tag:theconversation.com,2011:/id/topics/superstitions-61414/articlesSuperstitions – The Conversation2023-11-10T14:21:18Ztag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2173242023-11-10T14:21:18Z2023-11-10T14:21:18ZRestorers uncover demon in a 1789 painting – and reveal the decline of superstition in the Age of Reason<p>Recent news that <a href="https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/services/media/fiend-re-emerges-from-the-canvas-of-joshua-reynolds-painting">restorers had uncovered</a> the image of a Gothic-looking demon in a late work by <a href="https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/sir-joshua-reynolds">Sir Joshua Reynolds</a> (1723-1792) seems fitting for these long, dark evenings. The sinister face hovers above the head of a dying clergyman in The Death of Cardinal Beaufort, painted in 1789. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01mxxz6">Fake-or-Fortune-style</a> reveals such as this, where Reynolds’s hollow-eyed fiend re-emerges, fanged and uncanny from the gloom of centuries of overpainting, are always popular with the public. But what are we to make of Reynolds’s devilish detail in his painting, and how does it fit into the larger story of demonic representation in the art and literature of the 18th century?</p>
<p>First of all, we can be sure that the painted demon was put there by Reynolds because it was <a href="https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/services/media/fiend-re-emerges-from-the-canvas-of-joshua-reynolds-painting">much discussed at the time</a>. The scene of the dying cardinal comes from Shakespeare’s Henry VI Part II. Witnessing bedside the death throes of Beaufort – a corrupt, mad and guilt-ridden figure – King Henry beseeches God to drive away “the busy meddling fiend / That lays strong siege unto this wretch’s soul”.</p>
<p>In Shakespeare’s writing, this fiend is a figure of speech, a metaphor for mental torment. Unconventionally for a painter at the time, Reynolds gives a face to this devil, and makes the fiend a visible being. It leers out of the shadows, behind Beaufort’s pillow, a grotesque detail out of character in Reynolds’s usual art of grand portraiture and soberly historical picture subjects.</p>
<p>Reynolds’s contemporaries were deeply critical of the inclusion of this demonic creature in an otherwise traditional history painting. Doubtless this had to do with Reynolds’s official status as the president of <a href="https://www.royalacademy.org.uk/about-the-ra">the Royal Academy of Arts</a> (which champions art and artists) and author of 15 lectures on art, known as <a href="https://www.royalacademy.org.uk/art-artists/archive/papers-relating-to-reynoldss-discourses">the Discourses</a>. The art theory of the day, as far as history painting was concerned, favoured improving subjects, rendered in an idealised manner, but taken from the life. There was little room for the fantastical or the macabre, for several reasons.</p>
<h2>Demons in the Age of Reason</h2>
<p>Broadly speaking, the Age of Reason saw “the death of Satan”, when science and rational thought sought to replace the religious superstitions of the previous century. Devils and demons, since they couldn’t be proven to exist in this new era of factual enquiry, lost much of their fear-driven religious power as tangible beings at loose in the world, sent to punish sinners.</p>
<p>Yet demons didn’t altogether disappear. In literature, they left the realm of physical possibility and entered the mind as metaphors for the human struggle between good and evil. As such, demons retained their moral function of teaching good souls how not to behave. Now the punishment for sin was not eternal damnation but the threat of a far more real internal mental conflict, madness and even suicide.</p>
<p>In the new genre of the novel, especially, writers could still explore the dark forces working beneath the surface of the human condition through devilish allusions while reassuring readers that good moral conduct was within their own control. In Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719), Moll Flanders (1722) and Roxanna (1724), or Samuel Richardson’s Clarissa (1748), demons don’t appear as such, but the behaviour of key characters is <a href="https://research.library.fordham.edu/dissertations/AAI13427425/">repeatedly described in devilish language</a>.</p>
<p>The most frightening concepts, it was thought, were best left as suggestions of the mind. Embodied devils and demons only appeared on stage or in the Gothic novel later in the 18th century. In the latter they were often found in disguise, as in MG Lewis’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Monk">Ambrosio the Monk</a> (1796).</p>
<p>In art, the shift towards the Gothic was influenced by Henry Fuseli (1741-1825). His painting The Nightmare showed a real-looking demon, larger than life, crouching on the body of a sleeping woman. The imp caused a sensation when the painting was shown at the Royal Academy in 1782.</p>
<p>Fuseli earned the <a href="https://collections.britishart.yale.edu/catalog/tms:786">nickname</a> “Painter in Ordinary to the Devil”, and was influential in London for his visionary images in this newly fashionable style. One such fan was Sir Joshua Reynolds, who became closely acquainted with Fuseli and an admirer of his work.</p>
<p>In 1789, they both contributed paintings to <a href="https://folgerpedia.folger.edu/Marketing_Shakespeare:_the_Boydell_Gallery,_1789%E2%80%931805,_%26_Beyond">John Boydell’s Shakespeare Gallery</a>, a commercial exhibition space on Pall Mall which commissioned the best artists of the day to make pictures of subjects taken from Shakespeare.</p>
<p>This was the context for Reynolds’s fiend in The Death of Cardinal Beaufort, which appeared in that exhibition. Tellingly, Fuseli had already shown a <a href="https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/artifact/death-of-cardinal-beaufort">drawing of the same subject</a> at the Royal Academy as early as 1772, a work in which Beaufort’s own face took on a demonic look with reference to his internal possession.</p>
<p>By the 1780s, Shakespearean fiends were common among Boydell’s artists. <a href="https://www.romney-society.org.uk/about-the-artist.html">George Romney</a> (1734-1802) made <a href="https://fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/explore-our-collection/highlights/BV136">several sketches</a> of other scenes in Henry VI Parts I and II where demons are conjured up by characters, and a painting of Joan of Arc doing the same, now lost.</p>
<p>Demons and devils visibly re-entered the art of the 18th century in the realm of satire. Here, in the monochrome print, winged or inky black devils became symbols for a host of contemporary social problems. <a href="https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/artists/william-hogarth">Hogarth</a> spoofed the religious convictions of the Methodist Church by having a little <a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/400082">devil whisper in the ear of a sleeping congregant</a>.</p>
<p>Satirist <a href="https://www.npg.org.uk/index.php?id=3160">James Gillray</a> pilloried the scourge of the 18th-century gluttonous diet, the painful condition of gout, <a href="https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw62371/The-gout">depicting it as a sharp-toothed demon</a>, sinking its fangs into a well-fed human foot. </p>
<p>Thus in 1789, the year of the French Revolution, far from losing the plot, the ageing Reynolds was part of a revolution in art that saw the demons of the imagination, so beloved of 18th-century literature, brought back vividly into the visual realm.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/217324/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jenny Graham does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The Enlightenment saw science and rational thought replace the religious superstitions of the previous century, and demons became metaphors for the human struggle between good and evil.Jenny Graham, Associate Professor in Art History, University of PlymouthLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2100482023-10-24T13:26:36Z2023-10-24T13:26:36ZAre ghosts real? A social psychologist examines the evidence<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/543535/original/file-20230818-4259-hhjv4b.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=8%2C16%2C5540%2C3676&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Remember the old saying: Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/looking-up-at-a-spooky-blurred-ghostly-figure-royalty-free-image/1266059277?phrase=Ghosts&adppopup=true">David Wall/Moment via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><figure class="align-left ">
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<p><em><a href="https://theconversation.com/us/topics/curious-kids-us-74795">Curious Kids</a> is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">curiouskidsus@theconversation.com</a>.</em></p>
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<blockquote>
<p><strong>Is it possible for there to be ghosts? – Madelyn, age 11, Fort Lupton, Colorado</strong></p>
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<hr>
<p>Certainly, lots of people believe in ghosts – a spirit left behind after someone who was alive has died.</p>
<p>In a 2021 <a href="https://today.yougov.com/topics/entertainment/articles-reports/2021/10/21/americans-say-ghosts-exist-seen-a-ghost">poll of 1,000 American adults</a>, 41% said they believe in ghosts, and 20% said they had personally experienced them. If they’re right, that’s more than 50 million spirit encounters in the U.S. alone.</p>
<p>That includes the owner of a retail shop near my home who believes his place is haunted. When I asked what most convinced him of this, he sent me dozens of eerie security camera video clips. He also brought in ghost hunters who reinforced his suspicions. </p>
<p>Some of the videos show small orbs of light gliding around the room. In others, you can hear faint voices and loud bumping sounds when nobody’s there. Others show a <a href="https://youtube.com/clip/UgkxUDWmE2OLTCMcgoRoApiRZs9at_eJQZjj">book flying off a desk</a> and products jumping off a shelf. </p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/MyQT78Bjt04?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">Many ghostly encounters are due to the way your brain interprets certain sights and sounds.</span></figcaption>
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<p>It’s not uncommon for me to hear stories like this. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZEQu09wAAAAJ&hl=en">As a sociologist</a>, some of my work looks at beliefs in things like <a href="https://www.postandcourier.com/news/scared-of-ghosts-thats-because-you-want-to-be-sc-researchers-say/article_b87cf418-f735-11e9-bdb4-1bab7238a47f.html">ghosts</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-people-tend-to-believe-ufos-are-extraterrestrial-208403">aliens</a>, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1525/sop.2001.44.1.21">pyramid power</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-is-13-considered-unlucky-explaining-the-power-of-its-bad-reputation-191477">superstitions</a>. </p>
<p>Along with others who practice scientific skepticism, I keep an open mind while maintaining that extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. Tell me you had a burger for lunch, and I’ll take your word for it. Tell me you shared your fries with Abraham Lincoln’s ghost, and I’ll want more evidence.</p>
<p>In the “spirit” of critical thinking, consider the following three questions:</p>
<h2>Are ghosts possible?</h2>
<p>People may think they’re experiencing ghosts when they hear strange voices, see moving objects, witness balls or wisps of light or even translucent people. </p>
<p>Yet no one describes ghosts as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ghost-spirit">aging, eating, breathing</a> or using bathrooms – despite plumbers receiving many calls about toilets “<a href="https://www.theplumberguy.com/blog/what-to-do-when-your-toilet-ghost-flushes/">ghost-flushing</a>.” </p>
<p>So could ghosts be made of a <a href="https://www.livescience.com/16951-einstein-physics-ghosts-proof.html">special kind of energy</a> that hovers and flies without dissipating? </p>
<p>If that’s the case, that means when ghosts glow, move objects and make sounds, they are acting like matter – something that takes up space and has mass, like wood, water, plants and people. Conversely, when passing through walls or vanishing, they must not act like matter. </p>
<p>But centuries of <a href="https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/what-is-energy/forms-of-energy.php">physics research</a> have found nothing like this exists, which is why physicists say <a href="https://futurism.com/brian-cox-if-ghosts-existed-wed-have-found-evidence-for-them-by-now">ghosts can’t exist</a>. </p>
<p>And so far, there is no proof that any part of a person can continue on after death. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">The real truth is out there, says this ghost skeptic.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>What’s the evidence?</h2>
<p>Never before in history have people recorded so many ghost encounters, thanks in part to mobile phone cameras and microphones. It seems there would be great evidence by now. <a href="https://benjaminradford.com/investigating-ghosts-2/">But scientists don’t have it</a>. </p>
<p>Instead, there are lots of ambiguous recordings sabotaged by bad lighting and faulty equipment. But popular <a href="https://www.eonline.com/news/1306826/ranking-ghost-hunting-shows-from-ghoulish-to-down-right-silly">television shows on ghost hunting</a> convince many viewers that blurry images and emotional reactions are proof enough. </p>
<p>As for <a href="https://www.ghoststop.com/tough-ghost-hunting-kit/">all the devices</a> ghost hunters use to capture sounds, electrical fields and infrared radiation – they may look scientific, but <a href="https://skepticalinquirer.org/exclusive/reality-check-ghost-hunters-and-lsquoghost-detectorsrsquo/">they’re not</a>. Measurements are worthless without some knowledge of the thing you’re measuring.</p>
<p>When ghost hunters descend on an allegedly haunted location for a night of meandering and measurement, they usually find something they later deem paranormal. It may be a moving door (breeze?), a chill (gap in the floorboards?), a glow (light entering from outside?), electrical fluctuations (old wiring?), or bumps and faint voices (crew in other rooms?). </p>
<p>Whatever happens, ghost hunters will draw a bull’s-eye around it, interpret that as “evidence” <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/ghost-hunters-who-use-science-reveal-what-other-paranormal-investigators-get-wrong-1642693">and investigate no further</a>. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">There’s a scientific explanation for spooky sightings.</span></figcaption>
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<h2>Are there alternative explanations?</h2>
<p>Personal experiences with ghosts can be misleading due to the limitations of human senses. That’s why anecdotes can’t substitute for objective research. Alleged hauntings usually have plenty of non-ghostly explanations.</p>
<p>One example is that retail establishment in my neighborhood. I reviewed the security camera clips and gathered information about the store’s location and layout, and the exact equipment used in the recordings. </p>
<p>First, the “orbs”: Videos captured many small globes of light seemingly moving around the room. </p>
<p>In reality, the orbs are <a href="https://support.simplisafe.com/articles/video-doorbell-pro/why-do-i-see-orbsbubbles-when-my-camera-is-in-night-mode/634492a5d9a8b404da76cccb">tiny particles of dust</a> wafting close to the camera lens, made to “bloom” by the camera’s infrared lights. That they appear to float around the room is an optical illusion. Watch any orb video closely and you’ll see they never go behind objects in the room. That’s exactly what you’d expect with dust particles close to the camera lens.</p>
<p>Next, voices and bumps: The shop is in a busy corner mini-mall. Three walls abut sidewalks, loading zones and parking areas; an adjacent store shares the fourth. The security camera mics probably recorded sounds from outdoors, other rooms and the adjacent unit. The owner never checked for these possibilities.</p>
<p>Then, the flying objects: The video shows objects falling off the showroom wall. The shelf rests on adjustable brackets, one of which wasn’t fully seated in its slot. The weight of the shelf caused the bracket to settle into place with a visible jerk. This movement sent some items tumbling off the shelf.</p>
<p>Then, the flying book: I used a simple trick to <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=soA5P1myQ7k&ab_channel=BarryMarkovsky">recreate the event</a> at home: a hidden string taped inside a book’s cover, wrapped around the kitchen island, and tugged by my right hand out of camera range. </p>
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<figcaption><span class="caption">Experience the mystery of the flying book.</span></figcaption>
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<p>Now I can’t prove there wasn’t a ghost in the original video.
The point is to provide a more plausible explanation than “it must have been a ghost.” </p>
<p>One final consideration: Virtually all ghostly experiences involve impediments to making accurate perceptions and judgments – <a href="https://skepticalinquirer.org/2017/01/ghost-hunters-in-the-dark/">bad lighting</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.879163">emotional arousal</a>, <a href="https://time.com/6259846/sleep-paralysis-ghosts/">sleep phenomena</a>, <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1525/sop.2001.44.1.21">social influences</a>, <a href="https://www.livescience.com/21478-what-is-culture-definition-of-culture.html">culture</a>, a misunderstanding of <a href="https://skepticalinquirer.org/exclusive/ghost-meters-i-can-name-that-ghost-in-5-milligauss/">how recording devices work</a>, and <a href="https://news.mit.edu/2019/how-expectation-influences-perception-0715">the prior beliefs</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-0047-9">personality traits</a> of those who claim to see ghosts. All of these hold the potential to induce unforgettable ghostly encounters.</p>
<p>But all can be explained without ghosts being real.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to <a href="mailto:curiouskidsus@theconversation.com">CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com</a>. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.</em></p>
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<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barry Markovsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Ghosts can be spooky fun, but there’s no evidence they exist.Barry Markovsky, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Sociology, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2050782023-05-11T16:14:30Z2023-05-11T16:14:30ZSleep paralysis: why modern horror is fascinated by old superstitions of troubled slumbers<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/524490/original/file-20230504-25-zxnqo8.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=1%2C0%2C1230%2C971&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The Nightmare by John Henry Fuselli, 1781.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nightmare#/media/File:John_Henry_Fuseli_-_The_NightmareFXD.jpg">Wikepedia</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>You wake up in the middle of the night. The room is dark except for the faint glow of the moon through your window. But something’s wrong. A weight presses down on your limbs, digs deep into the flesh of your stomach, and squeezes the air from your lungs. You try to move, but you can’t – all you can do is tentatively open your eyes.</p>
<p>A shadow of twisted, gangly limbs writhes above you. A looming head moves closer to your face. And just as your paralysing terror threatens to burst you open, the monster retreats and you regain control over your limbs. You wake up. It was just a dream. Hopefully.</p>
<p>This is what it feels like to suffer from sleep paralysis, which is termed a <a href="https://royalpapworth.nhs.uk/our-services/respiratory-services/rssc/patient-information/symptoms/odd-behaviour-night">parasomnia</a>, and characterised by the sensation of a crushing weight accompanied by hallucinations of a malevolent presence. We now know that it has a scientific explanation: paralysis is a natural part of sleeping that wears off before morning, but some of us wake up while it’s still in effect.</p>
<p>The history of the phenomenon, however, is one of suspicion and witchcraft. While our modern superstitions have dwindled, <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/sleep-paralysis/#:%7E:text=Sleep%20paralysis%20happens%20when%20you,insomnia">sleep paralysis</a> is having a renewed grip on our imagination through a trend in recent horror movies.</p>
<h2>Hag-ridden</h2>
<p>Until <a href="https://www.history.com/topics/renaissance/renaissance">the Renaissance</a> promoted scientific evidence over religious superstition, it was commonly believed that troubled sleep was caused by malevolent witches. Many of the old names for sleep paralysis align with this idea: being “hag-ridden”, for instance, or of being attacked by a bewitched horse known as the “<a href="https://www.scarystudies.com/mare-demon-mythology/">mara</a>”, from which we get the term “nightmare”.</p>
<p>As such, bedroom rituals were as much about defending against witches as they were about winding down for sleep. People would wear necklaces of coral, or hang a fossil known as a <a href="https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/fossils-and-geological-time/belemnites/">belemnite</a> over their beds, to protect them from being crushed by witches in their sleep. Stables, too, were adorned with talismans to guard horses from being possessed by witches intent on using them to trample sleeping victims.</p>
<p>It has been 330 years since the infamous <a href="https://salem.lib.virginia.edu/home.html">Salem witch trials</a>, where 19 people were hanged on suspicion of being in league with the Devil. More than 200 accusations were made, and the court records are now digitised and held with the Virginia library.</p>
<p>When writing my book, <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Night-Terrors-Troubled-Sleep-Stories/dp/1785787934/ref=tmm_hrd_swatch_0?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=">Night Terrors</a>, I accessed these papers, and recognised that many of the accusations described encounters with “witches” aligned to prevalent ideas of the cause of sleep paralysis. In the <a href="https://salem.lib.virginia.edu/n13.html#n13.13">testimony of Richard Coman</a> against Bridget Bishop on 2 June 1692 , he describes Bishop opening the curtains at the foot of the bed, and lying upon his body and crushing him so that he could not speak or move. Bishop was the first to be executed.</p>
<p>During the time of the Salem witch trials, however, a more rational explanation was being discussed in terms of scientific discovery that situated sleep paralysis firmly within the body of the sufferer. Belief in witchcraft, at least in terms of troubled sleep, started to dwindle.</p>
<h2>Sleep paralysis in film</h2>
<p>There seems to be renewed interest in witch-trial superstitions in modern horror films. Recently, a variety of protagonists face monsters and demons while in that most vulnerable of spaces: the bed. In the 2014 film <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/oct/23/the-babadook-review-chilling-freudian-thriller">The Babadook</a>, directed by Jennifer Kent, Amelia (Essie Davis) watches in paralysed horror as the film’s titular monster skitters across her bedroom ceiling. Her mouth is agape in a silent scream as the Babadook drops like a spider on top of her.</p>
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<p>Similarly, in <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2021/oct/31/last-night-in-soho-edgar-wright-review">Last Night in Soho</a>, Thomasin McKenzie’s protagonist, Eloise, becomes pinned to her bed by the ghostly hands of murdered men. Other films are even using sleep paralysis as the monster, such as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/oct/08/the-nightmare-review-sleep-paralysis">The Nightmare</a>, a horror documentary depicting the parasomnia, and Andy James Taylor’s short film, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4h4fKtEQ8K0">The Nocnitsa</a> in which a young woman is haunted by a shadowy presence creeping up her bed while unable to move.</p>
<p>It’s becoming increasingly noticeable – and there are a few reasons to explain the trend. Each presentation of sleep paralysis in film confuses the boundary between the hero and the “hag”, with the latter often being a product of the imagination and representing psychological turmoil.</p>
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<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/DoPsjWqvwT4?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
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<p>In other words, the protagonist’s emotional troubles are made manifest through their sleep paralysis demons. Another factor is that it brings the monster of classic horror films into a much more personal and domestic space. It presents the idea that the villains we face in our sleep are of our own making.</p>
<p>Perhaps the most prevalent reason, though, is that sleep is now over-analysed and too firmly rooted in neuroscience and discussions of sleep “habits” and “hygiene”. Cultural discussions of sleep have moved so far away from the creepy and the mysterious that it is now the role of horror films to remind us of the grip that troubled sleep used to have on our imaginations.</p>
<p>Sleep is now scrutinised under a harsh clinical light – but horror stories are increasingly restoring a more historic sense of darkness.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205078/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alice Vernon does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A raft of horror films remind us of the grip troubled sleep once had on our imaginations.Alice Vernon, Lecturer in Creative Writing and 19th-Century Literature, Aberystwyth UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2051702023-05-10T16:31:19Z2023-05-10T16:31:19ZPlastic rats and playoff beards: Superstitious behaviours in hockey fans and players increase during the playoffs<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525391/original/file-20230510-19-ghb0bb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C17%2C3000%2C1953&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Toronto Maple Leafs fans and players celebrate a goal during the second round playoff series against the Florida Panthers.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">(Michael Laughlin/AP Photo)</span></span></figcaption></figure><iframe style="width: 100%; height: 100px; border: none; position: relative; z-index: 1;" allowtransparency="" allow="clipboard-read; clipboard-write" src="https://narrations.ad-auris.com/widget/the-conversation-canada/plastic-rats-and-playoff-beards--superstitious-behaviours-in-hockey-fans-and-players-increase-during-the-playoffs" width="100%" height="400"></iframe>
<p>As the Toronto Maple Leafs recently limped to a third straight defeat to the Florida Panthers, Leafs fans experienced the dreaded <a href="https://www.sportsbusinessjournal.com/Journal/Issues/2022/05/09/Closing-Shot/Closing-Shot.aspx">rat trick</a>. In this ritual, Panthers fans throw plastic rats onto the ice to summon the energy of past, unexpected successes.</p>
<p>A group of extraterrestrials watching this event might be puzzled to see hundreds of otherwise normal people hurling mass-produced rodents at a few dozen tired men with unkempt facial hair. If, as sport fans, we set our past experiences to the side, these superstitions that are so pervasive in sport — especially when the games carry the most weight — really make very little objective sense.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jnPZX0U9-XI?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">TSN looks at the history of the ‘rat trick,’ when Florida Panthers fans throw plastic rats onto the ice after games.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As an ardent sport fan for most of my life — and someone who may or may not have participated in fan rituals — I’m in no position to judge. And although I am not a particularly superstitious person overall, I’ve engaged in my fair share of sport-related irrationality as both a participant and a spectator. </p>
<p>For much of my early life, I saw sport superstition as part of fandom. I have now been studying <a href="https://www.uwindsor.ca/kinesiology/755/dr-terry-eddy">sport fans for about 15 years</a>, and if I’ve learned one thing, it’s this: rationality and objectivity generally do not apply in sports fandom.</p>
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<em>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/leafs-and-oilers-in-the-nhl-playoffs-can-i-cheer-on-a-team-i-usually-hate-204893">Leafs and Oilers in the NHL playoffs: Can I cheer on a team I usually hate?</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
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<h2>The superstitious athlete</h2>
<p>Although all sports have their share of superstitious participants, hockey players have certainly earned their <a href="https://thehockeynews.com/news/the-nhls-10-weirdest-rituals-and-superstitions">reputation for being at the high end of the range</a>. </p>
<p>As I alluded to earlier, <a href="https://www.espn.com/espn/feature/story/_/id/32804681/playoff-beards-hockey-wackiest-tradition">playoff beards become ubiquitous among players at this time of year</a>. This seemingly age-old tradition only dates back to the early 1980s, but has become ingrained in hockey culture among amateurs and professionals alike. </p>
<p>Baseball players are certainly not to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp2701_7">be outdone as a superstitious group</a> — for example, it’s taboo to talk about a no-hitter. <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0097815/">In the 1989 movie <em>Major League</em></a>, the Cuban baseball player Pedro Cerrano (played by Dennis Haysbert) used supernatural means to magic his bat. As contrived as the character might have appeared to the average person, most baseball fans would believe that such a player could (and probably does) exist.</p>
<p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/Cr8NJkggkln","accessToken":"127105130696839|b4b75090c9688d81dfd245afe6052f20"}"></div></p>
<p>For some athletes, superstitions aren’t just meaningless, irrational behaviours; <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12301">they can have positive effects on mental state and performance</a>. Superstitions can boost confidence and sense of control, as well as reduce anxiety — really, it’s the routine that prepares the body and mind for the performance, rather than the specific behaviour itself. </p>
<p>Superstitions may not be as readily prescribed by sport psychologists as meditation or visualization, but for some athletes, they can serve a similar purpose.</p>
<h2>Fan superstitions</h2>
<p>Like athletes, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2017.12.001">fans also tend to exhibit numerous superstitious behaviours</a> both at the game and in other locations, <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.740645">either before or during the game</a>. These superstitions can be group-based — like the rat trick — or personal. </p>
<p>Some of the most common personal behaviours include wearing certain articles of clothing (special underwear and socks are particularly popular), sitting in a particular place and eating or drinking specific foods. </p>
<p>But if we can understand why athletes succumb to superstition based on actual benefits, how can we justify these behaviours among fans? They have no direct involvement in the game. Well, the benefits for fans are not actually that different from those for athletes.</p>
<h2>Handling uncertainty</h2>
<p>In general, humans <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2017.12.001">don’t handle uncertainty very well</a>. We crave order in our lives, and fundamentally need to explain the underlying causes of important events or outcomes. </p>
<p>In the absence of concrete answers, we start to make up explanations of our own — <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/1622327285?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true">these are known as attributions</a>. We especially tend to attribute sporting success to factors that are under our control, like player and coach performance or fan involvement. And we attribute failure to things beyond our control, such as the other team’s performance, referees’ actions or fate.</p>
