around hubs of economic <a href="http://bgis.sanbi.org/NBA/LIFEStateBiodiversity2012_lowres.pdf?">activity</a>.</p>
<p>In the upper Mekong River valley of the Tibetan Plateau in China, rich biological resources are found but it is also the most populated region in Yunnan Province. In recent years, rapid economic development projects like roads, mining and hydropower development of Yunnan Province have caused major environmental problems in this <a href="http://en.wwfchina.org/en/who_we_are/critical_ecoregions/">area</a>.</p>
<h2>Protected areas</h2>
<p>As part of conservation measures, both countries have created protected areas including nature reserves, botanical gardens and national parks.</p>
<p>Parks are widely considered a central component of regional and national tourist industries in both South Africa and China. Tourism provides some of the necessary funding for the upkeep of conservation but these activities also have the potential to harm already threatened <a href="http://www.ccs.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Discussion-Paper-2-2012.pdf">ecosystems</a>. Balancing conservation and tourism is key.</p>
<p>The International Union for the Conservation of Nature stipulates that strict rules should be applied to protected areas according to their management objectives. In zones which are dedicated to biodiversity protection, no development should take place. In China, these standards are often not applied. </p>
<p>Given the size of the Chinese population the tourists numbers are <a href="http://www.ccs.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/CCS_Commentary_Consuming_Responsibly_MB_27JULY2015.pdf">huge.</a>. In 2005 alone the country’s 1900 forest parks, mainly reserves, accommodated 180 million <a href="http://www.mtnforum.org/sites/default/files/publication/files/4233.pdf">tourists</a>. The number of visitors to the park has increased annually by 20% in the past 5 <a href="http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss2/art55/">years</a>. </p>
<p>China’s national park system is still being <a href="http://www.ccs.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Discussion-Paper-2-2012.pdf">developed</a>. The government is implementing a national park pilot project consisting of nine national parks at provincial level. If this project is deemed successful, national parks will be introduced across the country. </p>
<p>The aim is to protect nature reserves, forest parks, scenic and historical landscapes. </p>
<h2>Tourism versus conservation</h2>
<p>There are over 2000 designated nature reserves equalling 15% land mass in <a href="https://www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/asia/asia_where_work/china/iucnch_work/iucnch_pa/">China</a>. These areas are meant to protect the environment, but due to a lack of knowledge of conservation practices they face environmental risks associated with tourism activities.</p>
<p>An influx of tourists and vehicles allowed into protected areas has the potential to destroy rich biodiversity reserves. China’s Yunnan Province, Pudacuo National Park is a good example. This was the first national park that was set up in China were international standards in 2007 applied. But these aren’t being adhered to. </p>
<p>For example, there aren’t any limits on the number of busses that can access the park. Also, a large construction site for a major tourist and environmental education centre has been erected in the park.</p>
<p>South Africa has a system of protected areas which includes nature and wildlife game reserves, botanical gardens and 22 national parks. The total percentage of South Africa’s land area in protected areas is nearly <a href="http://bgis.sanbi.org/nsba/terrestrialAreas.asp">6%</a>. The national parks are major tourist attractions and remain among South Africa’s most popular family holiday destinations. The Kruger National Park, for example, attracts 950 l000 local and international tourists a <a href="http://www.krugerpark.co.za/Krugerpark_Travel_Guide-travel/images-of-kruger-an-introduction.html">year</a>.</p>
<p>Regulations are in place to ensure that only a limited amount of people and vehicles are allowed in. In some cases quota systems are enforced. But <a href="http://www.ccs.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Discussion-Paper-2-2012.pdf">challenges</a> remain, particularly in areas such as Table Mountain National Park in Cape Town where people have open access.</p>
<h2>Lessons</h2>
<p>There are several ways in which South Africa is effectively conserving its biodiversity.</p>
<ul>
<li><p>The laws of protected areas are well enforced.</p></li>
<li><p>There is one regulatory body, SANParks, which ensures that the management of national parks is run effectively.</p></li>
<li><p>Park rangers are effectively trained to do the jobs set out for them.</p></li>
<li><p>The numbers of visitors and vehicles that enter parks are managed.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>China also has laws in place for protected areas like the Regulation on Nature <a href="http://www.asianlii.org/cn/legis/cen/laws/ronr333/">Reserves</a>. But challenges remain with implementation. Problems include park managers who do not have sufficient training, lack of funding and irresponsible development. Sometimes the funds allocated to protected area authorities do not match the management job they have to do.</p>
