tag:theconversation.com,2011:/institutions/international-institute-of-tropical-agriculture-iita-2684/articles
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
2022-05-19T13:08:09Z
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/182524
2022-05-19T13:08:09Z
2022-05-19T13:08:09Z
Banana paper could save East Africa’s potatoes from devastating worms
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/462000/original/file-20220509-17-vv5kwj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Potatoes grown in the Kibirichia area of Mount Kenya.</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">© 2010 CIAT Neil Palmer/Flickr</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Potatoes originated in South America, where they were domesticated about <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/feeding-the-people/AB26809BD10BBD77659D7618A46DB454">8,000</a> years ago. The plants were eventually brought to Europe in the mid-1500s, from where they spread to the rest of the world. </p>
<p>They have become a very important crop in East Africa, both as a food and economically. In Kenya alone, potatoes contribute <a href="https://cipotato.org/media/farming-success-potatoes-kenya/2019">over US$500 million</a> to the economy annually, employing around 2.5 million people.</p>
<p>However, although the potato-growing area is increasing, productivity is <a href="https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home">steadily declining</a>. This is due to various reasons including potato cyst nematodes, a microscopic type of roundworm that feeds on potato roots and lives in the soil. They’re causing substantial losses to potato production in Kenya, and likely the region. Current estimates show that approximately <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.00670">US$127 million</a> worth of losses are attributed to the nematodes in Kenya every year.</p>
<p>Potato cyst nematodes followed the potatoes from South America and have become established in most potato growing regions of the world. In East Africa, prevailing conditions, like the tropical climate which allows for all-year-round potato production, has led to the build-up and manifestation of the pest. </p>
<p>The population of nematodes in Kenya is quite remarkable. They can be up to <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.00670">15-fold higher</a> than the levels recorded in Europe, where 10 eggs per gram of soil is <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1744-7348.2002.tb00172.x">commonplace</a>.</p>
<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461999/original/file-20220509-16-xkdinz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/461999/original/file-20220509-16-xkdinz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461999/original/file-20220509-16-xkdinz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461999/original/file-20220509-16-xkdinz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=346&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461999/original/file-20220509-16-xkdinz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461999/original/file-20220509-16-xkdinz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/461999/original/file-20220509-16-xkdinz.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=435&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">Potato cyst nematode.</span>
<span class="attribution"><span class="source">US Department of Agriculture/Flickr</span></span>
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<p>Due to the magnitude of the damage that the nematodes cause to potato production, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mpp.13047">strict quarantine regulations</a> have been implemented across many parts of the world to contain and restrict their further spread.</p>
<p>But we may have <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-00852-5">found a solution</a>: banana paper. Potatoes can be wrapped in a “banana paper”, that we devised, at planting to protect it from the worms. The paper is made from fibre waste from harvested bananas which would otherwise have been discarded. In East Africa, bananas are plentiful – and therefore so will the fibre waste. </p>
<h2>Potato root signals</h2>
<p>Potato cyst nematodes are soil dwelling and seek out plant roots to feed on once potatoes are planted. They are so-called because the female becomes filled with her brood of eggs inside her body which, upon maturity, is referred to as a cyst. </p>
<p>As she matures the female becomes balloon shaped, her cuticle hardens, forming a toughened cyst wall. When the female dies the cyst becomes a protective casing for the eggs which will hatch only in response to chemical signals received from growing potato roots. Otherwise, the eggs can remain in a dormant state within the protective cyst for many years. This means that they are very difficult to manage and almost impossible to eradicate.</p>
<p>Once hatched the juvenile nematodes locate potatoes using chemical signals that are released from the roots. They then burrow into the root and establish a feeding site where they then suck out the contents of the cells. This damages the potato roots and reduces their growth and potato yields. In severe infestations the plant may die.</p>
<p>To combat these nematodes, we tested a paper made from banana fibre in Kenya, and it works. Potatoes are enclosed or wrapped in the “banana paper” at planting which protected the plant from the nematodes.</p>
<p>The special combination of the substances that make up the “banana paper” (the “lignin” and the “cellulose”) which allows us to apply tiny amounts of chemical nematicides, a type of chemical pesticide used to kill nematodes. These are slowly released as the paper naturally deteriorates. The potato seed tuber, enclosed in the treated banana paper, is protected by the pesticidal activity over time, but with minimal dosages that reduce environmental contamination. </p>
<p>The idea is that the nematodes are killed by the pesticide before they infect the potato roots. However, by chance, the same ligno-cellulose make-up also adsorbs the chemical signals from the potato roots that the nematodes require to hatch from the egg and locate roots. If the juvenile nematodes are unable to find their host roots their energy reserves quickly deplete and they die. This means that even without any treatment, the paper is still very effective.</p>
<p>And it means that the combination of interference in the signalling between the potato roots and nematodes, along with a low nematicide dosage makes for a very effective nematode management option.</p>
<p>In tests conducted in Kenya, potato yields were up to five-fold higher than normal farmer practice with nematode densities significantly suppressed. </p>
<p>There is much anticipation that the banana paper technology can provide a vehicle for the delivery of pesticides, all at ultra-low dosages, towards their more effective and efficient use and at more environmentally acceptable levels. Research is currently underway to assess the use of the paper on other crops, such as yam, cassava and sweet potato and against other nematode pests, such as root knot nematodes and lesion nematodes.</p>
<h2>Way forward</h2>
<p>To make this a reality there is need to demonstrate the local production of banana paper in East Africa. We’re encouraged that a local paper manufacturer has indicated that this is viable.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, a more extensive assessment of the paper is necessary to ensure that it is equally effective across variable climatic, ecological and soil conditions, as well as on various crops.</p>
<p>It is also necessary to expose the technology to farmers, to create awareness of this potential product. Farmers and agricultural staff and researchers first need to be cognisant of the potato cyst nematode pests themselves and why they need to be controlled. Farmers are aware of declining and poor yields but do not understand the reasons behind this and that a tiny worm that is almost invisible can be responsible for such dramatic losses.</p>
<p>It’s been a very exciting find as banana paper could offer a realistic mechanism for managing nematode pests, and potentially other difficult-to-manage diseases and disease complexes of crops.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/182524/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Potato productivity in Kenya is declining, this is partly due to potato cyst nematodes - a microscopic type of roundworm that feeds on potato roots.