<p>Superstitions help us feel like we have some control over the uncontrollable. There have only been a handful of academic studies on fan superstition, but the findings tend to be consistent. By engaging in superstitions, <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/specials/superfan-the-nav-bhatia-story-1.6235377">fans feel as if they’re doing their part to help the team</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="a man in the stands holds a sign reading I'M A CANIAC FROM N.J." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/525392/original/file-20230510-15-a0x73r.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A Carolina Hurricanes fan holds a sign following the Hurricanes’ win over the New Jersey Devils in Game 2 of the second-round playoff series.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">(AP Photo/Karl B DeBlaker)</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>When the team wins, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2017.12.001">being involved generates an even more positive mood</a>, likely due to the perceived satisfaction of helping the team. On the other hand, carrying out the appropriate superstitions can have positive effects on mood even after a loss, possibly because the fan feels as though they did everything they could to help the team. Superstitions can also reduce the stress associated with watching a game among avid fans. </p>
<p>It’s worth pointing out that “fair-weather fans,” who only support the team when it’s doing well, generally aren’t doing this stuff — <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-16583-002">the team has to be very important to us</a> in order for us to be compelled to engage in superstitions. </p>
<p>Academic research refers to these passionate supporters as “highly identified fans,” because the fan role is a central and important part of that person’s identity and self-concept. As such, their sport fandom is closely tied to their self-esteem, which is why watching sports is such a heavily invested, emotional experience for these highly identified fans (myself included). </p>
<p>Spectator sport is one of the most unpredictable things in the world, so we have a desire to combat this uncertainty and control what’s happening by any means possible, rational or otherwise.</p>
<h2>During playoff time, be kind</h2>
<p>Sport superstitions make very little sense to non-sport fans, because they haven’t experienced the intensity of emotions and mental gymnastics that come with being a highly identified fan. </p>
<p>It’s more than a pastime, it’s a big part of who we are and how we see ourselves. </p>
<p>And to anyone who couldn’t care less about the playoffs, please just indulge the sport fans in your life and let them do whatever it is that makes them feel better at this time of year. That includes you, Mrs. Eddy.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/205170/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Terry Eddy does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Superstitions have a role in helping hockey fans and players feel more in control of the game.Terry Eddy, Associate Professor, Sport Management, University of WindsorLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/2028092023-03-29T09:40:49Z2023-03-29T09:40:49ZMystic Meg: fortunetellers have always been popular, despite a long history of efforts to silence them<p>Since her death on March 9, celebrities and clients have been paying tribute to Margaret Ann Lake, better known by her stage name “Mystic Meg”. In a career spanning five decades, Mystic Meg went from writing horoscopes to predicting winners on the live National Lottery broadcast from 1994 to 2000.</p>
<p>From Joseph interpreting Pharaoh’s dreams, to Elizabeth I’s astrologer John Dee (1527-1608), predicting the future has long been a path to fame and fortune. But unlike the many fortunetellers who came before her, Meg was able to practice her art without fear of persecution.</p>
<p>In the <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2rOqEAAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&ots=g0T9IElnUH&dq=oxford%20history%20witchcraft&lr&pg=PT30#v=onepage&q&f=false">biblical Judaic culture</a> of Joseph, magical practices were tolerated, but considered suspect and dangerous. And John Dee may have earned the protection of the queen, but he needed it. Throughout his <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=c4MTlyKu6aIC&lpg=PR8&ots=8CV9sVuiqP&dq=%22john%20dee%22%20%22witchcraft%22&lr&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q&f=false">long career as an astrologer,</a> he was accused of witchcraft several times.</p>
<p>These accusations of harmful magic were often combined with the suspicion that fortunetellers were frauds taking advantage of popular credulity. In the 17th and 18th centuries, many European countries abandoned attempts to prosecute witches. </p>
<p>New legislation, such as the UK’s 1735 Witchcraft Act, focused on fraudulence alone. The act was used against spiritualists, psychics and astrologers up <a href="https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/id/eprint/8767/">until the second world war</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518001/original/file-20230328-28-gyii6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A painting of a woman with dark hair in a long dress stood by a steaming cauldron." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518001/original/file-20230328-28-gyii6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518001/original/file-20230328-28-gyii6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518001/original/file-20230328-28-gyii6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518001/original/file-20230328-28-gyii6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=899&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518001/original/file-20230328-28-gyii6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518001/original/file-20230328-28-gyii6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518001/original/file-20230328-28-gyii6c.JPG?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1130&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The Magic Circle by John William Waterhouse, (1886).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:John_William_Waterhouse_-_Magic_Circle.JPG">Tate Britain</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Across the Channel, from the 18th to the 20th centuries, the French authorities waged a long and unsuccessful war on magicians of all kinds. Although many of the men and women who ended up on trial were rural “wise women”, “wizards”, or “<a href="https://bit.ly/42l6kqr">cunning folk</a>”, others were not that different from Mystic Meg and the astrology hotlines of the 1990s. </p>
<p>The “Red Witch”, Jean-Jacques-Maurice Talazac, preferred telling fortunes by post in an age when telephones were still a luxury. But unlike Meg, Talazac’s trade was illegal. He was <a href="https://artefake.fr/talazac-et-michaella/">prosecuted in 1908</a> and again in 1916 and sentenced to several months in prison, as well as a fine and costs.</p>
<p>So why is it that whenever the authorities have tried to repress fortunetellers for good, they have failed? Perhaps a fellow magician’s Twitter tribute to Meg offers a clue: “She defied the dreary sceptic,” wrote <a href="https://twitter.com/theurigeller/status/1633776067637915649?s=20">Uri Geller</a>, “as did her fans.”</p>
<h2>Fortunetellers and their fans</h2>
<p>Critics of astrology, <a href="https://theconversation.com/tarot-resurgence-is-less-about-occult-than-fun-and-self-help-just-like-throughout-history-139448">tarot</a> and other popular magical practices tend to have a black and white view of what draws people to supernatural pursuits and how audiences treat prophecies and divination.</p>
<p>European thinkers in the 19th century saw attitudes to magic in racial terms, arguing that where “civilised” Europeans knew the difference between entertainment and reality, <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.14318/hau7.3.022">non-western cultures were too primitive</a> to see magic as deception. </p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518003/original/file-20230328-720-7zjvi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A pamphlet showing a cartoon witch dunking in the river." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518003/original/file-20230328-720-7zjvi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518003/original/file-20230328-720-7zjvi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518003/original/file-20230328-720-7zjvi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518003/original/file-20230328-720-7zjvi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=800&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518003/original/file-20230328-720-7zjvi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518003/original/file-20230328-720-7zjvi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518003/original/file-20230328-720-7zjvi6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1005&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Witches apprehended, a British pamphlet from 1613.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://wellcomecollection.org/works/ejamevpq/items">Wellcome Collection</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>More recent work by anthropologists, sociologists and historians has not only questioned these racist assumptions about primitive credulity, but also increasingly shown that attitudes to magic in modern Europe remain <a href="https://academic.oup.com/past/advance-article/doi/10.1093/pastj/gtad002/7043291?login=false">flexible and uncertain</a>.</p>
<p>Mystic Meg’s many fans could enjoy her predictions on the National Lottery Live or read her horoscopes in the paper without coming to any final decision about the reality or impossibility of the powers she professed. </p>
<p>In desperate times, even the most rational among us find it <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24550769?socuuid=bf04b65c-10cd-4993-af99-7a2df297e033">hard to dismiss bad omens</a>. Why is it so hard to <a href="https://academic.oup.com/past/advance-article/doi/10.1093/pastj/gtad002/7043291?login=false">throw darts at a picture of someone you love</a>, if you do not believe this symbolic attack can cause real physical harm? As musician <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DYl_Fkd_x0o">Regina Spektor sings</a>: “no one laughs at God in a hospital.”</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518006/original/file-20230328-22-3xnvfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A painting of a woman with a black dog reading a man's palm." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518006/original/file-20230328-22-3xnvfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/518006/original/file-20230328-22-3xnvfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=782&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518006/original/file-20230328-22-3xnvfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=782&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518006/original/file-20230328-22-3xnvfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=782&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518006/original/file-20230328-22-3xnvfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=983&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518006/original/file-20230328-22-3xnvfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=983&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/518006/original/file-20230328-22-3xnvfh.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=983&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Gypsy Fortune-Teller by Taras Shevchenko (1841).</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Шевченко_Т._Г._(1841)_Циганка-ворожка.jpg">National Museum Тaras Shevchenko</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Critics of superstition have often painted openness to magical interpretations as weakness or moral failing. From 18th century crusaders, such as Voltaire, to more recent <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2466/pr0.1991.68.3c.1387">psychologists</a>, many have pointed out the real social costs of erroneous beliefs. But historians have discovered that where magic led, science often <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/esm/3/1/article-p32_2.xml">followed</a>.</p>
<p>When the Nobel prize-winning scientists Frederick Soddy and Ernest Rutherford proved that atoms could be broken in 1901, Soddy’s first thought was that this was “<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/690079">transmutation</a>” – like the famed transformation of lead into gold sought in Renaissance alchemy.</p>
<p><a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lKc76z3r454C&pg=PA111&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false">Rutherford retorted</a>: “For Mike’s sake, Soddy, don’t call it transmutation. They’ll have our heads off as alchemists.” </p>
<p>Mystic Meg’s claims were largely limited to the star signs of likely lottery winners, or romantic predictions for the week ahead. But perhaps her own good fortune was to have risen to fame in a culture where the most dangerous associations of magic had mostly disappeared.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/202809/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>William G Pooley received funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council to work on creative histories of modern witchcraft in France.</span></em></p>Critics of superstition have often painted openness to magical interpretations as weakness or moral failing.William G Pooley, Lecturer in Modern European History, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1936972022-11-09T13:38:32Z2022-11-09T13:38:32ZWhy magical thinking is so widespread – a look at the psychological roots of common superstitions<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494147/original/file-20221108-20-jowi62.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=68%2C0%2C5623%2C3797&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Lucky charms help us feel safer in an uncertain world.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/inside-of-a-taxi-royalty-free-image/80486695?phrase=superstition%20mirror&adppopup=true">Image Source via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Growing up in Greece, I spent my summers at my grandparents’ home in a small coastal village in the region of Chalkidiki. It was warm and sunny, and I passed most of my time playing in the streets with my cousins. But occasionally, the summer storms brought torrential rain. You could see them coming from far away, with black clouds looming over the horizon, lit up by lightning.</p>
<p>As I rushed home, I was intrigued to see my grandparents prepare for the thunderstorm. Grandma would cover a large mirror on the living room wall with a dark cloth and throw a blanket over the TV. Meanwhile, Grandpa would climb a ladder to remove the light bulb over the patio door. Then they switched off all the lights in the house and waited the storm out.</p>
<p>I never understood why they did all this. When I asked, they said that light attracts lightning. At least that was what people said, so better to be on the safe side.</p>
<p>Where do these kinds of beliefs come from?</p>
<p>My fascination with <a href="https://www.littlebrownspark.com/titles/dimitris-xygalatas/ritual/9780316462402/">seemingly bizarre cultural beliefs and practices</a> eventually led me to become an anthropologist. I have come across similar superstitions around the world, and although one may marvel at their variety, they share some common features.</p>
<h2>The principles of magical thinking</h2>
<p>At the core of most superstitions are certain intuitive notions about how the world works. Early anthropologists described these intuitions in terms of principles such as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2021.2006294">similarity” and “contagion</a>.” </p>
<p>According to the principle of similarity, things that look alike may share some deeper connection, just as the members of a family tend to resemble each other both in appearance and in other traits. Of course, this is not always the case. But this inference feels natural, so we often abuse it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494150/original/file-20221108-16-od04xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="An illustration of a black cat, a broken mirror and the words, Friday the 13th." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494150/original/file-20221108-16-od04xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/494150/original/file-20221108-16-od04xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494150/original/file-20221108-16-od04xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494150/original/file-20221108-16-od04xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494150/original/file-20221108-16-od04xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494150/original/file-20221108-16-od04xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/494150/original/file-20221108-16-od04xm.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=533&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">At the core of most superstitions are intuitive notions about how the world works.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/friday-the-13th-black-cat-royalty-free-illustration/1285396482?phrase=superstition%20broken%20mirror&adppopup=true">Andry Djumantara/ iStock / Getty Images Plus</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Case in point: The light reflected on the surface of a mirror is not related to the light resulting from the electrical discharges produced <a href="https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/239-lightning-explained">during a thunderstorm</a>. But because they both seem to give off light, a connection between the two was plausible enough to become <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1Mc4qPiICvcC&pg=PT1100&lpg=PT1100&dq=mirrors+%22attract+lightning%22+superstition&source=bl&ots=LVd49J3fHl&sig=ACfU3U3sbqS-vHXpUTiXa-ytwQ9HJ_qShg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiPlYGxgp_7AhXEkokEHTcFAVg4FBDoAXoECD8QAw#v=onepage&q=mirrors%20%22attract%20lightning%22%20superstition&f=false">folk wisdom</a> in many parts of the world. Likewise, because our reflection on the mirror closely resembles our own image, many cultures hold that breaking a mirror brings bad luck, as if damage to that reflection would also mean <a href="http://www.mirrorhistory.com/mirror-facts/broken-mirror/">damage to ourselves</a>.</p>
<p>The principle of contagion is based on the idea that things have internal properties that can be <a href="https://theconversation.com/demolishing-schools-after-a-mass-shooting-reflects-humans-deep-rooted-desire-for-purification-rituals-184826">transmitted through contact</a>. The heat of a fire is transferred to anything it touches, and some illnesses can spread from one organism to another. Whether consciously or unconsciously, people in all cultures often expect that other kinds of essences can also be transferred through contact. </p>
<p>For example, people often believe that certain essences can “rub off” on someone, which is why casino players sometimes touch someone who is on a winning streak. It is also why, in 2014, a statue of Juliet, the Shakespearean character who fell madly in love with Romeo, <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/arts/veronas-juliet-statue-damaged-beyond-repair-love-seeking-tourists">had to be replaced</a> due to excessive wear caused by visitors touching it to find love.</p>
<h2>A search for patterns</h2>
<p>These kinds of superstitions betray something more general about the way people think. To make sense of our world, we look for patterns in nature. When two things occur at around the same time, they may be related. For instance, black clouds are associated with rain.</p>
<p>But the world is far too complex. Most of the time, <a href="https://www.statology.org/correlation-does-not-imply-causation-examples/">correlation does not mean causation</a>, although it may feel like it does. </p>
<p>If you wear a new shirt to the stadium and your team wins, you might wear it again. If another victory comes, you begin to see a pattern. This now becomes your lucky shirt. In reality, myriad other things have changed since the last game, but you do not have access to all those things. What you know for sure is that you wore the lucky shirt, and the result was favorable.</p>
<h2>Superstitions are comforting</h2>
<p>People really want their lucky charms to work. So when they don’t, we are less motivated to remember them, or we may attribute our luck to some other factor. If their team loses, they might blame the referee. But when their team wins, they are <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/science-choice/201504/what-is-confirmation-bias">more likely to notice the lucky shirt</a>, and more likely to declare to others that it worked, which helps spread the idea.</p>
<p>As a social species, so much of what we know about the world comes from common wisdom. It would therefore seem safe to assume that if other people believe in the utility of a particular action, there might be something to it. If people around you say you should not eat those mushrooms, it’s probably a good idea to avoid them. </p>
<p>This “better safe than sorry” strategy is one of the main reasons superstitions are so widespread. Another reason is that they simply feel good. </p>
<p>Research shows that rituals and superstitions <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-people-need-rituals-especially-in-times-of-uncertainty-134321">spike during times of uncertainty</a>, and performing them can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0431">help reduce anxiety</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00116.x">boost performance</a>. When people feel powerless, turning to familiar actions provides a sense of control, which, even if illusory, can still be comforting.</p>
<p>Thanks to these psychological effects, superstitions have been around for ages, and will likely be around for ages to come.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/193697/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dimitris Xygalatas does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>An anthropologist explains why we all have some irrational beliefs and the reason they give us comfort.Dimitris Xygalatas, Associate Professor of Anthropology and Psychological Sciences, University of ConnecticutLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1914772022-10-21T12:38:29Z2022-10-21T12:38:29ZWhy is 13 considered unlucky? Explaining the power of its bad reputation<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490737/original/file-20221019-20-g6fx2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=44%2C0%2C2072%2C1414&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Many elevators do not have a floor numbered 13 because of common superstitions about the number.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/close-up-of-a-businessman-using-hotel-elevator-royalty-free-image/1401402377?phrase=elevator&adppopup=true">Luis Alvarez/DigitalVision via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Would you think it weird if I refused to travel on Sundays that fall on the 22nd day of the month?</p>
<p>How about if I lobbied the homeowner association in my high-rise condo to skip the 22nd floor, jumping from the 21st to 23rd?</p>
<p>It’s highly unusual <a href="https://theconversation.com/happy-twosday-why-numbers-like-2-22-22-have-been-too-fascinating-for-over-2-000-years-176093">to fear 22</a> – so, yes, it would be appropriate to see me as a bit odd. But what if, in just my country alone, more than 40 million people shared the same baseless aversion?</p>
<p>That’s <a href="https://news.gallup.com/poll/26887/thirteen-percent-americans-bothered-stay-hotels-13th-floor.aspx">how many Americans</a> admit it would bother them to stay on one particular floor in high-rise hotels: the 13th.</p>
<p>According to the Otis Elevator Co., for every building with a floor numbered “13,” six other buildings <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130430013751/http:/realtytimes.com/rtpages/20020913_13thfloor.htm">pretend to not have one</a>, skipping right to 14.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.postandcourier.com/kingstree/community-news/some-scared-others-amused-by-friday-the-13th/article_50e1a1d2-cd6b-11ec-9c50-3b6b3897ea36.html">Many Westerners</a> <a href="https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/how-friday-the-13th-affects-peoples-behaviour">alter their behaviors</a> on <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1697765/pdf/bmj00052-0013.pdf">Friday the 13th</a>. Of course bad things <a href="https://www.readersdigest.ca/culture/friday-the-13th-history/">do sometimes happen</a> on that date, but there’s no evidence they do so disproportionately.</p>
<p>As <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZEQu09wAAAAJ&hl=en">a sociologist</a> specializing in social psychology and group processes, I’m not so interested in individual fears and obsessions. What fascinates me is when millions of people share the same misconception to the extent that it affects behavior on a broad scale. Such is the power of 13. </p>
<h2>Origins of the superstition</h2>
<p>The source of 13’s bad reputation – “triskaidekaphobia” – is murky and speculative. The historical explanation may be as simple as its chance juxtaposition with lucky 12. <a href="https://centerforinquiry.org/blog/authors/nickell-joe/">Joe Nickell</a> investigates paranormal claims for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, a nonprofit that scientifically examines controversial and extraordinary claims. He points out that 12 often <a href="https://centerforinquiry.org/press_releases/freaking_out_over_friday_the_13th_skeptics_say_relax/">represents “completeness”</a>: the number of months in the year, gods on Olympus, signs of the zodiac and apostles of Jesus. Thirteen contrasts with this sense of goodness and perfection. </p>
<p>The number 13 may be associated with some <a href="https://www.livescience.com/46284-origins-unlucky-friday-the-13th.html">famous but undesirable dinner guests</a>. In Norse mythology, the god Loki was 13th to arrive at a feast in Valhalla, where he tricked another attendee into killing the god Baldur. In Christianity, Judas – the apostle who betrayed Jesus – was the 13th guest at the Last Supper. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A painting shows thirteen men seated on one side of a long table, wearing colored robes." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490678/original/file-20221019-22-4f7v7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/490678/original/file-20221019-22-4f7v7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490678/original/file-20221019-22-4f7v7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490678/original/file-20221019-22-4f7v7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=303&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490678/original/file-20221019-22-4f7v7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490678/original/file-20221019-22-4f7v7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/490678/original/file-20221019-22-4f7v7k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘The Last Supper,’ a 15th-century mural painting in Milan created by Leonardo da Vinci.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/the-last-supper-15th-century-mural-painting-in-milan-news-photo/113493718?phrase=last%20supper%20da%20vinci&adppopup=true">Universal History Archive/Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>But the truth is, sociocultural processes can associate bad luck with any number. When the conditions are favorable, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-62585-9#:%7E:text=In%20addition%2C%20rumor%20spreading%20is,social%20environments%20in%20rumor%20spreading.">a rumor</a> or superstition generates its own social reality, snowballing like an urban legend as it rolls down the hill of time. </p>
<p>In Japan, <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/130913-friday-luck-lucky-superstition-13">9 is unlucky</a>, probably because it sounds similar to the Japanese word for “suffering.” <a href="https://www.thelocal.it/20200717/thirteen-of-italys-strangest-superstitions-bad-luck-fate-belief-traditions/">In Italy</a>, it’s 17. In China, 4 sounds like “death” and is more actively avoided in everyday life than 13 is in Western culture – including a willingness to <a href="https://doi.org/10.5204/mcj.2604">pay higher fees </a> to avoid it in cellphone numbers. And though 666 is considered lucky in China, many Christians around the world associate it with an evil beast described in the biblical Book of Revelation. There is even a word for an intense fear of 666: <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia-2671858">hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia</a>.</p>
<h2>Social and psychological explanations</h2>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/list-of-phobias-2795453">many kinds</a> of specific <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519704/table/ch3.t11/">phobias</a>, and people hold them for a variety of psychological reasons. They can arise from direct negative experiences – fearing bees after being stung by one, for example. Other <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/specific-phobias/symptoms-causes/syc-20355156#:%7E:text=Many%20phobias%20develop%20as%20a,to%20genetics%20or%20learned%20behavior.">risk factors</a> for developing a phobia include being very young, having relatives with phobias, having a more sensitive personality and being exposed to others with phobias.</p>
<p>Part of 13’s reputation may be connected to a feeling of unfamiliarity, or “<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0247037#sec008">felt sense of anomaly</a>,” as it is called in the psychological literature. In everyday life, 13 is less common than 12. There’s no 13th month, 13-inch ruler, or 13 o'clock. By itself a sense of unfamiliarity won’t cause a phobia, but <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/1467-8721.00154">psychological research</a> shows that we favor what is familiar and disfavor what is not. This makes it easier to associate 13 with negative attributes.</p>
<p>People also may assign dark attributes to 13 for the same reason that many believe in “full moon effects.” Beliefs that the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.051119">full moon</a> influences mental health, crime rates, accidents and other human calamities have been thoroughly debunked. Still, when people are looking to <a href="http://www.sakkyndig.com/psykologi/artvit/nickerson1998.pdf">confirm their beliefs</a>, they are prone to infer connections between unrelated factors. For example, having a car accident during a full moon, or on a Friday the 13th, makes the event seem all the more memorable and significant. Once locked in, such beliefs are <a href="https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/socialpsychology/n62.xml#:%7E:text=Belief%20perseverance%20is%20the%20tendency,the%20basis%20of%20that%20belief.">very hard to shake</a>.</p>
<p>Then there are the potent effects of social influences. It takes a village – or Twitter – to make fears coalesce around a particular harmless number. The emergence of any superstition in a social group – fear of 13, walking under ladders, not stepping on a crack, knocking on wood, etc. – is not unlike the rise of a “<a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Selfish_Gene/ekonDAAAQBAJ?hl=en">meme</a>.” Although now the term most often refers to widely shared online images, it was <a href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/richard-dawkins-memes">first introduced</a> by biologist <a href="https://richarddawkins.net/">Richard Dawkins</a> to help describe how an idea, innovation, fashion or other bit of information can diffuse through a population. A meme, in his definition, is similar to a piece of genetic code: It reproduces itself as it is communicated among people, with the potential to mutate into alternative versions of itself. </p>
<p>The 13 meme is a simple bit of information associated with bad luck. It resonates with people for reasons given above, and then spreads throughout the culture. Once acquired, this piece of pseudo-knowledge gives believers a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000225">sense of control</a> over the evils associated with it.</p>
<h2>False beliefs, true consequences</h2>