<p>An even bigger problem is that there are often as many as ten different Chinese government ministries <a href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj5qqXzyMDJAhVDOxQKHTAOBF8QFggnMAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.sit.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1708%26context%3Disp_collection&usg=AFQjCNGZpDdDHwlbfrL5LrxlHsrKItqrZA">overseeing</a> protected lands. This has led to complicated management practices and an inability to effectively implement conservation practices.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/51598/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Meryl Burgess does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>China needs to do more to manage the balance between conservation and tourism to protect its rich biodiversity.Meryl Burgess, Research analyst at the Centre for Chinese Studies and PhD candidate in Political Science, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/500822015-11-23T04:37:29Z2015-11-23T04:37:29ZHow translocating rhinos promotes genetic health and keeps them safe<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/100901/original/image-20151105-16263-8dszck.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The translocation of rhinos can help conservation and build their populations. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nikki le Roex</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Rhino poaching is one of the largest threats of the illegal wildlife trade. The animals are slaughtered for their horns, believed in some Asian cultures to have <a href="http://www.rhinosinfo.com/rhino-horn-as-medicine.html">medicinal properties</a>. Rhino populations across southern Africa are being decimated. As of August 27, 2015, 749 rhinos had been <a href="https://www.environment.gov.za/mediarelease/molewa_highlightsprogress_onrhinopoaching">killed</a> in eight months in South Africa alone.</p>
<p>One of the interventions that is being increasingly pursued is to translocate the animals. Across Africa rhinos are being <a href="http://www.sanparks.co.za/about/news/?id=56244">translocated</a> from national parks to private strongholds. Regular rhino translocations take place in South Africa and Namibia. Some rhino are moved annually in Zimbabwe, Kenya and Botswana, which have smaller populations.</p>
<p>South Africa has by far the largest rhino population in the world and does the most translocations globally. Both <a href="http://www.wwf.org.za/what_we_do/rhino_programme/black_rhino/">black</a> and white rhino have been translocated in previous years to establish new populations and grow existing groups. </p>
<p>In 2014, more than <a href="https://www.environment.gov.za/mediarelease/molewa_waragainstpoaching2015">150 rhino</a> were translocated by government and private initiatives. This is an active conservation strategy designed to protect the remaining animals, cut down on those lost to poaching and ensure the health and growth of future rhino populations. </p>
<p>Translocations typically take place in the drier and cooler months of the year. Rhino are darted from a helicopter. Blood and tissue samples are taken once the animal is immobilised. These samples can be used in <a href="http://www.up.ac.za/en/faculty-of-veterinary-science/news/post_1951095-up-initiative-leads-in-rhino-poaching-prosecution">poaching cases</a> and for scientific research. The rhino is then walked into a crate and lifted by crane onto a flatbed truck to be transported to a new location. </p>
<h2>The where and the why</h2>
<p>Wildlife translocations can supplement small populations, replace animals that are lost to poaching or disease and re-introduce species into their former range. As most wildlife populations are now restricted to fenced parks and reserves, animals can no longer move into vacant areas on their own or disperse between populations for new breeding opportunities.</p>
<p>In the past, animals could also avoid dangerous areas, or leave a population that had become too large to be supported in that environment. As this can no longer happen naturally, park managers must ensure that the necessary movement of animals takes place.</p>
<p>The most obvious benefit to translocating rhino is protection from poachers. The sheer size of the larger game reserves make rhino vulnerable to poachers. Such extensive boundaries cannot be permanently policed. </p>
<p>Small reserves can be more thoroughly protected by rangers or private security. Movements within parks from high poaching zones to more heavily monitored <a href="http://www.sanparks.org/about/news/?id=56382">protection zones</a> can also give rhino a better chance of survival.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102370/original/image-20151118-14207-1ls03b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/102370/original/image-20151118-14207-1ls03b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102370/original/image-20151118-14207-1ls03b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102370/original/image-20151118-14207-1ls03b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=368&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102370/original/image-20151118-14207-1ls03b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102370/original/image-20151118-14207-1ls03b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/102370/original/image-20151118-14207-1ls03b0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Rhino translocations typically happen during the dry months.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Nikki le Roex</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Moving animals promotes genetic health</h2>