Danny Coyne, Soil Health Scientist, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
Solveig Haukeland, General nematologist, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/171753
2021-11-13T22:12:07Z
2021-11-13T22:12:07Z
COP26: experts react to the UN climate summit and Glasgow Pact
<p><em>We asked experts from around the world for their reaction to the outcomes of this year’s UN climate summit, COP26, including the Glasgow Climate Pact agreed by all 197 countries attending the talks. Here’s what they had to say about the deals that were made. (This page will be updated as reactions come in.)</em></p>
<h2>Deals and targets</h2>
<p><strong>A starting point for future action.</strong></p>
<p>The Glasgow Climate Pact is not perfect, but still strengthens the Paris agreement in several ways. Acknowledging that there is no safe limit for global warming, the Pact resolves to limit global warming to 1.5°C, instead of the Paris text of “well below 2°C”. Crucially it also delivers a strong framework for tracking commitments against real-world progress. </p>
<p>The summit was pitched as the last chance to “keep 1.5°C alive” – holding temperatures to less than 1.5°C above their pre-industrial levels. 2020 was also supposed be the year when developed countries would provide at least US$100 billion a year of financial aid to help developing countries adapt to mounting storms and droughts – a pledge that still has not been met – and the transition to clean energy was supposed to start being rolled out.</p>
<p>Perhaps concerned that national targets collectively were nowhere near good enough to keep 1.5°C alive – we were heading for <a href="https://climateactiontracker.org/publications/glasgows-2030-credibility-gap-net-zeros-lip-service-to-climate-action/">more like 2.4°C at best</a> – the UK government used its presidency programme to supplement these targets with a series of <a href="https://theconversation.com/claims-of-cop26s-success-have-been-unpicked-but-political-journalists-have-repeated-the-spin-171619">press-friendly announcements</a> of non-binding pledges to cut methane emissions, end deforestation and phase out coal. </p>
<p>These were further supplemented by the “race to zero” initiatives, a series of announcements by states, cities and businesses on a range of decarbonisation approaches.</p>
<p>While these are genuine attempts at climate action, success hinges on whether these developments can swiftly make into raised national commitments within the next year. The pact now explicitly “requests parties to revisit and strengthen” their 2030 goals, meaning 1.5°C is down but not out. </p>
<p><em>Piers Forster, Professor of Physical Climate Change & Director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate University of Leeds</em></p>
<h2>Greenhouse gas emissions</h2>
<p><strong>Progress on cutting emissions, but nowhere near enough.</strong></p>
<p>The Glasgow Climate Pact is incremental progress and not the breakthrough moment needed to curb the worst impacts of climate change. The UK government as host and therefore president of COP26 wanted to “<a href="https://twitter.com/BorisJohnson/status/1455568026384863241">keep 1.5°C alive</a>”, the stronger goal of the Paris Agreement. But at best we can say the goal of limiting global warming to 1.5°C is on life support – it has a pulse but it’s nearly dead.</p>
<p>Before COP26, the world was <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/emissions-gap-report-2021">on track for 2.7°C of warming</a>, based on commitments by countries, and expectation of the changes in technology. Announcements at COP26, including new pledges to cut emissions this decade, by some key countries, have reduced this to a <a href="https://climateactiontracker.org/global/temperatures/">best estimate of 2.4°C</a>. </p>
<p>More countries also announced long-term net zero goals. One of the most important was <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-59125143">India’s</a> pledge to reach net zero emissions by 2070. Critically, the country said it would get off to a quick start with a massive expansion of renewable energy in the next ten years so that it accounts for 50% of its total usage, reducing its emissions in 2030 by 1 billion tonnes (from a current total of around 2.5 billion). </p>
<p>A world warming by 2.4°C is still clearly <a href="https://theconversation.com/cop26-what-would-the-world-be-like-at-3-c-of-warming-and-how-would-it-be-different-from-1-5-c-171030">very far from 1.5°C</a>. What remains is a near-term emissions gap, as global emissions look likely to flatline this decade rather than showing the sharp cuts necessary to be on the 1.5°C trajectory the pact calls for. There is a gulf between long-term net zero goals and plans to deliver emissions cuts this decade. </p>
<p><em>Simon Lewis, Professor of Global Change Science at University College London and University of Leeds, and Mark Maslin, Professor of Earth System Science, University College London.</em></p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/five-things-you-need-to-know-about-the-glasgow-climate-pact-171799">Five things you need to know about the Glasgow Climate Pact</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Black smoke rising from power plant chimneys." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431789/original/file-20211113-15738-1i6wcas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431789/original/file-20211113-15738-1i6wcas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431789/original/file-20211113-15738-1i6wcas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431789/original/file-20211113-15738-1i6wcas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431789/original/file-20211113-15738-1i6wcas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431789/original/file-20211113-15738-1i6wcas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431789/original/file-20211113-15738-1i6wcas.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">The Glasgow Pact only agreed to ‘phase down’ coal.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/power-plant-emitin-smoke-steam-1555865300">Peter Gudella/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Fossil fuel finance</h2>
<p><strong>Some progress on ending subsidies, but the final deal fell short.</strong></p>
<p>The most important outcomes from COP26 will be directly related to two “F-words”: finance and fossil fuels. Close attention should be paid to pledges for new finance for mitigation, adaptation, and loss and damage. But we must remember the other side of the equation — the urgent need to cut off funding for fossil fuel projects. As the <a href="https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050">International Energy Agency made clear earlier this year</a>, there is no room in the 1.5°C carbon budget for any new investments in fossil fuels.</p>
<p><a href="https://ukcop26.org/statement-on-international-public-support-for-the-clean-energy-transition/">The commitment</a> from more than 25 countries to shut off new international finance for fossil fuel projects by the end of 2022 is one of the biggest successes to come out of Glasgow. This could shift more than <a href="http://priceofoil.org/2021/11/12/france-joins-commitment-to-end-international-oil-gas-and-coal-finance-by-2022/">US$24 billion a year</a> of public funds out of fossil fuels and into clean energy.</p>
<p>There was also short-lived hope that the COP decision would call on parties to “<a href="https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/Overarching_decision_1-CMA-3.pdf">accelerate the phasing-out of coal and subsidies for fossil fuels</a>.” According to the <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/emissions-gap-report-2018">United Nations</a>, eliminating all fossil fuel subsidies would reduce global carbon emissions up to 10% by 2030. Sadly before the pact was agreed, the text on coal was <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/12/second-cop26-draft-criticised-for-weakened-language-on-fossil-fuels">watered down</a>, the phrase “phasing out” was replaced with “phasing down”, and the weasel word “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-02847-2">inefficient</a>” was inserted before “subsidies for fossil fuels.”</p>
<p>The fact that not even a weak reference to fossil fuels can survive in the decision text speaks volumes about how divorced the COP process is from the realities of the climate crisis. And this is unlikely to change as long as <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/08/world/cop26-climate-fossil-fuel-lobbying-intl/index.html">fossil fuel lobbyists</a> are permitted to attend.</p>
<p><em>Kyla Tienhaara, Canada Research Chair in Economy and Environment, Queen’s University, Ontario</em></p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/cop26-leaves-too-many-loopholes-for-the-fossil-fuel-industry-here-are-5-of-them-171398">COP26 leaves too many loopholes for the fossil fuel industry. Here are 5 of them</a>
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<h2>Nature</h2>
<p><strong>A declaration on deforestation, but it isn’t binding.</strong></p>
<p>Nature was a big theme at COP26, and the importance of Indigenous peoples’ rights and tackling commodity supply chains that drive deforestation were widely recognised across the conference. </p>
<p>Over 135 countries <a href="https://ukcop26.org/glasgow-leaders-declaration-on-forests-and-land-use/">signed a declaration</a> agreeing to halt and reverse forest loss and land degradation by 2030, although <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/indonesia-signals-about-face-cop26-zero-deforestation-pledge-2021-11-04/">Indonesia subsequently backed away from the commitment</a>, underscoring the importance of binding decisions rather than voluntary declarations for important outcomes. <a href="https://ukcop26.org/cop26-iplc-forest-tenure-joint-donor-statement/">Donors pledged US$1.7 billion</a> to support Indigenous peoples and local communities’ forest stewardship. Twenty-eight of the largest consumer and producer countries of beef, soy, cocoa and palm oil discussed a <a href="https://www.factdialogue.org/fact-roadmap">roadmap</a> identifying areas of work to tackle deforestation in commodity supply chains.</p>
<p>However, declarations can distract from the negotiated outcomes of the UN process. For nature, an important outcome included in the final <a href="https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2021_L16_adv.pdf">Glasgow Climate Pact</a> is that it “emphasizes the importance of protecting, conserving and restoring nature and ecosystems to achieve the Paris Agreement temperature goal, including through forests and other terrestrial and marine ecosystems”.</p>