<p>Groups concerned with public relations seem to feel the need to kowtow to popular superstitions. Perhaps owing to the near-tragic <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/missions/apollo13.html">Apollo 13 mission</a>, NASA stopped sequentially numbering space shuttle missions, dubbing <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/behind-the-space-shuttle-mission-numbering-system">the 13th shuttle flight</a> STS-41-G. In Belgium, complaints from superstitious passengers led Brussels Airlines to revamp <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/21/business/worldbusiness/21iht-logo.4676788.html">its logo</a> in 2006. It had been a “b”-like image made of 13 dots. The airline added a 14th. Like many other airlines, its planes’ row numbering <a href="https://simpleflying.com/row-13-on-planes/#:%7E:text=There%20is%20a%20long%2Dheld,based%20on%20a%20superstitious%20belief.">skips 13</a>.</p>
<p>Because superstitious beliefs are inherently false, they are as likely to do harm as good – consider <a href="https://quackwatch.org/">health frauds</a>, for example. I’d like to believe influential organizations – perhaps even elevator companies – would do better to warn the public about the dangers of clinging to false beliefs than to continue legitimizing them.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/191477/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barry Markovsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>A sociologist unpacks how common superstitions like fear of 13 can gain steam.Barry Markovsky, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Sociology, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1823922022-06-14T12:29:07Z2022-06-14T12:29:07ZWhere the witches were men: A historian explains what magic looked like in early modern Russia<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468478/original/file-20220613-28309-z8kxki.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C1022%2C628&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">'A Sorcerer Comes to a Peasant Wedding,' a 19th-century painting by Russian artist Vassily Maximov.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maksimov_A_Sorcerer_comes_to_a_peasant_wedding_1875_gtg_ed.jpg">Tretyakov Gallery/Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The word “witches” makes many Americans think of <a href="https://theconversation.com/most-witches-are-women-because-witch-hunts-were-all-about-persecuting-the-powerless-125427">women working in league with the devil</a>. But that hasn’t always been the face of sorcery. </p>
<p>Most of Catholic and Protestant Europe embraced the idea of magic as a satanic craft <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-evolution-of-the-medieval-witch-and-why-shes-usually-a-woman-104861">practiced by women</a>, and strong, independent women were kept in line through such accusations. In Orthodox Russia, however, accusers overwhelmingly blamed men for bewitching them and held different ideas of where the power of “magic” came from. </p>
<p>Evidence about Russians’ belief in witchcraft <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Witchcraft_Casebook.html?id=bpWroAEACAAJ">survives in all kinds of documents</a> from the 12th to the 18th centuries: sermons; historical chronicles and tales; stories of saints’ lives; laws and decrees; manuals of herbal healing and spell books; and court records. These documents provide insights into the lives of ordinary people otherwise lost to history: in peasant homes and military regiments, on serf-owning estates and on barges on the Volga River. Verbatim testimonies in trial records show fraught, often abusive relationships between husbands and wives, masters and servants, patrons and clients. </p>
<p>This history – the focus of three of books I’ve written <a href="https://lsa.umich.edu/history/people/faculty/vkivelso.html">as a scholar of medieval and early modern Russia</a> – shakes up understandings of who “witches” were. Here, <a href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801469374/desperate-magic/">men were the usual suspects</a>, for reasons that highlight the frighteningly capricious ways power and hierarchy structured everyday life.</p>
<h2>A typical trial</h2>
<p>Three out of four Russians <a href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801469374/desperate-magic/">accused of witchcraft</a> were men. Most were accused of acting alone or with one or two associates, and almost all faced charges for everyday, practical kinds of magic.</p>
<p>Whereas trials in Western European involved lurid visions of <a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781461639886/Magic-and-Superstition-in-Europe-A-Concise-History-from-Antiquity-to-the-Present">satanic witchcraft</a> – black sabbaths where naked witches flew on brooms to cannibalistic feasts and diabolical orgies – <a href="https://www.psupress.org/books/titles/0-271-01966-2.html">Russian witches</a> were thought to deploy magic toward more immediate, worldly ends, such as healing wounds or hurting a competitor’s business.</p>
<p>Witches employed spells and simple potions made mainly of herbs and roots, throwing in the occasional eagle’s wing, eye torn from a live chicken or dirt from a grave. Their magic called on the forces of nature and the beauty of poetic diction. <a href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/witchcraft-and-magic-in-russian-and-ukrainian-lands-before-1900/">They drew on the force of analogy</a> – “as this, so that” – to activate their spells and curses: For example, “as a log burns and withers in the fire, so may my master’s heart burn and wither.”</p>
<p>Some spells invoked supernatural beings, from Jesus Christ and Mary to nature spirits and mythic <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Russian-Folk-Belief/Ivanits/p/book/9780873328890">figures from Russian legends</a>, such as a golden fish or a wingless bird. Occasionally spells called on Satan and “his many little satans,” or invoked saints and satans at once.</p>
<h2>Everyday magic</h2>
<p>While some of the accusations were clearly false, lodged out of malice, surviving records make it equally clear that many of the accused did enact the kinds of rituals and spells that their accusers charged.</p>
<p>Practitioners <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Power_of_Words/PXPIAAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=a.+l.+toporkov&pg=PA71&printsec=frontcover">used their craft</a> in efforts to heal the sick, help the lovelorn, locate lost people and objects, protect people from guns or arrows and guard livestock. At the same time, records show some practitioners had darker motives: to curse, inflict illness, possess others, cause impotence, extinguish love or kill. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="In a painting, a sad-looking woman in a yellow shirt and blue skirt sits outside as an old man opens the door to exit a home." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468476/original/file-20220613-35158-4colz1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468476/original/file-20220613-35158-4colz1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468476/original/file-20220613-35158-4colz1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468476/original/file-20220613-35158-4colz1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=540&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468476/original/file-20220613-35158-4colz1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=678&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468476/original/file-20220613-35158-4colz1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=678&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468476/original/file-20220613-35158-4colz1.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=678&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">‘For the Love Potion,’ a late-19th-century painting by Russian artist Mikhail Nesterov.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mikhail_Nesterov_-_For_the_love_potion.jpg">Radishchev Art Museum/Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In a society without trained medical providers, folk healing offered the only option for the sick other than prayer. Many people consulted both priests and healers who used magic, and saw no contradiction between the two. Fear that witches had a tendency to bewitch newlyweds made it common to invite sorcerers to protect the bride and groom during weddings and to pay them well in vodka for their service. Everyone from <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/ruhi/40/3-4/article-p297_3.xml">the czar’s wife</a> to the lowliest serf might turn to magic at some juncture in their lives.</p>
<p>Perhaps most revealing are what were usually called “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230583535_10">love spells</a>” – which by their very nature were coercive, intended to subordinate the will of their target to that of the spellcaster.</p>
<p>Love spells used by men were usually sex spells. <a href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9781501750656/witchcraft-in-russia-and-ukraine-10001900/">Surviving examples</a> are both beautiful and terrifying, with the spellcaster wishing agony on his beloved whenever she is away from him:</p>
<p>“As a fire burns for a year and half a year and a day and half a day and an hour and half an hour, so may that [woman] burn for me, with her white body, her ardent heart, her black liver, her stormy head and brains, her clear eyes, black brows, and sugary lips. May she suffer as much misery and bitterness as a fish without water. May that [woman] suffer as much bitterness for me for a day and half a day, for an hour and half an hour, for a year and half a year, for all the years, and thus let it be.”</p>
<p>In the minority of cases where <a href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801469374/desperate-magic/">women were accused of witchcraft</a>, their “love spells” usually aimed to calm their husbands’ anger, avert their fists and make them “be kind.”</p>
<p>When a woman attempted to turn the tables and dominate her husband or master, however, that threatened to <a href="https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801469374/desperate-magic/">invert the patriarchal social order</a> – and hence the punishment was especially harsh, including some executions.</p>
<h2>‘Spells to power’</h2>
<p>Beyond love spells, a broader category called “spells to power” <a href="https://brill.com/view/journals/ruhi/40/3-4/article-p532_16.xml">challenged the social order</a>. I see these spells, which aimed to win the love of one’s social superiors, as an important reason that so many men were accused.</p>
<p>While women were often stuck at home or on estates, men of all ranks, even serfs, were relatively mobile. During their outings, they might run up against the arbitrary authority of a master, a judge, an official, a military officer, a nobleman or a bishop. In any of these situations, being armed with a protective written spell was simply good planning.</p>
<p>A spell book from 1763, for instance, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-52903-9_7">includes the following</a>:</p>
<p>“… Like the sun rises, and the moon, by the will of the highest, and like tsars and princes, and kings, and generals, and governors, and all people, so may I, slave of God, appear with the beauty of the sun and the moon in their eyes. … As tsars and kings, and knights, and governors, and generals, and rulers love any precious stone, and may all people love me, slave of God.”</p>
<p>In a fiercely hierarchical society, where everyone except the czar was under the absolute and arbitrary authority of someone higher on the social ladder, belief in magic offered a sense of protection – a way to exercise a tiny bit of power in a world stacked against the subordinate. </p>
<p>And since belief in magic was universal, elites and common folk alike saw its possibilities and dangers. Magic threatened to arm the underling and to subvert the accepted social order. Although women participated in these practices, <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3879463">it was men</a> who were more likely to bump up against authorities, to come under suspicion and to be discovered with a scrap of paper with a “spell to power” tucked into a hat or a shoe.</p>
<p>Ideas about witchcraft in Orthodox Russia may have been less sensational than those in Catholic and Protestant Europe, but it was seen as equally threatening to a social, religious and political order built on unquestioned hierarchies.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182392/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Valerie Kivelson receives funding from NEH, ACLS</span></em></p>The idea of a ‘witch’ was usually female in Western Europe, but not so in Orthodox Russia – partly because of the period’s rigid social hierarchies.Valerie Kivelson, Professor of History, University of MichiganLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1842662022-06-13T13:37:16Z2022-06-13T13:37:16ZThe discovery of a new phallic carving in Roman northern England is more than funny – it could be a powerful talisman<p>The fort of <a href="https://www.vindolanda.com/roman-vindolanda-fort-museum">Vindolanda</a>, on the Hadrianic frontier (south of Hadrian’s wall), now in northern England, is an internationally famous site, which was occupied by Romans between 85 AD and 370 AD. Long-term excavations here, supported by volunteers, regularly produce new and amazing discoveries. </p>
<p>As well as uncovering new parts of the fort and civilian settlement, the discoveries occasionally make headlines. Last year, a new <a href="http://www.sci-news.com/archaeology/vindolanda-horseman-09827.html">sandstone relief carving</a> was discovered and in recent years a temple to the god <a href="https://www.vindolanda.com/blog/fact-file-roman-religion">Jupiter-Dolichenus</a> and the curious case of a skeleton of a child who was probably murdered found <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-tyne-19399441">under a third-century barrack floor</a>. Excavations in 2022 have reported the discovery of a <a href="https://www.vindolanda.com/news/ancient-graffiti">new phallic carving</a>, complete with a crude insult carved into it.</p>
<p>Next to a relief carving of a penis, is the phrase <em>SECVNDIVS CACOR</em> – “Secundius, the shitter”. The <a href="https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/roman-graffiti-0016819">media coverage</a> of this discovery has focused on the use of ancient swearing. But, in my opinion, this is not the most interesting thing about it.</p>
<h2>Phallic Britain</h2>
<p>Phallic carvings were commonplace in the ancient world. My <a href="https://www.academia.edu/33302965/Protecting_the_Troops_Phallic_Carvings_in_the_North_of_Roman_Britain">PhD research</a> identified at least 92 from Roman Britain and the archaeologist Rob Collins’ <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315269894-9/phallus-frontier-rob-collins">2020 investigation into phallusses on the Hadrianic frontier</a> identified 13 from Vindolanda itself, giving the site the greatest density of phallic carvings anywhere in the province. </p>
<p>These sorts of carvings were usually found in boundaries and transitional spaces, such as walls, gateways, windows and doors. In the Roman psyche, these spaces were particularly at risk from supernatural dangers because meeting and crossing places are where people naturally interacted. The malignant forces of the Evil Eye were thought to be particularly powerful there. The Evil Eye is an ancient embodiment of bad luck and inauspicious circumstances and was depicted as a large, unblinking human eye in carvings, mosaics and art across the Roman Empire. </p>
<p>Despite the long history of redevelopment and change at Roman Vindolanda, some of the existing carvings there remain in their original spaces, notably a stylised phallic carving on the floor inside a building and a carving that was part of a fallen wall, which was originally displayed on it. Likely, the newly discovered phallic carving was also in such a space and so was intended to protect somewhere from supernatural dangers.</p>
<h2>A new carving</h2>
<p>The new carving is unusual for several reasons. For one, the combination of a phallic carving and an inscription is rare. There are eight other examples from Roman Britain and, of these, only four survive as legible phrases. One from Adel (now Leeds) reads <em><a href="https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/631">PRIMNUS MINTLA</a></em> “Primnus, his phallic charm” and another from Maryport in west Cumberland is inscribed <em><a href="https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/872">VERPAM SEPT</a></em> “The phallus of Marcus Septimius”. Both of these claim ownership over the power of the phallic carving.</p>
<p>One at Vindolanda, which had been used as a drain cover, was inscribed H P III (<em>Habet pedes III</em>) “it is three feet long”. It’s unclear whether this is identifying something to do with the drain or it’s a humorous boast about the size of the owner’s phallus. If the latter, it might be in the same category of bawdy inscription as the recent discovery. </p>
<p>The media coverage of the new carving focused on it being “rude and crude” or “hilarious”. Text like this, written on a stone, is part of a wider tradition of <a href="https://www.badancient.com/claims/phallic-carvings/">public graffiti in the Roman world</a>. Perhaps calling Secundius a shitter was meant to be funny. There are links to laughter being a way to dispel the effects of the Evil Eye. Perhaps the inscription acted as a sort of curse, invoking Secundius to gastrointestinal illness? Or a humiliating announcement of an existing bout of diarrhoea? </p>
<p>That the phallus is pointing towards the inscription is curious. It’s possible that it was intended to be ejaculating towards or over the second carved word. That might seem particularly crude, but in the ancient world, this was another way that <a href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-ancient-worlds-secret-weapon-the-ejaculating-phallus">phallic carvings spread their good luck around</a>. So it was an amulet-like image – a sort of charm. </p>
<p>It is possible that it was trying to undo the effects of the graffiti. Stop Secundius from shitting. Or, more likely, in my opinion, the inscription came later and was intended to harness some latent power of this protective image – to corrupt it almost, for humour and/or malignant effects.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/184266/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Adam Parker does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Phallic graffiti was more than just funny in Roman Britain.Adam Parker, PhD Candidate in Classical Studies, The Open UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1822122022-05-24T12:28:29Z2022-05-24T12:28:29ZThe Catholic Church’s views on exorcism have changed – a religious studies scholar explains why<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464513/original/file-20220520-25-sywqu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=40%2C81%2C5384%2C4269&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A 19th-century engraving shows a cleric doing an exorcism against an evil spirit.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/exorcism-cleric-doing-a-spell-against-the-evil-spirit-news-photo/534247982">Ipsumpix/Corbis via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In September 2021, a 3-year-old <a href="https://www.mercurynews.com/2022/05/09/church-exorcism-kidnapping-san-jose/">was killed during an exorcism</a> in a small Pentecostal church in San Jose, California. The child’s throat was allegedly squeezed and her head held down during the ceremony, which likely asphyxiated her. In May 2022, three members of the victim’s family were charged with felony child abuse.</p>
<p>Several famous deaths have occurred during exorcism rituals in the past. In 1976, <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Exorcism_of_Anneliese_Michel/MoBLAwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Goodman+Anneliese+Michel&printsec=frontcover">Anneliese Michel</a> of Germany died of dehydration and malnutrition after nearly 10 months of Catholic exorcisms. In 2005, <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Spirit_Possession_around_the_World_Posse/WQWrCQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Tanacu+exorcism&pg=PA332&printsec=frontcover">Maricica Irina Cornici</a>, a Romanian Orthodox nun, died in an ambulance following an exorcism in which she was chained to a cross.</p>
<p>While exorcism is practiced in <a href="http://www.paulbourguignon.com/writing/Publications/1964%20-%20Spirit%20Possession,%20Trance%20and%20Cross-Cultural%20Research.pdf">the majority of the world’s cultures</a>, in the Western imagination it is most associated with Catholicism. That association has been either an asset or a liability to the church at various periods throughout history.</p>
<p>For most of the 20th century, exorcism was incredibly rare in Western nations and often regarded with <a href="https://www.beliefnet.com/faiths/catholic/the-misunderstood-ministry-of-exorcism.aspx">embarrassment</a> by Catholic authorities. After William Friedkin’s film “The Exorcist” came out in 1973, Juan Cortez, a Jesuit priest and psychology professor at Georgetown University, told <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Front-cover-of-Newsweek-11-February-1974_fig1_351460484">Newsweek</a> that he did not believe demons exist. </p>
<p>Today, the Catholic Church has reversed its attitude about discussing exorcism almost completely. In 1991, church authorities allowed an <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1991/04/05/news/the-rite-of-exorcism-on-20-20.html">exorcism to be televised</a> for the ABC show “20/20.” Father Richard P. McBrien, who appeared on “Nightline” to question the wisdom of this decision, told <a href="https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/np00020006/1991-05-02/ed-1/seq-16/">The Catholic Courier</a> that exorcism was being presented this way to advance a political agenda, not to save souls. He stated:</p>
<p>“The real objective of that project, I submit, was to help bring back that old-time religion, when everyone, women especially, knew their place, when Catholics obeyed without question every directive from on high, and when there was never any question that the Catholic Church was the one true church with all the answers to all the important questions we have about life, both here and hereafter.”</p>
<p>As a religious studies scholar who <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/625322/the-penguin-book-of-exorcisms-by-edited-by-joseph-p-laycock/">writes about exorcism</a> from a historical perspective, I believe the church’s changing stance on exorcism has little to do with our culture’s understanding of mental illness or other scientific advances and more to do with competing visions of the church as described by McBrien.</p>
<h2>Superstition and stigma</h2>
<p>Historically, America’s Protestant majority stigmatized Catholics as “<a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Madonna_of_115th_Street/B7IJYNC5LAIC?hl=en&gbpv=1">superstitious immigrants</a>.” After Vatican II, a worldwide meeting of Catholic bishops held between 1962 and 1965, there was an effort to downplay the more supernatural elements of the Catholic tradition. Especially controversial were traditions dealing with what historian <a href="https://history.northwestern.edu/people/faculty/affiliated-faculty/robert-orsi.html">Robert Orsi</a> calls “<a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/History_and_Presence/j6PWDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=History+and+Presence&printsec=frontcover">presence</a>,” or the belief that supernatural forces operate among us rather than in some transcendent realm.</p>
<p>Many church authorities believed if they did not “modernize” they would lose the younger generation. As Catholic novelist Flannery O’Connor described the prevailing attitude in 1962, “<a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Mystery_and_Manners/FL8O0mTosVUC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Mystery+and+Manners:+Occasional+Prose&printsec=frontcover">the supernatural is an embarrassment</a>.”</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464331/original/file-20220519-13-vf7m15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="A black and white illustration showing three figures -- a devil with horns, a magician and a man holding a sword." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464331/original/file-20220519-13-vf7m15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/464331/original/file-20220519-13-vf7m15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464331/original/file-20220519-13-vf7m15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464331/original/file-20220519-13-vf7m15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464331/original/file-20220519-13-vf7m15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464331/original/file-20220519-13-vf7m15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/464331/original/file-20220519-13-vf7m15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=493&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An illustration showing the devil attempting to seize a magician from the 13th-century Chroniques de Saint Denis.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/illustration/the-devil-and-magician-royalty-free-illustration/466571807?adppopup=true">duncan1890/ DigitalVision Vectors via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Ironically, as the church tried to modernize, the counterculture had a growing interest in <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Occultism_Witchcraft_and_Cultural_Fashio/LWmJGMBP_hQC?hl=en">the occult</a>, popularizing books and films that paved the way for “The Exorcist.” The film became a social phenomenon, and suddenly priests were being inundated with people demanding exorcisms. William O'Malley, a Jesuit priest who had a role in the film, described this surge to sociologist <a href="http://michaelwcuneo.com/">Michael Cuneo</a> <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8v7tnck6J-oC&printsec=frontcover&dq=American+Exorcism&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiq5v-48un3AhW6knIEHXvtCWoQ6AF6BAgJEAI">in the following way</a>:</p>
<p>“I was teaching at a Jesuit high school in Rochester at the time, and for a while the phone wouldn’t stop ringing. … They called looking for an instant fix – pleading with me to expel their own demons, their kids’ demons, even their cats’ demons. It’s not that I rule out the possibility of demonic possession. As the saying goes, ‘There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are dreamt of in your philosophy.’ But this movie seems to have set off some really strange vibrations.” </p>
<p>Many conservative Catholics loved “The Exorcist.” Traditionalists – conservative Catholics who object to the reforms of Vatican II – <a href="https://stmarks.edu.au/review-article/the-smoke-of-satan-on-the-silver-screen-the-catholic-horror-film-vatican-ii-and-the-revival-of-demonology/">capitalized</a> on this new demand for exorcism, claiming that modernization had left Catholics vulnerable to demonic attack. </p>
<p>The Catholic Church also had competition: People who could not get an exorcism from the Catholics now had a variety of other options. Pentecostals had been casting out demons <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Bitten_by_Devils.html?id=BWqwOwAACAAJ">for decades</a>. There was also a milieu of <a href="https://www.vice.com/en/article/4354zp/these-occult-exorcists-say-the-catholic-church-makes-demons-worse">New Age healers</a> offering exorcisms.</p>
<h2>The return of the exorcists</h2>
<p>The 1917 Code of Canon Law was the first official comprehensive codification of church law, and it mandated each bishop appoint an official exorcist. But most dioceses <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/American_Exorcism/8v7tnck6J-oC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=American+Exorcism&printsec=frontcover">did not actually do this</a>, and this requirement was removed when the code was updated in 1983.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ansa.it/english/news/2014/07/02/vatican-recognizes-international-association-of-exorcists_c8289c9c-b68f-4d79-8365-d5096e2ca5fe.html">The International Association of Exorcists</a> was formed in 1990 to lobby the Vatican to take exorcism more seriously. In 2004, the Vatican’s <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QqcRVJ_lFHcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=American+Exorcism&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-wJTU3-73AhU9oHIEHR2xAY0Q6AF6BAgEEAI">Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith</a> asked dioceses around the world to once again appoint an exorcist.</p>
<p>These new exorcists had to be trained, so in 2005 a special course was offered at the Vatican seminary, the Regina Apostolorum. One priest who undertook that training was Father Gary Thomas, whose experiences were described by journalist Matt Baglio and became the basis for the 2011 film “<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NIieSt_0E2sC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Baglio+The+Rite&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiv04jgyOf3AhW6nnIEHUD3B-kQ6AF6BAgEEAI">The Rite</a>.” In the film, a priest with little faith is sent to Rome to learn exorcism, culminating in a dramatic battle against the demon Baal. In 2014, the International Association of Exorcists finally received a degree of <a href="https://www.ncronline.org/news/vatican/vatican-formally-recognizes-international-association-exorcists">formal recognition</a> from the Vatican.</p>
<p>Francis, who assumed the papacy in 2013, has been viewed as friendly toward exorcism. In 2017, he encouraged priests to <a href="https://www.christianpost.com/news/pope-francis-tells-priests-call-exorcist-if-they-suspect-demon-possession-confessions-177949/">refer parishioners to an exorcist</a> if their process of discernment determined it was truly needed. Paradoxically, Francis’ openness toward exorcism may be related to his progressive agenda.</p>
<p>Francis is the first <a href="https://theconversation.com/who-are-the-jesuits-177667">Jesuit</a> pope. The Jesuit order – the same order Father Karras belongs to in “The Exorcist” – emphasizes education, and Jesuits have long had a reputation for being free thinkers. <a href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198228684.001.0001/acprof-9780198228684">Right-wing conspiracy theories</a> have accused the Jesuits of supporting communism or trying to corrupt the church from within. As pope, Francis has made <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2022/01/26/pope-francis-parents-should-never-condemn-gay-children/9227983002/">relatively tolerant</a> statements about homosexuality and <a href="https://www.npr.org/2020/10/04/920053203/pope-francis-laments-failures-of-market-capitalism-in-blueprint-for-post-covid-w">criticized capitalism</a> – moves that could alienate the church’s conservative wing. But traditionalists can at least take solace in Francis being open to exorcism and the reality of the demonic.</p>
<p>Historically, exorcism has also been a way to attract new converts. Some of the people who thought they were possessed after watching “The Exorcist” became interested in Catholicism and <a href="https://thecatholicnewsarchive.org/?a=d&d=ca19740124-01.2.6">started attending mass</a>. The year the film came out, the media described a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1974/01/25/archives/an-exorcism-by-catholic-stirsa-furor.html">Catholic exorcist in San Francisco</a> who helped a family that believed they were under demonic attack. As a result, one family member converted from Orthodox Judaism to Catholicism. Any chance for new converts must hold appeal to a church with declining numbers and still under the cloud of clerical abuse scandals.</p>
<h2>Exorcism and politics</h2>
<p>Exorcism has become more mainstream in Catholic culture as well as evangelical and Pentecostal culture. A 2013 YouGov poll found that <a href="https://today.yougov.com/topics/lifestyle/articles-reports/2013/09/17/half-americans-believe-possession-devil">51% of Americans</a> believe in demonic possession. But at the same time, Catholic <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/catholic-church-attendance-decline-while-exorcisms-exorcism-training-rise-1469334">church attendance</a> continues to fall. This trend reflects a larger pattern of <a href="https://www.cnn.com/videos/tv/2022/05/08/exp-gps-0508-fareed-take-on-polarized-america.cnn">cultural polarization</a> in America between growing secularism and an increasingly conservative religious culture.</p>
<p>In fact, exorcism has played an increasingly prominent role in the culture war. In 2018, a Chicago priest was <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/priest-who-burned-rainbow-flag-exorcism-ceremony-removed-church-n912501">removed from his position</a> by his bishop for saying a prayer of exorcism while setting fire to a rainbow flag. </p>