<p>Translocations can also be used as a conservation tool to increase the genetic health of a population and prevent inbreeding. This is particularly important in small populations. Genetics is a hugely important aspect to consider when translocating animals. Failure to do this can have <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-moving-south-african-lions-to-rwanda-is-not-without-problems-46273">serious impacts</a> on the animals.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.wwf.org.au/our_work/saving_the_natural_world/what_is_biodiversity/genetic_diversity/">Genetic diversity</a> is a measure of a populations’ genetic health. It represents the number of <a href="http://labs.biology.ucsd.edu/woodruff/pubs/194.pdf">differences</a> between the genetic code of individuals, which may enable the animals to cope better with disease or other environmental pressures. Large populations usually have a higher genetic diversity compared to small isolated populations. Small populations may have less variation and be more vulnerable to changing conditions.</p>
<p><a href="http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/conservation_03">Inbreeding</a> happens when populations become too small and related animals are forced to breed with each other. This might not have an immediately negative impact, but may severely compromise the health and reproduction of future generations. This is known as <a href="http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/conservation_03">inbreeding depression</a>, and can put the survival and health of the whole population at risk in the long term.</p>
<p>Moving rhino from the Kruger National Park, which hosts the <a href="http://www.krugerpark.co.za/krugerpark-times-3-11-annual-census-23008.html">largest white rhino population</a> in South Africa, takes new genes and diversity to other locations. Other populations in southern Africa have been isolated for some time and this will be an excellent way to re-introduce gene variants that were lost when small rhino populations were founded from just a few individual animals.</p>
<h2>Long term commitment</h2>
<p>Rhinos live for a long time. They can reach up to 40 years of <a href="http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/species/black-rhino/">age</a>. This means that the removal of any single animal has a much greater impact. It isn’t just the individual animal that is lost, but all the offspring that would have been possible in the future. </p>
<p>This is particularly true for females of breeding age. These breeding females are essential for raising calves and the survival of the population. Increasing the number of females also promotes maximum growth in a population.</p>
<p>The planned movement and sale of rhino allows additional safeguards. Conditions can be included into purchase contracts to ensure that the benefits of translocation are maximised. For example, a commitment to breed the rhino as soon as they are introduced to their new environment ensures the population growth. Clauses that prevent hunting the translocated animals for a pre-determined time period also safeguard the animals for the future.</p>
<p>The <a href="http://www.sanparks.org/about/news/?id=56244">South African National Parks</a> rhino capture teams are extremely experienced with rhino capture and translocation. This commitment from conservation managers as well as governments and NGOs is vital for protection from poaching and to ensure the genetic health and growth of future rhino populations. </p>
<hr>
<p><em>This article was written in collaboration with Dr Markus Hofmeyr, the head of Veterinary Wildlife Services at South African National Parks.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/50082/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Nikki le Roex does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Conservationists are increasingly looking to translocating rhinos. This not only ensures their safety but also enables improvements to their genetic health.Nikki le Roex, Postdoctoral Fellow in Wildlife Genetics, Stellenbosch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/269912014-05-21T05:10:21Z2014-05-21T05:10:21ZOffshore protection zones vital to arrest decline of seabirds<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49030/original/mgcw2k62-1400600090.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Birds aloft off Boreray on St Kilda</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/steve_way/1260581143/in/photolist-5o1wiz-nd2shE-4NDiGW-2VoNRD-dUrbkK-7r2WKr-5538TL-6pA7NU-bwDpBW-5V1Tkh-vX8q-ei6d2f-appBV7-nmz1GL-FX4bH-cJtYY3-4rdkBo-j9N25A-bwaiXQ-eNYWbn-8YwiPm-5MbGU8-7mbsFp-7mbdAB-a1EkAB-4HNg6H-2jRHNs-2jMnRF-2VoNzB-2VoNHX-FYmqK-A9wmT-amNqsy-t99CU-6TJHVu-t99BR-5aJ4tT-t99Dw-96ENG8-96HRSq-7quppK-6zLh2C-7XCi6a-8zW9Lp-8zVAVg-4vqTzr-4vqVYM-6zpo86-6ztuU1-7XFzLG">steve_w</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Scotland is renowned for its seabirds, thanks to landmarks such as the <a href="https://www.seabird.org/discovery-centre/cameras/bass-rock/13/33/69">Bass Rock</a>, <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/reserves/guide/a/ailsacraig/">Ailsa Craig</a> and <a href="http://www.kilda.org.uk/seabirds.htm#.U3ssoXauDqo">St Kilda</a>. There are around five million of the birds, including 95% of the EU’s <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/wildlife/birdguide/name/g/greatskua/">great skuas</a>, 67% of its <a href="http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-2875">northern gannets</a> and 65% of its <a href="http://www.birdlife.org.uk/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=3255">black-legged kittiwakes</a>. </p>