<p>Such recognition of the role of nature is critical to enhance the inclusion of ecosystem restoration in countries’ climate commitments. Yet, <a href="https://theconversation.com/forests-cant-handle-all-the-net-zero-emissions-plans-companies-and-countries-expect-nature-to-offset-too-much-carbon-170336">nature alone cannot deliver the 1.5°C goal</a> without other efforts, including phasing out coal and fossil fuel subsidies, providing adequate finance to developing countries, and protecting human rights.</p>
<p><em>Kate Dooley, research fellow in ecosystem-based pathways and climate change, University of Melbourne</em></p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/forests-cant-handle-all-the-net-zero-emissions-plans-companies-and-countries-expect-nature-to-offset-too-much-carbon-170336">Forests can't handle all the net-zero emissions plans – companies and countries expect nature to offset too much carbon</a>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="Electric car plugged in to charger." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431790/original/file-20211113-15515-1k1c2y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431790/original/file-20211113-15515-1k1c2y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431790/original/file-20211113-15515-1k1c2y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431790/original/file-20211113-15515-1k1c2y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431790/original/file-20211113-15515-1k1c2y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431790/original/file-20211113-15515-1k1c2y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431790/original/file-20211113-15515-1k1c2y0.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<span class="caption">More than 30 countries have pledged to end sales of internal combustion vehicles.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/charging-modern-electric-car-on-street-548313280">guteksk7/Shutterstock</a></span>
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<h2>Transportation</h2>
<p><strong>Big pledges to boost electric vehicles.</strong></p>
<p>COP26 gave more attention than ever to transportation, with mixed results thanks to the mess of global aspirations and national politics. Transport is the largest emitter of greenhouse gases in <a href="https://www.datawrapper.de/_/OcmIT/">many countries</a> and, after renewable electricity, the second most important strategy for reaching net zero emissions.</p>
<p>More than 30 countries and six automakers <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/cop26-declaration-zero-emission-cars-and-vans/cop26-declaration-on-accelerating-the-transition-to-100-zero-emission-cars-and-vans#fn:1">pledged to end sales of internal combustion vehicles</a> by 2040. The list had some notable no-shows – including the US, Germany, Japan and China, and the two largest automotive companies, Volkswagen and Toyota – but was still impressive. The shift to electric vehicles was already unequivocal. Electric vehicles (EVs) reached <a href="https://insideevs.com/news/544047/europe-plugin-car-sales-september2021/">20% of sales in Europe</a> <a href="https://insideevs.com/news/542665/china-plugin-car-sales-september2021/">and China</a> in recent months, and both are <a href="https://www.reuters.com/business/retail-consumer/eu-proposes-effective-ban-new-fossil-fuel-car-sales-2035-2021-07-14/">headed for full electrification of new cars</a> by 2035 or so. </p>
<p>The transition to electric and hydrogen trucks is about to follow a similar path. Fifteen countries agreed to work toward transitioning <a href="https://globaldrivetozero.org/2021/11/09/landmark-commitment-at-cop26-countries-subnational-governments-vehicle-manufacturers-and-fleets-target-100-zero-emission-new-truck-and-bus-sales-by-2040-10-nov-2021/">all new trucks and buses to zero emissions</a> by 2040. California already requires 70% of sales in most truck categories to be <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/rulemaking/2019/advancedcleantrucks">zero emissions by 2035</a>. China is on a <a href="https://news.mit.edu/2021/chinas-transition-electric-vehicles-0429">similar trajectory</a>. These are non-binding agreements, but they are made easier by the <a href="https://www.benchmarkminerals.com/membership/lithium-ion-battery-cell-prices-fall-to-110-kwh-but-raw-material-risk-looms-large-2/">roughly 50% drop</a> in battery costs since the Paris accord.</p>
<p>Aviation is tougher because electrification is currently only possible for short flights and smaller planes. The US, UK and others <a href="https://ukcop26.org/cop-26-declaration-international-aviation-climate-ambition-coalition/">agreed to promote sustainable aviation fuels</a>. It’s a start.</p>
<p>Some <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/10/what-if-we-just-gave-up-cars-activists-press-cop26-leaders-to-dream-big">lament the focus on EVs</a> further locking in car-centric living. But to reduce greenhouse gases, vehicle electrification (including hydrogen) is the <a href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3np3p2t0">most effective and economic approach</a> to decarbonize transportation – by far.</p>
<p><em>Daniel Sperling, Founding Director of the Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California-Davis</em></p>
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Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/seven-reasons-global-transport-is-so-hard-to-decarbonise-170908">Seven reasons global transport is so hard to decarbonise</a>
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<h2>Cities and buildings</h2>
<p><strong>Now firmly on the agenda in national plans and global deal.</strong></p>
<p>At the very least COP26 has put the built environment more firmly on the agenda with a full day devoted to it – it only rated half a day at Paris in 2015 and before that had little formal acknowledgement. Given buildings are responsible for <a href="https://www.iea.org/topics/buildings">40% of global carbon emissions</a> many argue they should receive even more attention, with the World Green Building Council stating they should be “<a href="https://twitter.com/WorldGBC/status/1458862516424085513">elevated to a critical climate solution</a>”.</p>
<p>There are now <a href="https://buildingtocop.org/">136 countries</a> that have included buildings as part of their climate action plans (known as NDCs), up from 88 at the last major COP. As NDCs are the legal mechanism COP relies on, that matters.</p>
<p>Local governments are, in general, more engaged with the built environment than national governments. This is where planning and building regulations are approved and development strategies established, which dictate how we build our houses, offices and community facilities. The fact cities create <a href="https://theconversation.com/cop26-cities-create-over-70-of-energy-related-emissions-heres-what-must-change-171307">over 70% of energy-related emissions</a> reinforces their importance. So expect local authorities to take a more active role in future. </p>
<p>It is clear that “<a href="https://theconversation.com/embodied-carbon-why-truly-net-zero-buildings-could-still-be-decades-away-170401">embodied carbon</a>” and “<a href="https://theconversation.com/big-business-and-climate-change-finally-sustainability-pays-171480">Scope 3 emissions</a>” will become everyday language for construction pretty quickly, so make sure you learn what they mean.</p>
<p>Away from the formal agenda, the biggest tension was the debate between technology and consumption. Lots of industry groups at COP26 were talking about decarbonising steel and concrete production with new, and as yet unproven, technologies. We do need that, but more importantly <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-cant-afford-to-just-build-greener-we-must-build-less-170570">we need to change the way we design buildings</a> so they use materials that are intrinsically low-carbon, such as timber, and to consume less resources in general.</p>
<p>But without doubt, the biggest win is the specific reference to energy efficiency in the adopted text of the <a href="https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2021_L16_adv.pdf">Glasgow Climate Pact</a>. This is the first time energy efficiency has been explicitly referenced in the COP process, and energy efficiency is the key action where buildings have a disproportionate role in mitigating climate change.</p>
<p>Article 36 calls on governments to “accelerate the development, deployment and dissemination” of actions including “rapidly scaling up” energy efficiency measures. Note the urgency of the language. There is now a legal imperative for all countries to align their building regulations with a low carbon future.</p>
<p><em>Ran Boydell, Visiting Lecturer in Sustainable Development, Heriot-Watt University</em></p>
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<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/embodied-carbon-why-truly-net-zero-buildings-could-still-be-decades-away-170401">Embodied carbon: why truly net zero buildings could still be decades away</a>
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</em>
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<figure class="align-center ">
<img alt="A tank of hydrogen on a cliff next to wind turbines." src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431796/original/file-20211113-59304-18wms67.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/431796/original/file-20211113-59304-18wms67.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431796/original/file-20211113-59304-18wms67.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431796/original/file-20211113-59304-18wms67.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=296&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431796/original/file-20211113-59304-18wms67.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431796/original/file-20211113-59304-18wms67.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/431796/original/file-20211113-59304-18wms67.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=372&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
<figcaption>
<span class="caption">Renewable hydrogen use hasn’t been proven at scale.</span>
<span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/hydrogen-renewable-energy-production-gas-clean-1786937360">Audio und werbung/Shutterstock</a></span>
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</figure>
<h2>Energy transitions</h2>
<p><strong>Discussions relied on unproven technologies.</strong></p>
<p>COP26 featured hundreds of commitments to power past coal and natural gas and offer just transitions to workers and communities, mostly with a focus on renewable energy transitions.</p>