<p>And in 2020, an archbishop in San Francisco held an exorcism at a site where protesters had toppled a church’s statue of Junipero Serra, a Spanish missionary. Serra was canonized as a saint in 2015, but Native Americans have <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200620052048/http:/nativenewsonline.net/currents/american-indian-movement-chapter-allies-to-rally-serra-canonization-on-easter-sunday/">accused him</a> of aiding and abetting the Spanish genocide of Indigenous people. </p>
<p>As these trends continue, time will tell how long figures like Pope Francis can hold the center. Meanwhile, it is likely that exorcism will find an increasing appeal among Catholics as well as other denominations.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182212/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Joseph P. Laycock does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In the 1960s, the Catholic Church sought to downplay demonic possession, but its views since then have changed.Joseph P. Laycock, Associate Professor of Religious Studies, Texas State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1760932022-02-17T15:10:12Z2022-02-17T15:10:12ZHappy Twosday! Why numbers like 2/22/22 have been too fascinating for over 2,000 years<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446389/original/file-20220214-25-kswfz8.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=20%2C0%2C2180%2C1325&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Is "Twosday" as special as some corners of the internet seem to think?</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">articular/iStock via Getty Images Plus</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>This Feb. 22, the world hits an unprecedented milestone. It’s the date itself: 2/22/22. And this so-called “Twosday” falls on a Tuesday, no less. </p>
<p>It’s true the number pattern stands out, impossible to miss. But does it mean anything? Judging by the thousands of commemorative products available for purchase online, it may appear to.</p>
<p>“Twosday” carries absolutely no historical significance or any cosmic message. Yet it does speak volumes about our brains and cultures.</p>
<p><a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZEQu09wAAAAJ&hl=en">I’m a social psychologist</a> who studies how <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1525/sop.2001.44.1.21">paranormal claims and pseudoscience</a> take hold as popular beliefs. They’re nearly always absurd from a scientific perspective, but they’re great for illustrating how brains, people, groups and cultures work together to create shared meaning.</p>
<h2>Seeing patterns</h2>
<p>Twosday isn’t the only date with a striking pattern. This century alone has had a couple Onesdays (1/11/11 and 11/11/11), and 11 other months with repetitions such as 01/01/01, 06/06/06 and 12/12/12. We’ll hit Threesday, 3/3/33, in 11 years, and Foursday 11 years after that.</p>
<p>The brain has <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-adapted-mind-9780195101072?q=tooby&lang=en&cc=us">evolved</a> a fantastic capacity to find meanings and connections. Doing so once meant the difference between survival and death. Recognizing paw prints in the soil, for example, signified dangerous predators to be avoided, or prey to be captured and consumed. Changes in daylight indicated when to plant crops and when to harvest them. </p>
<p>Even when survival isn’t at stake, it’s <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/05/180531114642.htm">rewarding</a> to detect a pattern such as a <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/10/161003093240.htm">familiar face</a> or <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811878116">song</a>. Finding one, the brain zaps its synapses with a little shot of dopamine, incentivizing itself to keep finding more patterns.</p>
<p>When a number sequence seems to jump out at us, this is an example of <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/reality-check/201111/11-11-11-apophenia-and-the-meaning-life">apophenia</a>: perceiving meaningful connections between unrelated things. The term was <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2800156/">first developed</a> to characterize a symptom of schizophrenia.</p>
<p>Another example of apophenia is <a href="https://skepticalinquirer.org/exclusive/astrology-more-like-religion-than-science/">astrology</a>, which visually connects stars into constellations. These are the familiar Zodiac signs such as “The Ram,” Aries; or “The Archer,” Sagittarius. Each sign is linked to meanings associated with its respective object. For example, people born under the sign of Aries are believed to be stubborn like rams. But those signs don’t exist in the sky in any physical sense, and the system <a href="https://skepticalinquirer.org/2016/11/does-astrology-need-to-be-true-a-thirty-year-update/">fails scientific tests</a>.</p>
<h2>Reading into numbers</h2>
<p>The date 2/22/22, though striking, carries no inherent meaning beyond its function in our particular calendar. This is true for numbers in general: Their meanings are limited to measuring, labeling or counting things.</p>
<p>“Twosday” is a simple example of a popular form of arithmetical shenanigans: <a href="https://www.dundurn.com/books_/t22117/a9781459705371-mysteries-and-secrets-of-numerology">numerology</a>, the pseudoscientific practice of attaching supernatural significance to numbers. </p>
<p>Numerology can be <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-mystery-of-numbers-9780195089196?q=mystery%20of%20numbers&lang=en&cc=us">traced back</a> 2,500 years to the Greek mathematician Pythagoras, with alternative systems appearing elsewhere, including China and the Middle East. </p>
<p>Numerology may look mathematical, but it’s more akin to palmistry and reading tea leaves. It has been popularized through magazines, books, movies, television programs, websites and other social media. Assessing the extent of numerology’s popularity is difficult, but the belief that certain numbers are good or bad is common. For example, nearly a quarter of Americans <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/297156/united-states-common-superstitions-believe/">say 7 is lucky</a>.</p>
<p>There are <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/15626">many kinds</a> of numerology. The most popular form assigns numbers to names or other words, and then calculates their “root,” also known as the “<a href="https://www.allure.com/story/numerology-how-to-calculate-life-path-destiny-number">destiny number</a>” or “<a href="https://www.numerology.com/articles/your-numerology-chart/expression-number/">expression number</a>”. It starts by assigning a number to each letter of the alphabet: A = 1, B = 2, up to I = 9, then the cycle repeats with J = 1, K = 2, etc. </p>
<p>For example, adding up the five numbers in my own first name – 2, 1, 9, 9, and 7 – yields 28. To find the root, add the digits in 28 to get 10, and then add up those two digits to get 1. For my middle and last names, the roots are 4 and 9. Adding the three roots returns 14; adding those digits reveals that my “destiny number” is 5, which numerology associates with being free-thinking, <a href="https://mattbeech.com/numerology/destiny-number/destiny-5/">adventurous, restless</a> and impatient.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A photograph of someone's hand as they do numerology calculations at a table covered with geodes and a feather." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446391/original/file-20220214-25314-17x5gyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/446391/original/file-20220214-25314-17x5gyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446391/original/file-20220214-25314-17x5gyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446391/original/file-20220214-25314-17x5gyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=406&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446391/original/file-20220214-25314-17x5gyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446391/original/file-20220214-25314-17x5gyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/446391/original/file-20220214-25314-17x5gyk.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=510&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A woman calculates a destiny number based on numerology.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Helin Loik-Tomson/iStock via Getty Images Plus</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>More than coincidence?</h2>
<p>I was 10 years old when I first encountered numerology. A fellow coin collector showed me a clear plastic case holding two gleaming specimens: a copper Lincoln penny and a silver John F. Kennedy half dollar. On the back of the case was a printed label with numerical “facts” <a href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/linkin-kennedy/">linking the two presidents</a>. For example:</p>
<p>6: day of the week – Friday – of both assassinations</p>
<p>7: letters in Kennedy’s and Lincoln’s last names</p>
<p>15: letters in both assassins’ names</p>
<p>60: year elected – Lincoln 1860, Kennedy 1960</p>
<p>When you compile enough of these, it gets eerie. The experience was astonishing enough that I still recall it over a half-century later.</p>
<p>Are the Lincoln-Kennedy facts just coincidences? What gets overlooked is that they’ve been drawn from a pool of hundreds or thousands of numerical possibilities. Throw away the boring ones and you’ve framed the remaining coincidences in a way that gives them more credit than they deserve.</p>
<p>[<em>More than 140,000 readers get one of The Conversation’s informative newsletters.</em> <a href="https://memberservices.theconversation.com/newsletters/?source=inline-140K">Join the list today</a>.]</p>
<p>Another way of drawing eerie coincidences from very large pools of possibilities was exploited in “<a href="https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Bible-Code/Michael-Drosnin/9780684849737">The Bible Code</a>,” a best-selling book in the 1990s. The author, Michael Drosnin, took the Old Testament and arranged it into <a href="https://skepticalinquirer.org/1997/11/hidden-messages-and-the-bible-code">a grid of text</a>. A computer algorithm <a href="https://www.ams.org/notices/199708/review-allyn.pdf">highlighted skip patterns in the grid</a>, such as “every 4th character”, or “2 across, 5 down,” to produce a huge database of letter strings. These were then sifted by another algorithm that searched for words and phrases, and distances between them.</p>
<p>The method seemed to foretell many historical events, including <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/31/assassination-yitzhak-rabin-never-knew-his-people-shot-him-in-back">the murder of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin</a> in 1995: A particular skip pattern yielded his name near the phrase “assassin that will assassinate.”</p>
<p>Findings such as these can seem impressive. However, <a href="https://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/%7Ebdm/codes/torah.html">critics</a> have proved that the method works just as well using any <a href="https://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/%7Ebdm/codes/torah.html">sufficiently lengthy text</a>. Drosnin himself laid down this gauntlet by challenging critics to find Rabin’s assassination foretold in the novel “Moby-Dick.” <a href="http://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/%7Ebdm/">Mathematician Brendan McKay</a> <a href="http://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/%7Ebdm/dilugim/moby.html">did exactly that</a>, along with “prophecies” for many other deaths – Lincoln’s and Kennedy’s included.</p>
<p>Which coincidences people pay attention to is largely a social phenomenon. What <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/sociology/people/faculty/goode.php">sociologist Erich Goode</a> terms “<a href="http://prometheusbooks.com/books/search/goode,%20erich">paranormalism</a>,” a nonscientific approach to extraordinary claims, is sustained and transmitted by group customs, norms and institutions. “The Bible Code” couldn’t exist without religion, for example, and its popularity was fueled by mass media – such as its author’s <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/19/books/michael-drosnin-dead.html">interviews</a> on “The Oprah Winfrey Show” and elsewhere. In her book “<a href="https://mcfarlandbooks.com/product/scientifical-americans/">Scientifical Americans</a>,” science writer <a href="https://sharonahill.com/">Sharon Hill</a> makes a compelling case that popular culture in the U.S. helps to foster safe havens for individual and collective belief in the pseudoscientific and paranormal.</p>
<p>As for “Twosday,” I’ll conclude by plumbing its “hidden meaning.” Take the three roots of 02, 22 and 2022. We arrive at 2 + 4 + 6 = 12, and the destiny number 3. Some numerologists <a href="https://mattbeech.com/numerology/destiny-number/destiny-3/">associate this number with</a> optimism and joy. Though I may reject the messenger, I’ll accept that message.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/176093/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barry Markovsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Numerology ties in with how our brains work, but that doesn’t mean its claims make sense.Barry Markovsky, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Sociology, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1674822021-10-14T12:08:35Z2021-10-14T12:08:35ZMore ‘disease’ than ‘Dracula’ – how the vampire myth was born<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/426277/original/file-20211013-17-1oj68zn.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=984%2C1205%2C3394%2C2464&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Modern vampires like Dracula may be dashing, but they certainly weren't in the original vampire myths.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/helen-chandler-is-carried-by-bela-lugosi-in-a-scene-from-news-photo/159821076">Archive Photos/ Moviepix via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The vampire is a common image in today’s pop culture, and one that takes many forms: from Alucard, the dashing spawn of Dracula in the PlayStation game “Castlevania: Symphony of the Night”; to Edward, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/vampires-rebirth-from-monstrous-undead-creature-to-sexy-and-romantic-byronic-seducer-in-one-ghost-story-114382">romantic, idealistic lover</a> in the “Twilight” series.</p>
<p>In many respects, the vampire of today is far removed from its roots in Eastern European folklore. As <a href="https://slavic.as.virginia.edu/people/profile/sjs2z">a professor of Slavic studies</a> who has taught a course on vampires <a href="https://news.virginia.edu/content/dissecting-dracula-chat-vampire-expert-stanley-stepanic">called “Dracula”</a> for more than a decade, I’m always fascinated by the vampire’s popularity, considering its origins – as a demonic creature strongly associated with disease.</p>
<h2>Explaining the unknown</h2>
<p>The first known reference to vampires appeared in written form in Old Russian <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/Slavic_Scriptures/-P_huGq9mV4C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=upir+etymology+slav&pg=PA218&printsec=frontcover">in A.D. 1047</a>, soon after Orthodox Christianity moved into Eastern Europe. The term for vampire was “<a href="https://starlingdb.org/cgi-bin/response.cgi?basename=dataievasmer&text_word=%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%8C&method_word=beginning&ww_word=on">upir</a>,” which has uncertain origins, but its possible literal meaning was “the thing at the feast or sacrifice,” referring to a potentially dangerous spiritual entity that people believed could appear at rituals for the dead. It was a euphemism used to avoid speaking the creature’s name – and unfortunately, historians may never learn its real name, or even when beliefs about it surfaced.</p>
<p>The vampire served a function similar to that of <a href="https://simmonslis.libguides.com/c.php?g=1107583&p=8076095">many other demonic creatures</a> in folklore around the world: They were blamed for a variety of problems, but particularly disease, at a time when knowledge of bacteria and viruses did not exist.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A 19th-century engraving depicts men in coats and hats shooting at a vampire in a cemetery in Romania." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425551/original/file-20211008-18-19q5vyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/425551/original/file-20211008-18-19q5vyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425551/original/file-20211008-18-19q5vyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425551/original/file-20211008-18-19q5vyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=392&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425551/original/file-20211008-18-19q5vyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425551/original/file-20211008-18-19q5vyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/425551/original/file-20211008-18-19q5vyz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=492&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Soldiers witnessing vampire hysteria in Eastern Europe – such as people desecrating the graves of suspected vampires – carried tales back home.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/men-shoot-at-a-vampire-lying-staked-through-the-heart-in-a-news-photo/593280150?adppopup=true">Leemage/ Corbis Historical via Getty Images</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Scholars have put forth <a href="https://theconversation.com/vampire-myths-originated-with-a-real-blood-disorder-140830">several theories</a> about various diseases’ connections to vampires. It is likely that no one disease provides a simple, “pure” origin for vampire myths, since beliefs about vampires changed over time.</p>
<p>But two in particular show solid links. One is rabies, whose name comes from a Latin term for “madness.” It’s <a href="https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/308182/rabid-by-bill-wasik-and-monica-murphy/">one of the oldest recognized diseases on the planet</a>, transmissible from animals to humans, and primarily spread through biting – an obvious reference to a classic vampire trait.</p>
<p>There are other curious connections. One central symptom of the disease is hydrophobia, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/ccr3.1846">a fear of water</a>. Painful muscle contractions in the esophagus lead rabies victims to avoid eating and drinking, or even swallowing their own saliva, which eventually causes “foaming at the mouth.” In some folklore, vampires cannot cross running water without being carried or assisted in some way, as an extension of this symptom. Furthermore, rabies can lead to a fear of light, altered sleep patterns and increased aggression, elements of how vampires are described in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.51.3.856">a variety of folktales</a>.</p>
<p>The second disease <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/014107689709001114">is pellagra</a>, caused by a dietary deficiency of niacin (vitamin B3) or the amino acid tryptophan. Often, pellagra is brought on by diets high in corn products and alcohol. After Europeans landed in the Americas, they transported corn back to Europe. But they ignored <a href="https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1525/nua.1998.22.1.1">a key step in preparing corn</a>: washing it, often using lime – a process called “nixtamalization” that can reduce the risk of pellagra.</p>
<p>Pellagra causes the classic “<a href="https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2020.36.219.24806">4 D’s</a>”: dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia and death. Some sufferers also experience high sensitivity to sunlight – described in some depictions of vampires – which leads to corpselike skin.</p>
<h2>Social scare</h2>
<p>Multiple diseases show connections to folklore about vampires, but they can’t necessarily explain how the myths actually began. Pellagra, for example, did not exist in Eastern Europe <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2018/4597">until the 18th century</a>, centuries after vampire beliefs had originally emerged. </p>
<p>Both pellagra and rabies are important, however, because they were epidemic during a key period in vampire history. During the so-called <a href="https://news.virginia.edu/content/how-spread-disease-juiced-lore-vampires-pandemic-proportions">Great Vampire Epidemic</a>, from roughly 1725 to 1755, vampire myths “went viral” across the continent. </p>
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<p>As disease spread in Eastern Europe, supernatural causes were often blamed, and vampire hysteria spread throughout the region. Many people believed that vampires were the “undead” – people who lived on in some way after death – and that the vampire could be stopped by attacking its corpse. They carried out “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959774314000754">vampire burials</a>,” which could involve putting a stake through the corpse, covering the body in garlic and a variety of other traditions that had been present in Slavic folklore for centuries.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, Austrian and German soldiers fighting the Ottomans in the region witnessed this mass <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Twilight_Symbols/aMnDXCq9hRkC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=upir+etymology+slav&pg=PA398&printsec=frontcover">desecration of graves</a> and returned home to Western Europe with stories of the vampire.</p>
<p>But why did so much vampire hysteria spring up in the first place? Disease was a primary culprit, but a sort of “perfect storm” existed in Eastern Europe at the time. The era of the Great Vampire Epidemic was not just a period of disease, but one of political and religious upheaval as well.</p>
<p>During the 18th century, Eastern Europe faced pressure from within and without as domestic and foreign powers exercised their control over the region, with local cultures often suppressed. Serbia, for example, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Serbia/The-disintegration-of-Ottoman-rule">was struggling between the Hapsburg Monarchy in Central Europe and the Ottomans</a>. Poland was increasingly under foreign powers, Bulgaria was under Ottoman rule, and Russia was undergoing <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1pncq7q?turn_away=true">dramatic cultural change</a> due to the policies of Czar Peter the Great.</p>
<p>This is somewhat analogous to today, as the world contends with the COVID-19 pandemic amid political change and uncertainty. Perceived societal breakdown, whether real or imagined, can lead to dramatic responses in society.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/167482/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Stanley Stepanic does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The past century’s vampires have often been a bit dashing, even romantic. That’s not how the myth started out.Stanley Stepanic, Assistant Professor of Slavic Languages and Literatures, University of VirginiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1628892021-06-29T12:04:49Z2021-06-29T12:04:49ZHow did the superstition that broken mirrors cause bad luck start and why does it still exist?<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/408719/original/file-20210628-15-wxbbbl.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=99%2C0%2C4028%2C2357&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Damaging a mirror was believed to invite the wrath of the gods in ancient cultures.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/man-adjusts-his-tie-in-a-broken-mirror-6-january-2003-afr-news-photo/540163605?adppopup=true">Fairfax Media via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Every human culture has <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-science-of-superstition-and-why-people-believe-in-the-unbelievable-97043">superstitions</a>. In some Asian societies people believe that sweeping a floor after sunset brings bad luck, and that it’s a curse to leave chopsticks standing in a bowl of rice. <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/297156/united-states-common-superstitions-believe/">In the U.S.</a>, some people panic if they accidentally walk under a ladder or see a black cat cross their path. Also, many tall buildings <a href="https://skepticalinquirer.org/2020/09/are-you-afraid-of-the-thirteenth-floor-superstition-and-real-estate-part-2/">don’t label their 13th floors as such</a> because of that number’s association with bad luck.</p>
<p>The origins of many superstitions are unknown. Others can be traced to <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Encyclopaedia_of_Superstitions.html?id=r7AZ4U2HA3UC">specific times in history</a>. Included in this second category is a superstition that is between 2,000 and 2,700 years old: Breaking a mirror brings seven years of bad luck. It so happened that in both <a href="https://people.howstuffworks.com/why-is-it-bad-luck-to-break-mirror.htm">ancient Greece</a> and <a href="https://www.scribd.com/book/358393132/Superstitions-And-why-we-have-them">the Roman Empire</a>, reflected images were thought to have mysterious powers. It is likely in one of these times and places that the broken mirror superstition began its rise in popularity. </p>
<p>As a social psychologist <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/sop.2001.44.1.21">who studies various ways that people influence one another</a>, I am fascinated when groups generate beliefs that are pure “social constructions” without necessarily having any basis in reality. I argue that the superstition about broken mirrors may be rooted in these ancient beliefs. </p>
<h2>Historical origins</h2>
<p>The Greeks believed that one’s reflection on the surface of a pool of water revealed one’s soul. But it was Roman artisans who actually learned to manufacture mirrors from polished metal surfaces, and believed their gods observed souls through these devices. To <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/Superstitions.html?id=yUKYCwAAQBAJ">damage a mirror was considered so disrespectful</a> that people thought it compelled the gods to rain bad luck on anyone so careless. </p>
<p>Around the third century mirrors were being made from glass, and breakage became a lot more commonplace. But the Romans did not believe that the ensuing bad luck would last forever. They believed that the <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/PerLtdiAKx0C?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA281&dq=romans+life+renews+itself+every+seven+years">body renewed itself every seven years</a>. </p>
<p>The belief that good luck would eventually return was surely comforting, and people have always tended to <a href="https://www.apa.org/monitor/2017/05/alternative-facts">believe things that make them feel good</a>, even when untrue. </p>
<h2>Psychological and social origins</h2>
<p>The human mind continuously and unconsciously <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/patternicity-finding-meaningful-patterns/">searches for useful patterns</a>. For example, we survive by recognizing feeding patterns and put ourselves in the right places at the right times for meals. We also avoid injury or death when crossing a busy street by recognizing traffic patterns. Getting fed and avoiding being squashed in traffic both involve learning real cause-and-effect patterns.</p>
<p>Sometimes, however, our brains infer cause-and-effect patterns that aren’t real. Suppose that a friend gives you a “lucky penny.” You’re skeptical, but a few days pass and nothing bad happens. Though it’s only a coincidence, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470939376.ch25">your brain may still infer a pattern</a>, and you may begin to believe the penny caused the run of good luck. A superstition is born. </p>
<p>We also acquire superstitious beliefs during socialization, <a href="https://sociologydictionary.org/socialization/">learning about them from parents and other trusted authorities</a> while still young and open to a world full of magical possibilities. Then our superstitions circulate indefinitely among families and friends, reinforced by word of mouth, social media and mass media. <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/04/190418131334.htm">The more people there are supporting the superstition</a>, the more believable it will seem and the longer it will persist. </p>
<h2>Helpful or harmful?</h2>
<p>If a superstition happens to make us more cautious around mirrors, there’s no harm in that. More generally, superstitions can <a href="https://www.livescience.com/8392-superstitions-bring-real-luck-study-reveals.html">lower stress and improve performance</a> when we find ourselves in difficult situations. They also can be fun and interesting to talk about, and promote <a href="https://insights.osu.edu/life/sports-superstitions">group solidarity</a>.</p>
<p>On the other hand, one does need to proceed with caution. Superstitions are false beliefs that can often produce anxiety and guilt. They can make us feel responsible for bad outcomes we didn’t cause, or waste our energy seeking untenable shortcuts to desired outcomes. </p>
<p>Common sense alone ought to be reason enough to deter us from smashing mirrors.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/162889/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Barry Markovsky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In both ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, reflected images were thought to hold mysterious powers. Damaging a mirror was believed to invite the wrath of the gods.Barry Markovsky, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Sociology, University of South CarolinaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1414002020-07-16T17:03:14Z2020-07-16T17:03:14ZHalley’s Comet, Covid-19 and the history of ‘miracle’ anti-comet remedies<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/343744/original/file-20200624-133013-xp0k9n.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=13%2C0%2C1500%2C895&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">The comet SWAN was spotted in January by an ESA/NASA satellite. It is currently passing overhead and is visible from the Southern Hemisphere. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/christian_gloor/49840472451/">Christian Gloor/Flickr</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>The comet NEOWISE (C/2020 F3) was first discovered on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/2020_F3_(NEOWISE)">March 27, 2020</a>, before becoming very bright, visible in July to the naked eye by Northern hemisphere observers. While we have long since become accustomed to the passage of comets and other celestial objects, that was not the case in 1910, when <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_Comet">Halley’s comet</a> made its first predicted return since 1834. In 1910 Halley’s comet first becoming visible to the naked eye on April 15, remained so until July 5.</p>
<figure class="align-left zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337650/original/file-20200526-106832-1rk9h2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337650/original/file-20200526-106832-1rk9h2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337650/original/file-20200526-106832-1rk9h2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337650/original/file-20200526-106832-1rk9h2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337650/original/file-20200526-106832-1rk9h2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=712&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337650/original/file-20200526-106832-1rk9h2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=895&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337650/original/file-20200526-106832-1rk9h2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=895&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337650/original/file-20200526-106832-1rk9h2h.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=895&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The comet of Morehouse, photographed in 1908.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/1908_R1_(Morehouse)#/media/Fichier:Morehouse1908.jpg">Edward Emerson Barnard/Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Because the true nature of comets was just beginning to be understood, the comet’s passage caused great concern in Europe and the United States. Some even feared that the comet could cause illness or death, and might even be capable of bringing about the “end of the world”. As with the period in which we live now, with unscrupulous individuals hawking “miracle solutions” against Covid-19, including herbal teas, colloidal silver, and even a <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/13/nyregion/alex-jones-coronavirus-cure.html">“stopgate” toothpaste</a> – the gullible had an endless variety of pseudo-scientific products to choose from.</p>