<p>But numbers are declining fast, with shortages of prey and habitat problems conspiring to affect the birds’ breeding success. According to a <a href="http://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/RSPB_Scotland_SPA_report_May2014_tcm9-369474.pdf">new RSPB report</a> commissioned by the Scottish government, the declines date back as far as 1986. They have been greatest for <a href="http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CC8QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rspb.org.uk%2Fwildlife%2Fbirdguide%2Fname%2Fa%2Farcticskua%2F&ei=iDV7U_7qH-fb7AbmxIGIAQ&usg=AFQjCNHxBVOOqDI8eYvL4OL8EzVaPxn9zg&sig2=z_KRwH6W_wDAk1YPNDz68A&bvm=bv.67229260,d.ZGU">Arctic skua</a> (an 80% drop), <a href="http://www.rspb.org.uk/wildlife/birdguide/name/a/arctictern/">Arctic tern</a> (72%) and black-legged kittiwake (68%).</p>
<p>Under the <a href="http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:020:0007:0025:en:PDF">European birds directive</a>, member states have a duty to protect habitats for the conservation of birds, including developing special protected areas. Although these areas <a href="http://www.snh.gov.uk/protecting-scotlands-nature/protected-areas/international-designations/spa/">already exist</a> for seabird colonies on land, <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/">the RSPB</a> urgently wants seven designated areas for birds at sea. In time it also wants the Scottish government to designate a separate set of marine protected areas to protect seabird foraging grounds. </p>
<p>While protected areas on land are beneficial, they only protect a limited proportion of the seabird’s life cycle. <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304380013005292">A recent ecological modelling study</a> found that seabirds’ success at breeding is affected by the availability and quality of their prey. </p>
<p>Having protected areas at sea that include foraging areas may therefore protect seabird populations and boost their resilience. The sites proposed for the new special protected areas include the inner and outer sandbanks of the <a href="http://www.scottish-places.info/features/featurefirst1120.html">Firth of Forth</a>; an area of the <a href="http://www.sailnorthscotland.co.uk/sailing-pentland-firth.asp">Pentland Firth</a>; and the seas around <a href="http://visit.shetland.org/foula">Foula, Shetland</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49031/original/9bf4hdxc-1400600421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49031/original/9bf4hdxc-1400600421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49031/original/9bf4hdxc-1400600421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49031/original/9bf4hdxc-1400600421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49031/original/9bf4hdxc-1400600421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49031/original/9bf4hdxc-1400600421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49031/original/9bf4hdxc-1400600421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49031/original/9bf4hdxc-1400600421.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Losing height: Artic skua populations are tanking.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-167174642/stock-photo-arctic-skua-stercorarius-parasiticus-single-bird-in-flight-norway.html?src=UaDbAcd5wmAlWQ4yke03fw-1-26">Erni</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Pressures on seabirds</h2>
<p>The fall in bird populations is possibly being exacerbated by human activities at sea. People have long affected seabird populations in this way, but the variety of pressures has increased in recent years. The recent proposals for marine renewable energy developments, particularly wind but also wave and tidal, are often seen as yet another potential threat to seabirds that may be hard to justify when numbers are already falling. </p>
<p>Admittedly it is hard to separate the effect of marine renewable energy from other effects, particularly climate change. Much effort is being put into designing research and monitoring studies that can give us a clearer picture here. A group of scientists, civil servants and NGOs from around the globe <a href="http://www.eimr.org/web/">recently met in Stornoway</a> to discuss these issues. </p>
<p>Whatever the case, climate change certainly seems to be causing problems. Increased storminess is affecting bird populations, for example. In recent years we have seen huge wrecks of seabirds, with <a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-26440087">record numbers washed up</a> dead or injured on beaches. </p>
<p><a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/content/308/5730/1912.short">Scientists have also drawn</a> a link between climate change, rising sea temperatures and shifting fish distributions, both for seabird prey species <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ibi.12099/full">such as sandeels</a> and larger species. A <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.12597/abstract">recent study documented</a> bluefin tuna in high latitute sub-polar waters far beyond their usual habitat. It is not known how well seabirds will cope with these changes, especially during the breeding season when they are tied to a nest. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49033/original/38fnhdxm-1400601120.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49033/original/38fnhdxm-1400601120.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49033/original/38fnhdxm-1400601120.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49033/original/38fnhdxm-1400601120.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49033/original/38fnhdxm-1400601120.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49033/original/38fnhdxm-1400601120.