<p>However, one concern I have coming out of COP26 is that discussions are often promoting technologies that are not currently market ready or scalable, especially nuclear small modular reactors, hydrogen and carbon capture and storage. </p>
<p>According to the International Energy Agency, <a href="https://www.iea.org/articles/etp-clean-energy-technology-guide">38 technologies are ready for deployment right now</a>, including solar photovoltaic, geothermal and wind power. Yet none has been deployed at the scale we need to achieve 1.5°C. Renewable energy, currently 13% of the global energy system, needs to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112435">reach 80% or more</a>. </p>
<p>Globally, a transition to renewable energy will cost between <a href="https://www.irena.org/publications/2020/Jan/RE-finance-Institutional-capitaland">US$22.5 trillion</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2017.07.005">US$139 trillion</a>. What’s needed are policies that <a href="https://www.corporateknights.com/energy/dispatches-from-cop26-clusters-of-innovations/">support a mix of innovations</a>, accelerate the scale-up of renewable energy and modernize power grids — including the right for consumers and citizens to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109489">generate power to sell to their neighbours and the grid</a>. They also need to support business models that offer <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112544">revenue to communities and jobs for those in industries in transition</a>. </p>
<p><em>Christina E. Hoicka, Associate Professor of Geography and Civil Engineering, University of Victoria</em></p>
<h2>Science and innovation</h2>
<p><strong>Low-carbon steel, concrete and next generation biofuels received a boost.</strong></p>
<p>Science and Innovation Day at COP26 saw interesting new schemes announced, and three were particularly important.</p>
<p>First, the UK, Germany, Canada, India and the United Arab Emirates <a href="https://www.unido.org/IDDI">formed an initiative</a> for developing low carbon steel and concrete, to decarbonise construction. Their stated goal is net-zero steel and concrete for public projects by 2050, with an earlier 2030 target yet to be announced. That is an exciting project, as construction materials like these contribute <a href="https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/10/10/20904213/climate-change-steel-cement-industrial-heat-hydrogen-ccs">about 10%</a> of greenhouse gas emissions.</p>
<p>Second, a goal of creating <a href="https://www.who.int/news/item/09-11-2021-countries-commit-to-develop-climate-smart-health-care-at-cop26-un-climate-conference">low-carbon health care systems</a> was also announced, with 47 countries joining that initiative. While the goal of net zero healthcare by 2050 is welcome, it is hardly an additional commitment. If a nation achieves net zero, its health system will have met that criterion anyway.</p>
<p>Third, <a href="https://ukcop26.org/new-mission-innovation-missions/">Mission Innovation</a> is a collaboration between governments aimed at accelerating technologies that will reduce emissions. The Netherlands and India are leading a welcome bio-refinery program, aiming to make bio-based alternative fuels and chemicals economically attractive. </p>
<p>Less useful is the “carbon dioxide removal” project, led by Saudi Arabia, US and Canada. Its goal is a net annual reduction of 100 million tonnes of CO₂ by 2030. As global emissions are now 35 billion tonnes a year, this project aims to prolong fossil fuel use by capturing only a token, tiny fraction.</p>
<p><em>Ian Lowe, Emeritus Professor, School of Science, Griffith University</em> </p>
<hr>
<h2>Gender</h2>
<p><strong>The slow progress on gender-sensitive climate policies doesn’t match the urgency of the situation.</strong> </p>
<p>The relationship between the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, it’s supreme decision-making body – the Conference of the Parties (COP) – and gender equality is one that started late, but there has been some (slow) progress. </p>
<p>Looking back to 2001 -– when the <a href="https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/459631?ln=en">sole concern</a> COP had in terms of gender equality was with women’s representation and participation in the Convention itself -– it is clear that some progress has been made. The establishment of the Women and Gender Constituency in 2009, the Lima Work Program on Gender of 2014, and the Paris Agreement on Climate Change in 2015 (which emphasised that climate actions must be gender-responsive) are proof of this progress. </p>
<p>COP26 has also seen important pledges by different countries to expedite work on gender and climate change. For example, the UK announced the allocation of £165 million to foster gender equality in climate change action, Bolivia pledged to reflect gender data in its Nationally Determined Contributions and Canada pledged that 80% of its climate investments over the next five years will target gender equality outcomes. </p>
<hr>
<p>
<em>
<strong>
Read more:
<a href="https://theconversation.com/study-reveals-the-gender-gap-in-tanzania-uganda-climate-policies-72638">Study reveals the gender gap in Tanzania, Uganda climate policies</a>
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<hr>
<p>Yet, progress on the advancement of gender equality in climate change action does not match the urgency of the situation. Considering that, in many contexts, women are disproportionally more adversely affected by the effects of climate change and considering that climate change is threatening to widen social inequality, it is imperative to expedite action on gender equality. </p>
<p>This is particularly important in sectors such as agriculture and natural resource management, which are heavily susceptible to changes in climate and which constitute the foundation for rural women’s livelihoods across the globe. In a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13552074.2020.1836817">study</a> we published last year, we show how the integration of gender remains generally weak in Nationally Determined Contributions and how these plans tend to not tackle the structural causes of gender inequality. The latter is of paramount importance. If climate actions do not identify, address, and confront the discriminatory social norms and structural causes that are creating gender inequalities in the first place, the gender equality initiatives and policies will likely neither be sustainable nor reach their maximum potential.</p>
<p><em>Mariola Acosta, is a research fellow at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and the University of Wageningen.</em></p>
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<figure class="align-right ">
<img alt="COP26: the world's biggest climate talks" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=600&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/424739/original/file-20211005-17-cgrf2z.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=754&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px">
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<p><strong>This story is part of The Conversation’s coverage on COP26, the Glasgow climate conference, by experts from around the world.</strong>
<br><em>Amid a rising tide of climate news and stories, The Conversation is here to clear the air and make sure you get information you can trust. <a href="https://page.theconversation.com/cop26-glasgow-2021-climate-change-summit/"><strong>More.</strong></a></em> </p>
<hr><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/171753/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Christina E. Hoicka receives funding from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC), the New Frontiers in Research Fund, Horizon 2020, the Transition Accelerator, the Canada Research Chair Secretariat, and the McConnell Foundation. She is affiliated with Women and Inclusivity in Sustainable Energy Research (WISER) Network</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Sperling has a seat on the California Air Resources Board. The institutes he directs receive funding from foundations, automotive and energy companies, and local, state and national governments.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ian Lowe received funding in the 1980s from the National Energy Research, Development and Demonstration Council for a study of Australia's future energy needs. He is a former President of the Australian Conservation Foundation.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kate Dooley receives funding from One Earth Philanthropy.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Kyla Tienhaara receives funding from the Canada Research Chairs Program and SSHRC (Government of Canada).</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mariola Acosta Francés received funding for her PhD Research from the Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Research Program.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mark Maslin is a Founding Director of Rezatec Ltd, Co-Director of The London NERC Doctoral Training Partnership, a member of Cheltenham Science Festival Advisory Committee and a member of the Climate Crisis Advisory Group. He is an unpaid member of the Sopra-Steria CSR Board and Sheep Included Ltd Advisory Board. He has received grant funding in the past from the NERC, EPSRC, ESRC, DFG, Royal Society, DIFD, BEIS, DECC, FCO, Innovate UK, Carbon Trust, UK Space Agency, European Space Agency, Research England, Wellcome Trust, Leverhulme Trust, The Children's Investment Fund Foundation Sprint2020, and British Council. He has received research funding in the past from The Lancet, Laithwaites, Seventh Generation, Channel 4, JLT Re, WWF, Hermes, CAFOD, HP, and Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Piers Forster receives funding from UK and EU research councils. He sit on the UK Climate Change Committee, but is writing this in a personal capacity.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Ran Boydell has received funding from the Scottish Government for various projects about sustainability in the built environment.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Simon Lewis has received funding from Natural Environment Research Council, the Royal Society, the European Union, the Leverhulme Trust, the Centre for International Forestry, National Parks Agency of Gabon, Microsoft Research, the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, the Greenpeace Fund, the David and Lucile Packard Foundation and the Children's Investment Fund.</span></em></p>
Has the summit delivered on its goals?