<p>The fear of Halley’s comet stemmed from two facts. First, its closest approach in 1910 was 23 million kilometres from the Earth, just 60 times the distance to the Moon. The comet’s tail even crossed the Earth’s trajectory on the night of May 18-19. Second, a toxic gas, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanogen">cyanogen</a>, had just been detected in the tail of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Morehouse">comet Morehouse</a>. In short, Halley’s comet was perceived by many as a huge ball of toxic gas approaching Earth at an astronomical speed of 190,000 km per hour.</p>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337656/original/file-20200526-106862-61zs2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337656/original/file-20200526-106862-61zs2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337656/original/file-20200526-106862-61zs2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337656/original/file-20200526-106862-61zs2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337656/original/file-20200526-106862-61zs2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=802&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337656/original/file-20200526-106862-61zs2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337656/original/file-20200526-106862-61zs2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337656/original/file-20200526-106862-61zs2x.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1008&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Camille Flammarion at the Juvisy Observatory, in the mid-1880s.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Flammarion#/media/Fichier:Camille_Flammarion_at_the_eyepiece_of_his_9%C2%BD-inch_Bardou_refractor_at_his_Juvisy_observatory.jpg">Wikipedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>The experts take the floor…</h2>
<p>Faced with mounting fear, French authorities asked <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Flammarion">Camille Flammarion</a>, a trustworthy and popular astronomer, to speak to the public. Flammarion considered the possibility that life on Earth might be extinguished should there be a celestial collision with Halley’s comet. Should a sufficient quantity of hydrogen in the comet’s tail be combined with atmospheric oxygen, all animal life could suffocate in just a few moments. </p>
<p>Flammarion considers the event unlikely due to the scarcity of gas in comet tails – a fact that would be confirmed later – but he admits uncertainty.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“We can admit that we ignore what fate has in store for next May. […] The human race would perish in a paroxysm of universal joy, delirium and madness, probably very enchanted with its fate.”</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Flammarion, as a respectable scientist, recounts <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1910BSAFR..24..249F/abstract">all the known elements in his possession</a>: the facts, arguments, and causes, all accompanied by probability. However, the press echoed the most extraordinary part of his words – the possible suffocation of all of humanity – and passed over its low probability and its supposedly hilarious effect. Thus “informed”, the general public became understandably terrified of the potentially lethal effects of the comet’s passage.</p>
<p>When the comet approached in February of that year, spectroscopic observations at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerkes_Observatory">Yerkes observatory</a> in the United States confirmed the <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1914ApJ....39..373B/abstract">presence of cyanogen in the tail</a>. Scientists detailed what would happen if the Earth’s orbit and the tail’s orbit cross paths: the cyanogen will decompose in the upper atmosphere, eliminating any danger of suffocation. Yet their reassuring conclusions went largely unnoticed by the press and the general public.</p>
<h2>Panics and feasts</h2>
<p>Following the dissemination of the information of an imminent danger, the reactions were diverse. Some people began to sell all their worldly possessions to take advantage of the short time remaining. Others risked death by alcohol overdose rather than gas intoxication. Others in the United States caulked their windows in a fruitless attempt to prevent the poisonous gas from entering their homes. In France and Italy, others took refuge in churches, the doors of which remained open during that famous night in May 1910. Several tens of thousands of believers gathered to pray in St. Peter’s Square. A Hungarian <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1910BSAFR..%2024..249F/abstract">preferred to commit suicide</a> rather than risk being suffocated.</p>
<p>In this context, charlatans seized the opportunity to sell anti-comet pills, based on sugar and quinine, and even an anti-Halley’s comet elixir</p>
<p>Of course, not everyone panicked: Flammarion and other astronomers were invited by Gustave Eiffel to the eponymous tower to observe the comet, and many Parisians took the opportunity to <a href="https://www.retronews.fr/sciences/echo-de-presse/%202018/04/27/1910-la-comete-de-halley-va-t-elle-provoquer-la-fin-du-monde">feast and dance all night</a>. To the surprise of some and the disappointment of others, only a small and faint nucleus was visible, if it was visible at all – as we now know, Halley’s comet is rarely bright when it passes.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338208/original/file-20200528-51483-irdoqh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338208/original/file-20200528-51483-irdoqh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/338208/original/file-20200528-51483-irdoqh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338208/original/file-20200528-51483-irdoqh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338208/original/file-20200528-51483-irdoqh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=374&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338208/original/file-20200528-51483-irdoqh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338208/original/file-20200528-51483-irdoqh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/338208/original/file-20200528-51483-irdoqh.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Front page of the <em>Petit Parisien</em>, 1910.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k563613m.r=com%C3%A8te%C3%A9lixir?rk=21459;2">Gallica/BNF</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>During the comet’s passage, the Air Liquide company took samples of the atmosphere in Paris and found no trace of toxic gas. And the irony is that after-the-fact calculations determined that the comet’s tail <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981ESASP.%20174...55S/abstract">did not cross our planet’s path in 1910</a>. In fact, it missed us by at least 400,000 km, roughly the distance from the Earth to the Moon. The error occurred because the comet’s passage was predicted by only <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1910BSAFR..24..249F/%20abstract">simple geometric considerations</a> and moreover, its gaseous tail had a pronounced curve.</p>
<h2>Comets, ominous birds for a millennium</h2>
<p>A few months earlier, in January 1910, a large comet named <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_January_Comet_of_1910">C/1910 A1</a> appeared in the sky, first seen dimly in South Africa and then brightly in Europe. Initially confused with Halley’s comet, it had been nicknamed “the Great Comet”. We can easily understand why these “dazzling stars with long flowing hair” have always fascinated, especially since the absence of light pollution at the time allowed everyone to see them.</p>
<p>To better understand how impressive comets once were to us, remember the 1066 representation of a comet – it was Halley, even if it does not yet bear that name – on the embroidery of Queen Mathilde, better known as the <a href="https://www.bayeuxmuseum.com/en/the-bayeux-tapestry/">Bayeux tapestry</a>. The comet appears at the top, next to the Latin text “Isti mirant stella” (“they admire the star”). A crowd points towards the comet, which looks more like a sunflower pulling a rake behind it, the tail of the comet being – already – more frightening than its head.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337683/original/file-20200526-106866-1jms1up.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/337683/original/file-20200526-106866-1jms1up.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337683/original/file-20200526-106866-1jms1up.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337683/original/file-20200526-106866-1jms1up.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=385&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337683/original/file-20200526-106866-1jms1up.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337683/original/file-20200526-106866-1jms1up.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/337683/original/file-20200526-106866-1jms1up.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Bayeux tapestry, scenes 32 and 33, 11th century.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://fr.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fichier:Bayeux_Tapestry_32-33_comet_Halley_Harold.jpg">Wikipedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The superstition at the time generally associates the appearance of a comet with the omen of a catastrophe. The comet crossed the sky of Europe in April of that year and the Battle of Hastings would not take place until mid-October. While King Harold of England saw in the passage of the comet as an omen of invasion, William the Conqueror was confident that it predicted success in his planned conquest. In the hair of the comet <a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1985C%26T...101..201S">some even saw</a> a resemblance to the crown of England. But if William had lost the battle, wouldn’t certain texts have reversed the prediction after the fact? In heaven as on Earth, one man’s loss is another man’s gain.</p>
<p>Today, comets are much less fearful, as the new comet <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/2020_F3_(NEOWISE)">NEOWISE (C/2020 F3)</a> proved. For most of us on Earth it went unnoticed, lost in the gleams of nocturnal lightings of civilisation, and failed to break into the news cycle. Yet if this had happened a thousand years ago, it is easy to imagine that our new celestial companion could have been seen as omen of the current pandemic.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/141400/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Sylvain Chaty has received funding from LabEx UnivEarthS and CNES (Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales).</span></em></p>Are you hesitating to buy anti-Covid-19 toothpaste? 100 years ago, you might have found some miracle elixirs to protect you from Halley’s Comet.Sylvain Chaty, Professeur des Universités, astrophysicien au CEA, Université Paris CitéLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1408092020-07-02T12:26:45Z2020-07-02T12:26:45ZThe invention of satanic witchcraft by medieval authorities was initially met with skepticism<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344310/original/file-20200626-104484-1dbzjs6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C10%2C3344%2C2773&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Woodcut, circa 1400. A witch, a demon and a warlock fly toward a peasant woman.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/circa-1400-a-witch-a-demon-and-a-warlock-fly-towards-a-news-photo/51240919">Hulton Archive /Handout via Getty Images</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>On a midsummer day in 1438, a young man from the north shore of Lake Geneva presented himself to the local church inquisitor. He had a confession to make. Five years earlier, his father had forced him to join a satanic cult of witches. They had flown at night on a small black horse to join more than a hundred people gathered in a meadow. The devil was there too, in the form of a black cat. The witches knelt before him, worshiped him and kissed his posterior.</p>
<p>The young man’s father had already been executed as a witch. It’s likely he was trying to secure a lighter punishment by voluntarily telling inquisitors what they wanted to hear.</p>
<p>The Middle Ages, A.D. 500-1500, have a reputation for both heartless cruelty and hopeless credulity. People commonly believed in all kinds of magic, monsters and <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/15568.html">fairies</a>. But it wasn’t until the 15th century that the idea of organized satanic witchcraft took hold. As a historian who <a href="https://history.iastate.edu/directory/michael-bailey/">studies medieval magic</a>, I’m fascinated by how a coterie of church and state authorities conspired to develop and promote this new concept of witchcraft for their own purposes.</p>
<h2>Early medieval attitudes about witchcraft</h2>
<p>Belief in witches, in the sense of wicked people performing harmful magic, had existed in Europe since before the Greeks and Romans. In the early part of the Middle Ages, authorities were largely unconcerned about it. </p>
<p><a href="https://pages.uoregon.edu/dluebke/Witches442/PaganTraces.html">A church document</a> from the early 10th century proclaimed that “sorcery and witchcraft” might be real, but the idea that groups of witches flew together with demons through the night was a delusion. </p>
<p>Things began to change in the 12th and 13th centuries, ironically because educated elites in Europe were becoming more sophisticated.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344356/original/file-20200626-104489-1x8hg5c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344356/original/file-20200626-104489-1x8hg5c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344356/original/file-20200626-104489-1x8hg5c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344356/original/file-20200626-104489-1x8hg5c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344356/original/file-20200626-104489-1x8hg5c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=484&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344356/original/file-20200626-104489-1x8hg5c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=609&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344356/original/file-20200626-104489-1x8hg5c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=609&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344356/original/file-20200626-104489-1x8hg5c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=609&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Henricus de Alemannia lecturing students at the University of Bologna in the second half of the 14th century – one of the earliest illustrations of a medieval university classroom.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Laurentius_de_Voltolina_001.jpg">Laurentius de Voltolina/Kupferstichkabinett Berlin</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Universities were being founded, and scholars in Western Europe began to pore over ancient texts as well as learned writings from the Muslim world. Some of these presented complex <a href="https://www.psupress.org/books/titles/978-0-271-08213-4.html">systems of magic</a> that claimed to draw on astral forces or conjure powerful spirits. Gradually, these ideas began to gain intellectual clout.</p>
<p>Ordinary people – the kind who eventually got accused of being witches – didn’t perform elaborate rites from books. They gathered herbs, brewed potions, maybe said a short spell, as they had for generations. And they did so for all sorts of reasons – perhaps to harm someone they disliked, but more often to <a href="https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/popular-magic-cunning-folk-in-english-history-9780826442796/">heal or protect</a> others. Such practices were important in a world with only rudimentary forms of medical care.</p>
<p>Christian authorities had previously dismissed this kind of magic as empty superstition. Now they took all magic much more seriously. They began to believe simple spells worked by summoning demons, which meant anyone who performed them secretly worshiped demons. </p>
<h2>Inventing satanic witchcraft</h2>
<p>In the 1430s, a small group of writers in Central Europe – church inquisitors, theologians, lay magistrates and even one historian – began to describe horrific assemblies where witches gathered and worshiped demons, had orgies, ate murdered babies and performed other abominable acts. Whether any of these authors ever met each other is unclear, but they all described groups of witches supposedly active in a zone around the western Alps. </p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters/weekly-highlights-61?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=weeklysmart">You can get our highlights each weekend</a>.]</p>
<p>The reason for this development may have been purely practical. Church inquisitors, active against religious heretics since the 13th century, and some secular courts were looking to expand their jurisdictions. Having a new and particularly horrible crime to prosecute might have struck them as useful.</p>
<p>I just translated a number of these early texts for a <a href="https://www.academia.edu/43358448/Origins_of_the_Witches_Sabbath">forthcoming book</a> and was struck by how worried the authors were about readers not believing them. One fretted that his accounts would be “disparaged” by those who “think themselves learned.” Another feared that “simple folk” would refuse to believe the “fragile sex” would engage in such terrible practices.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520320574/european-witch-trials">Trial records</a> show it was a hard sell. Most people remained concerned with harmful magic – witches causing illness or withering crops. They didn’t much care about secret satanic gatherings.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344298/original/file-20200626-104499-4etmz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344298/original/file-20200626-104499-4etmz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344298/original/file-20200626-104499-4etmz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=850&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344298/original/file-20200626-104499-4etmz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=850&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344298/original/file-20200626-104499-4etmz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=850&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344298/original/file-20200626-104499-4etmz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1068&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344298/original/file-20200626-104499-4etmz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1068&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344298/original/file-20200626-104499-4etmz6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1068&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The handbook for detecting and persecuting witches in the Middle Ages, ‘Malleus Maleficarum’ or ‘Hammer of Witches.’</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:J._Sprenger_and_H._Institutoris,_Malleus_maleficarum._Wellcome_L0000980.jpg">Wellcome Images/Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In 1486, clergyman Heinrich Kramer published the most widely circulated medieval text about organized witchcraft, <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/literature/european-literature/hammer-witches-complete-translation-malleus-maleficarum?format=PB&isbn=9780521747875">Malleus Maleficarum</a> (Hammer of Witches). But many people didn’t believe him. When he tried to start a witch hunt in Innsbruck, Austria, he was kicked out by the local bishop, who accused him of <a href="https://www.dtv.de/buch/heinrich-kramer-guenter-jerouschek-wolfgang-behringer-der-hexenhammer-30780/">being senile</a>. </p>
<h2>Witch hunts</h2>
<p>Unfortunately, the fear of satanic witchcraft grew. The 15th century seems to have provided ideal soil for this new idea to take root. </p>
<p>Europe was recovering from <a href="https://cornellup.degruyter.com/view/title/568227">several crises</a>: plague, wars and a split in the church between two, and then three, competing popes. Beginning in the 1450s, the printing press made it easier for new ideas to spread. Even prior to the Protestant Reformation, religious reform was in the air. As I explored in an <a href="http://www.psupress.org/books/titles/978-0-271-02225-3.html">earlier book</a>, reformers used the idea of a diabolical conspiracy bent on corrupting Christianity as a boogeyman in their call for spiritual renewal.</p>
<p>Over time, more people came to accept this new idea. Church and state authorities kept telling them it was real. Still, many also kept relying on local “witches” for magical healing and protection.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344300/original/file-20200626-104484-6oipp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344300/original/file-20200626-104484-6oipp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/344300/original/file-20200626-104484-6oipp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344300/original/file-20200626-104484-6oipp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344300/original/file-20200626-104484-6oipp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=828&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344300/original/file-20200626-104484-6oipp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1041&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344300/original/file-20200626-104484-6oipp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1041&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/344300/original/file-20200626-104484-6oipp0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1041&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The execution of alleged witches in Central Europe, 1587.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Wickiana3.jpg">Zurich Central Library/Wikimedia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The history of witchcraft can be quite grim. From the 1400s through the 1700s, authorities in Western Europe <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Witch-Hunt-in-Early-Modern-Europe-4th-Edition/Levack/p/book/9781138808102?gclid=EAIaIQobChMI9s_H7OuV6gIVi8DACh3paAtCEAAYASAAEgLcLvD_BwE">executed around 50,000 people, mostly women,</a> for witchcraft. The worst witch hunts could claim hundreds of victims at a time. With 20 dead, colonial America’s largest hunt at Salem was moderate by comparison. </p>
<p>Salem, in 1692, marked the end of witch hunts in New England. In Europe, too, skepticism would eventually prevail. It’s worth remembering, though, that at the beginning, authorities had to work hard to convince others such malevolence was real.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/140809/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Michael D. Bailey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The idea of organized satanic witchcraft was invented in 15th-century Europe by church and state authorities, who at first had a hard time convincing regular folks it was real.Michael D. Bailey, Professor of History, Iowa State UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1321582020-03-09T12:22:22Z2020-03-09T12:22:22ZHow technology can combat the rising tide of fake science<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318753/original/file-20200304-66112-vybpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=63%2C13%2C1178%2C840&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A crop circle in Switzerland.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CropCircleW.jpg">Jabberocky/Wikimedia Commons</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Science gets a lot of respect these days. Unfortunately, it’s also getting a lot of competition from misinformation. Seven in 10 Americans think the benefits from science outweigh the harms, and nine in 10 think science and technology will create <a href="https://nsf.gov/statistics/2018/nsb20181/report/sections/science-and-technology-public-attitudes-and-understanding/highlights">more opportunities for future generations</a>. Scientists have made dramatic progress in understanding the universe and the mechanisms of biology, and advances in computation benefit all fields of science. </p>
<p>On the other hand, Americans are surrounded by a rising tide of misinformation and fake science. Take climate change. Scientists are in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024024">almost complete agreement that people are the primary cause of global warming</a>. Yet polls show that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-019-02406-9">a third of the public disagrees</a> with this conclusion.</p>
<p>In my <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=OrRLRQ4AAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">30 years of studying and promoting scientific literacy</a>, I’ve found that college educated adults have large holes in their basic science knowledge and they’re disconcertingly <a href="https://ejse.southwestern.edu/article/view/17315">susceptible to superstition and beliefs that aren’t based on any evidence</a>. One way to counter this is to make it easier for people to detect pseudoscience online. To this end, my lab at the University of Arizona has developed an artificial intelligence-based pseudoscience detector that we plan to freely release as a web browser extension and smart phone app.</p>
<h2>Americans’ predilection for fake science</h2>
<p>Americans are prone to superstition and paranormal beliefs. An annual survey done by sociologists at Chapman University finds that <a href="https://blogs.chapman.edu/wilkinson/2018/10/16/paranormal-america-2018/">more than half believe in spirits and the existence of ancient civilizations</a> like Atlantis, and more than a third think that aliens have visited the Earth in the past or are visiting now. Over 75% hold multiple paranormal beliefs. The survey shows that these numbers have increased in recent years.</p>
<p><iframe id="IbP7D" class="tc-infographic-datawrapper" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/IbP7D/3/" height="400px" width="100%" style="border: none" frameborder="0"></iframe></p>
<p>Widespread belief in astrology is a pet peeve of my colleagues in astronomy. It’s long had a foothold in the popular culture through horoscopes in newspapers and magazines <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2018/01/the-new-age-of-astrology/550034/">but currently it’s booming</a>. Belief is strong even among the most educated. My surveys of college undergraduates show that three-quarters of them <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/AER2010040">think that astrology is very or “sort of” scientific</a> and only half of science majors recognize it as not at all scientific.</p>
<p>Allan Mazur, a sociologist at Syracuse University, has delved into <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780203788967">the nature of irrational belief systems</a>, their cultural roots, and their political impact. Conspiracy theories are, by definition, resistant to evidence or data that might prove them false. Some are at least amusing. Adherents of the flat Earth theory turn back the clock on two millennia of scientific progress. <a href="https://www.theverge.com/2017/10/9/16424622/reddit-conspiracy-theories-memes-irony-flat-earth">Interest in this bizarre idea has surged in the past five years</a>, spurred by social media influencers and the echo chamber nature of web sites like Reddit. As with climate change denial, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-47279253">many come to this belief through YouTube videos</a>.</p>
<p>However, the consequences of fake science are no laughing matter. In matters of health and climate change, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.190161">misinformation can be a matter of life and death</a>. Over a 90-day period spanning December, January and February, people liked, shared and commented on posts from sites containing <a href="https://www.zdnet.com/article/coronavirus-misinformation-is-increasing-newsguard-finds/">false or misleading information about COVID-19</a> 142 times more than they did information from the Centers for Disease Control and the World Health Organization. </p>
<p>Combating fake science is an urgent priority. In a world that’s increasingly dependent on science and technology, civic society can only function when the electorate is well informed. </p>
<p>Educators must roll up their sleeves and do a better job of teaching critical thinking to young people. However, the problem goes beyond the classroom. The internet is the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2018/nsb20181/report">first source of science information</a> for 80% of people ages 18 to 24. </p>
<p>One study found that a majority of a random sample of 200 YouTube videos on climate change <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2019.00036">denied that humans were responsible or claimed that it was a conspiracy</a>. The videos peddling conspiracy theories got the most views. Another study found that <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/feb/21/climate-tweets-twitter-bots-analysis">a quarter of all tweets on climate were generated by bots</a> and they preferentially amplified messages from climate change deniers.</p>
<h2>Technology to the rescue?</h2>
<p>The recent success of machine learning and AI in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1705.00648">detecting fake news</a> points the way to detecting fake science online. The key is <a href="https://www.explainthatstuff.com/introduction-to-neural-networks.html">neural net</a> technology. Neural nets are loosely modeled on the human brain. They consist of many interconnected computer processors that identify meaningful patterns in data like words and images. Neural nets already permeate everyday life, particularly in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1708.02709">natural language processing</a> systems like Amazon’s Alexa and Google’s language translation capability.</p>
<p>At the University of Arizona, we have trained neural nets on handpicked popular articles about climate change and biological evolution, and the neural nets are 90% successful in distinguishing wheat from chaff. With a quick scan of a site, our neural net can tell if its content is scientifically sound or climate-denial junk. After more refinement and testing we hope to have neural nets that can work across all domains of science. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318416/original/file-20200303-66064-2dk56c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/318416/original/file-20200303-66064-2dk56c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318416/original/file-20200303-66064-2dk56c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318416/original/file-20200303-66064-2dk56c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318416/original/file-20200303-66064-2dk56c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318416/original/file-20200303-66064-2dk56c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/318416/original/file-20200303-66064-2dk56c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=591&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Neural net technology under development at the University of Arizona will flag science websites with a color code indicating their reliability (left). A smartphone app version will gamify the process of declaring science articles real or fake (right).</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Chris Impey</span>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The goal is a web browser extension that would detect when the user is looking at science content and deduce whether or not it’s real or fake. If it’s misinformation, the tool will suggest a reliable web site on that topic. My colleagues and I also plan to gamify the interface with a smart phone app that will let people compete with their friends and relatives to detect fake science. Data from the best of these participants will be used to help train the neural net.</p>
<p>Sniffing out fake science should be easier than sniffing out fake news in general, because subjective opinion plays a minimal role in legitimate science, which is characterized by evidence, logic and verification. Experts can readily distinguish legitimate science from conspiracy theories and arguments motivated by ideology, which means machine learning systems can be trained to, as well. </p>
<p>“Everyone is entitled to his own opinion, but not his own facts.” These words of <a href="https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2010/11/moynihan-letters-201011">Daniel Patrick Moynihan</a>, advisor to four presidents, could be the mantra for those trying to keep science from being drowned by misinformation.</p>