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49033/original/38fnhdxm-1400601120.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49033/original/38fnhdxm-1400601120.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Feeding time at the rear.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-112852576/stock-photo-fishing-boat-returning-with-lots-of-seagulls-feeding-at-the-rear-of-the-boat.html?src=JsaS6WCw2j-yD5qMP_Ex7A-1-31">Paolo Resende</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">CC BY-SA</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>At the same time, the birds <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X13003981">are also</a> competing with commercial fisheries over these increasingly limited fish stocks. One problem to have <a href="https://theconversation.com/discard-ban-can-benefit-fish-and-fishers-but-sustainability-must-come-first-26769">made news recently</a> is fishing boats discarding their catches. Whatever the positives of banning the practice, it is <a href="http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2014/140513/ncomms4893/full/ncomms4893.html">not good news for scavenger seabirds</a>.</p>
<h2>Plastic problem</h2>
<p>Another threat to the birds is our addiction to plastic. On top of <a href="http://bird-rescue.org/our-work/research-and-education/how-plastics-affect-birds.aspx">well known concerns</a> about the likes of shopping bags and food wrappers, microplastics <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/exclusive-tiny-plastic-timebomb--the-pollutants-in-our-cosmetics-9391412.html">have been shown</a> to be present, in the form of microbeads, in shower gels, face washes, toothpaste and cleaning products. These microbeads are too small to be filtered by most water treatment plants and find their way into lakes and rivers and eventually the marine environment.</p>
<p>We are yet to fully understand the consequences of wildlife consuming plastics, but a <a href="https://theconversation.com/impact-of-ingested-plastic-by-seabirds-22693">recent four-year study</a> by the University of Tasmania examined their toxic effects to seabirds. <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749113006532">It found that</a> the amounts of plastic being ingested by the birds increased during the study, and that it undermined their body condition and apparently also the chances of their chicks reaching adulthood. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49035/original/qdq47xtf-1400601407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49035/original/qdq47xtf-1400601407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/49035/original/qdq47xtf-1400601407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49035/original/qdq47xtf-1400601407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49035/original/qdq47xtf-1400601407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49035/original/qdq47xtf-1400601407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49035/original/qdq47xtf-1400601407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/49035/original/qdq47xtf-1400601407.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Plastics are not good for birds.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-58792636/stock-photo-landfill-with-bulldozer-working-against-beautiful-blue-sky-full-of-sea-birds-great-for.html?src=GWGK5ihCvrVf5DvPxIpwrg-2-49">Pedro Miguel Sousa</a></span>
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<p>All these seaborne problems lie behind the RSPB’s call for protected areas offshore. To get the best out of the strategy, it is essential that we have a good understanding of not only which areas are important for seabirds but also why. In this regard, there is still much we don’t know. Seabird tracking projects such as the <a href="http://www.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/projects/details.aspx?id=365020">RSPB’s FAME project</a> will be key to understanding how oceanography and habitat influence seabird distributions. </p>
<p>We should also be mindful that seabird foraging areas may change in future depending on how climate change affects things like fish distributions. This might mean we have to change protected areas accordingly, so any network of areas needs to be flexible to ensure it fully protects the seabirds it is set to serve.</p>
<h2>And finally, a carrot …</h2>
<p>The Scottish government has a legal obligation to protect seabirds, but is it not of national interest to actually have thriving populations? A recent study on the economic impact of wildlife tourism in Scotland commissioned by the Scottish government found that the net economic impact in Scotland due to wildlife tourism was £65 million, with many of the businesses focusing on seabirds. </p>
<p>The economic impact was also highest in the more rural Highlands and Islands region, an area that could certainly do with the boost. Put together with the legal and conservational rationales, this is one more reason why the RSPB’s proposals ought to lead to government action. </p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/26991/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Elizabeth Masden receives funding from the Natural Environment Research Council to study the effects of renewable energy on bird populations</span></em></p>Scotland is renowned for its seabirds, thanks to landmarks such as the Bass Rock, Ailsa Craig and St Kilda. There are around five million of the birds, including 95% of the EU’s great skuas, 67% of its…Elizabeth Masden, Post-doctoral research associate, University of the Highlands and IslandsLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.