Christina E. Hoicka, Associate Professor of Geography and Civil Engineering, University of Victoria
Daniel Sperling, Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Founding Director, Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis
Ian Lowe, Emeritus Professor, School of Science, Griffith University
Kate Dooley, Research Fellow, Climate & Energy College, The University of Melbourne
Kyla Tienhaara, Canada Research Chair in Economy and Environment, Queen's University, Ontario
Mariola Acosta Francés, Research fellow, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and the University of Wageningen, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
Mark Maslin, Professor of Earth System Science, UCL
Piers Forster, Professor of Physical Climate Change; Director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate, University of Leeds
Ran Boydell, Associate Professor in Sustainable Development, Heriot-Watt University
Simon Lewis, Professor of Global Change Science at University of Leeds and, UCL
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/144294
2020-09-09T13:30:33Z
2020-09-09T13:30:33Z
How we’re getting to the root of a global pest threatening potatoes in East Africa
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/355036/original/file-20200827-24-240v53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Vendors sell potatoes in a street market on the outskirts of Nairobi.
</span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">SIMON MAINA/AFP via Getty Images</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Demand for potatoes in eastern Africa has been <a href="https://www.rtb.cgiar.org/publications/tackling-low-potato-yields-in-eastern-africa-an-overview-of-constraints-and-potential-strategies/">growing steadily</a>, achieving an annual growth of 3.1% between 1993 and 2020. This growth is driven in part by rising demand from the fast food industry and for processing into high value products such as crisps, chips and starch.</p>
<p>Despite an increase of 60% in the area of cultivated land, production has been declining from an average of 20 tonnes a hectare to around 9.1 in Rwanda, 8.6 in Kenya and 4.3 in Uganda. This is way below the <a href="http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC">potential production</a> of 40 tonnes a hectare. Farmers are thus being denied much-needed income and food.</p>
<p>The factors contributing to the low and declining yields include losses due to attack by a range of pests and diseases. A second main reason is the repeated cropping of potato on the same land without rotation. Third is the use of poor quality or substandard seed, partly due to limited availability of certified high quality seed. </p>
<p>Potato cyst nematodes are the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.00670/full">most recent pest threat</a> to emerge in the region. These are parasitic worms that are microscopic, and therefore invisible to the farmer. They infect potato roots, suppressing crop growth and can cause huge yield losses of up to 80%, and even total crop failure.</p>
<p>Globodera rostochiensis and Globodera pallida, both found in East Africa, are among the most important pests of potatoes globally. They are particularly lethal because the hundreds of eggs produced by the female nematode can remain dormant in the soil for years, awaiting the next potato crop host. The eggs remain protected in a hardened, protective cyst long after the nematodes die. </p>
<p>Chemical signals from newly planted potato roots trigger the eggs to hatch and start the life cycle again. Some of our current <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.00649/full?&amp;utm_source=Email_to_authors_&amp;utm_medium=Email&amp;utm_content=T1_11.5e1_author&amp;utm_campaign=Email_publication&amp;field=&amp;journalName=Frontiers_in_Plant_Science&amp;id=523480">research</a> is focused on disrupting this life cycle. When the newly hatched juvenile nematode leaves its protective cyst it is guided to the potato root by different chemical signals emitted from the roots. </p>
<p>High levels of infection lead to thousands upon thousands of nematodes infecting each potato plant. They are therefore a difficult pest to control. Finding new ways to control them is a challenge, but a challenge we have strongly embraced, across collaborating institutes. We are working on a number of potential avenues, including the assessment of new resistant varieties, alternative <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.00649/full?&amp;utm_source=Email_to_authors_&amp;utm_medium=Email&amp;utm_content=T1_11.5e1_author&amp;utm_campaign=Email_publication&amp;field=&amp;journalName=Frontiers_in_Plant_Science&amp;id=523480">trap crop hosts</a> and interfering with the chemical signals between potato roots and the pests. </p>
<p>Identifying these chemicals and synthetically producing them may offer possibilities for manipulating nematode hatch and host location. This includes working out when they are most vulnerable. </p>
<h2>Trick the nematodes</h2>
<p>Originating from South America, where potatoes also come from, potato cyst nematodes have spread across many potato growing regions of the world. Following the detection of <a href="https://www.ndrs.org.uk/article.php?id=31018">Globodera rostochiensis</a> in Kenya in 2015, we – together with numerous institutional partners – set out to determine the true extent of its occurrence in the country. This was the first step towards developing control efforts. </p>
<p>We established that the pest is widely distributed across Kenya. In some places there were extremely high levels of up to 985 cysts in 200 grammes of soil. We found that it is also present in <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/PDIS-10-19-2110-PDN">neighbouring Uganda</a>. Colleagues in Rwanda have also <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/10.1094/PDIS-04-19-0891-PDN">detected</a> these nematode pests there.</p>
<p>Given the complex nature of cyst nematode biology and that the eggs are protected by the cyst, targeting the nematode during the hatching and just before it invades host roots, stands out as the most vulnerable life stage to target for their management. </p>
<p>We therefore set out to assess the potato root chemicals that signal the nematodes to hatch, with the aim of identifying those that could possibly be used to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2020.00649/full?&amp;utm_source=Email_to_authors_&amp;utm_medium=Email&amp;utm_content=T1_11.5e1_author&amp;utm_campaign=Email_publication&amp;field=&amp;journalName=Frontiers_in_Plant_Science&amp;id=523480">stimulate them to hatch</a>. The idea would be to trick the nematodes into “suicidal hatch” as a new innovative approach to control them. </p>
<p>If used in farmers’ fields before potatoes are planted, they will “think” that potato plants are present and hatch. But then the nematodes have no roots to feed on and therefore starve and die – hence the “suicide hatch”. </p>
<p>Our study identified several classes of chemicals present in potato roots. Some of these demonstrated a striking ability to stimulate hatch. We also found that some chemicals may stimulate hatch but in order for the hatched juveniles to locate potato roots, they need additional chemical cues. Without them they remain in the cyst and consequently starve. </p>
<p>Some chemicals therefore offer promise to induce “suicide hatch”, which can be used to treat fields before planting potatoes. At the <a href="http://www.icipe.org/">International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology</a> we are also assessing some non-host plants to see if they produce these chemical compounds. These could then be incorporated in a crop rotation system offering an environmentally benign management method.</p>
<h2>New suitable varieties</h2>
<p>Similar to other plant parasitic nematodes, potato cyst nematodes are often overlooked due to a lack of clear symptoms and low levels of awareness. There is therefore a need to create more awareness among farmers so they understand the pest and know how to deal with the problem. Measures include the use of healthy, disease-free seed and crop rotation to reduce the build-up of the pests.</p>
<p>One effective control measure is to identify and promote new varieties of potato cultivars, which have resistance to the nematodes and have similar attributes to farmers’ preferred varieties. Together with a range of partners, we are currently assessing resistant varieties received from <a href="https://www.hutton.ac.uk">James Hutton Institute in the UK</a>, which resemble the most popular local variety called Shangi, to identify a resistant variety most suitable for farmers. </p>
<p>Another <a href="https://cals.ncsu.edu/entomology-and-plant-pathology">approach</a> being investigated together with North Carolina State University is to place potato seed into a banana fibre paper pouch that appears to interfere with the chemical signals between the nematode and the potato root. This offers more exciting possibilities to manage these pests using environmentally sensitive options.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/144294/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Daniel Coyne receives funding from numerous donors for not-for-profit research activites towards transforming African agriculture</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Catherine Njuguna and Solveig Haukeland do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Potato cyst nematodes suppress crop growth and can cause huge yield losses of up to 80%, and even total crop failure.