<p>[<em>You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=youresmart">You can read us daily by subscribing to our newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/132158/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Chris Impey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The internet has allowed pseudoscience to flourish. Artificial intelligence could help steer people away from the bad information.Chris Impey, University Distinguished Professor of Astronomy, University of ArizonaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1301342020-02-03T18:58:29Z2020-02-03T18:58:29ZDid they see it coming? How fortune-telling took hold in Australia - with women as clients and criminals<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312766/original/file-20200130-41527-bi1jn4.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=6%2C10%2C1001%2C727&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Though illegal, fortune telling was only sporadically prosecuted. Here, two women set up tents at the 1913 Adelaide Children's Hospital fete.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://collections.slsa.sa.gov.au/resource/PRG+280/1/40/118">State Library of SA</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In the first decade of the 20th century, Australians were focused on the future. It was the dawn of a new century, and of a newly formed nation. </p>
<p>Perhaps this forward outlook was part of why fortune-telling was being heralded as the latest “<a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/108319762">craze</a>” in local newspapers. Fortunetellers populated market stalls, shop arcades, travelling sideshows, private homes, society parties and even church fetes as they used teacups, crystal balls, cards or spirit guides to peer into people’s futures. </p>
<p>Yet fortune-telling was <a href="https://www.academia.edu/9770719/_A_Menace_and_an_Evil_Fortune-telling_in_Australia_1900-1918_History_Australia_11_no._3_2014_53-73._Highly_commended_Mary_Bennett_prize_">illegal</a> under laws inherited from England. Some feisty futurists <a href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/cases/cth/HCA/1907/66.html?context=1;query=scales;mask_path=au/cases/cth/HCA">challenged</a> the legality of these anti fortune-telling provisions. In response, during the early decades of the 20th century legislators around Australia affirmed fortune-telling’s criminal status in statutory law. </p>
<p>It was only in the 21st century that most Australian jurisdictions repealed these laws. Even today, telling fortunes for payment <a href="https://www.findlaw.com.au/articles/5163/is-fortune-telling-a-criminal-offence-.aspx">remains</a> a crime in South Australia and the Northern Territory.</p>
<iframe src="https://webplayer.whooshkaa.com/episode/568840?theme=light&visual=true&enable-volume=true" height="190" width="100%" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allow="autoplay"></iframe>
<h2>Clientele</h2>
<p>Fortune-telling for financial gain was criminalised because such activity was viewed as fraud. Occasionally attempts were made to defend against fortune-telling charges on the grounds that a psychic had genuine abilities – or genuinely believed they did – and so their actions were not fraud. However, the wording of legislation against fortune-telling was so definitive that judges ruled such matters irrelevant; at law, fortune-telling was automatically a form of <a href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/cases/cth/HCA/1930/16.html">pretence</a>.</p>
<p>According to Australian newspapers in the 1900s, the main “victims” of this pretence were women. Paternalistic editorials argued for police crackdowns on fortune-telling in order to protect “<a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/35547443">members of the weaker sex</a>” from themselves.</p>
<figure>
<iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/bm0EGvX-ljw?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
<figcaption><span class="caption">An extract from ‘Making a Fortune’, an episode of the podcast History Lab, from Impact Studios at the University of Technology, Sydney.</span></figcaption>
</figure>
<p>While men also visited fortunetellers, they were portrayed as doing so less often, and usually to seek answers to practical inquiries about investment opportunities or locating lost property. Women’s reasons for visiting fortunetellers were represented to be more frivolous, and rooted in innate female character defects. </p>
<p>Women apparently became hooked on visiting fortunetellers due to <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/208737252">preoccupations</a> with romance and gossip, or because their “<a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/83085257">neurotic impulses</a>” left them credulous.</p>
<p>Newspapers warned of the dangerous repercussions fortune-telling might have for “<a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/242595886">weak-minded women</a>”. Suburban matrons were accused of frittering away household funds on charlatanism. </p>
<p>It was <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/21805447">joked</a> that housemaids would quit their jobs on the basis of prophecies of rich husbands soon to come. <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/228868049">Marriages</a> were said to be breaking down as clairvoyants confirmed wives’ suspicions about their husbands’ infidelity, or counselled them that separation would bring brighter prospects. </p>
<p>It was also feared that fortunetellers provided a conduit to <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/211598758">abortionists and contraceptive information</a> for women worried that their future would bring children conceived outside wedlock or that they could not afford. </p>
<p>Yet, for many, a visit to a psychic was probably simply an affordable entertainment in an era before the “talkies”, much less Netflix, arrived. For others, fortune-telling consultations perhaps provided a positive outlet where they could talk through emotional life events; a kind of informal counselling long before such services became available. </p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312752/original/file-20200130-41490-1q6pa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312752/original/file-20200130-41490-1q6pa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312752/original/file-20200130-41490-1q6pa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=768&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312752/original/file-20200130-41490-1q6pa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=768&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312752/original/file-20200130-41490-1q6pa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=768&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312752/original/file-20200130-41490-1q6pa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312752/original/file-20200130-41490-1q6pa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312752/original/file-20200130-41490-1q6pa76.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=965&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Long before ‘talkies’, fortune-telling was an affordable entertainment.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/woman-posing-91899797">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Practitioners</h2>
<p>The typical cost of a psychic reading during the Federation period was two shillings sixpence (equivalent to the price of a film ticket now). A clairvoyant with a few dozen regular clients could expect to earn around four pounds each week, twice the average pay of a domestic servant. </p>
<p>Some celebrated seers earned considerably more. By the time of her 1928 death, <a href="https://www.academia.edu/9770735/The_Scales_of_Justice_Criminal_Law_Journal_38_no._6_2014_384-386">Mary Scales</a>, an illiterate laundress turned fortuneteller, had amassed a fortune that would be the equivalent of several million dollars today.</p>
<p>The practitioners of fortune-telling, like the clientele, consisted mostly of women. It was an <a href="https://www.academia.edu/12625276/Womens_Work_The_Professionalisation_and_Policing_of_Fortune-Telling_in_Australia_Labour_History_no._108_2015_1-16">occupation</a> that women could embark upon with few business costs while working from home. </p>
<p>Deserted wives and widows with children to <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/208737252">support</a> featured disproportionately in those prosecuted for fortune-telling. So did older women, particularly those with ailments that meant they could no longer undertake more physically taxing work in factories or domestic service.</p>
<p>Newspapers voiced resentment that women – particularly working-class women – should be earning good money at a trade that was technically illegal but openly practised, and even advertised in the papers themselves. </p>
<p>It was ridiculous, one paper <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/59590417">stated</a>, that “the fact that she was a washerwoman yesterday will not debar the fool crowd from believing she is a sorceress to-day”. </p>
<p>Another journalist <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/65651210">urged</a> women to confine themselves to domestic duties or, if forced to earn their own living, seek more genteel occupations. Dog-walking was considered a step up. </p>
<blockquote>
<p>Many women with a love for dogs, but dislike for the necessary care and exercise of them, are glad to turn those duties over to someone else, and it seems as if
any one of the humble ways of earning a livelihood were preferable to the palmistry, fortune-telling, mediums and phrenological lines of business.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Of 247 reported prosecutions of fortune-telling in Australia between 1900 and 1918, <a href="https://www.academia.edu/9770719/_A_Menace_and_an_Evil_Fortune-telling_in_Australia_1900-1918_History_Australia_11_no._3_2014_53-73._Highly_commended_Mary_Bennett_prize_">82%</a> were against women. </p>
<p>Several of the men prosecuted were charged as accomplices, minding the shopfront of wives or female relatives who were doing a thriving business in fortune-telling. Most of the others came from non Anglo-Saxon backgrounds, the association of divination with “foreign” superstition another factor in the prevailing prejudices against it.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312754/original/file-20200130-41507-1x1h1mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312754/original/file-20200130-41507-1x1h1mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312754/original/file-20200130-41507-1x1h1mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312754/original/file-20200130-41507-1x1h1mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312754/original/file-20200130-41507-1x1h1mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=462&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312754/original/file-20200130-41507-1x1h1mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312754/original/file-20200130-41507-1x1h1mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/312754/original/file-20200130-41507-1x1h1mu.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=580&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An association with ‘foreigners’ bolstered opposition to fortune-telling.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/seance-227270593">Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Police</h2>
<p>Despite public criticism of fortune-telling, it was only intermittently policed. This was because it was not enough that an individual was known to be or even advertising themselves as a fortune-teller; prosecution required a witness to money being exchanged for a reading. </p>
<p>Collecting this evidence involved officers going undercover to pose as clients, with police in major cities undertaking such sting operations every few years during the 1900s. </p>
<p>However, as police at the time were all men, fortunetellers were increasingly suspicious of male customers. Some started taking the precaution of only seeing female clients.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311078/original/file-20200121-117917-nwzppv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311078/original/file-20200121-117917-nwzppv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/311078/original/file-20200121-117917-nwzppv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=871&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311078/original/file-20200121-117917-nwzppv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=871&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311078/original/file-20200121-117917-nwzppv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=871&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311078/original/file-20200121-117917-nwzppv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1095&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311078/original/file-20200121-117917-nwzppv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1095&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/311078/original/file-20200121-117917-nwzppv.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1095&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In a cartoon by Ben Strange (1868-1930) an undercover policeman visits a clairvoyant.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/37394770">National Library of Australia</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>To overcome this, police began hiring women to pose as <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/1617290">clients</a> during the periodic fortune-telling raids. When women were later introduced into police forces across Australia during World War One, they were quickly set to prosecuting clairvoyants. </p>
<p>There was increased pressure to crack down on fortune-tellers due to fears that they were preying on soldiers’ loved ones, or that predictions of dire futures might undermine recruiting efforts and national morale.</p>
<p>Ultimately, fortune-telling’s declining popularity by the 1920s was not the result of policing, but the rise of other entertainments. Both fortune-telling and legislation against it continued to exist, sparking occasional prosecutions across the 20th century. It is only in the last 20 years that most states have decriminalised it, having recognised that cases that involve the defrauding of actual victims can be adequately dealt with under existing fraud legislation.</p>
<hr>
<p><em>Making a Fortune was made by <a href="https://www.uts.edu.au/partners-and-community/initiatives/impact-studios/about-us">Impact Studios</a> at the University of Technology, Sydney - a new audio production house combining academic research and audio storytelling. This podcast is available for download through the award winning <a href="https://historylab.net/">History Lab</a> podcast. It is the second episode in the four-part series, The Law’s Way of Knowing.</em></p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/130134/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Alana Piper does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>In the early 1900s, fortune-telling provided entertainment, social connection and a job for some Australians. Its legal status made criminals of women, yet allowed others entry to the police force.Alana Piper, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, University of Technology SydneyLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1298642020-01-30T19:09:18Z2020-01-30T19:09:18ZWhy we knock on wood for luck<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/312668/original/file-20200129-92959-s1eqbo.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=7%2C3%2C2628%2C1821&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Knocking on wood may be a holdover from the pagan days of Europe, when tree spirits were believed to bring luck. </span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/hand-knock-knocking-on-door-room-390896041">saiful bahri 46/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Ever said something like, “I’ve never gotten a speeding ticket” – and then quickly, for luck, rapped your knuckles on a wooden table or doorframe?</p>
<p>Americans accompany this action by saying, “Knock on wood.” In Great Britain, it’s “Touch wood.” They knock on wood <a href="https://www.history.com/news/why-do-people-knock-on-wood-for-luck">in Turkey</a>, too. </p>
<p>As a teacher of <a href="https://rosemaryhathaway.faculty.wvu.edu">folklore</a> – the study of “the expressive culture of everyday life,” as my <a href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/version/45437506">favorite short definition puts it</a> – I’m often asked why people knock on wood.</p>
<h2>The answer is complicated</h2>
<p>The common explanation for knocking on wood claims the ritual is a holdover from Europe’s pagan days, an appeal to tree-dwelling spirits to ward off bad luck or an expression of <a href="https://www.history.com/news/why-do-people-knock-on-wood-for-luck">gratitude for good fortune</a>.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199990009.001.0001/acref-9780199990009">Brewer’s Dictionary of Phrase and Fable</a>, “traditionally, certain trees, such as the oak, ash, hazel, hawthorn and willow, had a sacred significance and thus protective powers.”</p>
<p>Furthermore, the theory goes, Christian reformers in Europe may have deliberately transformed this heathenish belief into a more acceptable Christian one by introducing the idea that the “wood” in “knock on wood” referred to the wood of the cross of Jesus’ crucifixion. </p>
<p>However, no tangible evidence supports these origin stories. </p>
<p>The Oxford English Dictionary <a href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/203877">traces the phrase</a> “touch wood” only back to the early 19th century, locating its origins in a British children’s tag game called Tiggy-touch-wood, in which children could make themselves “exempt…from capture [by] touching wood.”</p>
<p>Of course, much folklore is learned informally, by word of mouth or customary behavior. So it’s possible – even likely – that the phrase and the ritual predate its first appearance in print. </p>
<h2>So why do we still knock on wood?</h2>
<p>I’d wager few, if any, people today think – after saying something that might bring bad luck – “I’d better ask the tree spirits for help!” </p>
<p>Still they knock, to avoid negative consequences. </p>
<p>That puts knocking on wood in a category with other “conversion rituals” like <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/541285">throwing salt over one’s shoulder</a>: actions people perform, almost automatically, to “undo” any bad luck just created.</p>
<p>The anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski has a theory about such actions, called the “<a href="https://www.abc-clio.com/ABC-CLIOCorporate/product.aspx?pc=A1870C">anxiety-ritual theory</a>.” It states that the anxiety created by uncertainty leads people to turn to magic and ritual to gain a sense of control. </p>
<p>Knocking on wood may seem trivial, but it is one small way people quell their fears in a life full of anxieties.</p>
<p>[<em>Deep knowledge, daily.</em> <a href="https://theconversation.com/us/newsletters?utm_source=TCUS&utm_medium=inline-link&utm_campaign=newsletter-text&utm_content=deepknowledge">Sign up for The Conversation’s newsletter</a>.]</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/129864/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Rosemary V. Hathaway does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The curious history of a ritual meant to ward off bad luck.Rosemary V. Hathaway, Associate Professor of English, West Virginia UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1256722019-10-29T13:14:37Z2019-10-29T13:14:37ZRabies’ horrifying symptoms inspired folktales of humans turned into werewolves, vampires and other monsters<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298932/original/file-20191028-113998-liuu8u.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=336%2C266%2C3286%2C2145&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A rabid dog's bite can make a person seem to have animal characteristics.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/red-glowing-eyed-doglike-aggressive-demonic-540753655">Taras Verkhovynets/Shutterstock.com</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In 1855, the Brooklyn Daily Eagle reported on the gruesome murder of a bride by her new husband. The story came from the French countryside, where the woman’s parents had initially prevented the couple’s engagement “on account of the strangeness of conduct sometimes observed in the young man,” although he “otherwise was a most eli[g]ible match.”</p>
<p>The parents eventually consented, and the marriage took place. Shortly after the newlyweds withdrew to consummate their bond, “fearful shrieks” came from their quarters. People quickly arrived to find “the poor girl… in the agonies of death — her bosom torn open and lacerated in a most horrible manner, and the wretched husband in a fit of raving madness and covered with blood, having actually devoured a portion of the unfortunate girl’s breast.” </p>
<p>The bride died a short time later. Her husband, after “a most violent resistance,” also expired.</p>
<p>What could have caused this horrifying incident? “It was then recollected, in answer to searching questions by a physician,” that the groom had previously “been bitten by a strange dog.” The passage of madness from dog to human seemed like the only possible reason for the grisly turn of events. </p>
<p>The Eagle described the episode matter-of-factly as “a sad and distressing case of hydrophobia,” or, in today’s parlance, <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/index.html">rabies</a>.</p>
<p>But the account read like a Gothic horror story. It was essentially a werewolf narrative: The mad dog’s bite caused a hideous metamorphosis, which transformed its human victim into a nefarious monster whose vicious sexual impulses led to obscene and loathsome violence.</p>
<p>My new book, “<a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/title/mad-dogs-and-other-new-yorkers">Mad Dogs and Other New Yorkers: Rabies, Medicine, and Society in an American Metropolis, 1840-1920</a>,” explores the hidden meanings behind the ways people talked about rabies. Variants of the rabid groom story had been told and retold in English language newspapers in North America since at least the beginning of the 18th century, and they continued to appear as late as the 1890s.</p>
<p>The Eagle’s account was, in essence, a folk tale about mad dogs and the thin dividing line between human and animal. Rabies created fear because it was a disease that seemed able to turn people into raging beasts. </p>
<h2>A terrifying and fatal disease</h2>
<figure class="align-right zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298838/original/file-20191027-113991-1gz753x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298838/original/file-20191027-113991-1gz753x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298838/original/file-20191027-113991-1gz753x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=774&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298838/original/file-20191027-113991-1gz753x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=774&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298838/original/file-20191027-113991-1gz753x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=774&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298838/original/file-20191027-113991-1gz753x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=973&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298838/original/file-20191027-113991-1gz753x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=973&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298838/original/file-20191027-113991-1gz753x.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=973&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A werewolf wreaks havoc in this 1512 woodcut.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Werwolf.png">Lucas Cranach the Elder, Herzogliches Museum/Wikimedia Commons</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The historian Eugen Weber once observed that French peasants in the 19th century feared “<a href="https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=3200">above all wolves, mad dogs, and fire</a>.” Canine madness – or the disease that we know today as rabies – conjured up the canine terrors that have formed the stuff of nightmares for centuries.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/hives-of-sickness/9780813521589">Other infectious diseases</a> – including cholera, typhoid and diphtheria – <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3546115&view=1up&seq=493">killed far more people</a> in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The cry of “Mad dog!” nonetheless sparked an immediate sense of terror, because a simple dog bite could mean a protracted ordeal of grueling symptoms, followed by certain death. </p>
<p>Modern medicine knows that rabies is caused by a virus. Once it enters the body, it travels to the brain via the nervous system. The typical lag time of weeks or months between initial exposure and onset of symptoms means that rabies is no longer a death sentence if a patient quickly receives <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/rabies-immune-globulin-intramuscular-route/description/drg-20065738">injections of immune antibodies</a> and vaccine, in order to build immunity soon after encountering a suspect animal. Though it’s rare for people to die of rabies in the U.S., the disease still <a href="https://www.who.int/publications-detail/who-wer9207">kills tens of thousands of people globally every year</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298839/original/file-20191027-114011-1yx3lh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298839/original/file-20191027-114011-1yx3lh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298839/original/file-20191027-114011-1yx3lh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298839/original/file-20191027-114011-1yx3lh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298839/original/file-20191027-114011-1yx3lh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=388&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298839/original/file-20191027-114011-1yx3lh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298839/original/file-20191027-114011-1yx3lh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298839/original/file-20191027-114011-1yx3lh0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=488&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The virus affects the brain, as seen with the darker purple inclusions, called negri bodies, in the brain cells of someone who died of rabies.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rabies_negri_bodies_brain.jpg">CDC/Dr. Makonnen Fekadu</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiuo.ark:/13960/t77t2vj2d&view=1up&seq=85">According to 19th-century sources</a>, after an incubation period of between four and 12 weeks, symptoms might start with a vague sense of agitation or restlessness. They then progressed to the wracking spasmodic episodes characteristic of rabies, along with sleeplessness, excitability, feverishness, rapid pulse, drooling and labored breathing. Victims not infrequently exhibited hallucinations or other mental disruptions as well.</p>
<p>Efforts to mitigate violent outbursts with drugs often failed, and physicians could then do little more than stand by and bear witness. Final release came only after the disease ran its inevitably fatal course, usually over a period of two to four days. Even today, rabies remains essentially <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/cjn.2015.331">incurable once clinical signs appear</a>.</p>
<p>Centuries ago, the loss of bodily control and rationality triggered by rabies seemed like an assault on victims’ basic humanity. From a real dreaded disease transmitted by animals emerged spine-tingling visions of supernatural forces that transferred malevolent animals’ powers and turned people into monsters.</p>
<h2>Bites that transform people into animals</h2>
<p>Nineteenth-century American accounts never invoked the supernatural directly. But descriptions of symptoms indicated unspoken assumptions about how the disease transmitted the biting animal’s essence to the suffering human.</p>
<p>Newspapers frequently described those who contracted rabies from dog bites as barking and snarling like dogs, while cat-bite victims scratched and spat. Hallucinations, respiratory spasms and out-of-control convulsions produced fearful impressions of the rabid animal’s evil imprint.</p>
<p>Traditional preventive measures also showed how Americans quietly assumed a blurred boundary between humanity and animality. Folk remedies held that dog-bite victims could protect themselves from rabies by killing the dog that had already bitten them, or applying the offending dog’s hair to the wound, or cutting off its tail.</p>
<p>Such preventatives implied a need to cut an invisible, supernatural tie between a dangerous animal and its human prey.</p>
<p>Sometimes the disease left eerie traces. When a Brooklynite died from rabies in 1886, the New York Herald recorded a freakish occurence: Within minutes after the man’s last breath, “the bluish ring on his hand – the mark of the Newfoundland’s fatal bite…disappeared.” Only death broke the mad dog’s pernicious hold.</p>
<h2>Vampires’ roots in rabid dogs</h2>
<p>It’s possible that, along with werewolves, vampire stories also originated from rabies.</p>
<p>Physician Juan Gómez-Alonso has pointed out <a href="https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.51.3.856">a resonance between vampirism and rabies</a> in the hair-raising symptoms of the disease – the distorted sounds, exaggerated facial appearances, restlessness and sometimes wild and aggressive behaviors that made sufferers seem more monstrous than human.</p>
<p>Extreme oversensitivity to stimuli, which set off the tortuous spasmodic episodes associated with rabies, could have a particularly strange effect. A glance at a mirror might set off a violent response, in a chilling parallel with the living-dead vampire’s inability to cast a reflection.</p>
<p>Moreover, in different eastern European folkloric traditions, vampires turned themselves not into bats, but into wolves or dogs, the key vectors of rabies.</p>
<figure class="align-center zoomable">
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298934/original/file-20191028-114011-1wmvy3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298934/original/file-20191028-114011-1wmvy3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/298934/original/file-20191028-114011-1wmvy3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298934/original/file-20191028-114011-1wmvy3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298934/original/file-20191028-114011-1wmvy3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=396&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298934/original/file-20191028-114011-1wmvy3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298934/original/file-20191028-114011-1wmvy3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/298934/original/file-20191028-114011-1wmvy3k.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=498&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">The fun of a Halloween werewolf hints at the fear of a person becoming an animal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Associated-Press-Domestic-News-New-Jersey-Unite-/d8ea2a1fbbe5da11af9f0014c2589dfb/1/0">AP Photo/Daniel Hulshizer</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>So as aspiring werewolves, vampires and other haunts take to the streets for Halloween, remember that beneath the annual ritual of candy and costumed fun lie the darker recesses of the imagination. Here animals, disease and fear intermingle, and monsters materialize at the crossover point between animality and humanity.</p>
<p>Cave canem – beware the dog.</p>
<p>
<section class="inline-content">
<img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248894/original/file-20181204-133095-1p2xxs2.png?w=128&h=128">
<div>
<header>Jessica Wang is the author of:</header>
<p><a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/title/mad-dogs-and-other-new-yorkers">Mad Dogs and Other New Yorkers: Rabies, Medicine, and Society in an American Metropolis, 1840-1920.</a></p>
<footer>Johns Hopkins University Press provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.</footer>
</div>
</section>
</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/125672/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Jessica Wang receives research funding from the University of British Columbia. Over the past decade, she has also received grants and fellowships from the Social Sciences Research Council of Canada, the National Science Foundation (U.S.), the Hampton Fund (UBC), the Killam Trusts, Harvard University, and other sources.