Danny Coyne, Soil Health Scientist, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
Solveig Haukeland, General nematologist, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/124322
2019-10-13T07:32:31Z
2019-10-13T07:32:31Z
Crop leftovers can store huge amounts of carbon: insights from Uganda
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/294794/original/file-20190930-194884-1s04ltb.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A sample of biochar </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">NCAT CAES/Flickr</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Farmers in countries like Uganda could help fight climate change – and improve their crop yields – by adding agricultural waste to their fields. The process removes carbon from the atmosphere and <a href="https://www.4p1000.org/">stores it in the soil</a>. </p>
<p>It’s a strategy proposed under the <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/what-is-the-paris-agreement">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> and shown to have strong potential, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, in recent <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.1984">research</a> done by myself and colleagues from Makerere University in Uganda and the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences in Austria.</p>
<p>Soils can absorb carbon dioxide from the air through a process called carbon sequestration. This is when more carbon is added to the soil than it loses. Carbon dioxide is lost from soils to the atmosphere when plant material, manure and other organic matter decomposes. </p>
<p>Biochar – plant matter that’s been burned using only a little oxygen – is an excellent way to add carbon to soil. Many of the world’s soils already hold charred organic matter which originates from natural and human-made vegetation fires. Biochar is good at storing carbon in soils because its natural breakdown happens <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12266">very slowly</a>, unlike raw residues or manure. This means it can remove carbon from the atmosphere over a long period of time. </p>
<p>A number of carbon sequestration projects using biochar are already taking place in North and South America, Asia and Europe. For instance by 2020, using biochar from the natural waste of home gardens and public parks, <a href="https://goexplorer.org/stockholm-worlds-first-urban-carbon-sink-with-biochar/">Sweden’s capital city</a> will remove as much carbon dioxide as 3,500 cars emit in a year.</p>
<p>In sub-Saharan Africa, biochar from farming residues – like husks, hulls, leaves, branches and straw – could be used for the same purpose. But few studies have assessed how much of this material is available for biochar and how much carbon it could store in soils. </p>
<p>In our <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.1984">paper</a> we shed more light on this. We looked at how much residue was left over from maize, sorghum, rice, millet and groundnut crops on eastern Ugandan farms.</p>
<p>We found that, when converted into biochar, these “leftovers” have significant potential for storing carbon in soils. Adding biochar from crop residues to soil on one hectare (2.5 acres) of land could offset between 16% and 80% of the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/greenhouse-gas-emissions-typical-passenger-vehicle">4.6 tons of carbon dioxide</a> emitted by one vehicle in the US each year. </p>
<p>Biochar has the added benefit of improving soil fertility and crop production in tropical climates. So this strategy – to use biochar to remove warming gases from the atmosphere – will benefit farmers. </p>
<h2>Making biochar</h2>
<p>When crops grow and are harvested, they leave behind large amounts of residue which has many valuable uses: it can be added to soil to make it more fertile, or used in animal feed, for construction, or to generate heat and power. </p>
<p>Despite its uses, farmers in sub-Saharan Africa <a href="http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/989351521207797690/pdf/124342-repl-WB-Knowledge-Burning.pdf">burn</a> a lot of crop residues in fields because recycling the waste involves time, labour and machinery that they can’t afford. </p>
<p>But it need take only hours or a few days to collect residues and make biochar. And it doesn’t have to involve expensive technology. </p>
<p>When biomass is exposed to temperatures between 300°C and 800°C with little, or no, oxygen present it is converted into combustible gases, oils and biochar. </p>
<p>There is a broad range of systems that can carry out this process. Some are basic, such as domestic <a href="https://energypedia.info/images/f/f6/Micro_Gasification_Cooking_with_gas_from_biomass.pdf">cook stoves</a> that have a chamber with a natural or forced air draft. Other systems may be larger and more complex, generating heat and electricity through highly controlled processes. These can serve whole communities.</p>
<p>Using these systems, biochar can be generated from crop residues and mixed directly into agricultural soils, if done cautiously. </p>
<h2>Potential of biomass waste</h2>
<p>In <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eap.1984">our study</a>, we measured the residues produced by five crops over two growing seasons. </p>
<p>These five crops form the <a href="https://wol-prod-cdn.literatumonline.com/cms/attachment/6de752ad-5107-4a65-99e2-33785df4b904/eap1984-fig-0001-m.jpg">major food staples</a> across our study area and other parts of Uganda. For maize and sorghum we sampled two quadrants of 4m² in 14 fields. For rice, millet and groundnut we studied four quadrants of 1m² in 25 fields.</p>
<p>We interviewed 60 farmers and recorded how many of them use specific crop residues for animal fodder, as cooking fuel, to put on soil and for construction. This revealed between 39% and 60% of cereal straw is potentially available for biochar, as is 88% to 100% of non-straw residues like shanks, chaff and hulls. Nearly all respondents said they burned crop residue to get rid of it.</p>
<p>We then worked out how much carbon could be stored in the soil of smallholder farms using the available biochar. This analysis showed there is a lot of potential to absorb carbon dioxide from the air under a wide range of farming scenarios.</p>
<p>We found that biochar derived from residues of the studied crops could compensate for 19% to 77% of all greenhouse gas emissions from <a href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.PC?locations=UG">Uganda</a> each year, depending on how much residue is left unused by farmers. </p>
<h2>From potential to action</h2>
<p>Sub-Saharan African countries have the ability to remove large amounts of carbon from the atmosphere with biochar from crop residues. But there’s a long way to go before farmers start using this technique. </p>
<p>First, more awareness must be created about its benefits for climate, agriculture and energy.</p>
<p>It will also take a great effort to adapt biomass transport models, gasifier energy appliances and biochar farming practices to suit different agricultural, ecological and socioeconomic contexts.</p>
<p>The economic viability of sequestering carbon in soils through biochar has proved to be <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/17583004.2016.1213608">limited in parts of the world</a> where benefits for agriculture and energy are less pronounced. </p>
<p>Insights like those from our study point to a bigger role for sub-Saharan Africa in adopting the practice. The debate and research on biochar needs to take this into account.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/124322/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Dries Roobroeck works for the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture. He receives funding from the Austrian Development Cooperation and Swedish Research Council. </span></em></p>
Unused biomass residues from maize, sorghum, rice, millet and groundnut in Uganda show to offer unique opportunities for circular production and soil amendment of biochar.
Dries Roobroeck, Research scientist, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/72638
2017-05-13T10:23:37Z
2017-05-13T10:23:37Z
Study reveals the gender gap in Tanzania, Uganda climate policies
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/168609/original/file-20170509-11005-ij1ei2.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">Ugandan women water seedlings at a small farm outside Lira town in northern Uganda. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/Hudson Apunyo</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Climate change is <a href="http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf">negatively affecting many regions</a> of the world. The impact is more pronounced in regions with limited economic resources to adapt and highly reliant on natural resources. In East Africa, for instance, a large portion of the population depends on rain fed agriculture for their livelihoods. This makes them especially susceptible to changes in climate. </p>
<p>High temperatures and the delayed onset of rains have already created <a href="http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2017/04/07/searching-for-water-in-the-worlds-biggest-refugee-crisis/">desperate situations</a> for many people in the region. The most recent IPCC <a href="http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf">climate change report</a> cites strong evidence that African ecosystems are being affected by climate change. The impact is likely to be substantial in the future marked by an increase in water stress throughout the continent. </p>
<p>The effects of climate change are different for women and men. This is because their roles, challenges, rights, and preferences are also different. Analysing the extent to which climate change policies integrate gender issues is fundamental. </p>
<p>Indeed, if policies and strategies fail to acknowledge priorities, opportunities and challenges of men and women they run the risk of perpetuating existing gender and other social inequalities. The result could be failure to achieve the greatest possible potential. </p>
<p>Take the example of newly-developed drought resistant food crops. If the preferences of women in terms of taste and cooking time required are not taken into account during the breeding process, the attempt to adapt to climate change would likely fail. Since women in East Africa are generally in charge of cooking and household chores, they are a vital component of national climate change adaptation efforts.</p>
<p>Overlooking gender issues in agriculture also comes at a high cost for the economies. A <a href="http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/847131467987832287/pdf/100234-WP-PUBLIC-Box393225B-The-Cost-of-the-Gender-Gap-in-Agricultural-Productivity-in-Malawi-Tanzania-and-Uganda.pdf">recent study</a> by the World Bank concluded that closing the gender gap in agriculture would increase Tanzania’s GDP by $105 million and Uganda’s by $67 million. </p>
<h2>Increased women’s participation</h2>
<p>Uganda and Tanzania have for years demonstrated their commitment to gender equality through legal and constitutional means. For example, Tanzania’s constitution was amended in 2005 to increase women’s participation in the National Parliament and local authorities. </p>
<p>This is in addition to various national policy and strategy documents. The most notable of these is the<a href="http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=94117"> Women and Gender Development Policy</a> of 2000 and the <a href="http://www.mcdgc.go.tz/data/Tanzania_-_National_Strategy_for_Gender_Development.pdf">National Strategy for Gender Development</a> of 2008. </p>
<p>In Uganda, the commitment to promote gender equality is also evident. The <a href="http://evaw-global-database.unwomen.org/en/countries/africa/uganda/2007/national-gender-policy--2007-">National Gender Policy </a>of 1997 was subsequently revised in 2007. Other supportive provisions are contained in the 1995 constitution, the <a href="http://acfode.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Policy-brief-on-the-Equal-Opportunities-Commission-Act-and-Policy-EOC.pdf">Equal Opportunities Act</a> and recent national development plans.</p>
<p>Both East African countries have also ratified key international instruments. These include the Convention on the <a href="http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/">Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women</a>and the <a href="http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/">Beijing Platform for Action</a>. </p>
<p>In more recent years, they have translated these commitments into their agricultural and climate change policies. However, a lot still needs to be done. Allocation of resources and better planning of activities and strategies for gender transformation will be key. This in turn will contribute to efforts to reduce poverty and achieve economic growth in an equitable manner.</p>
<p>These are the findings of the latest research from the <a href="https://ccafs.cgiar.org/policy-action-climate-change-adaptation-east-africa#.WIoyqn3RB4M">Policy Action for Climate Change Adaptation</a>. The analysis of national and local policies and institutions will better equip governments to adapt and mitigate against climate change. </p>
<p>The key findings on the gender and climate change policy efforts of both East African countries were recently published in two information notes. The <a href="https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/78605/PACCA%20Info%20Note%20Ug%20gender%20budgets%20Dec%2029.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">first</a> is titled “Towards gender responsive policy formulation and budgeting in the agricultural sector: Opportunities and challenges in Uganda”. The <a href="https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/88677/retrieve">second</a> is entitled “Gender responsive policy formulation and budgeting in Tanzania: Do plans and budgets match?”</p>
<p>In Tanzania, the researchers analysed 75 documents. These ranged the national, district, and ward levels together with an examination of primary quantitative budget data at the district level. In Uganda, 83 agri-food policies and strategies at national, district and sub-county levels were analysed along with district and sub-county budgets.</p>
<h2>Risk of perpetuating existing inequalities</h2>
<p>In both countries, a sizeable portion of the documents reviewed presented some degree of gender integration. This was 70% for Uganda and 49% for Tanzania. This demonstrated efforts to strengthen the gender component of their agri-food policies and strategic planning documents. </p>
<p>However, within the policies, gender issues were mostly seen as women’s issues. Women were generally stereotypically portrayed as vulnerable and marginalised by society with limited access to land and resources. These characterisations reinforce gender inequalities. They might even become counter-productive as they leave women in a helpless state and in need of perpetual assistance.</p>
<p>The studies also found gaps in gender planning and implementation. This was for both national and lower governance levels. In Tanzania, the majority of the national policies and strategies sufficiently integrated gender issues. But they lacked clear implementation plans and appropriate budgetary allocations. </p>
<p>In <a href="https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/78605/PACCA%20Info%20Note%20Ug%20gender%20budgets%20Dec%2029.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Uganda</a>, budget allocations for gender issues at sub-county and district levels were low. These were 0.43% of national budgets for sub-county level and 0.09% for district level. In addition, they fluctuated from year to year with sharp differences between estimated and actual budgets. </p>
<p>This makes the planning and implementation of gender issues extremely challenging. Furthermore, the gender activities planned and implemented at district and sub-county levels were largely informative such as the celebration of International Women’s Day.</p>
<h2>Bigger budgets, better planning</h2>
<p>Gender awareness among policymakers and practitioners across levels is vital. And so the researchers undertook intense sensitisation and dissemination activities. In February and March 2017 the researchers conducted a total of six different gender and climate change workshops in Uganda and four in Tanzania.</p>
<p>The workshops in Uganda targeted members of Parliament, national policymakers and districts officials. The workshops in Tanzania were more targeted towards district and ward officials. </p>
<p>Many of the study results were acknowledged by the participants. These included inadequate funding, lack of capacity and poor attitude towards gender issues. Poor coordination among policy actors was also frequently mentioned. </p>
<p>The two countries need to streamline gender integration from a national to local level. This includes an increase in budget allocation and better planning to focus on gender transformation.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/72638/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Mariola Acosta Francés receives funding for her PhD Research from the Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Research Program (CCAFS) </span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Edidah Lubega Ampaire works for the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). This work was implemented as part of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), which is carried out with support from CGIAR Fund Donors and through bilateral funding agreements. For details please visit <a href="https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors">https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors</a>. The views expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the official opinions of these organizations.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Laurence Jassogne works for the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). This work was implemented as part of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), which is carried out with support from CGIAR Fund Donors and through bilateral funding agreements. For details please visit <a href="https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors">https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors</a>. The views expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the official opinions of these organizations.</span></em></p>
Tanzania and Uganda have improved gender integration in agriculture policy. But a lot still needs to be done in the allocation of resources and transformation.