</span></em></p>Fear of a disease that seemed to turn people into beasts might have inspired belief in supernatural beings that live on in today’s creepy Halloween costumes.Jessica Wang, Associate Professor of U.S. History, University of British ColumbiaLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1240092019-09-24T12:56:24Z2019-09-24T12:56:24ZIn medieval England magic was a service industry used by rich and poor alike<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293551/original/file-20190923-54763-1gtel5.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C0%2C5304%2C3668&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/halloween-still-life-burning-candle-on-281080814?src=WyhuvixV97sNTdINxJ1VjA-1-62">Vera Petruk via Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Chances are that when you hear the words “medieval magic”, the image of a witch will spring to mind: wizened old crones huddled over a cauldron containing unspeakable ingredients such as eye of newt. Or you might think of people brutally prosecuted by overzealous priests. But this picture is inaccurate.</p>
<p>To begin with, fear of witchcraft – selling one’s soul to demons to inflict harm on others – was more of an early modern phenomenon than a medieval one, only beginning to take hold in Europe at the tail end of the 15th century. This vision also clouds from view the other magical practices in pre-modern England.</p>
<p>Magic is a universal phenomenon. <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gyzYO0_wMCAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=magic+a+very+short+introduction&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjx9MqYs-fkAhUHVBUIHeoCCoYQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q&f=false">Every society in every age</a> has carried some system of belief and in every society there have been those who claim the ability to harness or manipulate the supernatural powers behind it. Even today, magic subtly pervades our lives – some of us have charms we wear to exams or interviews and others <a href="https://www.britishbirdlovers.co.uk/articles/magpies-and-superstition">nod at lone magpies to ward off bad luck</a>. Iceland has a <a href="https://io9.gizmodo.com/icelandic-politician-moves-30-ton-boulder-onto-his-prop-5910735">government-recognised elf-whisperer</a>, who claims the ability to see, speak to, and negotiate with the supernatural creatures still believed to live in Iceland’s landscape. </p>
<p>While today we might write this off as an overactive imagination or the stuff of fantasy, in the medieval period magic was widely accepted to be very real. A spell or charm could change a person’s life: sometimes for the worse, as with curses – but equally, if not more often, for the better.</p>
<p>Magic was understood to be capable of doing a range of things, from the marvellous to the surprisingly mundane. At the mundane end, magic spells were in many ways little more than a tool. They were used to find lost objects, inspire love, predict the future, heal illnesses and discover buried treasure. In this way, magic provided solutions to everyday problems, especially problems that could not be solved through other means. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293642/original/file-20190923-54754-najo8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293642/original/file-20190923-54754-najo8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293642/original/file-20190923-54754-najo8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293642/original/file-20190923-54754-najo8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293642/original/file-20190923-54754-najo8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293642/original/file-20190923-54754-najo8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293642/original/file-20190923-54754-najo8a.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Double, double toil and trouble.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/witcher-cauldron-color-smoke-halloween-716068231?src=WyhuvixV97sNTdINxJ1VjA-1-17">Shaiith via Shutterstock.</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Crime of conjuring</h2>
<p>This all may sound far-fetched: magic was against the law – and surely most people would neither tolerate nor believe in it? The answer is no on both counts. Magic did not become a secular crime until the <a href="https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/private-lives/religion/overview/witchcraft/">Act against Witchcraft and Conjurations</a> in 1542. Before then it was only counted as a moral misdemeanour and was policed by the church. And, unless magic was used to cause harm – for example, attempted murder (see below) – the church was not especially concerned. Often it was simply treated as a form of superstition. As the church did not have the authority to mete out corporal punishments, magic was normally punished by fines or, in extreme cases, public penance and a stint in the pillory.</p>
<p>This might sound totalitarian today, but these punishments were far lighter than those wielded by secular courts, where maiming and execution were an option even for minor crimes. Magic, then, was placed low on the list of priorities for law enforcers, meaning that it could be practised relatively freely – if with a degree of caution.</p>
<p>Among the hundreds of cases of magic use preserved in England’s ecclesiastical court records, there are a number of testimonials claiming that the spells were effective. In 1375, the magician <a href="https://www.british-history.ac.uk/plea-memoranda-rolls/vol2/pp182-205#h3-0008">John Chestre</a> boasted that he had recovered £15 for a man from “Garlickhithe” (an unknown location – possibly a street in outer London). </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293758/original/file-20190924-54790-1fqp4mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/293758/original/file-20190924-54790-1fqp4mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293758/original/file-20190924-54790-1fqp4mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293758/original/file-20190924-54790-1fqp4mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=724&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293758/original/file-20190924-54790-1fqp4mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=910&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293758/original/file-20190924-54790-1fqp4mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=910&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/293758/original/file-20190924-54790-1fqp4mq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=910&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Magic circle, from a 15th-century manuscript.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Kieckhefer, Richard (1989). Magic in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Meanwhile <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0JbuTA1raC0C&pg=PA157&lpg=PA157&dq=Agnes+Hancock+magician&source=bl&ots=oGJQ4O6dYd&sig=ACfU3U3OPum1uj_WOblydv8iYDwJlopwlw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwik2enhlOfkAhXiSRUIHZorDZUQ6AEwDnoECDEQAQ#v=onepage&q=Agnes%20Hancock%20magician&f=false">Agnes Hancock</a> claimed she could heal people by blessing their clothes or, if her patient was a child, consulting with fairies (she does not explain why fairies would be more inclined to help children). Though the courts disapproved – she was ordered to stop her spells or risk being charged with heresy, which was a capital offence – Agnes’ testimony shows that her patients were normally satisfied. As far as we know, she did not appear before the courts again.</p>
<h2>Magic by royal patent</h2>
<p>Young and old, rich and poor alike used magic. Far from being the preserve of the lower classes, it was commissioned by some very powerful people: sometimes even by the royal family. In a defamation case from 1390, Duke Edmund de Langley – the son of Edward III and uncle to Richard II – is recorded as having <a href="https://archive.org/details/b2485881x/page/518">paid a magician</a> to help him locate some stolen silver dishes. </p>
<p>Meanwhile, <a href="https://justhistoryposts.com/2017/10/10/royal-mistresses-alice-perrers-the-lady-of-the-sun/">Alice Perrers</a> – mistress to Edward III in the late 14th century – was widely rumoured to have employed a friar to cast love spells on the king. Though Alice was a divisive character, the use of love magic – like using it to find stolen goods – was probably not surprising. <a href="https://www.historyofroyalwomen.com/eleanor-cobham/the-rise-and-fall-of-eleanor-cobham/">Eleanor Cobham</a>, duchess of Gloucester, also famously employed a cunning woman to perform love magic in 1440-41, in this case, to help conceive a child. Eleanor’s use of magic got out of hand, however, when she was accused of also using it to plot Henry VI’s death.</p>
<p>In many ways magic was just a part of everyday life: perhaps not something that one would openly admit to using – after all, it was officially seen as immoral – but still treated as something of an open secret. A bit like drug use today, magic was common enough for people to know where to find it, and its use was silently recognised despite being frowned upon. </p>
<p>As for the people who sold magic – often termed as “<a href="https://blubrry.com/thefolklorepodcast/42811812/episode-55-cunning-folk">cunning folk</a>”, though I prefer “service magicians” – they treated their knowledge and skill as a commodity. They knew its value, understood their clients’ expectations and inhabited a marginal space between being tolerated out of necessity and shunned for what they sold. </p>
<p>As the medieval period faded into the early modern, belief in diabolical witchcraft grew and a stronger line was taken against magic – both by the courts and in contemporary culture. Its use remained widespread, though, and still survives in society <a href="https://www.psychicsdirectory.com/">today</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124009/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tabitha Stanmore is affiliated with the University of Bristol and University of Exeter.
Tabitha Stanmore has previously received funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council for her research.
Tabitha Stanmore is a registered member of the Green Party.</span></em></p>In medieval England using magic was a bit like drug use today: against the law and seen as immoral, but still widespread across society.Tabitha Stanmore, PhD Researcher, Early Modern Studies, Department of History, University of BristolLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1062862018-12-04T12:20:30Z2018-12-04T12:20:30ZAre near-death experiences hallucinations? Experts explain the science behind this puzzling phenomenon<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248457/original/file-20181203-194953-1oes93d.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Seeing a 'bright light' was probably just your brain hallucinating.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/light-end-tunnel-192906149?src=gQHhxuzx19atsGdN4XUsRw-1-0">lassedesignen/Shutterstock</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>In our never-ending quest to understand what happens to us after we die, humans have long seen the rare phenomenon of near-death experiences as providing some hints. People who’ve had a brush with death often report seeing and experiencing life-altering events on “the other side,” like a bright white light at the end of a long tunnel, or being reunited with lost relatives or beloved pets. But despite the seemingly supernatural nature of these experiences, experts say that science can explain why they happen – and what’s really going on. </p>
<h2>What are near-death experiences?</h2>
<p>A near-death experience is <a href="https://www.near-death.com/science/experts/raymond-moody.html">a profound psychological event</a> with mystical elements. It typically occurs in people <a href="http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20150303-what-its-really-like-to-die">close to death</a>, or during situations of intense physical or emotional pain, but may also happen after <a href="https://pimvanlommel.nl/en/near-death-experience/">heart attacks or traumatic brain injuries</a>, or even during <a href="https://www.near-death.com/experiences/triggers/extreme-meditation.html">meditation</a> and syncope (loss of consciousness due to a fall in blood pressure). They’re surprisingly common, with <a href="http://www.horizonresearch.org/near-death/intro-to-the-nde-phenomena/how-common-is-a-near-death-experience/">a third of people</a> who have come close to death reporting having experienced one. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.near-death.com/science/experts/raymond-moody.html">Common characteristics</a> people report are feelings of contentment, psychic detachment from the body (such as <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/07/the-neuroscience-of-out-of-body-experiences/534696/">out-of-body experiences</a>), rapid movement through a long dark tunnel, and entering a bright light. </p>
<p>Culture and age may also influence the kind of near-death experience people have. For example, many Indians report meeting <a href="http://www.horizonresearch.org/near-death/intro-to-the-nde-phenomena/religion-culture-and-near-death-experiences/">the Hindu king of the dead, Yamraj</a>, while Americans often claim to have met Jesus. Children typically describe <a href="http://dancingpastthedark.com/articles-2/near-death-experience-in-children/">encountering friends and teachers</a> “in the light”.</p>
<p>Most reported near-death experiences are positive, and have even helped in reducing death anxiety, affirming life, and increasing well-being. However, <a href="https://iands.org/distressing-near-death-experiences.html">some near-death experiences are negative</a> and <a href="https://mysteriousuniverse.org/2016/05/to-hell-and-back-the-dark-side-of-near-death-experiences/">include feelings</a> such as lack of control, awareness of nonexistence, hellish imagery, or perceived judgement from a higher being. </p>
<h2>Why do near-death experiences happen?</h2>
<p>Neuroscientists Olaf Blanke and Sebastian Dieguez have proposed <a href="https://www.thesiouxempire.com/macabre-grimoire-chapter-9-near-death-experiences/">two types of near-death experiences</a>. Type one, which is associated with the brain’s left hemisphere, features an altered sense of time and impressions of flying. Type two, involving the right hemisphere, is characterised by seeing or communicating with spirits, and hearing voices, sounds and music. While it’s unclear why there are different types of near-death experiences, the different interactions between brain regions produce these distinct experiences. </p>
<p>The <a href="https://study.com/academy/lesson/temporal-lobe-definition-functions-quiz.html">temporal lobes</a> also play an important role in near-death experiences. This area of the brain is involved with processing sensory information and memory, so abnormal activity in these lobes can produce strange sensations and perceptions.</p>
<p>Despite several theories used to explain near-death experiences, getting to the bottom of what causes them is difficult. Religious people believe near-death experiences provide evidence for life after death – in particular, the separation of the spirit from the body. Whereas scientific explanations for near-death experiences <a href="https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-14/edition-3/depersonalisation-0">include depersonalisation</a>, which is a sense of being detached from your body. Scientific author Carl Sagan even suggested that the stress of death produces a <a href="http://www.primal-page.com/strange.htm">remembrance of birth</a>, suggesting the “tunnel” people see is a reimagining of the birth canal.</p>
<p>But due to the fanciful nature of these theories, other explanations have emerged. Some researchers claim that endorphins released during stressful events <a href="https://listverse.com/2015/04/14/10-scientific-explanations-for-near-death-experiences/">may produce something like near-death experience</a>, particularly by reducing pain and increasing pleasant sensations. Similarly, anaesthetics <a href="https://www.near-death.com/science/hallucinations/karl-jansen-ketamine-and-ndes.html">such as ketamine</a> can simulate near-death experience characteristics, such as out-of-body experiences.</p>
<p>Other theories suggest near-death experiences arise from dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a psychedelic drug that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N,N-Dimethyltryptamine">occurs naturally in some plants</a>. Rick Strassman, a professor of psychiatry, observed in a study from 1990 to 1995 that people had <a href="https://www.inverse.com/article/48107-dmt-spirit-molecule-near-death-experience">near-death and mystical experiences</a> following injection of DMT. According to Strassman, the body has natural DMT released at birth and death. However, there is no conclusive evidence to support this view. Overall, chemical-based theories lack precision and can’t explain the full range of near-death experience features people experience.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248459/original/file-20181203-194941-4zod15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/248459/original/file-20181203-194941-4zod15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248459/original/file-20181203-194941-4zod15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248459/original/file-20181203-194941-4zod15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=401&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248459/original/file-20181203-194941-4zod15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248459/original/file-20181203-194941-4zod15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/248459/original/file-20181203-194941-4zod15.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Endorphins, natural DMT, lack of brain oxygen, and brain malfunctions are all explanations for the phenomenon.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/xray-head-brain-person-1113389069?src=CHJUGH5IScGRJkiYhnw5yw-3-11">Jalisko/Shutterstock</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Researchers have also explained near-death experiences via <a href="https://www.headway.org.uk/about-brain-injury/individuals/types-of-brain-injury/hypoxic-and-anoxic-brain-injury/anoxic-brain-injury-effects/">cerebral anoxia</a>, a lack of oxygen to the brain. One researcher found air pilots who experienced unconsciousness during rapid acceleration <a href="https://www.near-death.com/experiences/triggers/extreme-gravity.html">described near-death experience-like features</a>, such as tunnel vision. Lack of oxygen may also trigger temporal lobe seizures which causes hallucinations. These may be similar to a near-death experience. </p>
<p>But the most widespread explanation for near-death experiences is the <a href="http://alexpetrov.com/memes/hum/nde-args.html">dying brain hypothesis</a>. This theory proposes that near-death experiences are hallucinations caused by activity in the brain <a href="https://www.near-death.com/science/articles/theory-of-ndes.html#a01">as cells begin to die</a>. As these occur during times of crisis, this would explain the stories survivors recount. The problem with this theory, though plausible, is that it fails to explain the full range of features that may occur during near-death experiences, such as why people have out-of-body experiences.</p>
<p>Currently, there is no definitive explanation for why near-death experiences happen. But ongoing research still strives to <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/what-happens-when-you-die-scientists-have-recreated-near-death-experience-1102292">understand this enigmatic phenomenon</a>. Whether paranormal or not, near-death experiences are extremely important. They provide meaning, hope, and purpose for many people, while offering an appreciation of the human desire to survive beyond death.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/106286/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The scientific explanations might not be definitive, but your brain is largely responsible.Neil Dagnall, Reader in Applied Cognitive Psychology, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityKen Drinkwater, Senior Lecturer and Researcher in Cognitive and Parapsychology, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1043852018-10-26T10:41:33Z2018-10-26T10:41:33ZWhy believing in ghosts can make you a better person<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242303/original/file-20181025-71042-1y7aoaq.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A Halloween ghost.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/102002427@N06/9798286186/in/photolist-fVQM7J-aAnnud-h9pXaJ-gZLHDg-7c2pRU-dQpZDX-pTdtLZ-8KjnF3-78GuJh-pwrGua-7QmgpT-7aNobh-dxzRn2-dPAmhV-dndc9Q-av929j-CQUbnm-YW1yQS-8Q9TxM-oSzcHR-iiPg8-aAT3vE-8DV9dn-5y3Qjr-pH9A2d-p6H5Ap-dMVXGk-49f7MP-gpqqEi-9yrn4A-64JyA-ZWbKjX-5yaTtb-3LcPH9-auJyLc-zyMcyi-5yq6jk-hdDSDL-pGfno1-5wSV8E-8Q9TD2-DjeHAy-8Pq3Wo-NhfHfJ-5ooHXe-8NZCd5-2bexLBf-4hEvTA-21rXTLx-8YBiXk">Werner Reischel/Flickr.com</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">CC BY</a></span></figcaption></figure><p>Halloween is a time when ghosts and spooky decorations are on public display, reminding us of the realm of the dead. But could they also be instructing us in important lessons on how to lead moral lives?</p>
<h2>Roots of Halloween</h2>
<p>The origins of <a href="https://theconversation.com/tricking-and-treating-has-a-history-85720">modern-day Halloween</a> go back to “samhain,” a Celtic celebration for the beginning of the dark half of the year when, it was widely believed, the realm between the living and the dead overlapped and ghosts could be commonly encountered. </p>
<p>In 601 A.D., to help his drive to Christianize northern Europe, Pope Gregory I directed missionaries <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1499461">not to stop pagan celebrations</a>, but rather to Christianize them. </p>
<p>Accordingly, over time, the celebrations of samhain became All Souls’ Day and All Saint’s Day, when speaking with the dead was considered religiously appropriate. All Saint’s Day was also known as All Hallows’ Day and the night before became All Hallows’ Evening, or <a href="https://www.loc.gov/folklife/halloween-santino.html">“Hallowe’en.”</a> </p>
<h2>Christian ghosts</h2>
<p>Not only did the pagan beliefs around spirits of the dead continue, but they also became part of many of early church practices.</p>
<p>Pope Gregory I himself <a href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/gregory_04_dialogues_book4.htm#C7">suggested that people seeing ghosts should say masses</a> for them. The dead, in this view, might require help from the living to make their journey towards Heaven.</p>
<p>During the Middle Ages, beliefs around souls trapped in purgatory led to the church’s increasing practice of selling indulgences – payments to the church to reduce penalties for sins. The <a href="https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/G/bo3619514.html">widespread belief in ghosts</a> turned the sale of indulgences into a lucrative practice for the church.</p>
<p>It was such beliefs that contributed to the <a href="https://theconversation.com/on-the-reformations-500th-anniversary-remembering-martin-luthers-contribution-to-literacy-77540">Reformation</a>, the division of Christianity into Protestantism and Catholicism led by German theologian Martin Luther. Indeed, Luther’s “95 Theses,” that he nailed to the All Saints Church in Wittenburg on Oct. 31, 1517, was largely a protest against the selling of indulgences.</p>
<p>Subsequently, ghosts became identified with “Catholic superstitions” in Protestant countries. </p>
<p>Debates, however, continued about the existence of ghosts and people increasingly <a href="http://literarylondon.org/london-journal/springautumn2015/gaston.pdf">turned to science</a> to deal with the issue. By the 19th century, Spiritualism, a new movement which claimed that the dead could converse with the living, was fast becoming mainstream, and featured popular techniques such as seances, the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-the-ouija-board-got-its-sinister-reputation-66971">ouija board</a>, spirit photography and the like. </p>
<p>Although Spiritualism faded in cultural importance after World War I, many of its approaches <a href="https://academic.oup.com/socrel/article/76/4/389/2461450">can be seen in the “ghost hunters” of today,</a> who often seek to prove the existence of ghosts using scientific techniques.</p>
<h2>A wide, wide world of ghosts</h2>
<p>These beliefs are not just part of the Christian world. Most, <a href="http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/picks-from-the-past/12476/shakespeare-in-the-bush">although not all</a>, societies have a concept of “ghosts.” In Taiwan, for example, about <a href="https://ir.nctu.edu.tw/bitstream/11536/56767/2/180402.pdf">90 percent people report seeing ghosts</a>. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242305/original/file-20181025-71038-1314qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242305/original/file-20181025-71038-1314qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242305/original/file-20181025-71038-1314qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242305/original/file-20181025-71038-1314qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=410&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242305/original/file-20181025-71038-1314qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242305/original/file-20181025-71038-1314qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242305/original/file-20181025-71038-1314qdz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=515&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">An elaborate model house is being guided into the ocean as an offering to wandering ghosts during the beginning of the Ghost Month Festival in Taiwan.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="http://www.apimages.com/metadata/Index/Taiwan-Ghost-Month/8553fc9a5228468db5ffc4efa5e438a9/6/0">AP Photo/Chiang Ying-ying</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Along with many Asian countries such as Japan, Korea, China and Vietnam, Taiwan celebrates a <a href="https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/45141/thesisTracyLeeb5DEZEGEBRUIKEN.pdf?sequence=1">“Ghost Month,” which includes a central “Ghost Day,”</a> when ghosts are believed to freely roam the world of the living. These festivals and beliefs are often tied to the Buddhist story of the <a href="http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/avalambana_sutra.htm">Urabon Sutra</a>, where Buddha instructs a young priest on how to help his mother whom he sees suffering as a “hungry ghost.” </p>
<p>As in many traditions, Taiwanese ghosts are seen either as “friendly” or “unfriendly.” The “friendly” ghosts are commonly ancestral or familial and welcomed into the home during the ghost festival. The “unfriendly” ghosts are those angry or “hungry” ghosts that haunt the living.</p>
<h2>Role of ghosts in our lives</h2>
<p>As a <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=prZyKrMAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao">scholar who has studied</a> and taught ghost stories for many years, I have found that ghosts generally haunt for good reasons. These could range from unsolved murders, lack of proper funerals, forced suicides, preventable tragedies and other ethical failures. </p>
<p>Ghosts, in this light, are often found seeking justice from beyond the grave. They could make such demands from individuals, or from societies as a whole. For example, in the U.S., sightings have been reported of African-American slaves and murdered Native Americans. Scholar <a href="https://cdp.binghamton.edu/english/faculty/profile.html?id=ltucker">Elizabeth Tucker</a> details many of these <a href="http://www.upress.state.ms.us/books/1083">reported sightings on university campuses</a>, often tied in with sordid aspects of the campus’s past.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242301/original/file-20181025-71020-23fv1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/242301/original/file-20181025-71020-23fv1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242301/original/file-20181025-71020-23fv1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242301/original/file-20181025-71020-23fv1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=460&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242301/original/file-20181025-71020-23fv1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242301/original/file-20181025-71020-23fv1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/242301/original/file-20181025-71020-23fv1g.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=578&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">A ghost dance on Halloween.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/traderchris/5134719031/in/photolist-8PJM5t-oLfYWR-an84p5-3L8u74-2bHTfSe-h834iW-dNMiKR-fETUh7-doGftq-zbfBpi-aAAJL9-fVQM7J-aAnnud-h9pXaJ-gZLHDg-7c2pRU-dQpZDX-pTdtLZ-8KjnF3-78GuJh-pwrGua-7QmgpT-7aNobh-dxzRn2-dPAmhV-dndc9Q-av929j-CQUbnm-YW1yQS-8Q9TxM-oSzcHR-iiPg8-aAT3vE-8DV9dn-5y3Qjr-pH9A2d-p6H5Ap-dMVXGk-49f7MP-gpqqEi-9yrn4A-64JyA-ZWbKjX-5yaTtb-3LcPH9-auJyLc-zyMcyi-5yq6jk-hdDSDL-pGfno1">Chris Jepsen/Flickr.com</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/">CC BY-NC-ND</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In this way, ghosts reveal the shadow side of ethics. Their sightings are often a reminder that ethics and morality transcend our lives and that ethical lapses can carry a heavy spiritual burden.</p>
<p>Yet ghost stories are also hopeful. In suggesting a life after death, they offer a chance to be in contact with those that have passed and therefore a chance for redemption – a way to atone for past wrongs. </p>