Mariola Acosta Francés, PhD research fellow, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and the University of Wageningen, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
Edidah Lubega Ampaire, Project Coordinator, Policies and Institutions for Climate Change Adaptation, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
Laurence Jassogne, Systems Agronomist, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.
tag:theconversation.com,2011:article/63007
2016-09-12T15:39:59Z
2016-09-12T15:39:59Z
Why boosting legume production will lift the gloom for African farmers
<figure><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/137053/original/image-20160908-25266-ge22sj.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=496&fit=clip" /><figcaption><span class="caption">A farm employee walks through a soya bean field in northern Uganda. </span> <span class="attribution"><span class="source">Reuters/James Akena</span></span></figcaption></figure><p>Africa has the <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/6650/390370AFR0Fert101OFFICIAL0USE0ONLY1.pdf?sequence=1">lowest use of nitrogen</a> on its farmland compared to other regions of the world. This is because smallholder farmers have limited financial resources to buy fertilisers. Nitrogen is one of the most essential nutrients needed by plants for their growth, development and reproduction. Yet it is <a href="http://www.nature.com/news/african-agriculture-dirt-poor-1.10311">depleted</a> in most African soils.</p>
<p>Soil depletion over the years has led farmers to open new land to maintain their production. This has often led to increased deforestation and encroachment on marginal areas. The result over time has been declining farm production and family incomes as well as poor nutrition.</p>
<p>Empowering farmers to increase legume production can turn the tide for African farmers. Grain legumes are rich in carbohydrates, minerals and are a cheap source of <a href="http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/70/3/439s.full">protein</a>. They improve soil fertility by capturing nitrogen gas in the air and bringing it into the soil. The amount of atmospheric nitrogen fixed by legumes into usable nitrogen can be substantial. </p>
<p>Any portion of a legume crop that is left after harvest, including roots and nodules, can supply nitrogen to the soil system when the plant material is decomposed. In addition, the harvest residue provides high-quality feed for livestock. This is because it is rich in protein.</p>
<h2>Benefits of legume production</h2>
<p>Smallholder farmers in Africa who grow legumes such as soybean, beans, groundnut and chickpeas among smallholder farmers in Africa experience three immediate benefits: </p>
<ul>
<li><p>It improves the health and nutrition of families and their livestock, </p></li>
<li><p>Enhances soil <a href="http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/highlights/2001/010403-e.htm">fertility</a> and;</p></li>
<li><p>Increases incomes, contributing to <a href="http://grainlegumes.cgiar.org/why-grain-legumes-matter/reducing-rural-poverty/">reducing rural poverty</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>These reasons lie behind the major science-based farmer support project <a href="http://www.n2africa.org/">N2Africa</a>, launched in 2009. Its objective is to boost legume production in sub-Saharan Africa to address food and nutrition insecurity and to increase rural communities’ incomes.</p>
<p>The large scale research-based project is focused on delivery and dissemination of the best available legume technologies. Building sustainable, long term partnerships with smallholder farmers is central to the plan. </p>
<p>The work is being carried out in 11 African countries: Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe.</p>
<p>In the short term, the project seeks to demonstrate the benefits of legume production. In the long term the aim is to develop sustainable systems for:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Supply of inputs such as fertilisers and seeds </p></li>
<li><p>Strengthening the ability of farmers to market and;</p></li>
<li><p>Tackling constraints of legume productivity along the value chain </p></li>
</ul>
<p>In its first phase, the project reached more than 230,000 farmers who evaluated and tried out the technologies being promoted such as improved grain legume varieties, phosphate based fertilisers and <a href="http://www.n2africa.org/node/39">rhizobia inoculants</a> on their farms. The latter are root-nodule bacteria that support the legumes to fix nitrogen. </p>
<h2>Promoting fertiliser blends</h2>
<p>A majority of smallholder farmers grow their legumes without fertilisers. Fertilisers are expensive and are also not blended. This means they do not have the correct composition of minerals required by legumes.</p>
<p>The ongoing initiative is promoting the use of fertilisers, especially blended for legumes and biofertilisers. While biofertilisers are more affordable than mineral fertilisers and have great potential to increase yield, they are not widely used in sub-Saharan Africa. This is due to low levels of awareness and a lack of favourable environmental policies. There are also no proper public-private partnerships to commercialise the technology. </p>
<p>The introduction of several commercial rhizobia inoculant products is under way. To achieve this, N2Africa is building researchers’ capacity to isolate African rhizobia and identify effective strains for formulation of legume inoculants. It’s also important that the capacity of regulatory authorities to test products for quality and to formulate standards is enhanced.</p>
<h2>Catering for different circumstances</h2>
<p>The circumstances differ widely between countries or regions and for each specific crop. Current work involves actively engaging with suppliers to ensure a sustainable supply of inputs. This includes seeds, high-quality inoculants and legume-specific fertilisers. A lot of effort has gone into strengthening the ability of farmer organisations to aggregate their grain for joint marketing. </p>
<p>Thanks to this initiative, farmers are using improved seeds, fertilisers and inoculants to increase legume productivity. Seed companies and agro-dealers are strengthening inputs supplies systems. On the other hand, the farmers are better organised and are selling their produce at competitive prices. </p>
<p>The project’s goal is to reach 780,000 beneficiaries by 2018 across the 11 countries. The objective is to nurture a vibrant organised legume value chain that helps improve the health and nutritional status of smallholder farmers, reduces poverty and improves soil fertility.</p><img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/63007/count.gif" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" />
<p class="fine-print"><em><span>Frederick Baijukya acknowledges the contribution of Catherine Njuguna, who works for the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) as a Communications Officer. IITA is one of the main partners of the N2Africa initiative.</span></em></p><p class="fine-print"><em><span>Fred Kanampiu does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p>
Increasing legume production can turn the tide for African farmers who struggle with poor soils, declining farm yields and worsening nutrition in one fell swoop
Frederick Baijukya, Researcher & Country Co-ordinator N2Africa, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
Fred Kanampiu, Researcher & Project Co-ordinator N2Africa, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
Licensed as Creative Commons – attribution, no derivatives.