<p>This Halloween, along with the shrieks and shtick, you may want to take a few minutes to appreciate the role of ghosts in our haunted pasts and how they guide us to lead moral and ethical lives.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/104385/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Tok Thompson does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Ghost stories are often about the departed seeking justice for an earthly wrong. Their sightings are a reminder that ethics and morality transcend our lives.Tok Thompson, Associate Professor of Teaching, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and SciencesLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/1005482018-07-26T13:33:32Z2018-07-26T13:33:32ZBlood moon: lunar eclipse myths from around the world<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229443/original/file-20180726-106508-fdvuja.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Millions of people will have the opportunity to see a lunar eclipse – an event popularly known in the media as a “blood moon” – on Friday July 27. Visible for most of the world – only <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/jul/25/blood-moon-all-you-need-to-know-about-this-weeks-lunar-eclipse">North America and Greenland</a> are expected to miss out – it’s set to be the <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/jul/25/blood-moon-all-you-need-to-know-about-this-weeks-lunar-eclipse">longest one this century</a>, so there is plenty of time to take a look.</p>
<p>During such an eclipse, the full moon moves into the shadow of the Earth cast by the sun, and is momentarily darkened. Some sunlight still reaches the moon, refracted by the Earth’s atmosphere, however, illuminating it with an ashen to dark red glow, the colour depending on atmospheric conditions.</p>
<p>As a communicator of astronomy, the term “blood moon” is a major thorn in my side, since it suggests something other than a lunar eclipse and conjures images of a moon shimmering in crimson red colours, which is not at all accurate. But as a cultural astronomer, the phrase displays some of the interesting ways in which modern society creates its sky stories.</p>
<p>Lunar eclipses have fascinated cultures across the globe, and inspired several striking myths and legends, many of which portray the event as an omen. This is not surprising, since if anything interrupts the regular rhythms of the sun or moon it impacts <a href="https://www.space.com/37727-eclipse-superstitions-then-and-now.html">strongly upon us and our lives</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229428/original/file-20180726-106514-1jyi2kp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229428/original/file-20180726-106514-1jyi2kp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229428/original/file-20180726-106514-1jyi2kp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229428/original/file-20180726-106514-1jyi2kp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229428/original/file-20180726-106514-1jyi2kp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229428/original/file-20180726-106514-1jyi2kp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229428/original/file-20180726-106514-1jyi2kp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Telescopes at the ready.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/girl-looking-lunar-eclipse-through-telescope-1135794602?src=sk351VjQ_gkw_qcwvif1Lw-1-24">SHUTTERSTOCK</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>Lunar malevolence</h2>
<p>For many ancient civilisations, the “blood moon” came with evil intent. The ancient Inca people interpreted the deep red colouring as a jaguar <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/04/140413-total-lunar-eclipse-myths-space-culture-science/">attacking and eating the moon</a>. They believed that the jaguar might then turn its attention to Earth, so the people would shout, shake their spears and make their dogs bark and howl, hoping to make enough noise to drive the jaguar away.</p>
<p>In <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Beyond-Blue-Horizon-Legends-Planets/dp/0060156538">ancient Mesopotamia</a>, a lunar eclipse was considered a direct assault on the king. Given their ability to predict an eclipse with reasonable accuracy, they would put in place a proxy king for its duration. Someone considered to be expendable (it was not a popular job), would pose as the monarch, while the real king would go into hiding and wait for the eclipse to pass. The proxy king would then conveniently disappear, and the old king be reinstated.</p>
<p>Some <a href="https://www.indiatoday.in/lifestyle/culture/story/total-solar-eclipse-indian-hindu-myths-supersitions-rahu-surya-grahan-religious-rituals-lifest-1030644-2017-08-21#close-overlay">Hindu folktales</a> interpret lunar eclipses as the result of the demon Rahu drinking the elixir of immortality. Twin deities the sun and moon promptly decapitate Rahu, but having consumed the elixir, Rahu’s head remains immortal. Seeking revenge, Rahu’s head chases the sun and moon to devour them. If he catches them we have an eclipse – Rahu swallows the moon, which reappears out of his severed neck.</p>
<p>For many people in India, a lunar eclipse bears ill fortune. Food and water are covered and cleansing rituals performed. Pregnant women especially should not eat or carry out household work, in order to protect their unborn child.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229449/original/file-20180726-106527-1xw1jcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229449/original/file-20180726-106527-1xw1jcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229449/original/file-20180726-106527-1xw1jcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229449/original/file-20180726-106527-1xw1jcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229449/original/file-20180726-106527-1xw1jcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229449/original/file-20180726-106527-1xw1jcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229449/original/file-20180726-106527-1xw1jcp.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">In a lunar eclipse, the Earth passes directly between the moon and the sun.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/lunar-eclipse-vector-infographic-sun-earth-1022798473?src=sk351VjQ_gkw_qcwvif1Lw-1-21">SHUTTERSTOCK</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<h2>A friendlier face</h2>
<p>But not all eclipse myths are beset by such malevolence. The Native American Hupa and Luiseño tribes from California believed that the moon was wounded or ill. After the eclipse, the moon would then need healing, either by the moon’s wives or by tribesmen. The Luiseño, for example, would sing and chant healing songs towards the darkened moon.</p>
<p>Altogether more uplifting is the <a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/04/140413-total-lunar-eclipse-myths-space-culture-science/">legend of the Batammaliba people</a> in Togo and Benin in Africa. Traditionally, they view a lunar eclipse as a conflict between sun and moon – a conflict that the people must encourage them to resolve. It is therefore a time for old feuds to be laid to rest, a practice that has remained until this day.</p>
<p>In Islamic cultures, eclipses tend to be interpreted without superstition. In Islam, the sun and moon represent deep respect for Allah, so <a href="https://karimia.com/2015/solar-eclipse-sign-of-allah-swa/">during an eclipse special prayers are chanted</a> including a Salat-al-khusuf, a <a href="http://www.prayerinislam.com/guide-to-prayer/nafl-prayers/prayer-solar-lunar-eclipse-salat-al-khusuf/">“prayer on a lunar eclipse”</a>. It both asks Allah’s forgiveness, and reaffirms Allah’s greatness.</p>
<h2>A misleading history</h2>
<p>Returning once more to blood, Christianity has equated lunar eclipses with the wrath of God, and often associates them with the crucifixion of Jesus. It is notable that Easter is <a href="https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/calendars.html">the first Sunday after the first full moon of spring</a>, ensuring that an eclipse can never fall on Easter Sunday, a potential mark of Judgement Day.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229448/original/file-20180726-106530-ihh7sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/229448/original/file-20180726-106530-ihh7sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229448/original/file-20180726-106530-ihh7sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229448/original/file-20180726-106530-ihh7sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229448/original/file-20180726-106530-ihh7sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229448/original/file-20180726-106530-ihh7sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/229448/original/file-20180726-106530-ihh7sz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lunar eclipses have been shrouded in superstition since time immemorial.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/super-full-blood-moon-over-abandon-695064034?src=Lmv71dIAAj2RJUKVPPyhJA-1-102">SHUTTERSTOCK</a></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Indeed, the term “blood moon” <a href="https://eu.usatoday.com/story/tech/2014/04/03/lunar-eclipse-april-15-blood-moon/7210901/">was popularised in 2013</a> following the release of the book <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Four-Blood-Moons-Something-Change/dp/1617952141">Four Blood Moons</a> by Christian minister John Hagee. He promotes <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SQqQ_-i9VqA">an apocalyptic belief known as the “blood moon prophecy”</a> highlighting a lunar sequence of four total eclipses that occurred in 2014/15. Hagee notes that all four fell on Jewish holidays, which has only happened three times before – each apparently marked by bad events. </p>
<p>The prophecy was <a href="http://fromthetopcom.blogspot.com/2014/01/blood-moon-rising_20.html">dismissed by Mike Moore</a> (General Secretary of Christian Witness to Israel) in 2014, but the term is still regularly used by the media and has become a worrying synonym for a lunar eclipse. Given the enduring superstitions, it is profoundly unhelpful for <a href="https://www.wired.com/story/dont-call-it-a-blood-moon-or-supermoon-or-blue-moon/">science communicators</a> trying to remind everyone that the so-called “blood moon” is nothing to be feared. It may be impressive, and it may be the longest for a century, but it is simply an eclipse.</p>
<p>So, by using the term “blood moon”, we are combining <a href="https://www.space.com/37727-eclipse-superstitions-then-and-now.html">superstition with science</a>, just as the Hindu folktale of Rahu provides a legendary description of lunar orbital mechanics. The “blood moon” attracts interest in the sky and lunar eclipses, but rather than awaiting doom and destruction we can better view it along the lines of the Islamic interpretation – as a monumental illustration of the fascinating and real motions of our solar system.</p>
<p>So my suggestion is this: watch the lunar eclipse as how the sky unfolds above you. Give it your own name, give it your own meaning, and enjoy it with your friends and family. And I think you’ll find that the term “blood moon” cannot do justice to the wonder of what you’re watching.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/100548/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Brown does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>The blood moon myths are many and varied, but, at the end of the day, it’s just an eclipse.Daniel Brown, Lecturer in Astronomy, Nottingham Trent UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/970432018-07-02T11:24:55Z2018-07-02T11:24:55ZThe science of superstition – and why people believe in the unbelievable<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225667/original/file-20180702-116143-4f9d6c.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption"></span> </figcaption></figure><p>The number 13, black cats, breaking mirrors, or walking under ladders, may all be things you actively avoid – if you’re anything like the <a href="http://news.gallup.com/poll/2440/One-Four-Americans-Superstitious.aspx">25% of people in the US</a> who consider themselves superstitious. </p>
<p>Even if you don’t consider yourself a particularly superstitious person, you probably say “bless you” when someone sneezes, just in case the devil should decide to steal their soul – as our <a href="https://www.thesun.co.uk/archives/news/1158748/this-is-the-real-reason-we-say-bless-you-when-someone-sneezes-and-its-not-because-of-the-plague/">ancestors thought possible during a sneeze</a>.</p>
<p>Superstition also explains why many buildings do not have a 13th floor – preferring to label it 14, 14A 12B or M (the 13th letter of the alphabet) on elevator button panels because of concerns about superstitious tenants. Indeed, 13% of people in one survey indicated that staying on the 13th floor of a hotel would bother them – and 9% said they <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1977/06/05/archives/13th-floor-anyone-13th-floor-anyone.html">would ask for a different room</a>.</p>
<p>On top of this, some airlines such as Air France and Lufthansa, <a href="https://www.aol.com/2011/04/15/why-dont-all-airlines-have-a-13th-row/">do not have a 13th row</a>. Lufthansa also has no 17th row – because in some countries – such as Italy and Brazil – the typical unlucky number is 17 and not 13.</p>
<h2>What is superstition?</h2>
<p>Although there is <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-superstition-3298230">no single definition of superstition</a>, it generally means a belief in supernatural forces – such as fate – the desire to influence unpredictable factors and a need to resolve uncertainty. In this way then, individual beliefs and experiences drive superstitions, which explains why they are generally irrational and often defy current scientific wisdom.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.newswise.com/articles/psychology-professor-says-superstitions-all-about-trying-to-control-fate">Psychologists who have investigated</a> what role superstitions play, have found that they derive from the assumption that a connection exists between co-occurring, non-related events. For instance, the notion that charms promote good luck, or protect you from bad luck. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225674/original/file-20180702-116147-1jfrg7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225674/original/file-20180702-116147-1jfrg7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225674/original/file-20180702-116147-1jfrg7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225674/original/file-20180702-116147-1jfrg7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=499&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225674/original/file-20180702-116147-1jfrg7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225674/original/file-20180702-116147-1jfrg7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225674/original/file-20180702-116147-1jfrg7s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=627&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Black cats are less likely to be adopted. Does superstition play a part?</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>For many people, engaging with superstitious behaviours provides a sense of control and reduces anxiety – which is why levels of superstition increase at times of stress and angst. This is particularly the case <a href="https://greatwarcentre.com/2016/05/13/a-soldiers-luck-superstition-in-the-first-world-war/">during times of economic crisis and social uncertainty</a> – notably wars and conflicts. Indeed, <a href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146167282084021">Researchers</a> have observed how in Germany between 1918 and 1940 measures of economic threat correlated directly with measures of superstition.</p>
<h2>Touch wood</h2>
<p>Superstitious beliefs have been shown to help promote a <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/jul/25/psychology-donald-trump-win-luck-superstition">positive mental attitude</a>. Although they can lead to irrational decisions, such as trusting in the merits of good luck and destiny rather than sound decision making. </p>
<p>Carrying charms, wearing certain clothes, visiting places associated with good fortune, preferring specific colours and using particular numbers are all elements of superstition. And although these behaviours and actions can appear trivial, for some people, they can often affect choices made in the real world. </p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225687/original/file-20180702-116126-pl8uhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225687/original/file-20180702-116126-pl8uhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225687/original/file-20180702-116126-pl8uhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225687/original/file-20180702-116126-pl8uhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225687/original/file-20180702-116126-pl8uhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225687/original/file-20180702-116126-pl8uhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225687/original/file-20180702-116126-pl8uhz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Lucky horseshoes.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Superstitions can also give rise to the notion that objects and places are cursed. Such as <a href="http://www.warrens.net/annabelle/">the Annabelle the Doll</a> – who featured in <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1457767/">The Conjuring</a> and two other movies – and is said to be inhabited by the spirit of a dead girl. A more traditional illustration is the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse_of_the_pharaohs">Curse of the Pharaohs</a>, which is said to be cast upon any person who disturbs the mummy of an Ancient Egyptian person – especially a pharaoh.</p>
<p>Numbers themselves can also often be associated with curses. For example, the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1174958/The-devils-work-Supercar-registration-plate-666-destroyed-mysteriously-bursts-flames.html">figure 666 in a licence plate</a> is often featured in stories of misfortune. The most famous case was the numberplate “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pI5IfygkIyw">ARK 666Y</a>”, which is believed to have caused mysterious vehicle fires and “bad vibes” for passengers. </p>
<h2>Sporting superstitions</h2>
<p>Superstition is also highly prevalent within sport – especially in highly competitive situations. Four out of five professional athletes report <a href="https://believeperform.com/performance/the-power-of-superstitions-and-rituals-in-sport/">engaging with at least one superstitious</a> behaviour prior to performance. Within sport, superstitions have been shown to <a href="https://www.thecut.com/2015/06/why-superstitions-help-athletes-perform-better.html">reduce tension</a> and provide a sense of control over unpredictable, chance factors.</p>
<p>Superstitions practices tend to vary across sports, but there are similarities. Within football, gymnastics and athletics, for example, competitors reported praying for success, checking appearance in mirror and dressing well to feel better prepared. Players and athletes also engage with personalised actions and behaviours – such as wearing lucky clothes, kit and charms.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225675/original/file-20180702-116129-15qmt7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/225675/original/file-20180702-116129-15qmt7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225675/original/file-20180702-116129-15qmt7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225675/original/file-20180702-116129-15qmt7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=320&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225675/original/file-20180702-116129-15qmt7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225675/original/file-20180702-116129-15qmt7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/225675/original/file-20180702-116129-15qmt7p.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=403&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Dayton baseball players try to bring good luck by twirling their fingers.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock</span></span>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Famous sportspeople often display superstitious behaviours. Notably, basketball legend Michael Jordan concealed his lucky North Carolina shorts under his Chicago Bulls team kit. Similarly, the tennis legend Björn Bork, reportedly wore the same brand of shirt when preparing for Wimbledon. </p>
<p><a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/tennis/8703175/Rafael-Nadal-my-pre-game-rituals-sharpen-my-senses-before-I-go-into-battle.html">Rafael Nadal has an array of rituals</a> that he performs each time he plays. These include the manner in which he places his water bottles and taking freezing cold showers. Nadal believes these rituals help him to find focus, flow and perform well.</p>
<h2>Walking under ladders</h2>
<p>What all this shows is that superstitions can provide reassurance and can help to reduce anxiety in some people. But while this may well be true, research has shown that actions associated with superstitions can also become self-reinforcing – in that the behaviour develops into a habit and failure to perform the ritual <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/there-is-always-another-part/201712/superstition-quirky-beliefs-or-psychopathology">can actually result in anxiety</a>. </p>
<p>This is even though the actual outcome of an event or situation is still dependent on known factors – rather than unknown supernatural forces. A notion consistent with the <a href="https://quoteinvestigator.com/2010/07/14/luck/">often quoted maxim</a>, “the harder you work (practice) the luckier you get”. </p>
<p>So the next time you break a mirror, see a black cat or encounter the number 13 – don’t worry too much about “bad luck”, as it’s <a href="https://www.skeptical-science.com/people/skeptics/darren-brown-experiments-secret-luck">most likely just a trick of the mind</a>.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/97043/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>This is the real reason you believe in superstitions.Neil Dagnall, Reader in Applied Cognitive Psychology, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityKen Drinkwater, Senior Lecturer and Researcher in Cognitive and Parapsychology, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/941082018-04-12T19:56:15Z2018-04-12T19:56:15ZOn Friday the 13th, leave the superstitions at home<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214390/original/file-20180411-587-u6xrpt.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Shutterstock.com</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Of all the days to stay in bed, Friday the 13th is surely the best. It’s the title of a popular (if increasingly corny) horror movie series; it’s associated with bad luck and it’s generally thought to be a good time not to take any serious risks. </p>
<p>Even if you try to escape it, you might fail, as happened to New Yorker Daz Baxter. On Friday 13th in 1976, he decided to just stay in bed for the day, only to be killed when the floor of his apartment block collapsed under him. There’s even a term for the terror the day evokes: <a href="https://www.macmillandictionary.com/buzzword/entries/paraskevidekatriaphobia.html">Paraskevidekatriaphobia</a> was coined by the psychotherapist <a href="http://www.drdossey.com/Bio.htm">Donald Dossey</a>, a specialist in phobias, to describe an intense and irrational fear of the date. </p>
<p>Unfortunately there is always <a href="http://ed5015.tripod.com/PaFriday13thCalendar11.htm">one Friday 13th in a year</a>, and sometimes there are as many as three. Today is one of them - and another comes in July. But no matter how many times the masked killer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Voorhees">Jason Voorhees</a> from <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0080761/?ref_=nv_sr_2">Friday the 13th</a> returns to haunt our screens, this fear is in our own minds rather than any basis in science. </p>
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<p>One study did show a small rise in accidents on that day for women drivers in Finland, <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12450968">but much of the problem was due to anxiety rather than general bad luck.</a> Follow-up <a href="https://translate.google.com.au/translate?hl=en&sl=de&u=http://www.skeptizismus.de/freitag.pdf&prev=search">research</a> found no consistent evidence of a <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15546493">rise in accidents</a> on the day, but suggested that if you’re superstitious, it might be better not get behind the wheel of a car on it anyway.</p>
<p>The stigma against Friday 13th likely comes from a merging of two different superstitions. In the <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/i266158">Christian tradition</a>, the death of Jesus took place on a Friday, following the presence of 13 people at the Last Supper. In Teutonic legend, the god Loki appears at a dinner party seated for 12 gods, making him the outcast 13th at the table, <a href="https://www.csicop.org/superstition/library/number_thirteen">leading to the death of another guest</a>. </p>
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<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214387/original/file-20180411-584-1y17nwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214387/original/file-20180411-584-1y17nwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/214387/original/file-20180411-584-1y17nwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214387/original/file-20180411-584-1y17nwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214387/original/file-20180411-584-1y17nwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214387/original/file-20180411-584-1y17nwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214387/original/file-20180411-584-1y17nwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/214387/original/file-20180411-584-1y17nwe.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
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<span class="caption">13 was certainly unlucky number for Jesus. Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, 1498.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%C3%9Altima_Cena_-_Da_Vinci_5.jpg">Wikimedia</a></span>
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<p>Elsewhere in the world, 13 is less unlucky. In Hinduism, people fast to worship Lord Shiva and Parvati on <em>Trayodashi</em>, the 13th day in Hindu month. There are 13 Buddhas in the Shingon sect of Buddhism, and there is mention of a lucky 13 signs, rather than unlucky, in <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Origins-Popular-Superstitions-Customs-Forgotten/dp/1605064580">The Tibetan Book of the Great Liberation</a>.</p>
<p>In Italy, it is more likely to be “heptadecaphobia”, or <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311337579_Superstitions_religiosity_and_secularization_An_analysis_of_the_periodic_oscillations_of_weddings_in_Italy">fear of the number 17</a>, that leads to a change of plans. In Greece, Spain, and Mexico, the “unlucky” day is not Friday 13th, but Tuesday 13th. </p>
<p>In China, the number four is considered significantly unlucky, as it is nearly homophonous to the word “death”. In a <a href="http://www.mccrindle.com.au/ResearchSummaries/The-Lucky-Country.pdf">multicultural country like Australia</a> you may find hotels and cinemas missing both 13th and fourth floors, out of respect for the trepidation people can have about those numbers.</p>
<h2>The lure of superstition</h2>
<p>Superstitions were one of the first elements of paranormal beliefs studied in the early 1900s. While many are now just social customs rather than a genuine conviction, their persistence is remarkable.</p>
<p>If you cross your fingers, feel alarmed at breaking a mirror, find a “lucky” horseshoe or throw spilled salt over your shoulder, you are engaging in long-held practices that can have a powerful impact on your emotions. Likewise, many students are now heading towards their semester exams. In the lecture rooms, they may take lucky charms such as a particular pen or favourite socks. </p>
<p>In sports, baseballer Nomar Garciaparra is known for his <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WIJYdE2Juew">elaborate batting ritual</a>. Other sports people wear “lucky gear” or put on their <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Rituals-Ceremonies-Popular-Culture-Browne/dp/0879721618">gloves in a particular order</a>. The great cricket umpire David Shepherd stood on one leg <a href="https://www.thenational.ae/uae/an-umpire-with-the-air-of-a-genial-butcher-1.491740">whenever the score reached 111</a>. These sorts of superstitions are humorously depicted in the film <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1045658/">Silver Linings Playbook</a>. It’s interesting to note that it’s often the <a href="https://global.oup.com/academic/product/believing-in-magic-9780199996926?cc=au&lang=en&">successful athletes</a> who have these superstitions and stick to them.</p>
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<span class="caption">Lucky charms can make you feel good.</span>
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<p>One key reason for the persistence of superstition is a psychological concept called a “discriminative stimulus”. An example of this is the gambler who notices he always seem to win when betting on “lucky 7”, and forgets all the times that same number has not been in his favour.</p>
<p>Charms do work in a fashion. If you wear your lucky underwear and succeed enough, you will feel distress that actually impedes your performance if you’re not wearing them. This then influences your performance – an “A” seems guaranteed because you walk in fully prepared. </p>
<p>But if you’re feeling a little anxious this Friday, try to remember there’s nothing different about it to any other day.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/94108/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kylie Sturgess does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>Superstition holds that Friday 13th is the day to stay in bed and avoid taking risks. But it’s all in our heads.Kylie Sturgess, Tutor and Researcher Radio Broadcasting, Murdoch UniversityLicensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.